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HARVARD LAW LIBRARY

R«d«d DEC 2 9 1922

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The Qtholic Encyclopedia

VOLUME FOURTEEN
Simony— Tournely

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BI.ESSKD TH0A1AS MORE
IIOI.!IEIX

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' THE CATHOLIC '
ENCYCLOPEDIA

AN INTERNATIONAL WORK OF REFERENCE
ON THE CONSTITUTION, DOCTRINE,
DISCIPLINE, AND HISTORY OF THE
CATHOLIC CHURCH

EDITED BY

CHARLES G. HERBERMANN, Ph.D., LLD.
EDWARD A. PACE, PhlD^ D.D. CONDE B. FALLEN, Ph.D., LL.D.
THOMAS J. SHAHAN, D.D. JOHN J. WYNNE, &J.

ASSISTED BY NUMEROUS COLLABORATORS

FIFTEEN VOLUMES AND INDEX
VOLUME XIV

Hew lN»lt

THE ENCYCLOPEDIA PRESS, INC '

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Nihil OhsUU, July t, ms
REMY LAFORT, S.T.D.

OINSOB

Impriinaiwr

*JOHN CARDINAL PARLEY

DEC 2 9 1922.

Copyright, 1912
By Robert Appleton Company

Copyright, 1913
By the encyclopedia PRESS, INC.

Hie articles in this work have been written specially for The CathoUe
Encyclopedia and are protected by copyright. All rights, includ-
ing the right of translation and reproduction, are reserved.

ARCHBISHOP OF NBW TOBK

Ml

eo.. ftkMNY. N. T.. w. a.

Contributors to the Fourteenth Volume

AHERNE, CORNELIUS, Rector, PRorcssoR op
Nbw Testament Exeoesis, St. Jobeph's Col-
lege, Mill Hill, Loni>on: Son of God; Son of
Man; Timothy and Titus, Epistles to.

ALQERS, P., SJ., Maastricht, Holland: Thijm.
Joaeph Albert Albodini^; Thiim. Peter Paul
Mana Albordti^k.

XldAsY, ANTAL, Ph.D., Abchivist of toK Li-
bkabt of thb National Mcseuh, Budapest:
Sinnium, Dioceee of ; Steioamanger, Diocese of ;
Stufalweissenburg, Dioceee of; Sz&nt4, Stephan;
ficatm&rj Diocese of; SieDtiTUiyi, Martin.

ALLARD, PAUL. Editob, "Rktvb des Qussnom
HUTOiUQUBB , PABia: Slavery.

ALSTON, G. CYPRIAN, 0J8.B., London: SofesmeB,
Abb^ of.

AMADO, RAM6N RUIZ, S.J., LL.D., Ph.L., Col-
LEOE OF St. Ionathts, Sahria, Barcelona:
Spain; Tarasona, Diocese of; Tarragona, Arch-
diooese of; Teniel, Diocese of.

ARMFELT. CARL GUSTAP BARON, 9iocK-
Boui, Swidxn: Stockholm.

AYME. EDWARD L., M.D., Nbw Yobk: Toribib,
Alfonso Mc^rovejo, St.

BACCHUS, FRANCIS JOSEPH, B.A., The Ora-
TORT, BiRinNOHAH^ ENGLAND : Sophronius;
Symmaehus the Ebionite; Synesius of Cyrene;
llieodoric Leetw; Theonas; Tbeophilos, Bishop
<rf Antiodi; Three Chapters; Titui^ Bishop at
Boetra.

BAUMOARTEN, MGR. PAUL MARU, J.U.D.,
S.T.D., TtoMx: Statistics, Eoclesiastical.

BAUR, CmYSOSTOM, O.S.B., Ph.D. (Loutain),
CoLLBOio Di Sah Anselmo, Rohe: Theodore,
Bishf^ o£ Mopsuestia; Theodoret; Theophilus,
Patriarch of Afexandria.

BECHTEL, FLORENTINE, S.J., Professor of
Hebrew and Sacbed Scbifture, St. Louis
UmvBBsmr, Sr. Lotns: Susa; Tostado, Alonso.

BENIGNI, MGR. UMBERTO, FbothoNotabt
AFontoue Pabtbcipantb, Fsofbsbob of Eg-

CLESIAOTICAL HiSTOBT, PONTIFICIA ACCADEHIA

mi NoBiLi Ecclesiastic!^ Rome: Slnigag^a,
Diocese of; SoIimAes Superiore; Soirento, Arch-
diocese of; Sovana and Pitighano, Diocese of;
Spedatieri, Nicola; Spoleto, Archdiocese of ; Squil-
laee. Diocese of; Suburbicarian Dioceses; Susa,
Diocese of; Syracuse^ Archdiocese of; Tanacci,
BemanloiTanmto, Dioceee of: Tetese, Dioeese of;
Tcnmo. Dioceee of : TermoU, Diocese of: Ter^
nwina, Seu^ and Pipemo, Dioeese of; TivolL
Dioeese of;Todi, Diocmof;Tort(ma, Diocese of.

BERTREUX, EPHREM M., S.M., Prefect Apos-
Touc op'iHB SoirrB Solohon Islands: Solomon
Iflbnds, Frefeotnre Aposttrfie of the Sonthem.

BERTRIN, GEORGES, Litt.D., Fellow of thb
University, Professor of French Litbba-
tuhe, Institut Catholiqde, Paris: Swetchine,
Sophie-Jeaone-Soynionof ; Tassin, Ren^Frosper;
Tillemont, Louis-Sdbastian Le Nun de.

BESSE, J. M., O.S.B., DiBBCTOB, "Rbvub Mabil-
lon", Chetbtoome, Bbloiuu: Tliebaid.

BOLLAND, JOSEPH, S.J., Stonyhurst College,
Blackburn, England: Soul; Spirit; Spiritualism.

BOSMANS, H., S.J., College Saint Michel,
Qbusbbu; Steviiif Simon.

BOUDINHON, AUGUSTE-MARIE, S.T.D.,
D.C.L., Director. "Canoniste CoNTEHPOBAIN'^
Fbofbsbor of Canon Law, Institut Cath*
oiiiquB, Pabib: Synods, National.

BRANTS, VICTOR, J.C.D., Member of the Rotal
AcADEUT of Belgium, Louvain: Thonissen,.
Jean Joseph.

BRAUN, JOSEPH, S.J., Sr. Ignatius College,
Valkbnbdbo, Holland: Stole; Surplice; TAa-
nacle; Throne; Tiara.

BUSIER, EMILE, Lnr.D., Rbnnbb, Fbahcb:
Stoies and Stoic Philosc^y; Tanoied.

BROWN, CHARLES FRANCIS WEMYSS, Loch-
TON Castle, Perthshire, Scotland: Thomas
Abel, Blessed (sub-title Blessed Edwaid Powell).

BURTON, EDWIN, S.T.D., F.R. Hwr. See., VicE-
Pbbsident, St. Edmund's College, Ware,
England: Simpson, Richard; Smith, Richard.
Bishop of Chalcedon; Smith, Richard; Sodor ana
Man, Ancient Diocese of; Spencer, The Hon.
George; Stanyhurst, [Richard; Stapleton, Theo-
baldj Stapleton, Thomas; Stuart., Henry Benedict
Mana Clement; Sutton, Sir Richard; Tatwin,
Saint; Taxster, John de; Theobald, ^chbishop
of Canterbury; Thomas of Beddngton; Thomas
Bradwanune; Thomas of Herefonl, Saint;
Thomas Percy, Blessed; Thompson, Edward
Heaty; Thompson, Harriet Diana; Tiehbome,
Thomas, Venerable; Tiemey, Mu4c Aloysius;
Tootell, Hu^; Touehet, George Anselm.

BUTLER, RICHARD URBAN, O.8.B., Downwdb
Abbey, Bath, England: Sixtus IV, Pope.

CABROL, FERNAND, 0.S.B„ Abbot of St.
Michael's, Fabnborough, England: Toce.

CALLAN, CHARLES J., O.P., S.T.L., Pbofessob
OF Pbildbopet, Dominican House of Studies,
Washington: Slotanus, John; Soto, Dominic;
^ina, Bartolommeo; Stephen of Bourbon.

CAMPBELL, WILLIAM EDWARD, Stbatton-oh-

the-F05SG, Bath, England; Socialism.

CARDAUNS, HERMANN, BONN: Spee, Friedrich

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CX)NTRIBUTORS TO THE FOURTE^ENTH VOLUME

CASANOVA, GERTRUDE, O.S.EL Stanbrooe Ab-
bey, Worcester, England: lliecla, Saint.

CEDILLO, THE CONDE DE, Madrid: Toledo.
Archdiocese of.

CHABOT. JEAN-BAPTI8TE, S.T.D., Dirrctor or
THE "Corpus ScBiproRmi Christianorum Ori-
SNTALinH", Paris: Bynao Hymnody; Syriac
Language and Literature.

CHAPMAN, JOHN, O.S.B., B.A. (OxoN.), Ab-
ba ye DE 8t. BenoIt, Mabedsous, NAUtnt, Bxif
anm: Tertullian.

CHILTON, CARROLL B., Lohdok: Thompson,
Francis.

CHISHOLM, JOSEPH ANDREW, K.C., M.A.,
LL.B.. Halifax: Thompson, Right Hmiourable
Sir John Sparrow David.

CLEARY, GREGORY, O.F.M.; J.C.D., J. Ciy.D.,
S.T.L., BOMETiUE Professor of Canon Law
and Moral Theology^ St. IranoRB's Cou^ge,
Rome: Syndic, Apoetohc.

COLEMAN, CARYL, B.A., Pelham Manob, Nkw
Yobk: Spire; Stained Glass; Tapestry.

OORDIER, HENRI, Professor at tbe School for
Oriental Liying Lanouaobs, Paris: Taoism;
Tibet.

OOSSIO, ALUIGI, S.T.D., S.S.D., J.U.D., Bacca-

LAtTRBUB AND LlCBNTIATCS OF THE UnIVXRSITT

OF Padua, Roue: Titulus.

COTTER, A. C. S. J., Woodstock Colleoe, Mary-
land: Stattier, Benedict: Tamburini, Michel-
angdo; Tanner, Adam; Tanner, Matthias.

COYLE, MOIRA K., New York: Streber, Hennann.

CRIVELLI, CAMILLUS, SJ., Professor of Phil-
osophy AND HlOTORY, IkSTITUTO ClKNTinCO DB
San Jmt, Guadalajara, Mexico: Sinaloa, Dio-
cese of; Sonora, Diocese of; Tabasco, Diocese of;
Tamaiuipas, Diocese of; Tehuantepec, Diocese
(rf; T^e, Diocese of; Tuuccala.

CUMMING8, THOMAS F., S.TJ>., Holtokb.
MASaACHUSETTB: Springfield, Diocese (A.

CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM M., Chancellor of

THE DlOCRSE OF SOCTOWARK, ENGLAND: Southr

walk, Dioeeee of.

CUTHBERT, FATHER, O.S.F.C„ St. Anbelm's
House, Oxford: Theodosius Florentini; Third
Qrdor of St. FranciB in Great Britain and Ireland.

DEBUCHY, PAUL, S.J., Lrrr.L., Enghien, Bel-
oiuu: Spiritual Exercises ot Saint Ignatius.

DEGERT, ANTOINE, Lrrr.D., Edftor of "La

RbVUB DB LA GaSCOIGNB ", PROFEeSOR OF LaTIN

LiTKRATCRE, Institut Catholique, Toulouse:
Sulpitius; ^Ivius, Francis; Terrasson, Andr^;
Toum^ly, Honor£.

DELAMARRE, LOUIS N., Ph.D., iMsraucioB in
French, College of the Ctty of New Yore:

Thibaut de Champagne.

DELANY, JOSEPH P., S.T.D., New York: Slander,
Sloth; Temperance; Temptation; Th^t.

DELAUNAY, JOHN B., C.S.C., Rome: Syntagma
Canonum.

DESMOND, DANIEL F.. Huron, South Dakota:
Sioux Falls, Diocese ta.

DEVINB, ARTHUR, CP., St. Saviour's Retreat,
Wobcestbrshirb, England: State or Way,
Furtive, lUuminatiTe, Unitive.

DOHAN. EDWARD GEORGE, O.Sj^., M.A.,

B.T.D., PUSIOBHT OF VIU4ANOTA COLLEGB, VlL-

lanova, Pennsylvania: Thomas of Villuiova,
Saint.

DOYLE, JOHN P. M., T.O.R., M.A., S.T.D., Rec-
tor or St. Francis College, Professor or
Moral Theology, Lorbtto, Pennsylvania:
Third Order of St. Francis, Province of the
Sacred Heart td Jesus.

DRISCOLL, JAMES F., S.T.D., New Rocbbllb,
New York: Stoning in Scripture; Terrestrial
Paradise; Theocracy.

DRISCOLL, JOHN JOSEPH, S.J., Superior, Wib-
conbin: Superior, Diocese at.

DRISCOLL, JOHN THOMAS, Mji., S.T.L.,
Fonda, New York: Summo- Schoob, CatlwUe;

Theosophy; Totemism.

DRUM, WALTER, S.J., Professor of Hebrew
AND Sacred Scripture, Woodstock College,
Maryland: Solomon, Psahns of; Synagogue;
Temple, Liturgy of the; Theolc^, Pastwal;
The^alonians, Epistles to the; Tobias.

DUBRAY, C.A., S.M., S.T3., Ph.D., Profbsbob of
Philosofht, Mabist College, Wabhinoton:
^lecies; Teleology; Telepatlqr.

DUGGAN, THOMAS, EorroR, "Cathouc Tran-
script", Hartford, Connecticut: Tabb, Jtjbn
Bannister.

DUHEM, PIERRE, Professor of Theoretical
Physics, University of Bordeaux: Thierry de
Freiburg.

DUNIN-B0RK0W8KI, Stanislaus, SJ., Bonn,
Gbrhant: Spinosa, Benedict.

DURAND, ALFRED, S.J., Propesbor of Scbip-
tubb and Eastern Languages, Obb Place,
Hastings, England: Testament, Tb% New.

ENGELHARDT, ZEPHYRIN; O.F.M., Santa
Barbaba, California: Sitjar, Buenaventura;
Taiils, Esteban.

FANNING, WILLUM H. W., SJ., Professor of
Church History and Canon Law, St. Louis
University, St. Louis: Societies, Catholic; So-
cieties, Secret; Solicitation; Subdeacon; Suspen-
sion; Synod; Tarquint, Comillus; Tenure, Eccle-
siosticu; Tithes; Tonsure.

FAULHABER, MICHAEL, S.T.D., Bibhof of
Speybr, Geruany: Sophonias.

FENLON, JOHN F., S.S., S.T.D., President, St.
Austin's Colleoe, Wabhinoton: Professor of
Sacred Scripture, St. Mary's Quinary, Bal-
twobb: Stdpidaas in the United States.

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CONTRIBUTORS TO THE FOURTEENTH VOLUME

• FE31ET, P. CANON, SAIW^•MAUIUCE, Francs:
SOTfoonne.

FLADGATE, GERALDINE, Lohdoh: Stone, Mary
Jean.

FLAHERTY, MATTHEW J., M.A. (Harvabd),
Concord, MABBACHvavrTs: Stoddard, Charlee
Wamn.

FORD, JEREMIAH D. M., M.A., Ph.D., Pro-
raasoR OP French and Spanish Lanouaqes,
Harvard Unttbrbitt, Caubridqe, Massa-
chusetts: Spanish Luiguage and Literature;
Spaniflh-Amencan Literature: TasBoni^ Ales-
sandro; TebaUeo, Antonio; Tirabosdu, Giro-
lamo.

* Jacques Auguste de; Thou, Nicholas de: Tocque-
ville, CbarisB Alexis-Henri-MMirioe-Clerel de;
Toulouse, Archdiocese of; Tours, Archdiocese of.

GRATTAN-FLOOD, W. H., M.R.I.A., Mu8.D.,
RoBEuouNT, Enniscortht, Ireland: Spontini,
Gasparo Lui^Paeifico; Sullivan, Alexander Mar-
tin; TiJlis, Tbc^nas; Tassach, Saint; Taverner,
John; Teman, Saint; Thomas, Charles L. A.;
Tigris, Saint.

GRISON, GARRIEL EMILE, Titular Bishop op
Saoalabbb, Vicar Apostolic op Stanut Fau£,
Bblqian Conoo, Africa : Stanley Falls, Vicari-
ate Apostolic of.

HAAG, ANTHONY, 8.J., Sr. Ionatius Coixbob,
Valkbnburg, Hou>and: Syllabus.

FORTBBCUE, ADRIAN, Ph-IX, S.T.D., Lbtch-

VOBIB, HERTPfttDSHiRB, E«gland: Suidas; HAGEN, JOHN G., S.J., Vatican Obbbrvatort,
Synaxarion: SynaxiB; Synan Rite, West; Theo- Rome: Tempel, Wilheim.

Synaxarionj SynaxiB; Synan Rite, West; Theo-
doraus I; TiconiuB.

FOX, JAMES J.. S.T.D., Pbopbbsor op Phiumopht,
St. Thomases Collbob, Washihgton: Bavery,
Ethical Aspect of.

FOX, JOHN M., S.J.. WooDBTocK Colleoe. Mart-
land: Taznburini, Thomas; Tongioi^, Salvator.

FOX, WILLIAM, B.Sc., M.E., Associate Pro-
pbsbor op Phtsics, Colleob or the City op
New York: Torricelli, Evangelists.

FUENTES, VENTURA, B.A., M.D., Instructor,
Colleob op the Cnr op New York: Tulles,
Gabriel; Tome Nahano, Bartolom^ de.

GALLAVRESI, GIUSEPPE, Professor of Mod-
ern HmoRT, Rotal Academy op Milan,
Milan: Tasso, Torquato; Toati, Luigj.

GANSS, henry G., Mt».D., LANCAenBB, Pbnn-
stltania: Tetsd,' Johann.

GARRIGAN, PHILIP J., S.T.D., Bishop op Sioux
CiTT, Iowa: Sioux City, Diocese of.

HANSEN, NIELS, M.A., Chablotienlund, Dbn-
habk: Steno, Nicolaus.

EtARTIGAN, J. A., S.J., Lirr.D., Ore Place, Hast-
iNOS, England: Tiberias, See of,

HEALY, PATRICK J., S.T.D., Assistant Pro-
fessor OF Church Histobt, Cathouc Uni-
VBRBiTT OF AuBRicA, WASHmoTON : Socrates;
SosfHuoi, Salamaniuh Hennias; Tatian.

HECKMANN, FERDINAND, O.F.M., &p. Jo-
seph's College, Callicoon, New York: Ter-
tiaries; Third Order Secular of the Order of Our
Lady of Mount Cannel^ Third Order Regular of
St. Dominic in the United States: Third Order
Regular of St. Francis in the United States; Third
Order Secular of St. Francis; Thomas of Cdano.

HENRY, H. T., Lnr.D., LL.Dy Rector op Roman
Catholic High School PORBorSfPHiLADEU'mA;
Propbssor op English Literature and Grb-
GORiAN Chant, St. Charles's Seminary, Ovkr-
BRooK, Pennsylvania: Stabat Mater; Tantum
Ergo; Te Deum; Te Lucia ante Terminum.

GAUTHEROT.GUSTAVB.Lirr.D., Paris: Talley- HERBERMANN, CHARLES G., Ph.D., LL.D.,
rand-Pfaigord, Charlee-Mauriee de. Litt.D., K.S.G.,Professorof Latin Language

AND LmiRATURE, COLLEGE OP THE CnT OF NeW

GEUDENS, FRANCIS MARTIN, CJI.P., Abbot York: Th^ud, At^putus.
Titular op Barlings, Tongbrloo Abbbt,

Wbsterloo, Belgium: Tongerloo, Abbey of. HILGERS, JOSEPH, S.J., Rome: Sodality.

GEYER, FRANCIS XAVIER, Titular Bishop or
Trocmada, Vicar-Apostouc of the Sudan,
Egypt: Sudan, Vicariate Apoetc^c of.

OIETMANN, GERHARD, SJ., Teacher or
Classical Languages and iElsTHBTics, Sr.
Ignatius College, Valkbnburg,' Holland:
Stalls; Steinle, Eduiud von.

OIGOT, FRANCIS E., S.T.D., Professor or Sa-
cred Scripture, St. Joseph's Seminary, Dun-
wooDiE, New York: Synoptics; Temptation of
Christ.

OILLET, IX>UIS, Pasu: Tiaio da Garafalo, Ben-
venuto; Titian.

QOYAU, GEORGES, Associate BDrroR, "Rbtub
DBS Deux Mondeb", Paris: Soissona, Diocese
<rf; Tarbes, Diocese of; Tarentaise, Diocese of;
Tdlier, Michel Le; Thiers, Louis- Adolphe; Thou,

HOLWECK, FREDERIC G., Sr. Louis, Missouri:
Sorrows of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Feasts <tfUie
Seven; Thorns, Feast of the Crown of.

HUDLESTON, GILBERT ROGER, O.S.B., DowN-
siDB Abbbt, Bath, England: St^hen Harding,
Saint; Thomas More, Bleesed.

HUDSON, DANIEL E.. C.S.C., LL.D., Edwob,
"The Ave Maria,'' Notre Damb, Indiana:
Sorin, Edward.

HUNTER-BLAIR, SIR D. O., Bart., O.S.B., M.A.,
Fort Augustus Abbey, Scotland : Smith,
James; Strain, John: Syon Monastery; Tarkin,
Saint; TaviBtock Abbrr; Tewkesbury Abbey;
Theodore, seventh Archbishop of Cutterbury;
Thomcy Abbey; Tintem Wwy.

HUONDER, ANTHONY, S.J., St. Ignatius Col.
LEGE, VALKBNBURG, HOLLAND: TieffentaUer,
Joseph.

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CONTRIBUTORS TO THE FOURTEENTH VOLUME

HUB8LEIN, JOSEPH, S.J., AaeocuTi EofroB
"Ahkuoa", New York: Syndicalism.

INGOLD, A. M. P., Director "Revue d'Alsao",
CouiAR, Gbbmany: Thomassm, Louis.

IRWIN, FRANCIS, S.J., SroNTHtTRSr Colleoe,
Blackburn, England: Stonyhurst College.

JARRETT, BEDE, O.P., B.A. (Oxon.), S.TX., Sr.
Dominic's Priory, London : Third Orderfl,
General; Third Order of St. Domimc.

JENKINS, REGINA RANDOLPH, Bauiuiorb,
Mabtlamd: Tincker, Mary Agnes.

JENNER, HENRY, F.S.A., Late op thb Bruish
MnsEuu, Londok; Cornwall, England: Syrian

Rite, East.

JOHNSON, WILLIAM T., Kansas Cnr, Missodbi:
Test-OatJi, Miaaouri.

JOUVE. ODORIC M., O.F.M., Candiac, Canada:
Third Order of St. Francis in Canada.

HAMPERS, FRANZ, Ph.D., Prouxbbor or Mbdib-
TAL AND Modern Church History, Univeb-
8ITT 09 Bbbblav: Theodoric the Great.

KEATING. JOSEPH IGNATIUS PATRICK, S.J.,
BA., Assistant Editor, "The Month", Lon-
don: Temperance Movements, Great Britain and
Ireland.

KEILEY, JAR VIS, M.A., Grantwood, New Jer-
sey; South Carolina.

KELLEY, FRANCIS C, S.T.D., LL.D., President,
The Catholic Church Extension Society,
Ceicaoo, Iixinois: Society, The Catholic Church
Extension, in the United States.

KELLY. BLANCHE M., New Yore: Tabemade
Sodeties; T^iakwitha, Catherine.

KELLY, EDWARD, GRIMBSY, Ohtabio, Can-
ada: Toronto, Archdiocese of.

KEMPF, CONSTANTINE, S.J., Profbsbob of
Pbiuwopht and Pedaooot, St. Ionaitos Coi/>
LEOE, Valeenbcro, Holland: Theodicy.

KENNEDY, DANIEL J., O.P., S.T.M., Professor
OF Sacramental Theologt, Caihouc Uni-
versity OF America, Wabhinciton: Thunas
Aquinas, Saint; Thomism.

KERBY, WILLIAM J., S.T.L., Ph.D., Doctor of
Special and Political Scibnceb, Pbofbssob
op Socioloot, Cathouc UNiVEBarrr of Ahb-

RicA, Washington: Bctdology.

KIRSCH, MGR. JOHANN P., S.T.D., Professor
OF Patrologt and Christian Archaolooy,
Untvebsity of Fribourq, Switzerland: Sim-
pUeiiu, ^nt, Pope; Siricius, Saint, Pope; Sted-
ugers; Surius, Laurentius; SwitEerland; Syi-
vest^ I, Saint, Pope; Sylvester II, Pope; Sym-
machus. Saint, Pope; Tarachus, Probus, and
Andronicus, Saints; Tarssius, Saint; Tarsicius,
Saint; Teleflphorus, Saint, FOpe; Tbeda, Bunts;
Tbeodorus and Theophanes.

KRIEHN, GEORGE, A.B., Fh.D., New Yobk:
Stanza.

KR06E, HERMANN A., S.J., EnrroB-iN-CHiEF.
"SmuasN Aus Mabia-Laach", and "Kibch-

LICHES HaNDBUCH TGr DAS KATHOLISCHB

Deutschland", St. Ionatiub Colixob, Val-
BXNBUBO, Holland: Statistics, EcdeBiastical, in
Gomany; Statistics of Religions.

LAUCHERT, FRIEDRICH, Ph.D., Aachen: Stapf,
Josmh Ambrose; Staudenmater, Fnuu Anton;
StAckl, Albert; Stolz, Alban Isidor.

LAUNAY, ADRIEN, Abchivist of the Society for
Foreign Missions, Paris: Society iA Foreign
MisdoDS of Paris.

LE BACHELET, XAVIER-MARIE, SJ., Obb
Place, HAsriNas, Enqlamd: Terrioi, Jean-

Baptiste.

LECLERCQ, HENRI, 0.S3., London: Station
Days.

LEHMKUHL, AUGUSTINUS, S.J., Sr. Ignatius
College, Valkenburo, Holland: Theolo^,
Moral.

I^NARD. LEOPOLD, S.T.D., Ph.D., Klaqbn-
furt, Austria: Slavs, The.

LE ROY, ALEXANDER A., C5S.P., Bishop of

AlINDA, SuPERIOR-GeNEBAL of the CoHORIh

GATiON OF THE HoLY Ghost, Faris: SoDuUiland.

LETELLIER A., S.S.S., Superior, Fathers of the
Blessed Sacrament, New Yore; Society of the
Blessed Sacrament, The.

LIESE, WILHELM ANTON. S.T.D., Fadebbobn,
Gebuant: Tranperanee Movements.

UNDSAY, LIONEL ST. GEORGE, B.Sc., Ph.D.,
Editob-in-Chibf, "La Nouvellb Francs**,
Quebec: Tach^, Etienne-Pascal; Talon, Jean;
Talon, Pierre; Tanguay, Cyprien; Tassfi, Joseph.

LINEHAN, PAUL H., B.A., Instructor College
OF the Gitt of New York: Tartag^a, Nicold;
T<HTubia, Job6.

LINS^ JOSEPH, DoRSTEN, Westpbaua, Gerhant:
Sion, Diocese of; Strasburg, Diocese of; Tiraspol,
Diocese <tf.

LOEHR, AUGUST OCTAV RITTER von, Ph.D.,
Assistant Director of the Imperial Collec-
tion of Coins and Medals, Vienna: Strcbw,
Franz Ignaz von; Streber, Franz Seraph.

LOFFLER, KLEMENS, Ph.D., Librarian, Uni-
versity OF M&nster: Simplicius, Faustinus, and
Beatrice; Speyer, Diocese of; Staphylus, Pxied-
rich; Staupits, Johann von; Stolborg, Joseph;
Strossmayer, Joseph Georg; Studion; Syncre-
tism; Tauler, John; Tepl; Tewdrig; Thalhofer,
Valentin, Theiner, Augustin; Theobald, Saint;
Theodard, Saint; TheMore of Studium, Saint;
Theodulf; Thryftus, Hermann; Tiberius; Titus,
Roman Empenn-.

KLEINSCHMIDT, BEDA, O.F.M,, Bonn, Obb- LORKIN, ELIZABETH MARY. L.R.A.M., Gla»-
I, Veit; Temple; Tissot, James oow, Scotland: Stradivari, Antmio; Stradivari

many: Solari; Stoss,
Joseph; Tomb.

Family, The.

VIM

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CONTRIBUTORS TO THE FOURTESiNTH VOLUME

MEISTERMANN, BARNABAS, O.F.M., Lbctok.
CoKVBNT or S. Saltatchl Jxbusalbu: Temple
of Jerusalem; Thabor, Mount; Tomb of Uie
Blessed Virgin Mary.

M£RK, AUGUST, S.J., Fbofebsob of Apologetics,
St. Ionatiub Coluku, Vaueikbuso, Holund:
Testament, The Old.

MERSHMAN, FRANCIS, O.S.B^ S.T.D., Pro-
FEesoR OF Moral Tbeoloot, Canon Law, and
LiTUBOT, St. John's College, Collegeville,
Minnesota; Solemnity; Stanislaus of Cracow,
Saint; Stephen of Autun; Subiaco; Supper, The
Last; Tanner, Conrad; Thais, Saint; Theodore of
Amasea, Saint; Theodotiis of Ancyra, Saint;
Theophanes, Saint.

MOELLER, CH., PBonasoR of General History,
UHiTERsmr OF Loutaik: Swan^ Order of the;
Templars, Kn^te, The; Teutonic Order.

MONTANAR, VALENTINE HILARY, Mission-
ary Apostolic, New York: Sze-ch'wan, East-
ern, Vicariate Apostolic of; Sie-ch'wan, North-
western, Vicariate Apostolic of; Szen^'wan,

Southern, Vicariate Apostolic of.

MOONEY, JAMES, United States Ethnologist,
Bureau of American Ethnology, Washing-
ton: Sioux Indians; Sipibo Indians; Sobaipura
Indians; Son^h Indiansj Spokan Indians;
Squamish Indians; Swiuomisb Indians; Tacana
Indiana; Taensa Indians: Tait Indians; Tamanac
Indians: Taos Pueblo; lliompson River Indians;
Ticuna Indians; Timucua Indiuis; Toba Indians;
Tonica Indians; Tonkawa Indians; Totonac In-
dians.

*M0RAN, PATRICK FRANCIS CARDINAL,
Archbishop of Sydnbt, Primate of Attstba-
lia: Talbot, Peter.

MORENO-LACALLE, JULIAN, B.A., Editor,
"Pan-American Union", Wabhingtoh: So-
corro, Diocese of; Spirito Santo, Diocese of;
Taubat6, Diocese of.

MORICE, A. 0., B.A., CM. I., Lecturer in An-
thropology, University of Saskatchewan,
Winnipeg, Manitoba^ Canada: Slaves; Tacb6,
Alenmdre-Antonin; TiJckali.

MARY AGNES, SISTER, Mount &r. Josbph, MULLALY, CHARLES, S.J., ToBfrosA, Spain: To>
Ohio: Sisters of C^iarity of Cincinnati, Ohio. tosa. Diocese of.

MARY PATRICK, MOTHER, Chicago, Iujhois: MUIWYNCK, MARK P. de, S.T.D., Profe8«)r of
Sisters of the Little Company of Mary. Psulosophy, Univebsitt of Fribodbo: Space;

*™^iSI2!??;.^A^^£^TS;^rS^ MUTZ, FRANZ XAVIER. S.T.D. Sr. Pm«b's
T^TOMiA, Calcdtta, India: Thomaa ChriBtians, , SbUnabt, Frbibubo, ^adbn, draiANT: The-

LYNCH, MGR. JAMES S.M., S.T.D., LL.D.,
Utica, New York: Syracuse, Diocese trf.

MAAS, A. J., S.JL Rector, Woodstock College,
MABTLANDtllieology, Dermatic, 8iib^tleChri»-
tology.

MacERLEAN, ANDREW A., LL.B. (Fordham),
New York: Societies. Catholic, Amoican Fed-
eration of; Solsona, Diocese of; StanislMrow,
Diooeee of; Suitbert, Saint; Sumatra, Prefecture
Apostolic f^; Tinin, See of.

McGOVERN, JAMES J., Lockfobt, Ilunoib: Starr,
Elisa Allen.

MACK8EY, CHARLES, S.J., Profbsboh of Ethics
AND Natural Right, Gregorian UNirEBurr,
Roue: Society, State and Church; Taparelli,
Aloysius; Tolomei, John Baptist.

McNEAL, J. PRESTON, A3., LL.B., BAunuoRE:
Tan^, Roger Brooke.

McNEILL, CHARLES, DuBijm: Tanner, Edmund.

MacPHERSON, EWAN, New York: Thalberg,

Sigismond.

MAGNIKR, JOHN, C.SS.R., Sr. Mart's, Clafhau,
London: Sportelli, Cteear, Venerable.

MAHER, MICHAEL, S.J., Lrrr.D., M.A. (Lon-
don), Director of Studies and Professor of
Pn>AGoaics, Stonthubst College, Black-
burn, England: Soul; Spirit; Spiritualism.

MANN, HORACE K., Headmaster, St. Cuth-
bebt's Grammar School, Nbwcastle-on-Tynb,
England: Sisinnius, Pope; Stephen 1, Saint,
Pope; Stephen H, Pope; Stephen (II) III, Pope;
Stephen (III) IV, Pope; Stephen (IV) V, Pope;
Stephen (V) VI, Pope; Stephen {VI)VII, Pope;
Stephen (VII) VIII, Pope; Stephen (VIII^ DC,
PopejStephen (DC) X, Pope; Hieodore I; Theo-
dore 11.

MARCBAND, UBALD CANON, J.U.D., Chan-

GBLLOR or THE DlOCBCT OF TeREX RitXRS,

Fbotxncb of Qukbsc, Canada: Three RiverB,
DioceaeoC.

ology, Ascetical.

*^^;iS^^2?7T*w\2;^V^^V sS SS: NYS. O^SIRfi, S.T.B. Ph.D., President S4mi-

S5S?B ^SlS^T.^'^Ro^r nI;w%?^ NAIRELWxm.U'NX™BBrrTOFlx,UVAIN,BBI.

stipend^ Suhr^on; Subsidies, Episcopal; Su-

premi diadpfinie; Tametsi; Taxa Innocentiana. (yCONNELL. JOHN T., LL.D., Toledo, Omo:

Toledo. iMocese of.

MEEHAN. THOMAS F^ New York: Sullivan,

Peter John: Tenney, William Jewett; Thankagiv- O'CONNOR, JOHN B., O.P., Sr. Louis Bbrtramd'b

ing Day; TbAytt, 3fAn. Convent, Louisvillb, mntdcky: Thomas of

Cantimpre.

BfEIER, GABRIEIj, O.S.B., Einsibdbln, SwrrzEs-

land: Tiburtius and Susanna, Sts.; Timotheus O'DONOVAN, LOUIS, S.T.L., Baltimobb: Spald-

and Symphorian, Sts. ing, Martm John.

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IX

CX>NTRlBXm)KS TO THE FOURTEENTH VOLUME

CGORMAN. JOHN R., S.T.L., J.C.D., Hailbt-
BUBT, Omtabio, Canada: TemiBkaming, Vicari-
ate Apostolic Of .

O'HARAN, MGR. DENIS F., S.T.D., Stdnbt, Aus-
tralia: Sydney, Archdioceee of.

OLIGER, LIVARIUS, O.F.M., St. Bonavbhtuhb'b
College, Roue: Somaschi; Spirituals; Sporer,
Patritius: Taigi, Anna Maria Cfesualda Antonia;
Tarabotti, Helena; Third Order ot St. Francis
(R^sular and Secular; Male and Female).

O'NEILL, ARTHUR CHARLES, O.P., S.T.L., Peo-

PBBSOR OF ThEOLOOT, DOMINICAN HoUW 07

Studies, Washimoton: Sin.

O'SHEA, JOHN FRANCIS, TAYLOR, Texas:
Texas, State of.

OTT, MICHAEL, O.S.B., Ph.D., Pbopessor op the
History op Philobopht, St. John's College,
CoLLEOBViLLE, MINNESOTA: Sixtus I, Saint,
Pope; Sixtus II, Saint, Pope; Sixtus V, Pope;
Smaradgus, Ardo; Spinola, Christopher Royas
de; Spondanus, Henn; Stadler, John Evangelist;
Stefaneschi, Giacomo Gaetani; Stephen, Saint;
Stephen of Toumai: Steuco, Agostino: ^mpho-
rosa, Saint; Syncelli; Telesphorus of Cosenza;
Teodn, Pieire-Gu&in de; Theoi^anefl, Kera-
meua; Thundering Legion; Torquemada, Tom^
de.

OTTEN, JOSEPH, PrrrBBCROH, Pennsylvania: Sis-
tine Choir; Song, Rel^ous; Tartini, Giuseppe.

OUSSANI, GABRIEL, Ph.D., Professor, Eccle-
siastical History, Early Christian Litera-
ture, AND Biblical AitcHiEOLoaY, Sr. Joseph's
Sbhinabt, Dunwoodib, NKV York: Solomon;
Syria.

PACE, EDWARD A., Ph.D., 8.T.D., Professor op
Philobopht, Cathouc University of Aue-
rica, WAraiNQTON: Spiritism.

FALLEN, COND^ BENOIST, A.M„ Ph.D., LL.D.,
New Rochelle, New York: Testem Benevo-
loitiie.

PEREZ GOYENA, ANTONIO, S.J., Editob, "Ra-
z6n y Fb'*, Madrid: Suarez, Francisco, Doctor
Eximius; Toledo, Francisco; Torres, Francisco.

• P^TRID^S, SOPHRONE, A.A., Professor,
Greek Catholic Seminary of Kadi-Kbdi,
Constantinople: Sinis; Sion; Sitifis; Soli; Sora;
SozopoltB; Stratonicea; Sufetula; Sura; Syene;
Synaus; Synnada; Tabse; Tabbora; Tacapse; Ta-
dama; Tsnarum; TamassuB; Tanaxra; Tavium;
TehnesBUs; Temnus; Teuchira; Thabraoa; Thacia
Montana; Thieme; Thagaste;Thagora; Thafwus;
Thaumaci; Themisonium; Thennse BasiUcse;
Thibaris: Thi^ca; Thmuis; Thuburbo; Tibm-
opolis; "rumbnas; TingiB; Tkn; Torone.

PHILLIPS, EDWARD C, S.J., Ph.D., Woodstock
College, Maryland: Spagni, Andrea; Stansel,
Valentin; St^)hen8, Heniy Robert; Tmll, An-
thony.

POHLE, JOSEPH, S.T.D., Ph.D., J.C.L., Pro-
fessor of DoOUATIC TeIEOLOOY, UNirSRSITY OF

Bbbslau: Theology, Dogmatic; Tolerationf Rfr*
lig^ous.

*Deoeued.

POLLEN, JOHN HUNGERFORD, 8.J., London:
Society oi Jesus; Spenser, ioba; Stevenson,
Joseph; Stone, Marmaduke.

POPE, HUGH, O.P., S.T.L., Doctor of Sacred
Scripture, Professor of New Testament
Exegesis, Collbqio Anqbuco,. Roue: Soctn-
ianism.

POTAMIAN, BROTHER, F.S.C., D.Sc. (Lond.),
Fbofesbor or Physics, Manhattan Coluboe,
New York: Toaldo, Gius^ipe.

POULAIN, AUGUSTIN, S.J., Paris: Stipnata,
Mystical; Surin, Jean-Joseph; Theology, Mysti-

RAGONESI, FRANCESCO DI PAOLA, O.T., Su-
perior-General of the Theatine Order,
Roue: Theatines; Theatine Nuns.

RANDOLHI, BARTHOLOMEW, CM.. M.A.,
Teacher of Philobopht and Csurch History,
St. John's Collbgb, Brooklyn, New York:
Tamisier, Maiie-Marthe-Baptistine.

REAGAN, P. NICHOLAS, O.F.M., Collegio 8.
Antonio, Roue: Sinai; Sodom and Gomorrlia.

REH^LY, THOMAS A K., O.P., S.T.D., S.S.L., Pro-
fessor op Sacred Scripture, Dominican
House of Studibb, Washington: Tongues, Gift
of.

REVILLE, JOHN CLEMENT, SJ., Professor of
Rhetoric and Sacred Eloquence, St. Stan-
isLAua College, Macon, Gborqia: Taion,
Nicolas; Tomielli, Girolamo Francesco.

ROBINSON, DOANE, Secretary, South Dakota
Department of History, Pierre, South Da-
kota: South Dakota.

ROBINSON, PASCHAL, O.F.M., New York:
Spina, Alfonso de.

RODRIGUEZ MOURE, JOSE, LL.D., J.U.D.,
Teneriffe, Canary Islands: TenCTiffe, Diocese

ROMPEL, JOSEF HEINRICH, S.J., Ph.D.. Stella
Matutina College, Feldkirch, Austria:

Toumefort-, Joseph Pitton de.

RYAN, JOHN A., S.T.D., Professor of Moral
Theology, St. Paul Seminary, St. PauIi, Min-
nesota: Sociahstic Communities.

RYAN, PATRICK, S.J,, London: Thomas AlfieW,
Venonible; lliomas Cottam, Blessed.

SACHER, HERMANN, Ph.D., EnrroR of the
"Konversationslexikon", Assistant Editor,

"StaATSLEXIKON" of the GdRRESOESELL-
SCHAFT, FREIBURG-IU-BREISaAU, GERMANY: Sty-

ria; Thuringia.

SALDANHA, JOSEPH LOUIS, B.A., Editor, "The
Christian Puranna"; Professor of Engubh,
St. Aloysics College, Manoalore, India:

Stephens, Thomas.

SANDS, HON. WILLIAM FRANKLIN, Chevalier
OF THE Legion of Honour; Ek-Envoy Extra-
ordinary AND Minister Plenipotentiary of
the United States to Guatemala; Member:

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CONTRIBUTORS TO THl

or THE Am. Soc. International Law; Am.
AcAOBMT Political and Social Science and
THE Mexican Soc. op Oeoorapht and Statis-
tics, New Yobk: Tahiti, Vicariate Apostolic of.

SCHEID, N., S.J., Stella Matdtina Colleoe,
Peld KIRCH, Auantu: Spillmaxm, Joseph; Stifter,
Adalbert.

SCHLAGER, HEINRICH PATRICIUS. O.F.M.,
St. Lud wig's Coluiqe, Dalheiu, Gbrhant:
Sonnius, Frandseusi Tbangmar; Tbegan ot
Treves; Thurmayr, Johannes.

SGHMID, ULRICH, Ph.D., Editob, "Waisalla",
Munich: Tc^sernsee.

SCHNttRER, GUSTAV, Ph.D., pRoraaaoE op Me-
dieval AND Modern Hibtort, University op
F^iBOURo: States of the Church.

BCUUULEIN, FRANZ X., Propbssok in the Gnr-
NABiTTM OP Frei^ino, Bavaria, Gerhant: Tal-
mud; Targum; Torah; Tosephta.

SCHUYLER, HENRY C, S.T.L., Vice-Rbctor,
Cathouc High School, Philadelphia, Penn-
stltania: Steinmeyer, Ferdinand.

SCULLY, JOHN, 8.J., New York: Squiere, Herbert
Goldsmith.

SCULLY, VINCENT JOSEPH, C.R.L., 9r. Ives,
Cornwall, England: Thomas k Eempis;
Thomas of Jesus.

SENFELDER, LEOPOLD, M.D., Teacher op the
HiSTORT OP Medicine, Universitt op Vienna:
Skoda, Josef ; Sorbait, Paul de.

SHAHAN, MGR. THOMAS J., S.T.D., J.U.D.,
I^CTOR OP THE Cathouc UNtvEBsnr op Ams-
BicA, Washinoton: Thomas Abel, Blessed.

SHANLEY, WALTER J., LL.D., Danburt, Con-
necticut: Temperance Movements in the United
States and Canada.

SHIPMAN, ANDREW J., M.A„ LL.M., New
York: Slavonic Language and Liturgy; Slavs in

America.

SILVA COTAPOS, CARLOS, Canon op the Cath-
edral OP SAHTiAao, Chilb: Tarapaed, Vicariate
Apostolic of.

SINKMAJER, JOS., East Isup, Nw Yosx:

Strahov, Abbet op.

SLATER, T., S.J., &r. Francis Xavibr's Collboe,
Liverpool, England:. Speculation; Sundi^;
Synderesis.

SLOANE, THOMAS CCONOR, M A., E.M., Ph.D.,
New York: Tb^nard, Louis-Jacques, Baron.

SMITH, IGNATIUS. O.P., Dominican House op
Studies, Washington: Thomas of Jors.

SMITH, WALTER GEORGE, M.A., LL.B., (U. op
P.), Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Smith,
Thomas Kilby.

SOLLIER. JOSEPH FRANCIS. S.M., S.T.D., Pro-
vincial OP THE American Provtncb op the So-
CTBTT OP Mart, Washington: Supernatural
Ordor; Theophilanthropists.

S FOURTEENTH VOLUME

80RTAIS, GASTON, S.J., Absoctatb Edhoe,
"Etudes", Paris: Tintoretto, I!.

SOUVAY, CHARLES L^, CM., S.T.D., Ph.D.,
S.S.D., Propesbor, Sacred Scripture, He-
brew and LiTURQir, Kenrick Seminary, St.

Louis: Stephen, Saint; Stones, Precious, in the
Bible; Tabernacle in Scripture; Tabcvnacles,
Feast of.

SPAHN, MARTIN, Ph.D., Propbsbor op Modern
Hibtort, UNmsRsmr op dnusBURa: lliirty
Years War, The; Ti%j J<duuiiieB Tserclss,
Count of.

SPILLANE, EDWARD P., S.J., Associatb Editor,
"America", New York: Thimelby, Richard.

STEELE, FRAKCESCA M., Stroud, Glodcebter-
shire, England: Taylor, Frances Maigaret;
Temple, Sisters ot the.

8TEICHEN, MICHAEL, Missionary Apostouc,
ToKio, Japan: Tokio, Archdiocese of.

STREICHER, FRIEDRICH, S.J., Stella Matu-
TiNA Colleoe, Feldkirch, Austria: ToBca-t
nellt, Paolo dal Pozzo.

STUART, JANET, R5.H., Superior Vicab, Con-
vent OP the Sacbbd Heart, Robhampton,
London: Society of the Sacred Heart of Jesus,

The.

TARN0W8KI, COUNT STANISLAUS, Presi-
dent, Imperial Academy op Sciences, Pro-
fessor, Polish Literature, University of
Cracow: Skarga, Peter; Sobieski, John; Star&-
wolrid, SinHm; r^jski, Josi^;^; Szymonowicz,
Simon.

TAVERNIER, EUGENE, Paris: Soloviev, Vla-
dimir.

TETU, MGR HENRI, Qubbbc, Canada: Tasche-
reau, Ela^Alexandre.

THURSTON, HERBERT, S.J., London: Southwell,
Roberi, Venerable; Stone, Corner or Fonndap
tion; StyUtes; Symbolism; Tenebwe: ThankMrfv-
ing before and after Meals; Theatre, llie;
Thomas, Saint, the Apostle; Thomas Becket,
Saint; Toleration, History of.

TOKE, LESLIE ALEXANDER ST. LAURENCE,
B.A., Stratton-on-tbb-Fosbe, Bath, England:
Socialism.

TURNER, MGR. JAMES P., S.T.D., Philadbi^
PHiA, Pennsylvania: Tabernacle Society.

TURNER, WILLIAM, B.A., S.T.D., Professor op
Logic and the History of Philosophy, Cath-
olic University of America, Washington:
Socrates; Sophists; Summte: Sylvester, Bernard;
Telesio, Bernardino; Theodore of Gaza; Theo>
done of Chartres; Thomas of Strasburg.

TYNE, THOMAS JAMES. NASHTnxB,TBNNB8SBB:
Tennessee.

VACCON. A., Amiens, France: Tarisel, Pierre.

VAILHlt, SIMl^ON, A.A.. Member of the Rus-
sian Arcr«ological iNsrrruTE of Constan-
tinople, Rome: Sinope; Siunia; Smyrna, Latin
Archdiocese (rf;Sophene;Sosu8a;^w1<a;Staiucv-

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CONTRIBtJTORS TO THE

olis; S;^a, Diocese of; Tanis; Tarsus; Tenedos;
Tentyris: Teos; Terenuthis; TenneMUB; Thasos;
Thebes (Achaia Secunda); Thebes (Thebais Se-
cunda) ; Thelepte; Themiscyra; Thennesus;
TheodU)6iopoUB; Thera, Diocese of; Thermopyls;
Theasalonica; Theveste; Thugga; Tbyatira;
Thynias; Tiberias; Ticelia; Tinos and MykfUUM;
Tipasa; Titopolis; Tius; Tomi^ ■

VAN DER HEEREN, ACHILLE, 8.TX. (Lod-
vain), Pbofbbsob of Moraxi ThboIiOOT and

LiBRABIAN, GkAMDB SilUNAIBB| BBDOBBf BbL-

Qiuu: Suicide.

VAN ORTROY, FRANCIS, 8J., Bkubsblb: Stania-
las KoB^a, Saint.

VASCHALDE, A.A., C.S.B., Cathouc Univbbbitt
or AifBRiCA, WABHnrarDN: TeU et>Amanui

Tablets, The.

WAINEWRIGHT, JOHN BANNERMAN, B.A.
(OxoN.), London: Slythurst, Thomas; Soow,
Peter, Venemble; Somerset, Thomas; South-
erne, William, Venerable; Southworth, John,
Venerable; Speed, John, Venerable; Spenser, Wil-
liam, Venerable; Sprott, Thomas, Venerable;
Stonnes, James; Stransham, Edward, Venerable;
Siwar, John, Venerable; Sutton. Robert, Vener-
abfe; TaJbot, John; Taylor, Hi^, Venerable;
Teito, Saint ; Teresian Martyrs of Compile, The
Sixteen Blessed; Thomas Ford, Blessed; Thomas
Johnson, Blessed; Thomas' oi Dover: Thranas
Woodhouse, Blessed; Tliorpe. Robert, Vaioable;
Tbulis, John, Venerable; T^ebhaaa, Nidiolas,
Venerable.

WALLAU, HEINRICH WILHELM. Maini. Gbe-
u ANT : Speyer, Johann and Wendelm Yoa; Sweyn-
heim, Koiuwi.

WALSH, JAMES A^ MisnoNABT Apobtouc, Di-
rector OF THE Catholic Forxiqn Missionary
SociBTT OF America, Havthobnb, Nxw York:
Th^ophane V^nard, Blessed.

WAISH, JAMES J., M.D., Ph.D., LL.D., D.Sc.,
Dean of the Medical School, Fobdham Uni-
vxRsiTT, New York: Spallanzani, Lauaro.

WALTER, ALOYSIUS, C.SS.R., Rohe: Steffani,
Agostmo.

WARD, MGR. BERNARD, Canon of WEfifr-
HntBTER, F. R. Hist. Hoc., President, St.
Edmund's College, Wabe^ Sngland: Talbot.
James; Taunton, Ewelred.

FOURTEENTH VOLUME

WARICHEZ, JOSEPH, Docteub en soencbb ho-

BAUSB ET HIBTOBIQUEB, AbCHIVIST OF THB UtO-

CBB8 OF TouBNAi, BsLQiDM : TouTiuu, DiocBse ai.

WEBER, N. A., S.M., S.T.D., Professor of Chdrch
History, Marist Collbob, Washinoton: Si-
mony; oirleto, Gu^elmo; Simumd^ Jacques;
Sixtus in, Saint, Fope; SmalkaldiLe Le^e;
SophroniuB, Saint; Sueer, Abbot of St. Daiis;
Sulljr, Maurioe de; StupieiuB Sererus; Sweden-
borgians.

WEBSTER, D. RAYMOND, O.S.B., M.A. (Oxon.).
Downside Abbby^ Bath, England: Stephen of
Muret, Saint; Swithin, Saint; Sylvester Gozro-
lini. Saint; Sylvestrines.

WELD-BLUNDELL, EDWARD BENEDICT,
O.S.B., Stanbrook, England: Stanbrook Ab-
bey.

WHITFIELD, JOSEPH LOUIS, M.A. (Cantab.),
Oscorr College, Biruinqbau, England:
E^kes, Edmund ; Talbot. Thomas Joseph ;
Thomas Sherwood, Blessea; Thwing, Thomas,
Venerable.

WILHELM, JOSEPH, S.T.D., PH.D., Aacbkn, Ger-
many: Superstition.

WILLUMSON, GEORGE CHARLES, Lirr.D.,
London: Sodoma; Stanfield, William Clarkaon;
Teniers, David; Tbeotocopuli, Domenico; Ti-
biJdi, Pell^Tino; Ti^lo, Giovanni Battista;
T<af)ido, Francesco.

WITTMANN, PIUS, Archivist iob the Princes
and Counts of the House of Ysenburg-
BtJoiNGEN; Royal Bavarian Archivist, Bt}-
dinqen, Germany: Snorri Sturluson; Stotberg,
FHedrich Leopcdd, Count sn; Sweden.

W0LFSGRUBER,C0ELESTINE, O.S.B., Vienna;
Spalato-Macarsca, Diocese of; Tamow, Diocese
cn; Thugut, Johann Amadeus; FVani de Paula;
Thun Hdienstein, Count Leo.

WORNDLE von ADELSFRIED, HEINRICH,
Innsbruck, Austria: Speckbacher, Josef.

ZIMMERMAN, BENEDICT, O.D.C., Sr. Lukb'b
Priory, Wincanton, Somersetshire, Emo-
land: Teresa of Jesus, Saint; Third Order of Our
Lady of Mount Carmel; Thomas & Jesu.

ZUPAN, CYRIL, O.S.B., Pubblo, Colorado: Slom-
aek, Anton Martin.

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Tables of Abbreviations

The foOowinf tables and notes are intended to guide readers of Th» Cathouo EHonxioraDU in
interpreting those abbreviations, signs, or technical phrases which, for economy of space, will be moat fre<
quentJy used in the work. For more general infonnation see the article ABBRETU-noNSf Ecclbsiastical.

I. — Gbnerai, ABBaXVIATIONa.

a. article.

ad an. at the year (Lat. ad annum).

an., ann. the year, the yeaia (Lat. annui,

annt).

ap. in (Lat. ajntS),

art article.

Amyt' • . .Assyrian.

A. 8. Anglo-Saxon.

A. T. Authorized Version (i.e. tr. of the

Bible authorized fdr use in the
Anglican Church — the so-called
"King James", or "Froteetant

b, bom.

Bk. Book.

fiL Bleseed.

C. ,e, about (Lat. ctrcdi; canon; chap-

ter; eompi^mis.
can... canon.

cap. chapter (Lat. caput — used rally

in Latin context).

cf. compare (Lat. om/ar).

Odd. codex.

eol column.

concL . . » conclusion.

cnut., constit. . . .Lat. eon^ituHo.

curft. by the industry of.

d. died.

diet dictionary (Fr. di^umnain),

diqi. Lat. dispuiatio.

diss. Lat. dissertaiio.

diet. Lat. distinctio.

D. V. Douay Version.

ed., edit .edited, editicm, editw.

E^Epp. letter, letten (Lat. fpuloAi).

B^... French.

geo. gmuB.

Gr. Greek.

H. Hist. Eccl. .EoclesiaBtical History.
Heb., Hebr. Hebrew.

ib., ibid. in the same place (Lat. t&ufem).

Id. the same penm, or author (Lat.

xUt

inf. below (Lat. infra').

It. Italian.

LCfloccit. at the place quoted (Lat. loco

citato).

Lat Latin.

lat. latitude.

Ub. bode (lAt. Hbv).

Icmg. lon^tude.

Hon. Lat. Monimenta.

MS., BiSS manuscript, manuscripta.

n., no number.

K. T New Testament.

Nat National.

Old Ft., O. Fr. . . .Old French.

c^. cit in the work quoted (Lat. opsrs

Ord Order.

O. T. Old Testament.

p., pp. page, pages, or (in Latin ref-
erences) para (part).

par. paragraph.

patsim. in various places.

pt part.

Q Quarterly (a periodical), e.g.

"Church Quarteriy".

Q-> QQ-) quast. .. .question, questiona (lat fuvaCwj.

q. V. which [tiUe] see (Lat. quod vide).

Her. Revieir (a periodicaiO*

R.S. Rolls Series.

R. V. Revised Version.

8.,SS. Lat. Sanctus, SancH, "Saint",

"Saints" — used in this Ency-
clopedia only in Latin context.

Sept Septuae^t.

Sees. Session.

Skt Sanifait

Sp. .Spanish.

sq.^sqq following page, or pages (Lat

eeqitena).

St.,St8. Saint, Saints.

sup Above (Lat mpra).

a.T. Under the corresponding title

(lat. 9ub voce),
torn volume (Lat. Umu$).

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XABZiES OF ABBRBVIATION&

tr. tranedation or tranjalated. By it-

Beif it means "Engliah traod^
tion", or "translated into Eng-
lish by". Where a tramlatioa
is bito ai^ other language^ tha
language is stated.

te., tract tractate.

T see (Lat. vide).

Ven Venerable.

VoL Volume.

n. — ^Abbrbtiations 07 TiTLBa.
Acta SS Ada Sandanm. (Bollandists).

Ann. pent caUu . .. .Battandier,ilNn«a»w ponUfiedt
eathoUque.

BiU. Diet. Eng. CaikGillow, BibliograpHeal Diotionp
ary of the English Catholics.

DioLCSirist Antiq...ftmth and Cheetbam (ed.)»
Dictionary of Christian Aa-
tiquitiea.

Diet Christ Biog. . . Smith and Wace (ed.). Diction-
ary of Christian Biography.

IMct d'arch. chr^t. .Cabrol (ed.), Dtetionnom 4*ar-
lAioIogie chrOimne el de Htur^
gie.

Diet deth&d. oath.. Vacant and Mangenot (ed.),
Didionnaire de thiologk
cathoHque.

Diet Nat Bi(^ .... Stephen and Lee (ed.), Dictic»*
aiy of NatitKud Biogr^hy.

Bast, Diet of fiho
Bible Hastings (ed.), A Dictionary <tf

the Bible.

Kirchfflilex. Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlej^

con.

P. G. Migne (ed.), Patrea Gratci.

P. L. Migne (ed.), Patres Latini.

Vig , Diet de la Bible. Vigo uroux (ed.), Didionnain d9
la Bible,

Nora I. — tATgfl Roman numerala ^Undine alona tndioato volumes. Small Roman numerals standiog aloae Indicate
obaptare. Arabio numerals standing alone indicate paces. la other caaes the division* are explloitly stated. Thus " Raatutall,
Uruversities of Europe, I, ix" refers the reader to the ninth chapter of the first volume of that work; "I, p. bC' would iodicata 4h«
ninth page of the prafaoe of the same volume.

NOTB II. — Wfam St. nuxnaa (Aquioae) is cited without the name of any particular wcffk the referaio* ia always to
"Sumina Itwotoi^" (not to "Sununa Philoscvhue'O- The divisiona of tha "Somma HuoL." era indiiMrted bjr a system which
may bast be imderstood the -ffdlowiOE examide: "2-It,Q. vi,a. 7, ad 2 um» tefen the reader to the mmhA attide of the
a&tth question in the fbrtt part of the aeeond part, in the reapoDse to the taeond objection.

Nora in. — The abbreviations onployfld for the various books of the Kble an abvioiia. EeoMasticus Is tndioated by
SMbu., todistincuishit from EkMslesiastea {Ecdtt.). It should also be noted that I and II Kinoi in D. V. oomspood te'I and n
Samuel in A. V.;and I and II Par, to I and II Chronicles. Where, in the spelling of a propsrname, there la a marfcad diffannoa
between the D. V. and the A. V.. the form found in the latter ia added, la paren theses.

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Full Page Illustrations in Volume XIV

Frontispiece in Colour paob

Interior of the Church of the Gesii, Rome 84

Sorrento — Road from Sorrento to Positano, etc 150

Spidn — Chapel in the Cathedral of Sigilenza, etc 170

East End of the Cathedral, Segovia 176

Spain— The Alcald Gate, Madrid, etc 190

Spalato — Interior of the Cathedral, etc 206

The Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Chartres 220

Stalls— Church of the Frari, Venice, etc 242

Stonyhurst College 308

Subiaco — Church of St. Scholastica, etc '. 322

The Last Suppei--E. von Gebhardt 340

The Cathedral of San Lorenzo, Li^ano 360

Coostantine Holding the Bridle of St. Sylvester's Horse 370

Tasso's Cell in the Convent of S. Onofrio, Rome 464

Ilieodoric'B Tomb, Ravenna 576

Burial of the Conde D'Orgaa— Theotocopuli 628

St. Thomas Aquinas among the Doctors of the Church — ^Zurbaran 670

Blessed Thomas More — Rubens 692

Episcopal Throne, Church of SS. Nereo ed Achilleo, Rome 708

' Tintem Abbey, Monmouth 736

Titian— A Kiight of Malta, etc 744

TivoU— Medieval Castle, etc 746

Alcantara Bridge, Toledo 758

Altar-tomb of the Emperor Maximilian 1 772

Maps

Spain Mid Portugal 200

States of the Church 266

Switzerland and Liechtenstein 364

«

XV

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Google

THE

CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA

Simony (from Simon Klagus; Aets, viii, 18-34) is
usually defined "a deliberate intention of buying or
aellii^ for a temporal price such thln^ as are spnit-
ual or annexed unto spiritu^". While this defi-
nition only speaks of purchase and Bale_, any ex-
<^ange of spiritual for temporal things is simoniacal.
Nor IB the giving of the temporal as the ^rice of the
spiritual required for the existence of simony; bc-
cordinK to a proposition oond^nned by Innocent XI
(I)enzmger>Baonwart, no. 1196) it suffices that the
detennining motive of the action <rf one puty be
the obtaining of compensation from the other. The
vaiious temporal advantages which may be offered
for a spiritual favour are, after Gregory the Great,
usually divided into three classes. These are:

(1) the munva a manu (material advantage), which
comprises money, all movable and immovable prop-
«ty, and all rights appreciable in pecuniary value;

(2) the mtmia a Ungua (oral advantage) which in-
cludes oral commendation, public expressions of Kp-
im>val, moral samiort in high places; (3) the munu« ab
obsemtio (homage) which consists in subserviency, the
rendering of undue services, etc. The spiritual ob-
ject includes whatever is conducive to the eternal
welfare of the soul, i. e. all supernatural things:
sanctifying ^*ace, the sacraments, sacramentals, etc.
While aocording to the natural and Divine laws the
term simony is appUeaUe only to the exchange of
Bupematurol treasures for temporal advantages,
its meaning has been further extended through eo-
fllesiastioal legislation. In order to preclude au dan-

§er of simony the Church has forbidden certain
^ngs which did not f^ under Divine prohibition.
It is thus unlawful to exchange ecclesiastical benefices
by private authority, to accept any payment what-
ever for holy oils, to sell blessed rosanes or crucifixes.
Such objeets lose, if mHiA, all the indulgoisGS pre-
Tkrasly attadied to them (S. Cong, of Indiug-. 12 July,
1847). ^unony of ecclesiastical law is, of course,
a variable dement, since the prohibitions of the
Church may be abrogated or fall into disuse. Simony
whether it be of ecclesiastical or Divine law, may be
divided into mental, conventional, and real (nmonia
mentaUi, coTwmtioTialia, etrealit). In mental simony
there is lacking the outward manifestation, or, ao-
eording to oUiers, the apmoval on the pari of the per-
son to whom a propoau is made, ui convantiraial
■inKmy an exprMsed or tacit agreement is entered
upon. It is subdivided into merely oonventional,
wnen neither party has fulfilled any of the terms of
the agreCTient, and mixed conventional, when one of
the i^rties has at least partly complied with the as-
sumed obligations. To tne latt^ subdivision may be
refemd what has been aptly termed "confidential
iim(my", in whidi an eocleoastical benefice is pro-
cured for a certain person witli the understanding
that later he will eitner resign in favour of the one
tluough whom he obtained the position or divide
with him the revenues. Simony fa called real when

the stipulations of the mutual agreemmt have been
dtbet partly or completely carried out 1^ both
pftrtieB.

To estimate accurately the gravity of simony,
which some medieval ecclesiastical writers denounced
as the most abominable of crimes, a distinction must
be made between the violations of the Divine law,
and the dealing contrary to ecclesiastical legislation.
An^ transgression of the law of God in this matter is,
objectively consider^, grievous in every instance
(mortalia ex toto genere «uo). Fbr this kind of simony
places on a par things supernatural and things nat-
ural, things eternal and tnin^ temporal, and con-
stitutes a sacril^ious depreciation of Divine treas-
ures. The sin can become venial only through the
absence of the subjective dispositions required for the
commission of a grievous offense. The merely eo-
olesiastical prohibitions, however, do not all and under
all circumstances impose a grave obligalxm. The
preeumption is that the church authority, which,
m this connexion, sometimes prohibits actions in
themselves indifferent, did not mtend the law to be
grievously binding in minor details. As he who
preaches the gospel "should live by the gospel"
(I Cor., ix, 14) but should also avoid even the ap-
pearance of receiving temporal payment for spiritual
services, difficulties may arise concerning the pro-
priety or sinfulness <^ remuneration in certain dr-
cumstances. The ecclesiastic may certainty^ re-
ceive what is offered to him on the occasion of spuitual
ministrations, but he cannot accept any payment for
the same. The celebration of Mass for money would,
consequently, be sinful; but it is perfectly Intimate
to accept a stipend offered on such occasion for the
support of the celebrant. The amount of the sti-
peno, varying for different times and countries, is
usually fixed by eoclesiastioid authority (see Stipend) .
It isaUowed to aeoept it even should the priest be
otherwise well-to-do; for he has a ri|^t to five from
the altar and should avoid becoming obnoxious to
other members of the clergy. It is simoniacal to ac-
cept payment for the exercise of ecclesiastical juris-
dictiouj e. p., the granting of dispensations; but there
is nothing improper in demanding from the applicants
for matrimonial dispensations a contribution mtended
partly as a chancery fee and partly as a salutary fine
calculated to prevent the too frequent recurrence of
such requests. It is likewise simony to accept tem-
poral compensation for admission into a religious <x~
der; but contributions made by candidates to deiray
the expenses of their novitiate as well as the dowry
required by some female orders are not included in
this prohibition.

In regard to the paruh der^, the poorer the
church, the more ui^nt is the oUigotion mcumbent
upon the faithful to support thm. In the fulfilment
of this duty local law and custom ought to be ob-
served. The Second Plenary Council of Baltimore
has framed the following aecrees for the United

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StttPLI

sntpucnrs

States: (1) The priest may accept what ib freely offered
after the administration of baptism or matrimony,
but should refrain from asking anything (no. 221).
(2) The confessor is never allowed to apply to his
own use pecuniary penances, nor may he ask or ac-
cept anything from the penitent in compensation of
his services. Even voluntary gifts must be refused,
utd the offmng of Mass sttpends in the saored tri-
bunal cannot be permitted (no. 289). (3) The poor
who cannot be buried at their own expense should re-
ceive free burial (no. 398). The Second and Third
Plenary (Douncils of Baltimore also prohibited the ex-
action of a compulsory contribution at the church en-
trance from the faithful who wish to hear Mass on
Su^Wb and Holy Days (Cone Flen. Bait. II, no.
397; Cone. Plen. Bait. Ill, no. 288). As this prac-
tice continued in existence in many churches until
very recently, a circular letter addressed 29 Sept.,
1911, by the Apostolic Delate to the archbishops
and bishops of the United States, a^ain oondemns the
custom and requests the ordinanes to suppress it
wherever found m existence.

To uproot the evil of simony so prevalent during
the Middle Ages^ the Church decreed the severest
penalties agaUist its perpetrators. Pope Julius II de-
clared mmoniacal papal elections ini^d, an enact-
ment which has since been rescinded, however, by
Pope Pius X (Constitution "Vacante Sede", 25 Dec.,
1904, tit. 11, cap. vi, in "Canoniste Contemp.",
XXXII^ 1909, 291). The collation of a benefice is
void if, m obtaining it, the appointee either committed
simony himself, or at lea^ tacitly approved of its
commission by a third party. Should he have taken
possession, he is bound to rengn and restore all the
revenues received during his tenure. Exoomntimi ca-
tion simply reserved to the Apostolic See is pro-
nounced in the Constitution Apoatolicffl Sedis"
(12 Oct., 1869) : (1) against persons guilty of real si-
iuony in any benefices and against their accomplices;
(2) against any persons, whatsoever their dignity,
guilty of confidential simony in any benefices; (3)
a^nst such as are guilty of simony by purchasing or
sluing admission into a religious order; (4) against all
persons inferior to the bishops, who derive gain (qwes-
tum fadenies) from indulgences and other spiritual
graocs; (6) against those who, collecting stipends for
Masses, realize a profit on them by having the Masses
celebrated in places where smaller stipends are usu-
ally given. The last-mentioned provision was sup-
pl«nented by subsequent decrees of the Sacred Con-
gregation of the Council. The Decree *'VigiIanti"
{25 May, 1893) forbade the practice indulged in by
some booksellers of receiving stipends and offering
exclusively books and subscriptions to periodicals to
the celebrant of the Masses. The Decree "Ut De-
bita" pi May, 1904) condemned the arrangements
according to which the guardians of shrines some-
times devoted the offerings originally intended for
Masses^ partly to other pious purposes. The offend-
ers against the two decrees just moitioned incur sus-
pension iMo faeia from their fmictumB if they sre iu
sacred orders; inability to reoDivshi^« aiders if t^tey
arc fletics iDfeCWr >^ the dj^^

proiiounced'aoitate ^mmimtMSt^^ia&iasia

the liuty.

H*Lt.Liii«l-pM:«[>nil, Oua TWfevKun afumlf. II (Pratn^.
lS5»o>.3CiiS-7^: lAnti^nm^^M^ ff^nfU flUih -id,. Frsi^-ire,
19tO), I. 'M7-2(fi: n. TD7-0fl: CiKicoT-fiAUiu.iiA rtth ^-d,,
Enuwh, ItWO). 237-i4i SlaTsk. Mattuai a/ Afifml TJuahieif. I
(3rtl cd.. New York. IWW), 231-35: Cotpuj JurU Caiwniri
DetTtU fjrtdiani, para Ha, FBiiati 1; Dtcret. Orm., Kb. V. lir. fc.
D* SLniuni»; fxtrar, romm-un., Ilh. V, (it, I, D& Biinnnio; i ri-
LniTNKn. PralKHi-nil Jvris Caaaam (1th ml-. RalUlun,
lib. V. KM?; Cfuimok, Mattu^U r-rfiw Jurit fdmnnW. IV
(M.td., Puia. IHM). 23[t-&2; Lbini, Die Sim'^n.ir. {FWilmrT.

Simple (SiKiiAx). Sb6 Vmumj EccuBiAsnfcuL.

SimpUfiius, Saint, Pope (468-483), date of birth
unknown; d. 10 March, 483. According to the
"Liber Pontificalis" (ed. Duchesne^ 1, 249) Simplicius
was the son of a citizen of Tivoh named C^ttnus:
and after the death of Pope Hilarius in 468 was electea
to succeed the latter. The elevation of the new pope
was not attended mth a^jr difiieultiee. During his
pontificate the Western Empire came to an end.
Since the murder of Valentiniim III (466) Hwre had
been a rapid succession of nwignifioant emperors
in the Western Roman Empire, who were constantly
threatened by war and revolution. Following other
German tribes the Heruli entered Italy, and their
ruler Odoacer put an end to the Western Empire by
deposing the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and
asswming himself the title of King ca Iti^. Ai-
though an Arian, Odoacer treated Hie Oatiiolio
Church with much respect; he also retained the greato"
part of the former administrative organisation, so
that the change produced no great differences at
Rome. During the Monophysite controversy, that
was still carried on in the Eiostem Empire, Slmphciua
vigorously defended the independraice of the Church
against the Ceesaropapism of the l^zantine rulers and
the authority of the Apostolic See in questions of
faith. The twenty-eighth canon of the Council ot
Chalcedon (451) granted the See of Constanthiople
the same privil^cs of honour that were enjoyed by wo
Bishop of Old Rome, although the primacy ana the
highest rank of honour were due to the latter. The

gipal legates protested against this elevation of the
yzantine Patriarch, ana Pope Leo confirmed only
the dogmatic decrees of the coundl. However, tho
Ffttriaroh of Constantinople sought to bring the canon
into force, and the Emperor Leo II dedred to obtain
its confirmation by Simplicius. The latter, however,
rejected the request of the emperor aad opposed the
carrying out of the canon, that moreover umited the
rights of the old Oriental patriarchates.

The rebellion of Basiliscus, who in 476 drove the
Emperor Zeno into exile and seized the Byzantine
throne, intensified the Monophysite dispute. Basili»-
CUB looked for support to the Monophysites, and
he panted permission to the deposed NIonophysite
patriarchs, Timotbeus Ailurus of Alexandria and Peter
Fullo of Antioch, to return to their sees. At the same
time he issued a religious edict (Enkyklikon) addressed
to Ailurus, which commanded that only the firat
three (ecumenical synoda were to be accepted, and
rejected the Synod of Chalcedon and the Letter of
Pope Leo. AU bishops were to sign the edict. The
Biuiop of Constantinople, Acaoius (from 471), yrnf
vered and was about to prodaim this edict. But tlie
firm stand taken b^ the populace, influenced b>; tho
monks who were rigidly Catholic in thear opinions,
moved the bishop to oppose the emperor and to de-
fend the threat^ed faith. The abbots and priests
of Constantinople united with Pope Simplicius, whn
made every effort to maintain the Catholic dogma and
the definitions of the Coimcil of Chalcedon. Tho

Eipe exhorted to loyal adherence to the true faith in
tters to Acacius, to the priests and abbots, as well
as to the usurper Basiliscus himself. In a letter to
Basiliscus of 10 Jan., 476, Simplicius says of tiie See
of Peter at Rome: " This same norm of Apostolic doo*
trine is firmly maintained by his [Peter's] successors,
of him to whom the Lord entrusted the care of the
entire flock of sheep, to whom He promised not to
leave him until the end of time" (Thiel, "Rom.
Pont.", 182). In the same way he took up' with
ihe emperor the cause of the Catholic Patriarch of
Alexandria, Timotheus Salophakiolus, who had been
superseded by Ailurus. When the Emperor Zeno
in 477 drove away the usurper and again gained the
supremacy, he sent the pope a con^utely Catholic
eoufeesion of faith, whneupon Simplicius (9 Oet^
477) congratulated him on his restoration to power and

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exhorted him to asoribe the victory to Ood, who
wished in this way to restore libert:^ to the Church.

Zeno recalled the edicts of Basiliscus, banishe .'
Peter Fullo from Antiooh, and reinstated Timotheus
Salopbaldoliis at Alexandria. He did not disturb
Aiturus on account of the letter's great age, and as a
matter of fact the latter soon died. The Mono-

Khysites of Alexandria now put forward Feter
fongus, the former archdeacon of Ailurus, as his
successor, ijrg^ by the pope and the Eastern
Catholics. Zeno commanded the banishmeDt of Peter
Mongiu, but latter was id>le to hide in Alexandria,
and fear of the Monophysites prevented the use of
force. In a moment of weakness Salopbakiolus
himself had permitted the placing of the name of the
Monophysite patriarch Dioecurus in the dlptychs to
be read at the church services. On 13 Mar^, 4^,
Simplicius wrote to Acacius of Constantinople that
SfUophakiohiB should be urged to wipe out the dis-
graoe that he had brought mtoa himself. The latter
sent legates and letters to Rome to give satisfaction
to the pope. At the request of Acacius, who was still
active against the Monophysites, the pope condenmed
by name the heretics Mongus, Fullo, Paul of Epheseus,
and John of Apamea, and del^ated the Patriarch
of Constantinople to be in this his representative.
When the Monophysites at Antioch raised a revolt
in 497 against the patriarch St^hen II, and killed
him, Acacius consecrated Stephen III, and afterwards
Kalendion as Stephen's successors. Simplioius made
an energetic demand upon the emperor to punish
the murderers of the patriarch, and also reproved
Aeaeius for exceeding hie competence in performing
tlds consecration; at the same time, though, the pope
granted him the necessary dispeoisation. After the
death Salophakiolus, the Monophj^tee of Alexan-
dria anun elected Peter Mongus patriarch, while the
Catholics chose Johannes Talaia. Both Acacius and
the emperor, whom he influenced, were opposed to
Talaia, and sided with Mongus. Mongus went
to Constantinople to advance his cause. Acacius
and he agreed upon a formula of union between
the Catholics and the Monophysites that was ap-
proved by the Emperor Zeno in 482 {Hmotikon).
Talaia had sent ambassadors to F^ Kmpliciua
to notify the pope of his election. However, at
the same time, the pope received a letter from the
emperor in wnich Talaia was acc\ised of perjury
ana bribe^ and a demand was made for the rec(Mpu-
tion of MoneuB. Simplicius, therefore, delayea to
recognize Ta&ia, but protested energetically gainst
the elevation of Mongus to the Patriarchate of
Alexandria. Acacius, however, maintained his alli-
ance with Mongus and aoudht to prevwl upon tihe
Eastern biahcnn to enter into Church oonununion with
him. For a long time Acacius sent no information
of any kind to the pope, so that the latter in a letter
blamed him severely for this. When finally Talaia
came to Rome in 483 Simplicius was already dead.

SimpHcius exercised a zealous pastoral care tn
western Europe also notwithstanding the trying cir-
cumstances Of tiie Church during the disorders of the
Migrations. He issued decisions in ecdenastical
quffitions, appointed Bishop Zeno ol Seville papal
vicar in Spam, so that the prerogatives of the papal
see could be exercised in the country itseK for the
benefit of the ecclesiastical administration. When
Bishop John of Ravenna in 482 claimed Mutina as a
suffn^an diocese of his metropohtan see, and without
more ado consecrated Bishop George for this diocese,
Simplicius vigorously opposed him and defended the
ri^ts of tiie papal see. Simplicius established four
new ohurehee in Rome itsefF. A large hall built
in the form of a rotunda on the Ceelian Hul was turned
into a church and dedicated to St. Stephen; the main
part <tf this building still exists as the Qiurdi erf Sui
StafADO Rotottdo. A fine haU near the Cfauroh of

[ smpuonm

Santa Maria Magdore was yivai to the Roman
Church and tumeaby Simplicius into a ohundi ded-
icated to St. Andrew by the addition of an apse
adorned with moeaios: it is no longer in existence
(cf. de RoBsij "Bull, di archeol. crist.", 1871, 1-64).
The pope buut a church dedicated to the first martyr,
St. Stephen, behind the memorial church of San
Loreneo in Agro Verano; this church is no lon^
standing. He had a fourth church built in the city
in honour of St. Balbina, "juxta palatium Licinia*
num", where her grave was; uiis church still remains.
In order to make sure of the regular holding of church
services, of the administration of baptism, and of the
discipline of penance in the great churches of the
catacombs outside the city walls, namely the churdi
of St. Peter (in the Vatican), of St. Paul on the Via
Ostiensis, and of St. Lawrence on the Via Tiburtina,
Simplidua ordained that the clergy of three designated
sections of the city should, in an established ordo',
have charge of the reli|pous functions at these churches
of the catacombs. Sunplioius was buried in St. Pe-
ter's on the Vatican. The "Liber PontificaUs" gives
2 March as the day of burial (VI non.); prob-
ably 10 March (VI id.) should be read. After his
death King Odoacer desired to influence the filling
of the papuil see. The prefect of the city,^ Basilius,
asserted that before death Pope Kmpliciiu had
begged to issue the order that no one should be con-
secrated Roman bishop without his consent (cf. con-
cerning the r^wlation Thiel, "Epist. Rom. Pont.",
686-88). The Roman clergy opposed this edict that
limited their right of election. They maintained the
force of the edict, issued by the Emperor Honorius
at the instance oi Pope Boniface I, that only that
person should be regarded as the rightful Bish<^ of
Rome who was elected aooordittg to canonical fwm with
Divine approval and uniTersal consent. Simplidus
was venerated as a saint; his feast is on 2 or 3 March.

Liber pontifiaalu, ed, DncBB&KB, I, 240-251; JArvi, Rtpnta
Ponl. Rom.. 2nd ed., I. 77-80; Thiel, Epitl. Ron. Ponttf., I
(Bninawiok. 1868), 174 sq.; Libbratub, Brtviar. eavaa Nutar.,
xvi sq.; ESrAORioe, Hi»L ecd., Ill, 4 sq.; HEBaBKRdTim
Photiui, I, 111-22; GwsAB. GtuAiehf Roma und der Papatt. I,
1S3 sq., 334 oq.; LAMasH, GeadtSdiU der n^iiehen Kirehe. II
(Bonn, VBRSi, 126 Bqq.; Vfuwi, DU PapOwahX (CoIc«De, 1903).

J. P. KlRSCH.

Slmplidxu, Faustikus, and Bbatbicb, martyrs
at Rome during the Diocletian persecution (302 or
303). The brothers Simplicius and Faustinus were
cruelly tortured on account of th^ Christian faith,
beaten with clubs, and finally beheaded; thur bodies
were thrown into the Tiber. According to another
version of the legend a stone was tied to them and
thc^ were drowned. Their ^ster Beatrice had the
bocues drawn out of the wwtcf and buried. Then
for seven months she Uved with a pious matron
named Lucina, and with her ud Beatrice succoured
the persecuted Christians by day and night. FInalty
she was discovered and arrested. Her accuser was
her neighbour Lucretius who desired to obtain
possession of her lands. She courageously asserted
before the ju<^ that she would never sacrifice to
demons, because she was a Christian. As punish-
ment she was stranded in prison. Her frioidXudna
buried her by her brotiaers in the cemetery ad
IJnum Pilealum on the road to Porto. Soon after tlus
jLiivine punishment overtook the accuser Lucretius.
When Lucretius at a feast was making merry over
the folly of the martyrs, an infant mio had been
brought to the entertainment by his mother, cried
out, "Thou hast committed murder and bast taken
unjust possession of land. Thou art a slave of the
devil". And the devil at once took poseossion of
him and tortured him three hours and drew him down
into the bottomless pit. The terror of those Mesent
was BO great that they became CHiristians. TUs is
the Btory of the legaid. Trustworthy Acts concern-
ing ^ hiBtcuy of the two brothns^^ nster anno

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longer in existence. Pope Leo II (682-083) trans-
lated their relics to a ohurch which he had built at
Rome in honour of St. Paul. Later the greater part
of the rehcs of the martyrs were taken to the Church of
Santa Maria Maggiore. St. Simplicius is repreeented
with a pennant, on the shield of which are toree lUiee
called the crest of Simplicius; the Uliea are a s^bol
of purity of heart. St. Beatrice has a cord m her
hand, because she was strangled. The feast of the
three aaints is on 29 July.

Acta 83.. July, VII, 34-37; BMiotheea hagiOffnpMta latina
(Bnuwla, 1898-1000), 1127-28.

Klemens LOffler.

Simpson, Richard, b. 1820; d. near Rome, 5 April,
1876. He was educated at Oriel College, Oxford,
and took his B.A. degree, 9 Feb.. 1S43. Bein^ or-
dained an Anglican clergyman, ne was appomted
vicar of Mitcham in Surrey, but resigned this in
1845 to become a Catholic. After some years spent
on the continent; during which time he berame
remarkably proficient as a linguist, he returned to
Enghmd and became editor of ' The Rambler".
When this ceased in 1862 he, with Sir John Acton,
began the "Home and Foreign Review", which was
opposed by. ecclesiastical auwority as unsound and
was disoontiaued in 1864. Afterwards Simpson de-
voted himself to the study of Sht^espeare and to
music. His works are: "Invocation of Saints proved
from the Bible alone" (1849) ; "The Lady Falkland:
her life" (1861); "Edmund Campion" (1867), the
most vf^uable of his works; "Introduction to the
Philosophy of Shakespeare's Sonnets" (1868); "The
School of Shake^are" (1872); and "Sonnets of
Shakespeare selected from a complete settii^, and
miaoeilaneous sonj^" (1878). Thou^ he ronained
a practical-Catholic his opinions were very liberal and
he assisted Mr. Gladstone in writii^ his pamphlet
on "Vaticaniwn". His papers in "The Rambler"
on the English martyrs deserve attention.

CoopiiB in Did. Nat. Biog,, e. v.; Gillow, Bibl. Diet. Etuj.
CalK, B. v.; Wahd, L^/s ana Timet of Cardinal Wigetaan (Lou-
don, 1897} ; Oabquxt, Lord Adon and His Circle (Londoa, 1906).

Edwin Burton.

Sin. — ^The subject is treated under these heads:
1. Nature of Sin: II. Division; III. Mortal Sn;
IV. Venial Sin; V. Fermisfflon and Ronedies; VI.
The Sense of Sin.

I. Natxjek or Sin. — Since sin is a moral evil, it is
neoessaty in the first place to determine what is meaiit
t:^ evil, and in particular by moral evil. Evil is de-
fined by St. Thomas (De malo, Q. ii, a. 2) as a priva-
tion of fiHTa or order or due measure. In the physi-
cal order a thing is good in proportion as it possesses
being. God alone is essentially being, and He alone
is essentially and perfectly good. Everything else
possesses but a limited being, and, in so far as it pos-
seasea being, it is good. When it has its due propor-
tion of form and order and measure it is, in its own
order and degree, good. (See Good.) Evil implies a
deficiency in perfection, hence it cannot exist in God
who is essfflitially and by nature good; it is found only
in finite beings which, because of their or^n from
noting, are subject to the privation of form or order
or measure due them, and, through the opposition
they encounter, are liable to an increase or decrease
of the perfection they have: "for evil, in a large
sense, may be described as the sum of (^position,
wUeh experience shows to exist in the universe, to the
denres and needs <rf individuals; whence arises, among
human beings at least, the suiTering in which life
abounds" (see Evil).

Acc(Hding to the nature of the perfection which it
limits, evil is metaphysical, physical, or moral. Meta-
physical evil is not evil properly so called; it is but the
negation of a greater good, or the Umitation of finite .
bemgs by other finite beings. Physical evil deprives
tiM aubject affected by it <h some natural gpod, and is .

advene to the well-b^i^ of the subject, as pain and
suffering. Moral evil is found only m intdligent
beings; it deprives them of some moral good. Here
we have to deal with moral evil only. This may be
d^ed as a privation o( conformity to r^t reason
and to the law of God. Since the morahty of a hu-
man act consists in its agreement or non-agreement
with ri^t reason and the eternal law, an act is gochl
or evil in the moral order according as it involves this
agreement or non-agreement. Wnen the inteUigent
creature, knowing God and His law, deliberately re-
fuses to obey, moral evil results.

Sin is nothing else than a morally bad act (St.
Thmnas, "De tnalo", Q. vii, a. 3), an act not in ac-
cord with reason informed by the Divine law. God
has eaidowed us with reason and free-will, and a sense
of resptmsibihty; He has made us subject to His law,
which is known to us by the dictates of conscience,
and our acts must conform with these dictates, other-
wise we sin (Rom., xiv, 23). In every sinful act two
things must be considered, the substance of the act
and the want of rectitude or conformity (St. Thomas,
I-II, Q. Ixxii, a. 1). The act is stwnetfnng positive.
The sirnm intends here and now to act in some deter^
mined matter, inordinately electing that particular
good in defiance of God's law and the dictates of
right reason. The deformity is not directly intended,
nor is it involved in the act so far as this is physical,
but in the act as coming from the will wni<ui has
power over its acts and is ct^ble of choosing this or
that particular good contained within the scope of its
adequate object, i. e. univeraal good (St. Thomas,
"De malo", Q. iii, a. 2, ad 2um). God, the first
cause of all reality, is the cause of the physical act as
such, the free-will of the deformity (St. Thomas, I-II,
Q. Ixxxix, a. 2; "De malo", Q. iii, a. 2). The evil act
adequately considered has for its cause the free-will
defectively Meeting some mutable good in place of ihB
eternal good, God, and thus deviating from ita true
last ead.

In every sin a privatimt <rf due order or conformity
to the moral law is found, but sin is not a pure, or
eatixe privation of all moral good (St. Thomas, "De
malo", Q. ii, a. 9; I-II, Q. bcxiii, a. 2). There is a
twofold privation; one entire which leaves nothing of
its op>poHite, as for instance, darkness whidi leaves no
light; another, not entire, which leaves something of
the good to which it is opposed, as for instance, disuse
which does not entirely destroy the even balance of the
bodily functions necessary fw healtii. A pure or en-
tire privation good could occur in a moral act cml^
on the supposition that the will could incline to evd
as such for an object. This is impossible because
evil as such is not contained Within the scope of the
adequate object of the will, which is good. The sin-
ner's intention terminates at some object in which
there is a participation of God's goodness, and this
object is directly mtended by him. The privation of
due order, or the deformity, is not directb^ intended,
but is accepted in as much as the sinner's desire teoidB
to an object in which this want of conformity is in-
volved, BO that sin is not a pure privation, but a
human act deprived of its due rectitude. From the
defect arises the evil of the act, from the fact tiiat it is
voluntary, its imputability.

II. Division op Sin. — As regards the principle
from which it proceeds sla is origmal or actual. The
will of Adam acting as head of the human race for the
conservation or loss of original justice is the cause and
source of original sin (q. v.). ActufU sin is committed
by a free petBonal act of the individual will. It is
divided into sins of commission and onussion. A sin
of commission is a positive act contraiy to some pro-
hibitory precept; a sin of omission is a fuluxe to do
what is commanded. A sin of omission, -however,
k^miires a positive act whereby one wills to omit ^e
iQHiIMns w A P'^oe^h or at least wills smuething in>

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oconpatible witli ita fulfillment (I-II, Ixxii, a. 5).
As nsards their malice, sins are distinguished into
SDS M ignorance, i>a8sion or infirmity, and malice; as
regards the activities involved, into sins of tbounit,
wwd, or deed {cordis, oris, opens); as regards their
gravity, into mortal and venial. This last named
division is indeed the most important of all and it
calls for special treatment. But before taking up the
details, it will be useful to indicate some further dis-
tinctions wMch occiur in theology or in general usage.

MateritU and Formal Sin. — ^Tma distinction is based
upon the difference between the objective elements
{object itself, circumstances) and the subjective (ad-
vertence to the sinfulness of the act). An action
«4uch, as a matter of fact, is contrary to the Divine
law but is not known to be such by the agent con-
stitutes a material sin; whereas formal sin is com-
mitted when the a^ent freely transgresses the law
SB shown him by his conscience, whether such law
exists w is only thought to exist by him who
acts. Thus, a person who takes the property of an-
other while believing it to be his own commits a mate-
rial sin; but the sin would be formal if he took the
property in the belief that it belonged to another,
niiether his belief were correct or not.

Internal Sim. — That sin may be committed not
only by outward deeds but also by the inner activity
of ue mind apart from any external manifestation, is
plain from the precept of the Decalogue: "Thou shalt
not covet", and from Christ's rebuke of the scribes
and Pharisees whom he likens to "whited sepulchres
... full of all filthiness" (Matt., xxiii, 27). Hence
the Council of Trent (Sess. XIV, c. v), in declaring
that alt mortal sins must be confessed, makes special
mention of those that are most secret aad that vio*
late only the last two precepts of the Decalc^e, add-
ing that they "sometimes more grievously wound the
soul and are more dangerous than sins which are
openly committed". Three kinds of internal sin are
BBuarty distinguished: deleciatio morosa, i. e. the pleas-
QTC t^en in a sinful thought or imagination even
without desiring it: gaudium, i. e. dwelling with com-
placency on sins already committed; and deaiderium,
1. e. the desire for what is sinful. An ^fficaciotu desire,
t e. one that includes the delibmte intration to
na^ze or gratify the desire, has the same malice,
mortal or venial, as the action which it has in view.
An inefBcacious desire is one that carries a condition,
m such a way that the will is prepared to perform
the action in case the condition were verified. When
the condition is such as to eliminate ati sinfulness
from the action, the desire involves no sin: e. g. I
would gladly eat meat on Friday, if I had a dispen-
sation; and in general this is the case whenever tiie
action is forbidden by positive law only. When the
action is contnuy to natural law and ^et is permis-
sible in given circumstances or in a particular state of
life, the desire, if it include those circumstances or
that state as conditions, is not in itself sinful: e. g. I
would kin ao-and-eo if I had to do it in self-defence.
Usually, however, such desires are 'dangerous and
therefore to be repressed. If, on the other hand, the
eondition does not remove the sinf uhiess of ^e action,
the denre is also mnful. This is clearly the case where
the action is intrinsicalljr and absolutely evil, e. g.
blasphemy: one cannot without committing sin, have
the desire — I would blaspheme God if it were not
wiOQc; the condition is an impossible one and th^e-
fore does not affect the desire itself. The pleasure
taken in a sinful thought {delectalio, gavdium) is, gen-
enlly speaking, a sin of t^e same kind and gravity
M the aetion which is tbouf^t oi. Much, howe^,
dejKDda on the motive for which one thinks of sinful
aeaooB. The pleasure, e. g. which one may experi-
(oce in stud^ng the nature of murder or any other
orime, in getong olear ideas on the subjecrt, tracing its
Mms, detominitig tbe guilt etc., is mot a ma; on tiie

contrwy, it is often both necessary and uaeful. The
case is mfforent of course where the pleasure means

^tifieation in the sinful object or action itself. And

It is evidently a sin when one boasts of his evil deeds,
the more so because of the scandal that is given.

The Capitcd Sins or Vices. — According to St.
Thomas (II-II, Q. cliii, a. 4) "a capital vice is that
which has an exceedingly desirable end so that in his
desire for it a man goes on to the commission of many
sins all of which are said to originate in that vice as
thm chief source". It is not then the ffwity of tiie
vice in itself that makes it capital but rather tbe faet
that it gives rise to many other sins. These are
enumerated by St. Thomas (I-II, Q. Ixxxiv, a. 4) as
vainglory (pride), avarice, gluttony, lust, sloth, en'vr.
anger. St. Bonaventure (Brevil., Ill, ix) jpvee the
same enumeration. Earlier writers had distinguished
eight capital sins: so St. Cyprian (De mort,, iv); Cas-
sian (De instit. ccenob., v, coll. 5, de octo princip^-
buB vitiis); Columbaniu ("Instr. de octo vitiis
princip." in "Bibl. max. vet. patr.^, XII, 23); Alcuin
(De virtut. et vitiis, xxvii sqq.). llie numb^ sevra,
however, had been given by St. Grep>ry the Great
(Lib. mor. in Job. XXXI, xvii), and it was retained
by the foremost theologians of the Middle Ages.

It is to be noted that "sin" is not predicatM umvo-
call^ of all kinds of sin. "The division of sin into
venial and mortal is not a division of genua into
species which participate equally tbe nature of the
genus, but the division of an analogue into thin^ of
which it is predicated primarily and secondanly"
(St. Thomas, I-II, Ixxxviii, a. 1, ad lum). "Sin u
not predicated univocally of all kinds of sin, but
primarily of actual mortal sin . . . and therefore it is
not necessary that the definition of sin in general
riiould be verified except in that sin in which the
nature of the genus is found perfectl^jr. The definition
of sin may be verified in other sins m a certain sense"
(St. Thomas, II, d. 33, Q. i, a. 2, ad 2um). Actual
sin primarily consists in a volunt^y aet repi^nant to
the order of right reason. The act passes, but the
fioul of the sinner remains stained, deprived of grace,
in a state of sin, until the disturbance of ordCT has
been restored by penance. This state is called bab-
itual sin, maada peceaU. reattu cidpce (I~II, Q. Ixzxviit
a. 6). ■

Tlie divtsi<m of sin into original and actual, mortal
and venul, is not a division of genus into species be-
cause sin has not the same si^ification when applied
to original and personal sin, mortal and venial.
Mortal sin cuts us off entirely from our true last end:
venial sin only impedes us in its attainment. Actual
personal sin is voluntary by a proper act <^ the wilL
Original sin is voluntary not by a perscmal vohmtuy
act of ours, but by an act of the will of Adam. Orig-
inal and actual sm are distinguished by the manner
in which they are voluntary {ex parte actus); mortal
and venial sin by the way in which they affect our
relation to God (ex parte deordinationis). Since a vol-
untary act and its disorder are of the essence of sin, it
is impossible that sin should be a generic term in ,
respect to original and actual, mortal and venial sin. *
Hie true nature of sin is found jperfectly only in a
personal mortal sin, hi other sins imperfectly, so that
nn is predicated primarily of actual sin, on^ second-*
arily of the others. Therefore we shall considv: first,
personal mortal sin; second, venial sin.

III. MonTAL Sin. — Mortal sin is defined by St.
Augustine (Contra Faustum, XXII, xxvii) as "Dic-
tum vel factum vel concupitum conlra legem ster*
nam", i. e. somethii^ said, done or desired contrary
to the eternal law, or a thought, word, or deed con-
trary to the eternal law. This is a definition of ran aa
it is a voluntary act. As it is a defect or privation it
may be defined as an aversion from God, our true last
end, by reason of tbe preference given to some mutable
good.^ Hie definition of St. Augu8tin&-i9 acospted

tized byCjOOgk

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(anenUy by theologians sdcI is primarily a definition
of actual mortal sin. It explains well the material
and formal elements of sin. The words "dictum vel
factum vel concupitum" denote the mAterial element
of sin. a human act: "contra legem Bteroam", the
formal element. The act is baa because it trans-
gresses the Divine law. St. Ambrose (De paradiso,
Tiii) defines sio as a "prevarication of the Divine
law". The definition of St. Ai^uBtine strictly con-
sidered, i. e. as mn averts us from our true ultimate
end, doee not compreh«id venial sin, but in as much
as venial sin is in a manner contrary to the Divine
law, although not averting us from our last end, it may
be said to be included in the definition as it stands.
While primarily a definition of sins of commission,
■ins of omission may be included in the definition be-
cause thev presuppose some positive act (St. Thomas,
I-II, Q. uxi, a. 6; and n^tkm and affirmation are
nduoed to the same genus. Sins that violate the
human or the natural law are also included, for what
18 contrary to the human or natural law is also con-
trary to the Divine law, in as much as every just
human law is derived from the Divine law, and is not
just unless it is in conformity with the Divine law.

BibliaU Description of Sin. — In the Old Testament
can is set forth as an act of disobedience (Gen., ii,
10-17; iii, 11; Is., 2-4; Jer., ii, 32); as an insult to
Qod (Niun., xxvii, 14); as something detested and
punished by God (Gen., iii, 14-19, Gen., iv, 97I6):
as injurious to the sinner (Tob., xii, 10) : to be expiated
by penance (Ps. 1, 19). In the New Testament it is
clearly taught in St. Paul that sin is a transgression of
the law (Rom., ii, 23; v, 12-20); a servitude from
which we are liberated by grace (Rom., vi, 16-18); a
discWiience (Heb., ii, 2) punished by God (Heb., x,
2&^1). St. J<^ describes sin as an offence to God, a
^BOtda of the will (John, xii, 43), an iniquity (I
Jcdm, iii, 4-10). Christ in many ctf his utterances
teaches t^e nature and extent of sin. He came to
promulgate a new law more perfect than the old,
i^ch would extend to the ordering not only of ex-
ternal but also of internal acts to a d^ree unknown
before, and, in His Sermon on the Mount, he con-
demns as sinful many acts which were judged honest
and rij^teous by the doctors and teachers of the Old
Law. He denoimcee in a special manner hypocrisy
and scandal, infidelity and the sin against the Holy
Ghost. In particular he teaches that sins come from
the heart (Matt., xv, 19-20).
' Systems which Deny Sin or Distort its True Notion. — ■
All systems, rdigious and ethical, which either deny,
on the one hand, the existence of a personal creator
and lawgiver distinct from and superior to his crea-
tion, or^ on the other, the existence of free will and
RBDOnsibility in man, distort or destroy the true
biblico-theofogicai notion of sin. In the beginning of
the CSiristian era the Gnostics, although their doc-
trines varied in details, denied the existence of a per-
sonal creator. The idea of sin in the Catholic sense
■ not contained in their ^stem. There is no sin for
. them, unless it be the sin of iniorance, no neeesaity
for an atonement; Jesus is not God (see Gnootiosu).
Manichteism (q. v.) with its two eternal principles,
good and evil, at perpetual war with each other, is
also destructive of the true notion of sin. All evil,
and consequently sin, is from the principle of evil.
The Christian concept of God as a lawgiver is de.
stroyed. Sin is not a conscious voluntary act of dis-
dlsedience to tiie Divine will. Pantheistic systems
which deny the distinction between God and Hia
creatim make sin impossible. If man and God are
one, man is not resMmsible to anyone {or his acts,
mwality is destroyed. If he is his own rule of action,
he cannot deviate from right as St. Thomas teaches
(I, Q. bdii, a. 1). The identificatitm of God and the
wmd by nntheism (q. v.) leaves no place for nn.
Then must be some law to whidi man is aubjeoti

mi

superior to and distinct from him, which osa be
obeyed and tranfigreesed, before sin can enter into his
acts. This law must be the mandate of a auperiw,
because the notions of superiority and subjection are
correlative. This superior can be only God, who
alone is the author and lord of man. Materialism,
denying as it does the spirituality and the immor-
tality of the soul, the existence of any spirit whatso-
evw, and consequently of Godj does not admit sin.
There is no free will, everything is detomined by
the inflexible laws of motion. "Virtue" and "vice
are meaningless qualificatimis of action. Positivism
places man s last end in some sensible good. His
supreme law of action is to seek the maximum of
pleasure. Egotism or altruism is the supreme norm
and criterion of the Positivistic s^tems, not tiie
eternal law of God as revealed b^ Him, and dictated
by oonscienoe. For the matoialistic evolutionists
man is but a hi^ly-developed animal, conscience a
product of evolution. Evolution has revolutionised
morality, sin is no more.

Kant in his "Critique of Pure Reason" having re-
jected all the essential notions of true moruity,
namely, liberty, the soul, God and a future life, at-
tempted in his "Critique of the Practical Reason" to
restore them in the measure in which they are neces-
sary for morality. The practical reascm, he tells us,
imposes «i us toe idea of law and duty. The funda-
mental principle of the morality of Kant is "duty for
duty's sake", not God and His law. Duty cumot be
conceived of alone as an independent thing. It car-
ries with it certain postulates, the first of which is
liberty. "I ought, therefore I can", is his doctrine.
Man by virtue of hia practical reason has a con-
sciousness ot moral obligation (cat^rical impera-
tive). This consciousness supposes three things: free
will, the immortaUty of the soul, the existence m God,
otherwise man would not be capable of fulfilling his
oblt^tions, tha« would be no sufficient sanction for
the Divine law, no reward or punishment in a future
fife. Kant's moral system labours in obscurities and
contradictions and is destructive of much that per-
tains to the teaching of Christ. Personal dignity is
the supreme rule of man's actions. The notion of sin
as opposed to God is suppressed. According to the
teacning of materialistic Monism, now so widespread,
there is, and can be, no free will. According to tills
doctrine but one thing exists and this one bemg pro-
duces all phenomena, thought included; we are but
puppets in its hands, earned hither and thither as
It wills, and finally are cast back into nothingness.
There is no place for good and evil, a free observance
or a wilful transgression of law, in such a system.
Sin in the true sense is impossible. Without law and
Uberty and a personal God there is no sin.

That God exists and can be known from His visible
creation, that He has revealed the decrees of His
eternal will to man, and is distinct from His crea-
tion (Denxinger-Bannwart, "Enchiridion", nn. 1782,
1786, 1701), are matters of Catholic faith and teach-
ing. Man is a-created being endowed with free will
(ibid, 793), which fact can be proved from Scripture
and reason (ibid., 1041-1650). The Council of Trent
declares in Sees. VI.c. i (ibid., 793) that man by reason
of the prevarication of Adam has lost his primeval
innocence, and that while free will remains, its powers
are lessened (see Original Sin).

Protestant Errors. — Luther and Calvin taught as
their fundamental error that no free will properly so
called remained in man after the fall of our first
parents; that the fulfillment of God's precepts is im-
possible even with the assistance of grace, and that
man in aU bis actions sins. Grace u not an interior
gift, but something external. To some sin is not
unputed, because they are covered as with a cloak by
the merits of Christ. Faith alone saves, there is no
neoflssity for good worics. Sin in Lut^s doctrine

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eaimot be a dd3>erate traMgrwdoD of the Divbie
law. Janemius, in his "Augustinua", taught Uiat
aooording to Uie pre»«it powers at man some of Qod's
precepts are impossible of fulfilment, even to the
just who strive to fulfil them, and he further taught
that ttrace by means of which the fulfilment becomes
possible Is wanting even to the just. His fondi^
mental error consbts in teadung that the will ia not
firee but is necessarity drawn either by concupiscence
or grace. Internal hberty is not required for merit or
demerit. Liberty from coercion suffices. Christ did
not die for all men. Baius taught a semi-Luth^an
doctrine. Liberty is not entirely destroyed, but is so
weakened that without it can do nothing but
ain. True liberty is not required for sin. A bad
act committed involuntarily renders man responsible
(propositions SO-61 in Deuingei^Bannwart, "Eo-
diiridion", nn. 1050-1). All acts done without
olurity are mortal sins and merit damnation because
tb^ proceed from eoncupiscence. This doctrine de-
nies toat sin ia a volimt^y transgression of Divine
law. If man is not free, a precept is meaningleas as
far as he is concerned.

PkUotopkioal Sin. — Those who would confltnict
a moral nrstem independent of God and his law dis-
tinguish between thecdogical and philosophical sin.
Pbuoeophical sin ia a mondly bad act which violates
the natural order of reason, not the Divine law.
Theological sin is a transgressicm of the eternal law.
Those who are of atheistic tendencies and contend for
this distinction, either deny the existence of God or
miuntain that He exercises no providence in regard to
human acts. This position is destruotive of sin in the
theolopcal aeoBe, as God and His law, rewaid and
punishment, are done away with. Those ^o admit
the enstenee of God, His law, human liberty and
responmbihty, and still contend for a distinction be-
tween philiffiophical and theological sin, maintain that
m the present order of God's [uovidenoe there are
morsJly bad acta, which, while violating the order of
reason, are not offensive to God, and they base their
oontentitm on this that the sinner can be ignorant <d
the sdstenee of God, (w not actually think <» Him and
ffis law yrhea he acts. Without the knowledge of
God and oonaideration cS Him, it ia impossible to
offend Him. This doctrine was censured as scanda-
lous, temerarious, and erroneous by Alexander VIII
(24 Au^., 1600) in his condemnation of the following
proposition: "Philosophical or moral sin is a himian
act not in agreement with raticmal nature and right
reason, theolo^oal and mortal sin is a free transgres-
sion of the Divine law. However grievous it nu^ be.
philosophical rin in one who u either unorant 6! Goa
or does not actualW think of God, is indeed a grievous
an, but not an offense to God, nor a mortal sin dis-
solving friendship with God, nor worthy of eternal
punishment" (Denzinger^Bannwart, 1290).

This propoBiti<m is condemned because it does not
distinguish between vincible and invincible igno-
rance, and further supposes invincible ignorance of
God to be sufficiently cfHumon, instead of only meta-
physically possible, and because in tiie present dis-
pei»ation oif God's jxoyidence we are clearly tau^t
in Scripture that God will punish all evil coming from
the free will of man (Il(Hn., ii, &-11). There is no
morally bad act that does not include a tran^ression
of Divme law. From the fact that an action is con-
ceived of as rowally evil it is conceived of as pro-
hibited. A prohibition is unintelligUile without the
notion of smne one pnrfiUntang. The one pn^iibiting
In this case and binding tiie conscience of man can be
oajy God, Who aknenas power over num's free will
aod actions, so Uiat from the fact that any act is pa-
eeived to be morally bad and prohibited by oonscience.
God and His law are perceived at least confusedly, ana
a wilful transgression of ib» <Uctate of conadeoee is
weetmuSy also a ttanagresrion oC (3od's bnr. Caiw

dmal de Lu^ (De htoamat., disp. 6, lect^ 3) admitt
the posdbihty of [^ulos(^)hioal sm in those who are
inculpably ignorant of G<Mi, but he holds that it does
not actually occur, because in the present order of
God's providence there cannot be invincible igno-
ranre of God and His law. This teaching does not
ueobisarily fall under the condemnation of Alexander
VIII, but it is conunonly rejected by theologians for
the reason that a dictate <tf oonscience neceHarily in-
volves a knowlec^ of the Divine law as a principle of
morality.

CoTidUiotu of Mortal Sin: KnowUdoe, Free WiU,
Grave Matter. — Contrary to the teaching of Baius
(prop. 46, Denxinger-Bannwart, 1046) and ' the Re-
formers, a sin must be a voluntary act. Those ac-
tions alone are property called human or moral actions
which proceed from the human will deliberately acting
with Imowledge of the end tor which it acts. Man
differs from all irrational creatures in this precisely
that he is master of his actions by virtue of his reason
and free will (I-II, Q. i, a. 1). Since sin is a human
act wanting in due rectitude, it must have, in so far aa
it is a human act, the essential constituenta of a
human act. The intellect must perceive and iuo'
<tf the morality of the act, and toe will must irei
elect. For a deliberate mortal sin there must be fu
advertence on the part of the intellect and full con-
sent on the part w the will in a grave matter. An
invohintaiy transgression of the law even in a grave
matter is not a formal but a material sin. The
gravity of the matter is judged from the teaching of
Scripture, the definitions of councils and popes, and
also from reason. Those sins are judged to be mortal
which contain in themselves some grave disorder in
ngiud to God^ our nei^bour, ourselves, or society.
Some sins admit <^ no tightness of matter, as for ex-
ample, blaaphen^, hatred of God; they are always
mortal (ex toto genert nto), unless rendered venial by
want of full advertence on the part of the intellect or
full consent on the part of the will. Other sins admit
U^tnees of matter: they are grave sins {ex genero tuo)
in as much as tiidr matter in itself is sufficient to con-
stitute a grave nn without the addition of any other
matter, but is of such a nature that in a ^ven case,
owing to its smallnesa, the sin may be venial, e. g.
theft.

Jm-putc^iiy . — That the act of the sinner may be
imputed to him it is not necessary that the object
which terminates and specifies his act should be di-
rectly willed as an end or means. It suffices that it be
willed indirectly or in its cause, i. e. if the sinner
foieaees, at least confused^, that it will follow from
the act whidi he freely pmorms or fnnn his omissirai
of an act. When the cause produces a twofold effect,
one of which is directly wiUed, the other indirectly,
the effect which follows indirectly ia morally imput-
able to the sinner when these three conditions are
verified: iirst, the sinner must foresee at least con-
fusedly the evil effects which follow on the cause he
places; second, he must be able to refrain from placing
the cause; third, he must be under the obligatitm t»
preventing the evQ effect. Error and ignorance in
regard to the object or circumstances of the act to be
placed, affect the judgment of the intellect and conse-
quently the morality and imputabiiity of the act.
Invincible ignorance excuses entirely from sin. Vin-
cible ignoruice does not. although it renders the act
less free (see Ignorance). The passions, while they
disturb the judgment <tf the intellect, more directly
affect the wuL Antecedent passion increases the in-
tensi^ of the act, the object is more intensely desired,
althou^ lees freely, and the disturbance caused 1^
the passions may be so great as to render a free jud^
ment impoaaible, the agent being for tiie mommt
beside himself (I-II, Q. vi, a. 7, ad 3um). Conse-
quent passion, whion arises from a c<nnmand <^ the
nill, does Bot rnsen liberty, but is rather a sign <tf an

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intttue Mt of Tirtftloii. Fear, Tiolenee, heredity,
temperament and pathological states, in so far aa they
atfect free volition, affect the mahoe and imputa-
bUi^ of sin. From the condemnation of the errors
of Baius and Janseoius (Dens.-Bann., 1046, 1066,
1094, 1291-2) it is clear that for an actual personal sin
a knowledge of the law and a persontJ voluntary act,
free from coercion and necessity, are required. No
mortal sin is ccnnmitted in a state of invincible i^pio-
ranceorin a haK-conscioua state. Actual advertence
to the sinfulness of the act is not required, virtual
advertence suffices. It is not necessary that the ex-
plicit intention to offend God and break his law be
present the full and free consent of the will to an evU
act suffices.

Malice. — The true malice of mortal sin consists in a
conscious and voluntary tran^resaion of the eternal
law, and implies a contempt of the Divine will, a com-
plete turning away from God, our true last end, and a
preferring m some created thing to Vhich we subject
ourselves. It is an offence offered to God, and an in-
jury done Him: not that it effects any change in God,
who is immutable by nature, but that the sinner by
his act deprives God of the reverence and honor due
Him: it is not any lack of malice on the sinner's part,
but God's immutability that prevents Him from
suffering. As an offence offered to God mortal sin is
in a way infinite in its malice, since it is directed
affflinst an infinite being, and the gravity c( the
offence is measured by the di^ty of the one ofFended
(St. Thomas, III, Q. i, a. 2, ad 2um). As an act sin is
finite, the mil of man not being capable of infinite
malice. Sin is an offence against Christ Who has
redeemed man (FhiL iii, 18); t^ainst the Holy Ghost
Who sanctifies us (Heb.^ x, 29), an injury to man
himself, causii^ the spiritual death of tlie soul, and
making man the servant of the devil. The first and
primary malice of sin is derived from the object to
which the will inordinately tends^ and from me ob-
ject considered morally, not physically. The end for
which the sinner acts imd the circumstances which
surround the act are abo determining factors of its
morality. An act which, objectively considered, is
morally indifferent, may be rendered good or evil by
dreumstances, or by the intention of the sinner. An
act that is good objectively may be rendered bad, or a
new species of good or evil may be added, or a new
degree. Circumstances can change the character of a
sin to such a degree that it becomes specifically dif-
ferent from what it is objectively considered; or they
may merely a^ravate the sin while not changing ita
specific character; or they may lessen its gravity.
That they may exercise this determininf; ituQuence
two things are necessary: they must contain in them-
selves some good or evil, and must be apprehended, at
least confusedly, in their moral aspect. The external
act, in so far as it is a mere execution of a voluntary
efficacious internal act, does not, acccndin^ to the
common Thomistic opinion, add any essential good-
ness or malice to the mtemal sin.

Oravity. — ^While every mortal aln averts us from
out true last end, all mortal sins are not equidly
grave, as is clear from Scripture (J<An, xix, 11;
Matt., xi, 22; Luke, vi), and also from reason. Sins
are specifically distinguished by their objects, which
do not oil equally avert man from his last end. Then
again, since sin la not a pure privation, but a mixed
one, all sins do not equally destroy the order of reason
Spiritual sins, other things being equal, are ^aver
than carnal sins (St. Thomas, "De male", Q. ii,
». 9; I-II, Q. Ixxiii, a. 5).

Specif and ntmeric rftsitnrfwm of Sin. — Sins are
dbtuiguished specifically by their formally diverse
objects; or from their opposition to different virtues,
or to morally different precepts of the same virtue.
Sins that are specifically distinct are also numerically
distinet. Kns within &a same speein em distill

m

gubhed anmcriotUy acoordbig to (he number of com-
plete acta of the will in re^^trd to total objects. A
total object is one which, either in itself or by the
intention of the sinner, forms a complete whole
and is not referred to another action as a part of
the whole. When the completed acta of the will
relate to the same object there are as many ^na
as there are morally interrupted acts.

SiJtgeU eauaM Sin. — Since sin is a vohmtary act
lackii^ in due rectitude, sin is found, as in a subject,
principally in the will. But, since not mly acta
elicited by the will are voluntary, but also those
that are ^icited by other faculties at the command
of the will, sin may be found in these faculties in
so far as they are subject in their actions to the
command of the will, and are instruments of the willf
and move under its guidance (I-II, Q. bcxiv).

The external members of the body cannot be
effective princij^es of sin (I-II, Q. Ixxiv^ a. 2 ad Sum).
Th^ are mere organs which are set m activity by
the soul; they do not initiate action. The ap^titive
powers on the contrary can be effective pnnciples
of sin, for they possess, through their immediate
conjunction with the will and their subordination
to it, a certain though imperfect liberty (I-II, Q. Ivi,
a. 4, ad Sum). The sensual appetites have their
own proper sensible objects to which Ihity natundly
incline, and since original sin has brtricen the bond
vdiich held them in complete subjection to the will,
they may antecede the will in their actions and tend
to their own proper objects inordinately. Hence
they may be proximate principles of sin wh«i they
move inordinately contrary to the dictates of ri^t
reason.

It is the right of reason to rule the Iowa* facul-
ties, and when the disturbance arises in the sm—
sua! part the reason may do one of two things:
it may either consent to the sensible delectation
or it may repress and reject it. If it ccoisenta, the
sin is no longer one of the< sensual part of man,
but of the intellect Emd will, and >coiuequfently,
if the matter is grave, mortal. If rejected, no sm
can be imputed. There can be no sin in the soisnal
part of man ind^>atdent^ of the will. The in-
ordinate motions ci the sensual appetite irtiiofa precede
the advertence of reason, or which are suffered
unwillingly, are not even venial sins. The temp-
tations of the fleeh not consented to are not sins.
Concupiscence, which remains after the ^ilt of
original sin is remitted in baptism, is not sinful so
long as consent is not given to it (Coun. of Treat.,
sess. V, can. v). The sensu^ i^ipetlte of itself
cannot be the subject of mortal sin, for the reason
that it can nettho* grasp the notion of God as an
ultimate end, nor avert us from Him, without which
aversion there cannot be mortal sin. The superior
reason, whose office it is to occupy itself with Divine
things, may be the jwoximate principle of sin both
in regard to its own proper act, to know truth, and
as it is directive of the inferior faculties: in regard
to its own proper act, in so far as it vohmtarib'
neglects to know what it can and ot^t to know;
in regard to the act by which it directs the inferior
faculties, to the extent that it commands inordinate
acts or fails to repress them (I-II, Q. Ixxiv, a. 7,
ad 2um).

The will never consents to a sin that is not at the
same time a sin of the superior reason as directing
badly, by either actually deliberating and commanding
the consent, or by fwling to delibraate and impede
the consent of the will when it oould and should do
so. The superior reason is the ultimate judge of hn*
man acts and has an obligation of deliboating and
deciding whether the act to be performed is aecwding
to the law of God. Veni^ sin may also be found
in the superior reason when it deliberately consents
to B&M that an venial in th«r nature, or when thm

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li QOt a f ull oonsent in tbo oue of • rin tlwt k mortal

oonsidered objectively.

Cotues iSin. — Under this bead, it is needfiil
to dis'tinguisb between the efficient cause, i.e. the
agent performing the sinful action, and those other
agenciee, influenoee or ciiQumstances, which incite
to sin and consequently inv<dve a dannr, more or
leas ^ve, f<» one who is exposed to uiem. These
inciting causes are plained in special artides oq
OocASiONs or Sin and Tbuptation. Here we have
to consider only the efficient cause or causes of sin.
These are interior and exteriw. The complete and
sufficient cause of ain is the will, which ia reoulated
in its actions b^ the reason, and acted upon l>y the
sensitive appetites. The principal interior causes of
■in are igninrance, infirmity or pasaioD, and mahoe.
^ncwftnee on the part of the reason, infirmity and
passion on the part of the senutire appetite, and
malice on the part of the will. A nn is from certain
malice when the will sins of its own aeoord and not
voider the influence of ignorance or passion.

The exterior causes of sin are the devil and man,
who move to sin by means of suggestion, persuasion,
tcmiptation, and bad exan^le. God is not the cause
of sm (Couno. of Trent., sees. VI, can. vi, in Deoi.-
Bann., SIO). He directs fdl things to Hunself and is
the end ctf all His actions, and oomd not be the cause
of evil without self-contradiction. Of whatever
entity there is in sin as an action. He -is the cause.
The evil vrSX is the cause erf the disorder (I-II, Q.
Ixxbc, a. 2). One sin may be the cause of another
inasmuch aa one sin ma^ be cndained to another as
an end. The seven cfHiital sins, so ceiled, may be
oonaidered as the source from which othw sins
IHOceed. They are smfut propensities which reveal
themselves in particular sinful acts. Otigiiial sin
by reason of its dire effects is the cause and source
Of sin in 80 far as by reason of it our natures are left
wounded and inclined to evil. Ignorance, infirmity,
malice, and concupiscence are the consequences <x
(Hrudnal sin. ,

Sfftett oj Sin. — ^The first effect of mortal sin in man
is to avert him from his true last eniL and deprive
his soul oC sanctifviag grace. The sinful act passes,
and the smner is left in a state of habitual aversion
from God. The sinful state is voluntary^ and imput-
able to the sinner, because it necessarily follows from
the act of sin he freely placed, and it remains until
satisfaction is made (see Penance). This state of
sin is cailed by theologians habitual sin, not in t^e
sense that habitual sin implies a viraous habit, but
in the sense that it signifies a state of aversion from
God d^>ending on the preceding actual sin, con-
sequently voluntuy and imputable. This state
of aversion carries with it necessarily in the present
order of God's providence the privation of grace
and charity by means of which man is ordered to
his supematurM aid. The privation of oace is the
"macula peccati" (St. Thomas I-IL Q. btxxvi),
the stain of sin spt^en of in Scripture (Jos., xxii, 17;
IsEtias, iv, 4; 1 Cor., vi, 11). It is not asgrtiiing
positive, a qualit;)^ or di^rasition, an obligatKm to
riuffer, an extriostc denomination coming from sin,
hut is sol^y the privation of sanctifyii^ grace.
There is not a real but only a conceptual distinction
between hi^itual sin (reo/us culpa) and the stain of
sin i^maetila peccati). One and the same privation
ronndersd as destroying the due order of man to
God is habitual sin, considered as depriving the
■ml of the beauty of grace is tiie stain or "maoula"
of sin.

Hie second effect <rf sin is to entail the pmalty of
undergoing suffering {reafxu ■paaut). Sin {reaim
etipm) is l^e cause of this obligation (reahte ■pema).
Tbe suffering may be inflicted in this life through the
medium of medicinal pumduuents, calamities, eick-
nsn, temporal evils, whieb tend to withdnnr from

> nr

sBi; or it but be inflieted m the We to oome by tht

justiee of Qod as vindictive punishment. The
punishments of the future Hfe are proportiwed
to the sin committed, and it is the obligation of
underling this punishment for unrepentod sin that
is signified by the "reatus posnse" of the thetdoviaos.
The penalty to be undei^one in the future lue is
divided into the pain of loss (ptena damai) and the
pun <tf sense (pcsna ssnsus). The pain of loss is
the privation of the beatific vision of God in punish-
ment of turning away from Him. The pain of sense
is suffering in punimpasnt of the conversion to some
created thmg in place of God. This two-fold pain
in punishmttit of mortal sin is eternal (I Cor., vi, 9;
Matt., XXV, 41; Mark, ix, 45). One mortid sin
suffices to incur punishment. (See Hell.) Other
effects of sins are: remorse of conscience (Wisdom,
V, 2-13); an inclination towards evil, as habits are
formed by a repetition of similar acts; a darkmm^
of the intelligence, a hardening of tlie "wul (Matt., xiii,
14-15; Rom., zi, 8); a general vitiatii« erf nature,
which does not however totally destroy the substance
and faculties of the soul but merely weakena the
right exercise of its faculties.

IV. Vbkul Snr.— Venial sin is essentially difler-
ent from mortal sin. It does not averi us from
our true last end, it does not destroy charity, the
principle ot union with God, nor deprive the soul
of sanctifying gnice, and it is intrinsieslly reparable.
It is caued venial preciBel>r because, ccmsioered in
its own proper nature, it is pardonable; in itself
meriting not eternal, but temporal punishment.
It is'dutmguished from mortal sin on the part of
the disorder. By mortal sin man is entir^ averted
from God, his true last end, and, at least implicit^,
he jrfaoes his last end in some created thing. By
vernal sin he is not avrated from God, neither does
he place his last sod in creatures. He remains
united with God by charity, but does not tend towards
Him 88 he ou^t. The true nature of sin as it is
contrary to eternal law, repugnant namely to
the primary end of the law, is found only in mortal
un. Venial sin is oaiy in an imporfeet way contrary
to< the law, sinoe it is not contrary to the primary
end of the law, nor does it avert man from the ena
intended fay the law (St. Thomas, I-II, Q. Ixxxviii,
a. 1; and Cfajctan, I-II, Q. Ixxxviii, a. 1, for the sense
of t^e prceler legem and contra Itf/tm of St. Thomas).

Definitim. — Since a v<rfnntary act and its disorder
are of the essence of sin, venial sin as it is a voluntary
act may be defined as a tbou^t, word, or deed at
variance with the law of God. It retards man in
the attainment of his last end while not averting
him from it. Ita disorder consists either in the not
fuUy deliberate choosing of some object pnrfiibited
by the law of Godj or in the deliberate adhesion
to some created object not as an ultimate end but
as a medium, which object does not avert the sinner
from God, but is not, however, referable to Him
as an end. Man cannot be averted from God
except by deUberately placing his last end in some
created uiing, and in venial sin he does not adhere
to any temporal good, enjoying it as a last end, but as
a medium referring it to Ciod not actually but habit*
ually inasmuch as he himself is ordered to God by
charity. "lUe qui peccat venialiter, inheeret bono
temporali non ut fmens, quia non constituit in eo
finem, sed ut utens, referens in Deum non actu sed
habitu" (I-II, Q. bcxxviii, a. 1, ad 3). For & mortal
un, some created good most be adhered to aa a lost
end at least implicitljr. "niis adherence eannot be
accwnplidied by a semi-deliberate aet. adhmiu
to an object that is at vuiasee with the law erf God
and yet not destructive of the primary end of the
Divine law, a true opposition is not set up between
God and that object. The created good is not
dsnrtti as an and- Th« sinner is not puced in the

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poaition ot dioosing between God and creature
as ultimate enda that are opposed, but is in buc^ a
eoaditioQ of mind that if the object to which he
adheres were prcdiibited as contrary to his true last end
he would not adhere to it, but would i^efer to keep
friendship with Qod. An emnple may be had in
human friendship. A friend will refrain from doing
anything that of itself wiU tend directly to dissolve
friendship while allowing himself at times to do v^at
is displeasu^ to his fnends without de^rayin^
friendraiip.

The <ustinction between mortal and venial sin
is set forth in Scripture. From St. John (I John.
V, 16-17) it is dear tiiere an somesins "unto death''
and some sins not "unto death", i. e. mortal and
venial. The classic text tor the distinction of mortal
and venial sin is that of St. Paul (I Cor., iii, 8-16),
where he explains in detail the distinction between
mortal and venial sin. "For other foundation no
man can lay, but that which is laid; which is Christ
Jesus. Now if an^ man build upon this foundation
gold, diver, precious stones, wood, bay, stubble:
eveiy man's wca^E shall be manifest: for we d<Qr of
the Lord shall declare it: because it shall be revealed
in fire; and the fire shall try eveiy man's work, of
what sort^t is. If any man s work abide, which he
haih built thereupon, he shall receive a reward. If
any man's work bum, he shall suffer loss: but he
himself shall be saved, yet so as by fixe." By wood,
hay, and stubble are signified venial sms (St.
Hiomas, I-II, Q. Ixxxii^ a. 2) which, built on the
foundation of a hving faitii in Christ, do not deetn^
diarity, and from thor very nature do not ment
etemu but temporal punishment. "Just as",
says St. Thomaa, (wood, hay, and stubble] "are

Sthered tx)gether in a house and do not pertain to
e substance of the edifice, so also venial sins are
multiplied in man, the spiritual edifice remaining,
and for these he suffers eithn the fire of temporal
tribulations in this life, or of purgatory after this
life and nevatbeleas obtains etevnal salTatkHi."
(ibid.)

The suitableness of the dividon into wood, hay,
and stubble is explained by St. Hiomas (iv, dist.
21, Q. i, a. 2). Some vraual dns are graver than
others and less pardonable, and this difference is
well signified by the difference in the inSammabil-
ity of wood, hay, and stubble. That there is a dis-
tinction betwem mortal and venial sins is <^ faith
(Couac. erf Trait, sess. VI, c. xi and canons 23-25;
sesB. XIV, de poenit., c. v). This distinction is
commonly rejected by all heretics andent and
modem'. In the fourth century Jovinian asserted
that all sins are equal in guilt and deserving (rf the
same punishment (St. Aug., "Ep. 167", ii, n. 4);
Pelagius (q. v.), that every sin deprives man of
justice and therefore is mortal; Wyclii, that there is
no warrant in Scripture for differentiating mortal
from venial sin, and tiiat the ^vity Ot dn depoids
not on the quality of the action but on the decree
of predestination or reprobation so that the worst
crime of the predestined is infinitely less than the
slightest fault of the reprobate; Hub, that all the
actions of the vidous are mortal sins, while all the
acts of the good are virtuous (Denz.-Bann., 642);
Luther, that all sins of unbelievers are mortfd and
all sins of the regenerate with the exception of
infidelity, are veuiiid; Calvin, Hke Wyelif, bases the
difference between mortal dn and venial sin on
predestination, but adds that a dn is vernal because
of the faith of the sinner. The twentieth among
the oHidemned i^roiMdtiona of Baius reads: "There
is no sin venial in its nature, but every sin merits
eternal punishment" (Denz.-Bann., 1020). Hirscher
in more recent times taught that all dns which are
fully deliberate are mwtal, thus denying the dis-
tinctim oi sins by reason at their objects and mald^

the distmotion rest on the imperfection of the act

(Kleutgen, 2nd ed^ II, 284, etc.).

Md&e ofVenialSin. — The difference in tbemalieeof
mortal and venial sin consists in this : that mortal sin is
contrary to the primary end of the et«mat law, that it
attacks the very substance of the law which commands
that no created thing should be prefenred to Ood as
an end, or equalled to Him, while venial sin is <hi^
at variance with the law, not in contrary iqmositios
to it, not attacking ita substance. The substance
of the law remaining, ita perfect acoomplishmmt is
prevented by venial sm.

Condiiiofu. — ^Vraiial sin is committed when the
matter of the dn is light, even though the advertence
of the intellect and consent of the will are full and
ddiberate, and when, even though the matter d
the sin be grave, there is not full advertence on the
part of the intellect and full consent on the part
of the will. A precept obliges sub gravi when it has
for its object an important end to be attained, and
its transgresdon is prohibited under penalty of
losing God's friendship. A precept obliges «u6 ievi
when it is not so directly impoeed.

Bffedt. — ^Venial dn aoes not deprive the soul ot
sanctifying grace, or diminish it. It does not [nxiduoe
a Tnaeula, or stfun, as does mortal sin, but it lessens
the lustre of virtue — "In anima duplex est nitor,
unus guiden habitualis, ex gratia sanctificante, alter
actualis ex actibus virtutum, jamvero peccatum
veniale impedit quidem fulgorem qui ex actibus
virtutum oritur, non autem habitualem nitorem.
miia non exeludit nec minuit habitum duuitalas'*
(I-II, Q. Ixxxix, a. 1). Frequoat and ddttimtte
venial stn lessens the fervour oi charity, disposes to
mortal sin (I-II, Q. Ixxxviii, a. 3), and hinders the
reception of graces God would otherwise give. It
displeases God (Apoc., ii, 4-5) and obliges the sinner
to temporal punishment either in this life or in
jPuigatory. We cannot avoid all venial sin in this
life. "Although the most just and holy occasion-
ally during this life fall into some dight and daSy
sins, known as venial, they cease not on that account
to be just" (Counc. of Irent, sess. VI, c. xi). And
canon xxiii says: "If any one declare that a man
once justified cannot sin again, or that he can avoid
for the rest of his life every sin, even venial, let him
be anathema", but according to the common opinion
we can avoid all such as axe fully deliberate. Venial
sin may coexist with mortal sin in those who are
averted from God by mortal dn. This fact does
not change its nature or intrindo rqiarability, and
the fact wat it is not coexistent with chanty is not
Uie result <rf venid dn, but of mortal sin. It is
pr acciden$, for an extrindc reason, that venial sin
m this case is irreparable, and is punished in hell.
'Ihat venial sin may appear in its tme nature as
essentially different from mortal sin it is considered
as defaelo coexisting with charity (I Cot., iii, 8-15).
Veniu sins do not need the grace of absolution.
They can be remitted by prayer, contrition, fervent
communion, and other pious works. Neverthdess
it is laudable to confess them (Denn.-Bann., 1539).

V. Pkruission of Sin and Remedies. — Since it is
of faith that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and
all good it is difiicult to account for sin in His creation.
The existence of evil is the underlying problem in
all theology. Various explanations to account for
its existence have been offered, differing according
to the philosophical principles and religious tenets
ci their authors. Any Catholic explanation must
take into account the defined tmths of the omnipo-
tence, omniscience, and' goodness of God; free will
on the part of man; and the fact that suffering is
the pemuty of dn. Of metaphydcal evil, the negatiim
of a greater good, God is the cause inasmudi as he
has created beings with limited forms. Of phydoal
evfl (moltwi pttnm) He is also the cause, niysioal

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evil, eonodered as it i}roc8Bd» from Qod and » mfliotod
in piunidunent of ain in accordance with the decme of
Divine justice, ia good, compensating for the violatkm
of order by sia. It is only in the subject affected
by it that it is eviL

Of moral evil (nudum cuhxe) God is not the cause
(Coimc. of Trent, sees. VI, can. vi), either directly
or indirectly. Sin is a violatitm of order, and God
orders all things to Himsdf, as an iiltimate aid,
coosequently He cannot be the direct cause of fda.
God's withdrawal of grace which would prevent the
^ does not make Him the indirect cause of sin in-
asmuch as this withdrawal is affected according
to Uie decrees of His Divine wisdom and justice
in puni^unent of previous sin. He is under no
obligation of impeding the sin, consequently it
cannot be imputed to Him as a cause (I-II, Q. Ixxix,
a. 1). When we read in Scripture aiul the Fathers
that God inclines men to un tne sense is, eith» that
in His just judgment He pennits men to fall into
sin by a punitive permission, exercising His justice
in punishmfflit of past sin; or that He directly causes,
not sin, but certain exterior works, good in themselves,
which are so abused by the evil wills of men that here
and now they commit evil; or that He gives them
ihe power of accomplishing their evil designs. Of
the physical act in sin God is the cause inasmuch
aa it is an entity and good. Ot the malice of sin
man's evil will is the sufficient cause. God could
not be impeded in the creation of man by the fact
that He foresaw his fall. This would mean the
Umiting of His omnipotence by a creature, and Would
be desteuctive of Him. He was free to create man
even though He foresaw his fiUI, and He created
him, endowed him with free will, and gave him
sufficient means iA persevering in good had he so willed.
We must sum up our ignorance of the permission
of evil by saymg in the words of St. Augustine,
that God would not have permitted evil had He not
been powraful enough to bring good out of evil.
God's end in creating this universe is Himself, not
the good of man, and somehow or other good
and evil serve His ends, and there shall finally be
a restoraticm (rf vidated order by Divine justice.
No tin AaU be without its punishment. The evU
men do must be atoned for either in this world by
penance (see Penance) or in the world to come
m purgatory or hell, according as the sin that stains
the soul, and is not repented of, is mortal or venial,
and merits eternal or temporal punishment. (See
Evil.) God has provided a remedy for sin and
manifested His love and goodness m the face of
man's ingratitude by the Incamaticm of His Divine
Son (see: Incarnation); by the iosUtution of His
Church to ^de men and interpret to them His law,
and administer to t^em the sacr^ents, seven
channels of grace, which, rightly used, furnish an
adequate remedy for sin and a means to union with
God in heaven, whidt is the end of His taw.

Setm of Sin. — ^The understanding of sin, as far
as it can fae understood by our finite intelligence.
Bares to unite man more closely to God. It impresses
him with a salut^y fear, a fear of his own powers,
a fear, if left to himself, of falling from ^ace; with
the necessity he hes under of seeking God's help
and grace to stand firm in the fear and love of God,
and make progress in the spiritual life. Without
the acknowledgment that the present moral state
of man is not Uiat in wHich God created him, that
his powns are weakened; that he has a supernatural
«nd to attam, wUdi is impossible of atbunment
by his own unaided efforts, without grace tiiere being
no i»(^)ortion between the end and the means;
that the world, the flesh, and the devil are in reality
active agents fighting agunst him and leading him
to serve them instead of God, on cannot be under-
stood. The evolutionary hypotnsaia would have it that

I snui

I^^eal emdution aeooimts toe the physical oci^
of man, that science knows no condition of man in
which man exhibited the characteristics of the state
of original justice, no state of sinlessness. The fall
of man in this hypothesiB is in reality a rise to a
higher grade of bemg. "A fall it might seem, just
as a vicious man sometimes seems degraded below
the beasts, but in promise and potency, a rise it
really was" (Sir O. Lodge^ "life and Matter", p. 79).
This teaching is destructive the notion of sin as
taught by the Catholic Church. Sin is not a phase
of an upward struggle, it is rath^ a deliberate,
wilful refusal to struggle. If there has been no fall
from a higher to a lower state, then the teaching of
Scripture in r^ard to Redemption and the necessity
of a baptismal regeneration is unintelligible. The
CathoUc teaching la the one that places sin in its
tnie light, that justifies the condemnation <rf sin we
find in Scnpture.

The Chureh strives continually to impress her
children with a sense of the awfulness of sin that they
may fear it and avoid it. We are fallen creatures,
and our spiritual life on earth is a warfare. Sin is
our enemy, and while of our own strength we cannot
avoid sin, with God's grace we can. If we bbt place
no obstacle to the workings of grace we can avoid
fdl delib^te sin. If we have the misfortune to sin,
and seek God's grace and pardon with a contrite
and humble heart. He will not repel us. Sin has its
remedy in grace, which is given us by God, throuf^
the merits of His only-begotten Son, Who has re-
deemed us, restoring by His passion and death the
order violated by the sin of our first parents, and mak-
ing us once i^ain children of God and hdrs of heaven,
miere sin is looked on as a necessary and un-
avoidable ctmdition things human, where inability
to avoid sin is conceived as neGessarv, discouragranent
naturally follows. Where the Catholic doctrine
of the creation of man in a superior state, his fall
by a wilful transgression, the effects <^ which fall
are by Divine decree transmitted to his posterity,
destroying the balance of the human faculties
and leaving man iaclined to evil; wh^ the dogmas
of redemption and grace in reparation of sin are Kept
in mind, there is no discouragement. Left to our-
selves we fall, by keeping eb>se to God and continually
seeking His rieip we can stand and struggle against
sin, and if fnitmul in the battle we must wage shall
be crowned by God in heaven. (See Conbcibnck;
Justification; Scandal.)

Dogmatic Woru: St. Thoiua, SummathueL, I-II, QQ. Izxl-
Ixxxix; Ideh, CenUra genlM, tr. Rickabt, OfGad and Bt* Creatura
(LoodoD, 190S); Idbu, Quait, ditputala: Demalo la Opera »mnia

iPvia, 1875); Billoart, De ptecalia tPaiia. 1867-72); SuABtt,
it jMoc in Opera Tmnia (Puia, 1878) : Salmanticbmbm, Dt pwc
ia Cur«. thtol. (Pziia, 1877); Gonbt. Clvpttu theoL thon. (Venuw,
1772) : JoBH or 3t. Thouab. D» peee. in Cur: thtol. (Paris, tSSS) ;
8tltidb,Z>« pace. (Antwerp, 1608) ; Cataehiamv* RoTmmut, tr.DONO*
VAN, Cai«ehi»m ot Ih ■ Council ofTrmU (Dublin, 1829); SctmBBir,
HamOmeh d. *aiA. Doffmaiik (Freiburi, 1873-87); Wilkelm an&
ScANNKLL, Manual c/ Caiholie Thtotom, II (London, 1906);
Mamniko, Sin am iu Contepuneu (New Yortc, 1904); Shaxps,
Prineipl— of Chrit^niiy OxHidoa, 1904): Idzm. fml.iU Patera
and Caua« (London, 1906)- Biu.ot, Ht nat.etral. peeeatiptrtcmalia
(Rome. 1900); Tanqcisbt^. St/noptUthtot.. I (New York. 1907).

Cf. followiuc OD moral theology: — Lbbhkvhl, Tluot. mmvtU
(Freibuw. 1910); 06p»xkt, ifofStWoffw, I (PaderborD, 1899);
Mabc, Ind. mor. oJjMotutn t (Rome, 1902): NoLOirr, Summa
tneol. mor. (Innsbruck, 1906); Qbnicot, Theol. mor. inM.. I
(Louvain, 1905) ; BABBTn-BAnOTT, Comptnd. ikeol. mot. (Ratia-
boD, 1006); Sctibleb-Hbcuk, Theory and Practice of Uu Coi^
j'tMional (New York, 1906}: Slates, Manual of Moral Thootogy
(New York, 190^; Koch, Moratthoctogio (.Hid^. Fi^bun, 1910).

A. 0. O'NktL.

SInal ("S^D, Sinai and Sina), the mountain
on which the Mosaic Law was given. Hor^ and
Sinai were thought synonymous by St. Jerome ("De
situ et nom. Hebr.'*, in P. L., XXIII, 889), W.
Geeeniue ("rc Dm), and, mora recently, G. Ebers
(p. 381). Ewald, Delitzsch, Ed. Robinson, E. H.
Palmer, and othen think Horeb denoted Um irtiole
mountainous fegkni about (Es^xvii, 6). Hm

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12

SIKALOA

origm of the name Sinai is diqmted. It SMma to be
an adjective from ^"Dr "the desert" (Ewald and
£%>erB) or "the moon~god" (C Schrader and others).
The mount was called Sinai, or "the mount of God"
probably before the time of Moees (Joeephus, " Antitj.
Jud.", II, xii.) The name is now nven to the tn-
angular peninsula lying between the desert of Southern
Palestine, the Red Sea, and the gulfs of Akabah and
Suez, with an area of about 10,000 sq. miles, which
was the scene of the forty, years' wanderii^ of the
Israelitee ^ter the Exodus from Egypt.

The principal topographical features are two.
North of the Jabal et-Tih (3200 to 3950 feet) stretches
an arid plateau, the desert of Tih, marked by numer-
ous Wadis, notably El-Arish, the "River of Egypt",
which formed the southern boundary of the Promised
Ijand {Geii., xv, 18; Num., xxxiv, 5). South of Jabal
ct-Tih rises a mountfunous maas cMf granite streaked
with porphyry, dividing into three principal groups:
the western, JabaJ

feet):
Jabal-

Serbal (6750
the central,
MOsa (7380 feet),
Jabal Catherine
(8660 feet), and Ja^
bal Um Schomer
(8470 feet); the east-
em, Jabal Thebt
(7906 feet) and Ja^
bal Tarfa, which
terminates in Ras
Mohammed. It is
amoi^ theae moun-
tains &at Jewish and
Oiristian tradition
places the Sinai of
the Bible, but the
precise location is
uncertain. It is Ja-
bal Mdsa, according
to a toadition trace-
able back to the
fourth century, when
St. Silvia of Aqui-
tfune was there.

hy Si. Jt'^

Jabal MUsa is defended by
E. U. and H. S. Palmer, Vigouroux, Lagrange, and
others. However, the difficulty of applying Ex.,
xix, 12, to Jabal MOsa and the inscriptions found near
Jabal Serbal have led some to favour Serbal. This
was the opinion of St. Jerome (P. L., XXIII, 916,
933) and Cosmas (P. G., LXXXVIII, 217), and more
recently of Burkhard and Lepsius, and it haa of late
been very strongly defended by G. Ehers, not to
motion Beke, Gressmann, and others, who con.sider
the whole story about Sinai (Ex., xix) only a mythical
interpretation of some volcanic eruption. The more
liberal critics, while agreeing generally that the Jewish
traditions represented by tiie "Prieat-codex" and
"Elohistic dociunenta" place Sinai among the moun-
tains in the south-central part of the peninsula, ^et
disagree as to its location by the older "Jahvistic"
tradition (Ex., ii. 15, 10, 21; xviii, 1, 5). A. von Gall,
whose opinion Welhausen thinks the best sustained,
contends that Meribar (D. V. Temptation. — Ex.,
xvii, 7) is identical with Cades (Num., xxxiii, 36;
xxvii, 14), that the Israelites never went so far south
as Jabal M<^, and hence that Sinai must be looked
for in Madian, on the east coast of Akabar. Others
(cf. Winckler, II, p. 29; Smend, p. 35, n. 2; and Weill,
opp. cit. infra in oibliography) look for Stnai in the
near ndghbourhood of Cades (Ayn Q&dis) in Southern
Palestine.

Sinai was the refuge of many Christian anchorites
during the third-century persecutions of the Church.
There are traces of a fourth-century monastery near
Mount Serbal. In 527 the Emperor Justinian built
the famous ctuvent of Mt. %nai on the borth foot of

Jabal M(ksa, which has been known since the ninth
century as St. Catherine's. Its small library- con-
tains about 500 volumes of valuable manuscnpta in
Greek, Arabic, Syriac, Ethiopic, etc. It was here
that Tischendorf. during his researches in 1844, 1853,
and 1859, found a very ancient Greek MS. (since
known as tiie "Codex Slnaiticus") containing most
of the Septuagint, all the new Testunent, the "Epistle
of Bamabas'S and the first part of the "Sh«)henl**
of Hermas. Forty-three MS. pages found by him an
preserved at the University of Leipzig and known aa
the "Codex Friderico-AugustAnus". In 1892 Mrs.
Smith Lewis found at Sinai a fourth-centutpr palimp-
sest Syriac text of St. Luke's Gospel. Sinai is rich m
valuable inscriptions. M. de Vogu^ gives 3200
Egyptian and Semitic inscriptions found in the WAdi
Mukatteb, the ruins of the temple of Ischta, or
Astaroth-Carmain, and the iron and turquoise mines
and granite and marble quarries, whicn were ex-
tensively worked un-
der the twelfth and
eighteenth Egyptian
dynasties.

The present popu-
lation of Sinai is 4000
to 6000 semi-
nomadic Arabs, Mo-
hammedans, gov-
erned by their tribal
sheikhs and imme-
diately subject to
the commandant ot
the garrison at QaT
at un-Nakhl, under
the Intelligence De-
partment of the
Egyptian War Office
at Cairo.

Ordrtance Suriti/ of tht
Pen. of Sittai, publUli«ii
by the Egyptian Explor.
ISiiKl (London. !8fl9-72);
Bariiow, ITestmi Portion,
and Hume. Easlrrn Por-
tion, in The Topiig. aiut
Gfol. of Sinai (Cairo,
imin): Hatit, FauM and Flora of Sinai (I,ondon, 1891);
pKTBiB, Hf^tairchet in Sinai (Loudon, IDOC); DR VouCi, CompttM
Tttidui de VAead. dea IuBcriptions (Paris, 1907); MEinTEitUANN,
Cui-le du Nil au Jourdain (Paris. 1909): Commenlarif* on Ex.
lix. 1 8cra.. by Hdmuelauks (Paris. 1»97), Dii.lman (Leipug,
IS97), ana otbern; Pauier, ThtDeatH ofihe Eiodui (Citmbndge,
1S7I); SAitcKNTON-GAUCHON, Sinai Ma'an, Pilra (Paris, 1904),
l-14.'3; Garuurrini. S. Silvim AtpiiUma Pereffrinntio (Roma,
ISSa); Leps nn, Reite von Theben nocA . , . Sinai (Berlin. 1845);
WiMcKLER, Gcach. 1st. (Leipiig, 1895); von Gall, AUisr. Ku'tur-
ttAUen (GicMCD, 1898); Smekd. Lehrb. dtr AltteM. RrUgionigach.
(Freiburg im Br.. 1899): Welhaubkn, Prol. ntr Gttch. It.
(Berlin. 1906); Weill, la ifjow Hm Itrallilea au dfteri H U
SinaX (Porifl, 1900); Viooubocx, Di'ef . de la Bible, a. v. Sinai;
LAaRANOE, I« 5tnal btbUdue. in Res. Bibliqve (1899), 369-89.

Nicholas Reagan.

Sinaitlcus Codes. See Codex Sjkaiticus.

Sinaloa, Diocese of (Sinaloen«b), in tlie Re-
public of Mexico, suffragan of the Archdiocese of
Durango. Its area is that of the State of Sinaloa,
27,552 sq. miles, and its population (1910) 323,499.
Culiacan, the capital of the state and residonce of the
bishop and governor, counts a population (1910) of
13,578. The present territory of Sinaloa was dis-
covered in 1530 by the ill-reputed D. Nufio de Guzman
who founded the city of San Miguel de Culiacan. A
few Spaniards establtBhed a colony there. The prov-
ince of Culiacan was soon obliged to face the terrors
of war brought upon it by the barbarous cruelties
of Nufio and his favourite, Dieao Hernandez de Pro-
afio. So frightened was Nufio oy the terrible insur-
rection that he removed Froaflo, placing in his stead
Criat^ibBl de Tapia, whose humanitarian measures
slowly restored confidence. Although colonized from
the beginning of the sixteenth century, most of the
temt(^, eittepting A few Btoong places, was inhabited

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SnfGLKTON

13

SINIGAGLIA

by fieroe pagan tribes, for whoee oamvemon the
Jesuita labouxed «arly in the sevwiteenth century.
After having subdued and evangelised the IndiaiiF of
the mission of Piaxtla in a comparatively short time,
and after having turned over to the Bishop of Durango
the settlements under their control, the Jesuito ex-
tended their domination over the Indiana living in
the northern part of the actual state and at the time
of their expulsion (by decree of Charles III) they fruit-
fully administered the missions of Chinipos and
Sinaloa. In Chinipas they had residences at Guasfr*
rapes, Santa Ana, 8eoora, Moris, Barbaroco, Santa
Inee, Scrocagui, Tubares, Bateb6, Baborigame.
Nabc^ame, and San Andres; in Sinaloa (misidn del
Fuerte) they had residences at Mocorito,* Nio,
Guazavc, Chicorato, Mochicavej Batacoea, Conicari,
Tehucco, Ocoroni, and Bacubirito. It is notable
that the towns of the miaidn del Rio Yaqui, which
now belong to the Diocese cd Sonora, were tben in-
cluded in the mission of Sinaloa. Wnen the See of
Durango was founded in 1620, Sinaloa, which wtil
then had belonged to
the Diocese of Gua-
dalajara, became
part of it; on the
foundation (1780) of
the Dioeese of
Sonora, it became
a part of the latter.
However, the resi-
dence of the bishop,
after having been
successively at Aris-
peand Alamo, passed
to Culiacan, capital
of Sinaloa until 18S3,
when Leo XIII
founded the Diocese
of Sinaloa, which had
formed part of the
ecclesiastical prov-
ince of Guadalajara,
and the Bisliop of
Sonora removed to
Hermosillo. In 1891,
when the new archi-

Tbi Cabtlz, Sikioaqua

episcopal See of Durango was created, Sinaloa be-
oame one of its suffragans.

The diocese has 1 seminary with 18 students; 10
parochial schools; 3 colleges with 677 students.

Mixieo d travft de lot riatoi, 11 (Buoelona) : Daviu, Continu-
acUn de la Mstoria de la C. de J. en Ntuva EipaAa (Puebfa, 1880).

Camillttb Ckivxlu.
Singlaton, Hugh. See Shrewbbubt, Diockbb op.

Siniffaffli* (Sbnioallia), Diocese of (Sbnooal-

LiBNBis), in the Province of Ancona in the Marches
(Coitral Italy). The city is situated on the Adriatic
at the mouth of the Misa, which divides it into two
parts. Maritime commerce, the cultivation and manu-
facture of sitk, agriculture, and cattle-raising form the
means of support of the population. The fortifica-
tions constructed by the dukes of Urbino and by the
popes still remain in put. Among the churches,
besides the cathedral, that of Santa Maria delle
ChMie (1491) without the city walls deserves men-
tion; it possesses a Madonna with six BaixiU by Peru-
gino, and another Madonna by Piero della Francesca.
The name Senigallia records the Scnones, a tribe of
Gauls who possessed this city before its conquest
by the Romans. The latter rounded a colony here
called Sena Hadria, but later the name most com-
monly used was Senogallia or Senigallia. In the
CM! War (b.c. 82) it was sacked by Pompey, then
one of Sulla's generals. It was pillaged a second time
by Alaric, a.d. 408. Under the Byzantine rule it
belonged to the so-called Pentapolia. Several times
in tu nxtli and e^th centuries the Lombards

attempted to capture it, and, in fact, shortly before
tdty was bestowed upon the Holy See it was the
seat of a Duke Arioldo, who in 772 owed allegiance
to King DesideriuB. It afterwards shared the vicissi-
tudes of the March of Ancona, and at the end of the
twelfth century was the seat of a count. In the wars
between the popes and I'Vederick II it belonged for
the most part to the party of the Guelti^B, for whidi
reason it sustained many sieves, and was in 1264
sacked by Percivale Doria, captain o( King Manfred.
Hardly recovered from this calamity, it f5l into the
power of Guido di Montefeltro (1280). In 1306 it
WHS captured by Pandolfo Malatesta of Fesaro and
remained in his family, notwithstanding that they
were expelled by Cardinal Bertrando du Poyet and
later by Cardinal Albomox (1355). In 1416 Ludo-
vico Nligliorati of Fermo and the cities of Ancona
and Gamerino formed a league against Galeotto
Malatesta, and captured Sinigaglia, but they after-
wards restored it. In 1445 it was taken by Sigis-
mondo Malatesta of Rimini, who also secured the

investiture from
Eufcenius IV and
fortified the city.

After various
vicissitudes Sinigag-
lia was (1474) givm
in fief to Giovanni
della Rovere, a neph-
ew of Sixtus IV.
He married the last
heiress of the duchy
of Urbino, of whicn
the city thus be-
came a part (1608).
In Decembo'f 1502,
Sin^aglia, which had
thrown open its
gates to Csesar
Bor^a, was the scene
of the celebrated
treachery by which
Borgia rid himself
of his enemie^ the

Ertty lords of the
om^ina. In 1624
came under the immediate suzerainty of the

it

popes. In 1683 Turkish pirates disembarked and
plundered the city. Sinigaglia was the birth-
place of Pius IX and B. Gherardo di Serra (four-
teenth century). The patron saint of Sinigaglia
is St. Paulinus, whose body is preserved in the
cathedral (as is attested for the first time in 1397).
He is, therefore, not identical with St. Paulinus
of Nola, nor is it known to what epoch he be-
longs. The first bishop of certain date was VenantJus
(502). About 562 the bishop was St. Bonifacius,
who at the time of the Lombard invasion was mar-
tyred by the Arians. Under Bishop Sigismundus
(c. 590) the relics of St. Gaudentius, Bishop (rf Rimini
and martjT, were transported to ^nigaglia. Otlwr
bishops of the diocese are; Robertus and Theodosius
(1057), friends of St. Peter Daraianus; Jacopo (1232-
1270), who rebuilt the cathedral which had been de-
stroyed in 1264 bv the Saracen troops of King Man-
fred; Francesco Mellini (1428), an Augustinian, who
died at Rome, suffocated by the crowd at a consistory
of Egenius IV. Under Bishop Antonio Colombella
(1438), an Augustinian, Sigismondo Malatesta, lord
of Sinigaglia, angered by his renstance to the destruc-
tion of certain houses, caused the cathedral and the
episcopal palace to be demolished. The precious
materials were transported to Rimini and were used
in the construction of S. Francesco itempio Matates-
tiano). Under Bishop Marco Vigerio ddla Rovere
(1513) the new cathedral was begun in 1540; it was
oooseorated in 1595 by Pietro Ridolfia691), aleamed

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SDmi 1

writer. Other biBhofie wore Cardinal AnUsxdo Bar*
berini, a Capuchin brother of Urban VIII: CWdinal
Domenico Poracciani (1714); Annibale della Genea
(1816)^ who afterwards became Pope Leo XII.
The diocese is suffraKan of Urbino; it has 48 parishes
with 114 secukr and 78 r^ular clergy; ^,000 souls;
16 monasteries for mm; 19 convents for womra;
and 3 institutes for female education.

CAPPELLrm, Le ehUae tfllalia <Veiuoe, 1857): CoaTBLU, 71
pMHto • VavMnirt di SmigaUia (Aatso\\, 1890): Mamdtti.
atcurnonB artulied per Senii^ia (Floreaoe, 1886).

U. BEmcNi.

Sinis^ a titular see in Armenia Secunda, suffragan
of Mehtene. The catalogue of titular bishoprics
at the Roman Curia formerly contiuned a see of
Sinita, in Armenia. When the list was revised in
1884, this name was replaced by Sinis, mentioned as
bdoD^ng to Armenia Secunda, with Melitene, now
Malatia, as its metropolis. Ptolemy, V. 7, 5, mentions
a town called Siniscolon in Cappadocia at Melitene,
near the Bti^rates. Miiller in ■ his " Notes h
Ptolemy" ed. Didot, I (Paris, 1901), 887, identifies
this with 8inekli, a village near the Euphrates, "ab
Aigovan versus ortum hibemum", about nineteen
miles north of Malatia in the vilayet of Mamouret
ul-AdK. But it seems certain that Sinis(M)lon is a
mi»-Teading for "Sinis Cokmia", a form found in
several M^. Ramsay, "A^ Minor", 71, 272, 314,
reads Sinis for Pisonos m "Itinerar. Anton." and es-
pecially for Sinispora in the "Tabula Peutingeriana"
(Sinis, Erpa), and places Sinis Colonia twenty-two
Roman miles west of Melitene, on the road to
Cfflsarea. There is no mention of this town in the
Greek "Notitise episcopatuum" amon^ the suffragans
of Melitene, and none of its bi^ope is known, so it
seems never to have been a bishopric.

S. FfnuDfes.

Slnna. See Sehna, Diocese of.

Stnopa, a titular see in Asia minor, suffragan of
Amasea in Helenopontua. It is a Greek colony,
atuated on a peninsula on the coast of Paphlagonia,
of very early origin, some attributing its foundation
to the Argonaut Autolycus, a compamon of Hercules.
Later it received a colony from Miletus which seems to
have been expelled or conquered by the Cimmerians
(Herodotus, IV, 12); but in 632 b.c. the Greeks
succeeded again in capturing it. Henceforth Sinope
enjoyed great prosperity and founded several colonies,
amcHig them bang C^tsus, Cotyora, and Trapeaus.
The town took part in the Peloponneman War, sup-
porting Athens. Xenophon stopped there with lus
forces on the retreat of the Ten Thousand (Ani^.
V, V, 3; Diodor. Sicul., XIV, 30, 32; Ammien
Marcel., XXII, 8). Fruitlessly besi^ed in 220 B.C.
by Mithridatee IV, King of Pontus, Sinope was taken
by Phamaces in 183 B.C., and became the capital
and residence of the kings of Pontus. It was the
birthplace ot Mithridates the Gnat, who adorned it
wil^ ma^ifioent monuments and constructed lar^
arsenals there for his fleet. Lucullus cwtured it
and gave it back its autonomy. Csesar also estab-
lished the Colonia Julia Cffisarea there in 45 b.c.
when his supremacy began. Sinope was also the
birthplace of the cynic philosopher, Diogenes, Di-
philus, the oomic poet, and Aquila, the Jew, who
translated the Old Testament into Greek in the second
century a.d. A Christtan community existed there
in the first half of the second coituiy, with a bishop,
the father of the celebrated heretic Mardon, whom he
expdled from his diocese. Among its other bishops
may be mentioned St. Phocas, venerated on 22
September, with St. Phocas, the gardener of the same
town, who is possibly to be identified with him:
Profaiereaos, present at the Councils of Gangres and
nulippopolis in 343 and 344; Antiochus at the Coun-
ibI of Qialoedon, 461 ; Serious at the Sixth (Eeumenical

i 8I0X

Coundl, 6S1; Zeno, who wasodled in 712 for oppos-
ing Monothelitism; Gregory, present at the Seventh
Coundl in 787, beheaded in 793 for revolting against
the emperor, etc. A little before 1315 the Bishop
of Sinope, driven out of his see by the Turks, rtceived
in compensation the metropoles of ^da and Syleos
(Mikloeich and MtiUer, "Acta patriarchatus Con-
^antinopolitani", I, |34); the diocese must have be^
suppressed upon nu deaUi, as it is not mentioned in
the "Notitise episcopatuum" of the fifteenth century.
In 1401 a Greek merchant who vidted Sinape found
everything in disorder as a result of the Turkiah
inroads (W&chter. "Der Verfall des GriecbCTtums
in Kleinasien im XIV. Jahrhundert", 20); however,
the town, which had belonged to the Empire of Tra-

SEUB from 1204 was not captured till 1470 by
ahomet II. In November, 1853, the Turkic
fleet was destroy^ed by the Russiatu in the port of
Sinope. Sinope is now the chief town of a saajak
of the vilayet of Castamouni, oontuning 15,000 in-
habitants, about one half <rf whom are Greek sehiB-
matics.

Smith. Diet, of Greek and Roman Qeog. (Londoo, 1870), a. v.;
RoBirfoON. Armeni Sinope (B&ltimore, 1906); Lb Quick, Oritru
ahrittianut (Paria, 1740). I, 537-40; VaiibA, Lm M«im d*
Sinope in Eehoe d'Orient, XI, 210-12; CouiST, La rvrmdrn
d'Atie (Pwis. 1891), IV. 674-82.

S. VailhA.

Sins agaizut the Holy Ghost. See Holt Ghost,
subtitle VIII.

Sinuessa, Synod of. See Mabcblunus, Saint,

Pope.

Sion. See jBBuaAuai .

Sion, a titular see in Ama Minor, suffragan of

Ephesus. No dvil document mentions it. It is
numbered among the suffragans of Ephesus in the
Greek "Notitise episcopatuiim", from the seventh to
the thirteenth century. [See Gelzer in "Abhand-
lungen aer k. bayer. Akademie der Wiss.", I. CI.
XXI Bd. Ill Abth. (Munich, 1900), 536, 552; Idem,
"Georgii Cyprii descriptio orbis romani" (Leipiig;
1890), 8, 62: Parthey, "Hierocles Synecdemus e
Notit. gr. episcopat. (Berlin, 1866), 61, 103, 155,
167, 203, 245.] The names of only three bishops of
Sion are known: Nestorius, present at the Council
of Epheei^:> 431; John, at the Council in Trullo,
692; PhiKp, '-•epresented at Nic»a, 787, by the priest
Theognis (i,^; Quien, "Oriens christianus", I, 721).
This author asks if Basil, Bishop riKeut 'Aaalup rep-
resented au Chalcedon, 451, by his metropolitui
does not belong to Son; it is more likely that-ne was
Bishop of Assus. Ramsay ("Asia Minor", 105)
thinks that Sion is probably the same town as
Tianae, or Tiarae mentioned by Pliny, V, 33, 3, and
Hierocles, 661, 8, and Attaca, mentioned by Strabo,
XIII, 607: but this is very doubtful. In any case
the site ot Sion is unknown.

8. PtouDks.

Sion, DiQCBSB OP (SsDVNENBis), a Swiss bishopric
depraiding directly on the Holy See.

History. — The Diocese of Sion is the oldest in Swit-
zerland and one of the oldest north of the Alps. At
first its see was at Octodorum, now called Martinacb,
or Martigny. Accordit^ to tradition there was a
Bishop of Octodorum, named Oggerius, as early as
A. D. 300. However, the first authenticated bishop
is St. Theodore (d. 391), who was preset at the
Council of Aquileia in 381. On the spot where the
Abbey of Saint-Maurice now stands he ouilt a church
in honour of St. Mauritius, martyred here about 300.
He also induced the hermits of the vicinity to unite
in a common life, thus beginning the Abbey of Saint-
Maurice, the oldest north of the Alps. Theodore
rebuilt toe church at Sion, which had been destroyed
by Empww Maximianus at the b^^nning of the

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noir ]

fourth eeatuiy. At first the diocese was a mdfn^an
of Vienne; later it became suffragan of Tarentaise.
In 580 the bishop, 9t. Ueliodonis, tr&nsferred the see
to Sion, as Octodorum was frequently endanga«d by
the inundations of the Rhone and the Drance.
There were frequent disputes with the monks of the
Abbey of Saint-Maurice, who were jealously watch-
ful tt^t the bi^ops shotild not extend their jurisdic-
tion over the abbey. Several of the bishops united
both offices, as: wilcharius (764-80), {nvviously
Archbishop of Vienne, from which he had been driven
by the S^^ens; St. Alteus, who received from the
pope a Bull of exemption in favour of the monastery
(780) ; Airao II, son of Count Hubert of Savoy, who
raitertained I^eo IX at Saint-Maurice in 1049.

The last king of Upper Burgundy, Rudolph III,
granted the Countship of Valais to Bishop Hugo
(998-1017); this union of the spiritual and secular
powers made the bitdiop the most powerful ruler in
the valley of the Upper Rhone. Taking this donation
as a basis, the bishops of Sion extended then* secular
power, and the religious metropolis of the valley becune
also the political centre. However, the union of the
two powers was the cause of violent disputes in the
following centuries. For, while the spiritual juris-
diction M the bishop extended over the whole valley
of the Rhone above Lake Geneva, the Countobip of
Valus included only the upper part of the valley,
reachii^ to the confluence of the Trient and toe
Rhone. The attempts of the bishops of Sion to
carry their secular power farther down the Rhone
were bitterly and suoceasfully opposed by the abbots
of Saint-Maurice, who had obtained large possessions
in Lower Valais. The bishops were also om>osed by
the patrons of the abb^, the counts of Bayoy,
who used this position to increase their suserainty
over Lower Valais. The medieval bishops of Sion
belonged generally to noble families of Savoy and
Valais and were often drawn into the feuds of these
families. Moreover the bishops were vigorously
opposed by the petty feudal nobles of Valais, who,
trusUng to their fortified castles on rocky heights,
sought to evade the supremacy of the bishop who was
at the same time count and prefeot of the Holy Roman
Empn«. Other opponents of the bi^ops were the
flourishing peasant communities of Upper Valais,
which were called later the 8t«6en Zehnten (seveai-
tenths). Their struggles with Savoy forced the
bishops to grant continually increasing political rights
to the peasant communities. Thus Bishop William
IV of Raion (1437-57) was <^liged to relinquish
civil and criminal jurisdiction ovor the aiebm Zennim
b^ the Treaty of Naters in 1446, while a revolt of
his subjects compelled Bishop Jost of Silinoi (1482-
96) to nee from the diocese. Walt^ II of Supersax
(1467-82) took part in the battles of the Swiss against
Charles the Bold of Burgundy and his confederate,
the Duke of Savoy, and in 1475 drove the House of
Savoy from Lower Valais. The most important
bishop of this era was Matthew Sohinner (1499-1623),
a higbfy cultivated Humanist. Bishop Sohinner,
fearing that French supremacy would endanger the
freedom of the Swiss, placed the military force of the
diocese at the disposal of the pope and in 1510 brou^t
about an alhance for five years between the Swiss
Confederacy and the Roman Church. In return
for this Julius II made the bi^op a cardinal. In
1513 the bishop had succeeded in having his diocese
separated from the Arehdiocese of Taroitaise and

5 laced direetbr under the control of the pope. The
rfeat of the Swiss in 1515 at the battle of Marignano,
at which Schinner himself fought, weakened his posi-
tion in the di'^cese, and the arbitrary rule of his
brothers led to a revolt of his subjects; in 1518 he was
obliged to leave the diocese.

1^ new doctrines of the Reformation found little
■ooeiitaiMe in Valais, although preaohen vm sent

5 BIOK

2nto the canton from Berne, Zuridi, and Basle. In
1639 Bubop Adrian I of Riedmatten (1529-48), the
cathedral chapter, and the ne6en Zehnten formed an
alliance with the Catholic cantons of the Confedera-
tion, the purpose of which was to maintain and pro-
tect the Catholic Faith in all the territories of the
allied cantons against the efforts of the RefcHrned can-
tons. On account of this alliance Valais aided in gain-
iag the victory of tJie CatboUes over the followeis of
Zwingli at CTappel in 1531 ; ihia victory saved the pos-
sessions of the Catholic C^burcb in Switserland. The
abbots of Saint-Maurice opposed all r^ious innova-
tions as energetically as did Bish<^ Adnan I of Ried-
matten, Hildebrand of Riedmatten (1565-1604), and
Adrian II of Riedmatten (1604-13), so that the whole
of Valais remained CathoUc. Both Adrian XI and his
successor Hildebrand Jost (1613-38) were again in-
volved in disputes with the netwn ZeAnten in rsg^ to
the exercise of the rights of secular snprenuu^. Jn
order to put an end to these quarrels and not to en-
danger the CathoUc Faith he reUnquished in 1630 the
greater part cf his rights as secular suzerain, and the
power of the bidiop was thereafter Lhnited afawwt ea-
tiieW to the ^iritual sphere.

The secular power of the bishops was broi^t to an
end by the French Revolution. Inl798Valai8,afteran
heroic stru^le against the supremacy of Franoe, was
incorporated into the Helvetian R^ublic, and Buhop
John Anthony Blatter (1790-1817) retured to Novara.
Duriiw the sway of Napoleon Valais was separated
from Switzerland in 1802 as the Rbodanic Republic,
and in 1810 was united with France. Most of the
monasteries were suppressed. In 1814 Valais threw<^
French supreniac^, when the Allies entered the ter-
ritcffy; in 1815 it joined Switzerland as one of the can-
tons. As partial compeaisation for the loss of his sec-
ular power the bishop received a poet of honour in the
Diet of the canton and the right to four votes. Dis-
putes often arose as the Constituticm of 1815 of the
canton gave Upper Valais political predominance in
the cantonal government, notwithstanding thef act that
its population was smaller than that of Lower Valais.
This led in 1840 to a civil war with Lower Valus,
where the " Young Swiss " party, hostileto the Qiuivh,
were in control. The party frioid^ to the Church con-
quered, it is true, and the influence td the Oiurch
over teaching was, at first, preserved, but on ac-
count of the defeat of the Sonderbund, with which
Valais had united, a radical Government gained oon-
trol in 1S47. The new administration at once showed
itself unfriendly to the Church, secularized meay
church landed pn^mties, and wrung large sums of
money from the bishop and monasteries. When in
1856 the moderate party gained the cantonal deoticHi,
negotiatims were begun with Bishop Pet^ Joseph
von Preux (1843-75)^ and friendly relations were re-
stored between the diocese and the canton. In 1880
the two powers came to an agreement as to the lands
t^en from the Church in 1848; these, so far as th^
had not been sold, were fpvea back for their original
uses. Since then the bislH^ and the Qovomnent
haro been <hi friendly terms. The new OonBtitution
of 1907 declares the Catholic rdigion to be the re-
ligion of the canton, and forbids any union of spiritual
and secular functions. The ordinances r^ulf^ng the
election of a bishop which have been in existence from
early times, at least, contradict this (see below). The
present bishop is Juhua Mauritius Abbet, b. 12 Sept.,
1845, appointed auxiliary bishop cum jure tuccetsionia
1 Oct., 189S, anoeeeded to the see 26 Feb., 1901.

StaHgtiee.—The boundaries of the Diocese of VaUus
have hardlv been changed since it was founded; the
diocese includes the Upper Rhone Valley, that is, the
Canton of Valais, with exception of the exempt Ab-
bey of Saint-Maurice, and oi the Catholic inhabitants
of Baint-Gii^lph, who b^ng to Uie Frendt Diooeee
at Anseey; it also inclades ua poriilus of Bex and

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Ai^ that bdong to the Canton of Vaud. In 1611
the diocese had 11 deaneries, 125 pariflhes, 70 chap-
laincies, 208 secular priests, 135 regular priests and
professed, about 120,000 (^tfaolies. Nearly 30 per
cent of the population of the diooeee speak Gennan,
and near^ 65 per cent French; the language of the
icBt of the populatioa is Italian. The bisnc^ is elected
the denominationaUy ixaxed Great Council from, a
list of four candidates presented by the cathedral chap-
ter, and the election is laid b^ore the po_pe for con-
firmation. The cathedral chapter consists of ten
canons; in addition five rectors are included among
the cathedral clergy. The clergy are trained at a
seminary for priests at Sion that has six ecclesiastical
profesBora and twelve resident students; there are also
six theolo^oal students studying at the Universi^ <rf
Inndbnruck. The rel^ous ordere of men in the dio-
cese are: Augustinian Canons, with bouses on the
Great St. Bernaj-d, the Simplon, and at Martigny,
oontaining altogether 45 priests, 6 professed and 7 lay-
brothers; Capuchins, at Sion and Sain1>-Maurice,
numbering 22 priests, Sstudents of theology, and 0 lay-
brothers. The exenqit abbey of Augustmian Canons
at Saint-Maurice contain^ 46 miestB, 0 professed and
lay-brothera. The ordera and congregations of nuns
in the diocese are: Bemardines at Cotombay ; Hospital
Siiters at Sion; Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul at Sunt-
Maurice; Fnu^ciscan Nuns, at the same place; Sist^^rs
of Charity of the Holy Cross at Sion, Leuk, and Leu-
kerb ad; Ursuline Nuns at Sion and Bries.

Bxiauvr, VaiUtia ehritt. am ditee. Sedunenaia am(. aacra (Sion,
1744): BoccARD, Hitt. du Valaii (GcDeva, 1844); Bitroeneb,
Di« Heiliam dt$ toaUutr Landtt (Elnsiedelo, 1857); QtiEiiAtit),
Catalogu* dM Mqiu* ds Sion (Lauauine, 1864); louf, Doe.
rriatif* & I'hiat. du Valaia (Lausanne, 1S75-&1) ; Gat, HUl. du
Valai* (Geneva, 1888-89); Ideu, MOan^ea d'hiat. utlaitann*
(Geneva. 1891) ; Rahbao, L« Vaiaia hut. (Sion, 1891) ; BOohi,
DU kath. Kirehe d*r ScAimm (Munieh. 1902) ; Bodbbok, L'areh-
M^giM «. VuUehaire (Fribourg, 1900); M^ngea d'hiaL et d't^chiol.
d« la aoc. Maitiqua da Sairtt-Mauriet (1901); Gbenat, HiaL
modems du Vobitt ISS6-t8IS (Geneva, 1904); Bbsson, Redtarehea
tur laa orig. da* MeMa da Oanite, Lauaannt, Sim. eto. (pBrb,
1906); Stalua ieTterabilia deri diae. Sedujian. (^on, 1911); fiKUfl*
•lu dar walUaar Oeach. (Sion, 1899—).

JOSBFB LiNB.

Slonita. See Gabriel Sionita.

Sioux City, DiocBSE OF (SioPouTAK.), erected 15
Jan., 1902, Leo XIIL The establishment of this
dioceee waa provided for in the Bull appointing Most
Rev. John iJ. Keane, D.D., to the Archbishoi^ic of
Dubuque on 24 July, 1000. This provision was made
on the occasion of that appointment for the reason
that the new cSooese was taken entirely from the
Archdiocese of Dubuque. It compriseB tw«ity-four
counties in north-western Iowa, including a tenitory
of 14,518 square miles. Sioux City is on the extreme
limit of the western boundary of Iowa, utuated on
the east bank of the Missouri Raver, about one hun-
dred miles north of Omaha. With the exception of
Des Moines, the cwital^ it is the largest and most en-
terprising municipality m .the State of Iowa, oontain-
ing a pocHiIation of between fift^ and sixty uiousand.
It 18 in the midst <tf a large and rich agricultural coun-
trvj and relies chiefljr on the products of the soil, of
which the st^le article is com; consequently grain-
packii^ is the chief industry of Sioux City. The
Cathohc population of the diocese is almost sixty
thousand. It has 138 churches^ including missions,
122 priests, of whom 6 are religious (4 Fnars Minor
and 2 Fathers of the Sacred Heart); 53 parochial
schools, with 4 hospitals; 4 academies; 2 schools of
domestic science; an orphanage, a Good Shepherd
home, an infant asylum, a home for the aged, and a
woricmg girls' home. There are 7327 children in the
oarish schools, and nearly 8000 under Catholic care.
The composition of the Catholic population of the
diocese is English-speaking and German. These form
the principal elements of the Church's membership
here, and are almost equally divided in mimbera.
A charactoriatle feature of weston Cattudieism ia

6 aam riiu

manifeet ben as ki oUier western dioceees, tJiat is tiie
ardent desire of the people for parochial schools
wherever it is txMsible. Out <3f the 10,000 children
of school age (i. e. under seventeen years) in the
diocese, three-fourths are in parochial schools. The
following orders conduct schools and charitable institu-
tioiis in ue diocese; Sisters ctf CSiarity B.V.M^ ^ters
<rf Chiistaan Charity, Sisters of St. Dominie, Sisters of
St. Francis (Dubuque, Iowa], Franciscan Sisters (Clin-
ton, Iowa), Franciscan Sisters of Perpetual Adoration,
School Sisters of St. Francis, Presentation Nuns> Ser-
vants of Maiy, Sisters of St. BenecUct, Sisters of
Mercy, Sisters of the Good Shepherd.

Since its establishment nine years ago, the diocese
is thoroughly oi^sanized and has been constantly
**«p»"'ti"g 1^ liie erBctaon of diuraha, schools, and
other insUtutions. The present bishop, the Right
Reverend Philip J. Garrigan, D.D., first bishop of
the dioceee, was bom in Irdand in the early forties,
came to this country with his parents, and received his
elementuy education in the public schools of Lowell,
Mass. He pursued his classical course at St. Charles's
College, EUicott City, Marvland, and courses oi
philosophy and theology at tne Provincial Seminaiy
of New Yu^ at Trc^, where he was <»tlained on 11
June, 1870. After a short term as curate o( St.
John s Church, Worcester, Massachusetts, he was
appointed director of the Troy seminary for three
years; and was for fourteen years afterwards pastor
of St. Bernard's Church, Fitchburg, Massachusetts.
In the fall of 1888 he was appointed £j*st vice-rector of
the Catholic University at Washington, D. C^ which
position he aiao held for fourteen years. He was
named Bi^op of Koux Gtv on 21 March, 1902, and
oonsecratedattheseeof Ids home diocese, Springfield,
Massachusetts, on 25 May of the same year, by the
Ri^t Rev. T. D. Beaven, and on 18 June following
todc poeaesaion of his see.

Phiup J. Garrigan.

Sioux FallB, Diocese of (Siouxobmbnbis), 8uf>
fragan of St. Paul, comprises all that part of the State
of South Dakota east of the Missouri lUver, an area
of 34,861 s<iuare miles. The western portjon of the
state, fonmng the present Dioceee of Lead, was de-
tached from the Dioceee of Sioux Falls, 8 August,
1902. The early history of religion in South Dakota
(until 1879) must be sought for in the histories re-
spectively of St. Paul, Dubuque, and Nebraska. The
&«t Mass celebrated in South Dakota was in 1S42,
in Brown County, by the late Monsignor Ravoux of
St. Paul on his first visit to the Sioux Indians; and the
first church erected was in 1S67, b^ the late Father
Pierre Boucher, who was sent by Bishop Grace of St.
Paul to Jefferscm, Union County, to attend the
Catholics scattered about that centre. In August,
1879, the Vicariate Apostolic of D^ota, whose bound-
aries corresponded with the then existingcivil bound-
aries of the newly formed Territory of Dakota, was
estfd>li5hed. and Uie Right Reverend Martin Marty,
Abbot of St. M^nrad's Benedictine Abbey, Indiana,
nominated Bishop of Tiberias and vicar Apostolic of
the new district. Bishop Marty was consecrated in
the Church of St. Ferdinand, Ferdinand, Indiana,
1 Feb., 1880, by the Right Reverend Francis Silas
Chataiii, the present Bishop of Indianapolis. The
vicariate was an immense district to govern (149,112
square miles) with scarcely any mode of travellii^,
except by the primitive ox or mule teams. A few
miles of raiboaa existed from Sioux City to Yankton.
The new vicar Apostolic went directly to Yankton,
where he took up his residence. He found 12 priests
administering to a scattered Catholic population of
less than 14,000 souls and 20 churches. Many and
heroic were the hardships endured by both bishop
and priesta. At the close of 1881 the number «
prieBts ineieaaed to 37, the nun^io' of churchee to 41

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with 33 stations. There were 3 convesitB, 2 academies
for young ladies, 4 parochial schools for the white and
4 schools for the Indian children, while the Catholic
pt^HilaUon, including 700 Indians, numbered 15,800
souls. The decade b^sinning with 1880, witnessed a
wondwful devetopment and ue population increased
from 136,180 to 250,000. The statistics at the end
ot 1883 ehow 4o prieets, 82 churches, 67 stations^ 4
convents, 4 academies, 12 parochial schools, 6 Indian
schools and a Cathouo population, including 1,600
Indians, of 25,600 souls. The Territory of Dakota
was divided by Act of Congress, 22 February, 1889,
and the two states. North and South Dakota, were
admitted to the Union, 2 November, 1889. The same
month witnessed ihe eccleeiasticsl dividon of the
Ticatiate, and two new dioceses were formed, Sioux
Falls (South Dakota) with Bishop Marty its first
bishop; and Jamestown (North Dakota), now Fargo,
with Bi^<^ Shanley (d. July, 1909) its first incum-
bent. In 1894 Bishop Marty was transferred to the
Diocese of St. Cloud, Minnesota, where he died ID Sep-
tember, 1896.

The ^orts of Bishx^ Marty were crowned with
marvellouB sueoess. He devoted himsdf especially to
the Indian race. He spoke their language imd trans-
lated hymns and prayers into their tongue. The second
and present (1911) Bishop of Sioux Folia, the Right
Rev. Thomas O'Oorman, was bom at Boston, Massa-
chusetts, 1 May, 1843, he moved with his parents to St.
Paul, and was one of the first two students selected
for the priesthood by Bishop Cretin, the other was
Aichbisbop Ireland. Having pursued his ecclesiastic^
studies in France, he retuni,«l to St. Paul, where he
was ordamed priest, 5 November, 1865. He was
pastor in turn of Rochester and Faribault, Minn., and
first president and professor of dogmatic theology at
St. Thomas' Collie, St. Paul. In 1890 he was ap-
pointed Professor of Church History in the CathoUo
University, Washington, D. C, was oonseorated in
St. Patrick's Church, Washington, D. C. (19 April,
1896) by Cardiinid SatoUi, liien .^Mstotic delegate
to tius country, and on 2 May, 1896, was in-
stalled in the pro-oathedral of his episcopal see.
The BtatistiCB oi the dioceee then showed 51 secular
and 14 regular priests, 50 churches with resident
priests, 61 missions wiut churches, 100 stations, 10
chapels, 14 parochial schools, 61 Indian schools, 2
orphanages, and 1 hospital. There were 3 communi-
ties of men and 6 of women, while the Catholic popu-
lation, whhe and Indian, was eatimated at 30,000
souls. Bishc^ (yCSonnan infused new Me into the
diocese. The population increased so rwidly that in
19(^ the Dioceee of Lead was erected. The statistics
of the dioceee (1911) are in priests, secular 102,
regular 13; students 10; churches with resident prieeta,
91; mismons with churches, 70; staticms, 23; chapels,
13; parochial schools, 23 with 2,500 children in at-
tendance; hqepitals, 4. There are 3 communities of
men: Besiedietaies, Eudists, and the Clerios of St.
Viatettr. The cotnmumtiescrf women are: Dominican
Sisters; Presentation Nuns; BeneiUctine Sisters; Sis-
ters of the Tlurd Order of St. Francis; School Sisters
of St. Francis, and the Sisters of Charity of St. Louis.
Columbus College at Chamberlsun, in charge of the
Clerics of St. Viateur is an institution of great promise.
The Cathohc population, including 500 Indians, is
50,000. In the vicariate ApostoUc of thirty-one years
MO, irime there were only 1 bishop and 12 pnests,
tfisn are now (1911) 4 bishops and 284 priests.
IKoeum ArMi«»: CUAoUe Dindoria; psraoiuU noolleotioiu,

Danieii F. Deuiond.

Bloux Indians, the largest and most important
Indian tribe north of Mexico, with the single excep-
tion of the Ojibwa (Chippewa), who, however, lack
the solidarity of the Sioux, bcone widely scattered
on both sid^ of the intonationiu boundary, while
XIV.— 2

the Sioux are virtually all within the Unit«d States
and up to a comparatively recent period kept iip
close connexion among the various bands.

Naub and Affiliation. — The name Sioux (pro-
nounced Su) is an abbreviation of the French speUing
of the name by which they were anciently known to
their eastern Algonquian neighbours and envies,
viz. Nadouesaionx, signif^j'ing "little snaJces", i. e.
little, or secondary enemies, as distinguished frwn
the eastern Nadowe, or enemies, the Iroquois. This
ancient name is now obsolete, having been superseded
by the modem Ojibwa term Buanag, of uncertain
etymolofcy- They

SimNQ Boll
From a Photograph

themselves
Dakota, Nakota,
or Liikota, accord-
ing to dialect,
meaning "allies".
From the forms
Dakota, Lakota,
and Sioux are de-
rived numerous
place-nsmes witb-
m thdr ancient
area, including
those of two great
states. Linguisti-
cally the Sioux are
of the great Siouan
stock, to which
they have given
name and <A which
they thmselves
now constitute
nearly three-
fourths. Other cognate tribes are the Assinibun,
Crow, Hidatsa, or Minitarf, Mandan, Winnebago,
Iowa, Omaha, Ponca, Oto, Missouri, Kaw, Osage, and
Quapaw, all excepting the Winnebago living west of
we Mississippi; together with a number of tnbes for-
merly occupying territories in Mississippi and tiie cen-
tral regions of the CaroUnas and Virginia, all now vir-
tually extinct^, excepting a handful of Catawba in South
Carolina. Linguistic and traditionary evidence indi-
cate this eastern region as the original home of the
stock, although the period and causes of the westward
migration remain a matter of conjecture. The Sioux
lan^age is epoken in three principal dialects, viz.
Santee (pronounced Sahntee), or eastern; Yankton,
or middle; and Teton, or western, difFering chiefiy
in the mtmhange <tf d, n, and I, as indicate in tbs
various forms m the tribal name. The Aasiniboin
are a seceded branch of the Yankton division, having
separated from the parent tribe at some time earlier
than 1640.

History. — ^When and why the Sioux removed from
their original home in the East, or by what route
they reached the upper Mississippi country, are
unknown. When firat nbticed in history, about
1650, they centered al>out Mille Lac and Leech Lake,
toward the heads of the Mississippi, in central Minne-
sota, having their eastern frontier within a day's
march of Lake Superior. From this position they
were gradually dnven b^ the pressure, from the
east, ^ the advanciofj Ojibwa, who were earlier in
obtaining firearms, until nearly the whole nation had
removed to the Minnesota and upper Red River, in
turn driving before them the Ch^enne, Omaha,
and other tribes. On reaching the buffalo plains ana
procuring horses, supplemented soon thereafter by
nreaims, they rapidly overran the county to the west
and Bouth-westj crossing the Missouri perhaps about
1750, and contmuine on to the Black Hills and the
Platte until checked l}y the Pawnee, Crow, and other
tribes. At the beginning of treaty relations in 1805
their were the acknowledged owners of most of the
territory extending frran oentral Wisconsin, acrosB

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the MiniBeippi and Missouri, to beyond the Black
Hills, and from the Canada boundary to the North
Platte, including all of Southern Minnesota, with
considerable portions of Wisconsin and Iowa, most
(tf both Dakotaa, Northern Nd^raaka, and much of
Montana and Wyoming. The boundaries of all
that portion lying east of the Dakotas were defined
by the great inter-tribal treaty of Prairie du Chien in
1825 and a supplemental treaty at the same place in
1830. At this period the Minnesota region was
held by the various Santee bands; Eastern Dakota
and a small part of Iowa were claimed by the Yankton
and their cousins the Yanktonai; while all the Sioux
territory west of the Missouri was held by bands of
the great Teton division, constituting three^ths
(tf the whole nation.

Under Uie name of Naduesiu the Sioux are first
mentioned by Father Paul le Jeune in the Jesuit
Relation of 1640, apparently on the information of
that pioneer western explorer, Jean Nicolet, the first
white raan known to nave set foot in Wisconsin,
prob£dt)ly in 1634-5. In 1655-6 two other famous
French explorers, Radiason and Groseilliera, spent
some time with them in their own oountt^, about
the western border of Wisconsin. At that time the
Sioux were giving shelter to a band (rf rrfugee Hurons
fleeing before the Iroquois. They were T&ted as
possessing thirty villaees, and were the terror of all
the surrounding tribes reason of their number and
prowess, although admittedly less cruel. Fathers
AUouez and Marquette, from their mission of St.
Eepnt, estidUished at Lwointe (now Bayfield, Wis.)
on Lake Superior in 16A5, entered into mendly rela-
tions with the Sioux, which continued until 1671,
when the latter, provoked by insults from th^ eastern
tribes, returned Marquette s presents, declared war

rlnst their hereditary foes, and compelled the
ndonmcnt of the mission. In 1674 they sent a
delegation to Sault Ste. Marie to arrange peace
through the good offices of the resident Jesuit mission-
ary, Father Qabriel Dniillettes, who already had
several oi the tribe under mstruetion in his house,
but the negotiations were brought to an abrupt ena
by a treacherous attack made upon the Sioux while
seated in council in the mission church, resulting in
the massacre of the ambassadors after a desperate
encounter, and the btiming <^ the church, which was
fired over their heads by the Ojibm to dislodge
them.

The tribal war went on, but the Sioux kept friend-
ship with the FroDch traders, who by this tune had
reached the Mississippi. In 1680 one of their war
parties, descending the Mississippi against the Illi-
Doia, captured the Recollect Father Louis Hennepin
with two companions and brought them to their
villages at the head of the river, where they held
them, more as guests than prisoners, imtil released
on the arrival of the trad^, Du Luth, in the fall.
While thus in custody Father Hennenin observed
their customs, made some study of toe language,
Inptized a child and attempted some religious instruc-
tion, explored a part of Minnesota, and discovered
and named St, Anthony's Falla. In 1683 Nicholas
Perrot established a post at the mouth of the Wis-
consin. In 1689 he established Fort Perrot near the
lower end of I^e Pepin, on the Minnesota side, the
first post within the Sioux territory, and took ftmnal
possession of their country for France. The Jesuit
Father Joseph Marest, officially designated "Mis-
sionary to the Nadouesioux", was one of the witnesses
at the ceremony and was again with the tribe some
twelve years later. Another post was built by Pierre
LeSueur, near the present Red Wing about 1693,
and in 1695 a principal chief of the tribe accompanied
him to Montreal to meet the governor, Frontenac.
By thia time the Sioux had a number <rf guns and were
be^uoii^ to wage aggrooaive warfare toward (he

i novx

west, driving the Cheyenne, Omaha, and Oto down
upon the Missouri and pushing out into the buff^o
plains. During Frontenac's administration mission
work languished owing to his bitter hostility to mis-
sionsries, especiaily the Jesuits.

About the year 1688. through injudiciously assisU
ing the Sioux against tne Foxes, the French beeune
involved in a t^ious forty-years' war with the lattw
tribe which completely p^^yxed trade on the upper
Mississippi and ultimately ruined the Foxes. B<Nore
its end the Sioux themselves turned against the
French and gave refuse to the defeated Foxes. In
1700 LeSueur had built Fort L'Huillier on ^e Blue
Ewth Riv» near tite ivesent Mukato, Minn.
In 1727^ an ineffective peace having been made, the
Jesuit Fathers, Ignatius Guignas and Nicolas de
Gonnor, again toc^ up work among the Sioux at the
new Fort Beauhamais on Lake Pepin. Although
driven out for a time by the Foxes, they returned
and continued with the work some ten years, until
the Sioux themselves became hostile. In 1736 the
Sioux massacred an entire exploring party of twenty-
one persons under command at the younger Veren-
drye at the Lake of the Woods, just beyond the nortb-
em (international) Minnesota boundary. Among
those killed was the Jesuit father, Jean-Pierre Aul-
neau. In 1745-6, the Foxes having been finally
crushed, De Lusignan again arranged peace witn
the Sioux, and between them and the Ojibwa, and
four Sioux chiefs returned with him to Montreal.
On the fall of Canada the Sioux, in 1763, sent dele-
gates to the English post at Green Bay with proffers
of friendship and a request for traders. They were
described as "certainly the greatest nation of In-
dians ever yet found", holding all other Indians as
"their slaves or dogs". Two thousand of their war-
riors now had guns, while the other and larger portion
still depended upon the bow, in the use of which, and
in dancing, they excelled the other tribes.

In the winter of 1766-7 the American traveller,
Jonathan Carvtf , ^mt aev&raX months with the San-
tee visiting their burial-ground and sacred cave near
the present St. Paulj luid witnessing men and women
gashing themsdves m frenzied gria at their bereave-
ment. Soon after this period the eastern Sioux defin-
itively t^andoned the Mille Lac and Leech Lake
coimtry to their enemies the Onbwa, with whom the
hereditary war still kept up. The final engagement
in this upper region occurred in 1768 when a great
canoe flent of Sioux, numbering perhaps five hundred
wairiors, while descending tne Mississippi from a
successful raid upon the Oubwa, was fumbushed near
the junction of Crow Wing River and entirely defeated
by a much smaller force of the latter tribe. In 1776
peace was again made between the two tribea throu^
the efforts of the English officials in order to secure
their alliance in the coming Revolutionary struggle.
The peace lasted until the close of the Revolutionaiy
War, in which botii tribes furnished contingoits
against the American frontier, after which the warriors
returned to their homes, and the old feud was resumed.
In the meantime the Teton Sioux, pressing westward,
were gradutdly pushing the Arikara (Ree) up the
Missouri, and by acquiring horses from the plains
tribes had become metamorphosed from canoe men
and gatherers of wild rice into an equesbian race of
nomad buffalo hunters.

Some years after the close of the Revolution, per-
haps about 1796, French traders in the American
interest ascended the Missouri from St. Louis and
established posts among the Yankton and Teton.
In 1804 the first American exploring expedition,
imder Captains Lewis and Clark, ascended tne river,
holding councils and securing tiie allegiance of the
Sioux and other tribes, and then crossing the moun-
tains and descending the Columbia to the Pacific,
rrtwnmg over n^ttiy the same route in 1S06. Ai a

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nnilt of this aoqiuintanoe the first ^oux (Yankton)
dekgation visited Washingjton in the latter year.
At toe same time, 1806-6, Lieutenant Zebulon Filce
asoei^ed the Mississippi on a similar errand to the
Santee Sioux and other tribes (^tfaatregion. In this
he was successful and on 23 S^tember, 1805, nego-
tiated the first treaty of the Sioux with the United
States, by wliich they ceded lands in the vicinity of
the present St. Paul tor the establishment of mititary
posts, at the same time pmng up their English flags
and medals and acoeptmg American ones. Up to
this period and for some years later the r^dly
diverging bands of the east and west still held an
annual reunion east of the lower James River in
eastern South Dakota. In 1807 Manuel Lisa, founder
of the American FurCompany, "the most active and
indefatigable trader that St. Louis ever produced"
(Chittenden), established headquarters among the
Sioux, at Ciedar Island, below the {nesent Kerre,
8. D., Ukiet moving down to about the present
Chamberhim. Lisa was a Spatuard, and like his
French associates, Chouteau, Mtoard, and Trudeau,
was a Catholic. At his several trading posts amoi^
the Teton and Yankton Sioux, and the Omaha lower
down the river, he showed the Indians how to plant
gardens and care for cattle and hogs, besides setting
up blacksmith shops for their benefit, without charge,
and caring for their aged and helpless, so that it was
aa^ tiiat he was better loved bv the Sioux than any
otho- white man Of his time. Being intensely Amer-
ican in feeling, he was appointed first government
agent for the upper Missouri River tribes, and by his
great influence with them held them st^dy for the
United States throughout the War of 1812, notwith-
standing that most of the eastern, or Santee, Sioux,
throi^ the efforts of Tecumtha and a resident Brit-
ish traider, Robert Dickson, declared for En^^d and
fumidbed a contingent gainst Fort Meigs. Lisa
died in At tfo dose of the war, by a series of

five similar treaties made 15 July, 1815, at Portage
des Sioux^ above St. Louis, the various Sioux bands
made their peace with the United States and finally
acknowledged its sovereignty. Other late hostile
tribes made peace at the same time. This great
treaty gathenng, the most important ever held with
the tribes of the Middle West, marks the banning
of Uieir modem history. In 1820 Fort Snellmg was
built at the present Minneapolis to control the Santee
Sioux and Ojibwa, an agracy being also established
at the same time. In 1825 another great treaty
eatheiing was convened at Prairie du Chien for the
delimitation of tribal boundaries to put an end to
inter-tribal wars, and clear the way tor future land
ceaaioiis. At this period, and for years after, the
Sioux led all other tribes in the volume of their fur
trade, consisting chiefly of buffalo robes and beaver
skins.

With the establishment of permanent government
relations regular mission work benin. In 1834 the
brothers Samuel and Gideon Pond, for the Conne-

fationalists, located among the Santee at Lake Cal-
oim, near the present St. Paul, Minn. In 1835 the
same denomination established other missions at
Lake Harriet and Lac-qui-Parle, Minn., under Rev.
J. D. Stevens and Thomas WiUiamson respectively.
In 1837 Williamson was joined by Rev. Stephen Riggs
and his son Alfred. In 1852 the two last-named mis-
sions were removed to the upper Minnesota in con-
sequence of a treaty cession. All of these workers
are known for their linguistic contributions as well
as for their missionary service. In 1837 a Lutheran
mission was established at Red Wing and continued
for some years. The successful estabudunent of these
missions was due chiefly to the encouragement and
active aid afforded by Joseph Renville, a remarkable
half-breed, who stood high in the respect and affection
of tin eastern Sioux. Bom in the wiUemeea in 1779

at aa Indian motbo-. he had been taken to Canada,
when a small boy, by his Frenofa father, a noted
trader, and placed under the care of a Catholic

friest, from whom he acc|uired some knowledge of
rench and of the Christian religion. The death of
his father a few years later and his consequent return
to the Sioux country put an end to his educational
opportunity, but the early impression thus made was
never effaced. On coming to manhood and succeed-
ing to his father's business he sent across the ocean,
mvbably through Dickson, the British trader, for a
fWnch Bible (which, when it came, was Protestant)
and then hired a clerk who could read it to him. Oa
the establishment
of the post at
Prairie du Chien
he brought down
his Incfian wife
and had bar regu-
larly married to
him by a Catholic

Eriest, he himself
aving previously
instructed her in
religion as well as
he could. When
the Congregation-
(dists arrived he
welcomed them as
bringing Chris-
tianity, even
though not of the
form of his child-
hood teacher. He
died in 1846.

In 1841 Father
Augustine Ravoux
b^^n work among the Santee in the ne^ld:)Ourhood
of Fort Snelling, near which Father Galtier had just
built a log chapel of St. Paul, around which grew the
modem city. Applving himself to the study of the
language, in which ne soon became proficient. Father
Ravoux in 1843 repaired to Prairie du Chien, and there
with his own hands printed a small devotional w^k.
"Katolik Wocekiye Wowapi Kin", which is still
used as a mission manual. He continued with the
tribe for several years, extending his ministrations
also to the Yankton, until recalled to parish work.
As early at least as 1840 the great Jesuit apostle of the
North-West, Father P. J. De Smet, had visited the
bands along the Missouri River, where Father Chris-
tian Hoecken had preceded him in 1837, instructing
adults and baptizing children. Father De Smet
made several other bnef stops later on his way to and
from the Rocky Mountain missions, and in Uie sum-
mer of 1848 spent several months in the camps of the
Brul<S and Ogalala, whom he found well disposed to
Christianity. In 1850 Father Hoecken was again
with the Yankton and Teton, but the design to estab-
lish a permanent mission was frustrated by his
untimely death from cholera, 19 June, 1851. In the
same summer Father De Smet attended the great
inter-tribal gathering at Fort Laramie, where for
several weeks he preached daily to the Sioux and other
tribes, baptising over fifteen hundred children. From
that period until his death in 1872 a large portion
of his time was given to the western Sioux, among
whom his influence was so great that he was several
times called in by the Govemmoit to assist in treaty
negotiations, nc^tabfy in the great peace treaty <x
1868.

In 1837 the Sioux sold all of their rananiiiu terri-
tory east of the Mississippi. In the winter of 1837-8
smallpox, introduced from a passing steamer, swept
over all the tribes of the upper Missouri River, killing
periiaps 30,000 Indians, of whom a large proportion
wsre SkMix. About the same time tti^war with the

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Ojibwa on the eastern frontier broke out again with

freater fury than ever. In a battle near the present
tiUwater, Minn., in June, 1839, soipe 50 Ojibwa were
slain and shortly afterward a Sioux raidinof party
surprised an Ojibwa camp in the absence of uie war-
riors and brou^t away 91 scalps. In 1851 the var-
ious San tee bands sold all their remaining lands in
Minnesota and Iowa, excepting a twenty-mile strip
along the upper Minnesota River. Althou^ there
were then four missions among the Santee, the major-
ity of the Indians were reported to have "an invete-
rate hatred" of Christianity. In March, 1857, on
some trifling provocation, a sm^ band of renegade
Santee, under an outlawed chief, Inkpaduta, "Sc&t~
let Point," attacked the scattered settlements about

risons and the general unrest consequent upon the

Civil War' also encouraged to revolt. The trouble
began 2 August with an attack upon the agoicy store-
house at Redwood, where five thousand Indians were
awaiting the distribution of the delayed annuity
supplies. The troops were overpowered and ibe
commissary goods seiied, but no other damage
attempted. On 17 Aug. a small jrarty of hunters,
being refused (cod at a settler's cabin, massaored the
family and fled with the news to the camp of little
Crow, where a general massacre of all the whites and
Christian Indians was at once resolved upon. Within
a week almost every farm cabin and small settle-
ment in Southern Mmneeota and along the adjoining
border was wiped out of existence and. most <A the

Spirit Lake, on the Iowa-Minnesota border, burning
bouses, massacring fU>out fifty persons, and carrying
off several women, two of whom were killed later,
the others bdng rescued by the Christian Indians.
Inkpaduta escaped to take an active part in all the
Sioux troubles for twenty years thereafter. In
1858 the Yankton Sioux sold all their lands in South
Dakota, excepting the present Yankton reservation.
The famous pipestone quarry in south-western Minne-
sota, whence the Sioux for ages had procured the red
stone from which their pipes were carved, was also
permanently reserved to this Indian purpose. In
1860 the first Episcopalian work was begun
among the (Santee) Sioux by Rev. Samuel D. Hin-
man.

In 1862 occurred the great "Minnesota outbreak"
and massacre, involving nearly all the Santee bands,
brought about by dissatisfaction at the confiscation
of a large proportion of the treaty funds to satisfy
traders' clamis, and aggravated by a long delay in
the annuity iasue. The weakening o£ the local gar-

inhabitants massacred, in many cases with devilish
bart}arities, excepting such as could esca^ to Fort
Ridgely at the lower end of the reso-vation. The mis-
Honanes were saved by the faithful heroism of the
Christian Indians, who, as in 1857, stood loyally by
the Government. Determined attacks were made
under Little Crow upon Fort Ridgely (20-21 August)
and New Ulm (22 August), the latter defended by a
strong volunteer force under Judge Charles Flandrau.
Both attacks were finally repulsed. On 2 Sept. a
force 1500 regulars and volunteers under Colonel
(afterwards General) H. H. Sibleiy defeated the hos-
tilea at Birch Coulee and again on 23 September at
Wood Lake. Most of the hostiles now surrendered,
the rest fleeing in small bands beyond the reach ot
pursuit. Three hundred prisoners were condemned
to death by court martial, but the number was cut
down by P^^dent Lincoln to thirty-eight, who were
hanged at Mankato, 26 December, 1862. They were
attended by Revs. Riggs and Williamson and by
Father Ravoux, but although the other missionariea

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had bees twenty-^ve yean stationtd witJi the tribe
and spoke Um language fluently, thirty-three of the
irtiole number elected to die in the Catholic Church,
two of the remaining five rejecting all Christian
miniatration. Three years later father RavouX
again stood on the scaffold with two condemned
warriors of the tribe.

Two months After the outbreak Congress declared
the Santee treaties abrogated and the Minnesota
reservations forfeited. One part of the fugitives
trying to escape to the Yanktonai was overtaken
and defeated with great loss by Sibley neu* Big
Mound, North Dakota, 24 July, 1863. The survivors
fled to the Teton beyond the Missouri or took refuge
in Canada, where they are still domiciled. On 3
Sept. General Sully struck the main hostile camp
under Inkpaduta at Whitestone Hill, west of Ellen-
dale, N. D., killing 300 and enuring nearly as many
more. On 28 July, 1864, General Sully deuvered the
final blow to the combined hostile force, consisting
of Santee, Yanktonai, and some northern Teton,
at Kildeer Mountain on the Little Missouri. The
prisoners and others of the late hostile bands were
finally settled on two reeervationa established for the

Surpose, viz. the (Lower) Yanktonai at Crow Creek,
. D., and the Santee at Santee, north-eastern Nebras-
ka. Here they still remain, being now well advanced
in civilization and Christianity, and fairly prosperous.
The outbreak had coat the lives of nearly 1000 whites,
of whom nearly 700 perished in the first few days of
the massacre. The Indian loss was about double,
falling almost entbrly upon the Santee. Panana-
papi (Strike- the-Ree), head chief of the 3000 Yankton,
and a Catholic, had steadily held his people loyal and
the great Brul6 and Ogalala bands of the Teton,
13,000 strong, had remained neutral. In October.
1865, at old Fort Sully (near Pierre), S. D., ageneral
treaty of peace was made with the Sioux, and one
Teton band, the Lower Brultf, agreed to come upon a
resen-ation. The majority of the great Teton divi-
sion, however, comprising the whole strength of
the nation west of the Missouri, refused to take part.

In the meantime serious trouble had been brewing
in the West. With the discovery of gold in CaUfomia
in 1849 and the consequent opening of an emigrant
trail along the North Platte and across the Rooky
Mountains, the Indians became alarmed at the dis-
turbance to their buffalo herds, upon which they
depended for their entire subsistence. The principal
complainants were the Bru\6 aod Ogalala Sioux.
For the protection of the emigrants in 1849 the Gov-
ernment bought and garrisoned the American Fur
Company post of Fort Laramie on the upper North
Platte, in Wyoming, later making it also an agency
headquarters. In September, 1851, a great gathering
of nearly the tribes and bands of the Northerh
Plains was held at Fort Laramie, and a treaty was
negotiated by wUch they came to an agreement in
regard to their rival territorial claims, pledged peace
among themselves and with the whitee, and promised
not to disturb the trail on consideration of a certain
annual payment. Fa^rDeSmet attended through-
out the council, teax^hing and bsptiiing, and giree
an interesting account oi the gathering, the largest
ever held with the Plains Indians. The treaty was
not ratified and had no permanent effect. On
17 August, 1854, while the Indians were camped
about the post awaiting the distribution of the
annuity goods, occurred the "Fort Laramie Massa-
cre", by which Lieutenant Grattan and an entire
detachment of 29 soldiers lost their lives while trying
to arrest some Bnil^ who had killed and eaten an
emigrant's cow. Frcon all the evidence the conflict
was provoked by the oflScer's own indiscretion. The
Indians then took forcible possession of the annuity
goods and left without making any attempt upcm
the fort or garrison. The BraU Sioux wm nov

declared bostilt, and G«n. W. S. Rasnmr was sent

against them. On 3 Septembo', with 1200 men, he
came upon their camp at Ash Hollow, Western
Nebraska, and, while pretending to parley on their
proffer of surrender, suddenly attacked them, killing
136 Indians and destroying the entire camp outfit.

Late in 1863 the Ogalala and Brul6 under their
chiefs, Red Cloud (AIakhp%ya4ula) and Spotted Tail
{Shint4'gtd€»hka) respectively, became actively hos-
tile, inflamed by reports of the Santee outbreak and
the Civil War m the South. They were joined by
the Cheyenne and for two years all travel across tu

Oaoup or Sioux
WoMel Besr and Ftmily, Hin Ridge, B. D.

plains was virtually suspended. In March, 1865,
they were roused to desperation by the proclamation
of two new roads to be opened through their b^t
hunting grounds to reach the new gold fields of Mon-
tana. Under Red Cloud's leadenhip thety notified
the Government that they would ^ow no new Toada
or garrison posts to be established in their country,
and carried on the war on this basis with such deter-
mination that by treaty at Fort Laramie through a
peace commission in April-May, 1868, the Govern-
ment actually agreed to close the "Montana road"
that had been opened north from Laramie, and to
abandon the three posts that had been established
to protect it. Red Cloud himself refused to sign
until after the troops had been withdrawn. The
treaty left the territory south of the North Platte
open to road building, recognized all north of Uie
North Platte and east of the Bighorn Mountains as
unceded Indian territory, and established the "Great
Sioux Reservation ", nearly equivalent to all of South
Dakota west of the Missoun. Provision was made
for an agency on the Miesouri River and the inaugura-
tion of regular governmental civilising work. In
considaation thus givinfc up thrir old freedom the
Indians were promised, besides the free aid of black -
smiths, doctors, a saw mill, etc., a omnplete suit of
ek>thiiu[ yearly for thirty years to every individual
of tba oaadi ooneemad, buad on the,4i^tual yeady

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oenaus. Amomr the officiBl witneeses were Rev.
Hinman, the Epiacopalian missioiiary, and FaUier
De Smet. This treaty brought the whole of the
Sioux nation under agency restriction, and with its
ratification in February, 1869^ the five years' war
came to a close.

In this war Red Cloud had been the principal
leader, Spotted Tail having been won to fnmdabip
earlier through the kindness extended by the officers
at Fort Laramie on the occasion of the death of his
daughter, who was buried there with Christian rites
at her own request. The Cheyenne and Morthern
Arapabo also acted with the Sioux. The chief fitt-
ing centered around Fort Kearney, Wyoming, wmch
Red Cloud himself held under repeated si^, and
near which on 21 December, 1866, occurred the "Fet-
terman Massacre", when an entire detachment of
80 men tmder Captain Fetterman was exterminated
by an overwhelmmg force of Indians. By treaties
in 1867 reservations had been established at Lake
Traverse, S. D. and at Fort Totten, N. D., for the
Sisseton and Wahpeton Santee and the Cuthead
Yanktonai, most of whom had been concerned in the
Minnesota outbreak. In 1870 a part of the Christian
Santee separated from their kiiksmen in Nebraska
and removed to Flandreau, S. D., and became ctti-
lens. In 1871, deniite the protest of Red Cloud and
other leading chiefs, the Northern Pacific railway
was constructed along the south bank of the Yellow-
stone and several new posts built for its protection,
and war was on again with the Teton Sioux, Chey-
enne, and part of the Arapaho. Several skirmishes
occurred, and in 1873 General G. A. Custer was or-
dered to Dakota. In the next year, while hostilities
were still in progress, Custer made an exploration of
ttie Black Huls, S. D.,, and reported gold. Despite
Uie treaty and the military, there was at once a great
rush of miners and others into the HUls. The
Indians refusing to sell on any terms offered, the
military patrol was withdrawn, and mining towns at
once sprang up all throu^ the mountains. Indians
hunting by acents' permission in the disputed terri-
tory were ordered to report at their affincies by 31
January, 1876, or be considered hostile, out evoi Uie
runners who carried the message were unable to
return, by reason of the severity of the winter, xmtil
after war had been actually declared. This is com-
monly known as the "Custer War" from its central
event, 25 June, 1876, the massacre of General Custer
and every man of a detachment of the Seventh
Cavalry, numbering 204 m all, in an attack upon the
main camp itf the hostile Sioux and Cheyenne, on
tlie Little Bighorn River m soutb-easton Montana.
On that day and the next, in the same vicinity, other
detachments under Reno and Benteen sustainea desper-
ate conflicts with the Indians, with the loss of some
sixty more killed. The Indians, probably numbering
at least 2500 warriors with their families, finally with-
drew on the approach of Generals Terry and Gibbons
from the north. The principal Sioux commanders
were Crazy Horse and Gall, although Sittinif Bull
was also present. Red Cloud and Spotted Tail had
mnained at their agencies.

Several minor engagements later in the year resulted
in the surrender and retiun of most of the hostites to
the reservation, while Sitting Bulland Gall and their
immediate following escai^d into Canada (June,
1877). By a series of treaties negotiated 23 Sept.-
27 Oct., 1876^ the Sioux surrendered the whole of
the Black Hills county and the western outlet.
On 7 Sept, 1877, Crazy Horse, wlu) had come in with
his band some months before, was killed in a conflict
with the guard at Fort Robinson, Neb. In the same
month the last hostiles surrendered. Soon after the
treaty a large delegation visited Washington, f oUowing
which event the Red Cloud ((^pUala) and Spotted
Tail (BruU) aseneieB wenpemuuwntty establnhed in

2 novx

1878 at Pine Ridge and Rosebud, S. D., TeBpecttTely.
This date may be considered to mark the bwinning
of civilization in these two powerful bands. In 1881
all the late hostiles in Canada came in and surren-
dered. Sitting Bull and his immediate followers,
after being held in confinement for two years, were
allowed to return to their homes on Standing Bock
resravatiott. On 5 August, 1881, Spotted Tail was
killed by a rival chief. On 20 Jul^, 1888, Strike-the-
Ree. the famous Catholic chief of the Yankton, died
at the age of 84.

In the allotment of Indian agencies to the manage-
ment of the various religious denominations, in
accord with President Grant's "pesce policy" in
1870, only two of the eleven Sioux agencies wen
assi^ied to the Catholics, name^^, Standing Rock
and Devil's Lake, notwithstanding that, with the
exception of a portion of the Santee and a few of the
Yankton, the only missiondries the tribe had ever
known from Allouez to De Smet bad been Catholic,
and most of the resident whites and mixed-bloods
were of Csthclic ancestry. Santee, Flandreau, and
Sisseton (Lake Traverse) agencies of the Santee divi-
sion were assigned to the Presbyterians, who bad
already been continuously at work among them for
more than a generation. Yankton reservation bad
been occupied jointly by Presbyterians and Episco-
palians in 1869, as was Cheyenne River reservation
m 1873. PMne Ridge, Rosebud, Low&r Brul£ and
Crow Creek reservations, comprising nearly one-half
the tribe, were given to the Episcopalians, who erected
buildings between 1872 (Crow Creek) and 1877 (Pino
Ridge). At Devil's Lake an industrial boarding
school was completed and opened in 1874 in charge
of Benedictine Fathers ana Grey Nun Sistois of
Charity. At Standing Rock a similar school was
opened in 1877 in charge of Benedictine priests and
Sisters. Thus by 1878 rcRular mission plants were
in operation on every Sioux reservation. Other
Catholic foundations were begun at Crow Creek and
Rosebud in 1886, at Pine Ridge in 1887, and at Chey-
enne River in 1892. In 1887 the noted secular mis*
aionary priest, Fatb^ Francis M. J. Craft, opened
school at Standmg Rock and later succeeded in
organizing in the tribe an Indian sisterhood which,
however, was refused full ecclesiastical recognition.
In 1891 he removed with his community to the Fort
Berthold reservation, N. D., where for some years
the Sioux Indian Sisters proved valuable auxiliaries,
particularly in instructing the women and nursing
the sick of the confederated Grosventres, Arikara,
and M and an. Later on several of them won com-
mendation as volunteer nurses in Cuba during the
Spanish War. This zealous sisterhood is no longer
in existence. In 1880, after Ions and persistent
opposition by the older chiefs, the "Great Sioux
Reservation" was cut in two and reduced by
about one half by a treaty cession which included
almost all territory between White and Cheyeime
Rivers, S. D., and all north of Cheyenne River west
of- 102°. Toe ceded lands were thrown open to
settlement by proclamation in the next spring, and
were at once occupied by the whites. In the mean-
time payment for the lands was delayed, the annuity
goods failed to arrive until the winter was nearh' over,
the crops had failed through attendance of the Indiana
at the treaty councils in the preceding spring, epi-
demic diseases were raging in the camps, and as tne
final straw Congress, despite previous promise, cut
down the beef ration by over four million pounds
on the ground of the stipulated money pigment,
whi(^, however, bad not arrived.

A year before rumours had come to the Sioux of a
new Indian Messiah arisen beyond the mountains
to restore the old-time Indian life, together with their
departed friends, in a new earth man which the
wmtes iliould be eioluded. Several tribes, including

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tbe Koax, sent ddegates to the home of the Meeeiah,
in Weeton Nevada, to inveetigate the rumour. The
first del^tbn, as well as a second, confirmed the
truUi of the report, and in the spring of 1890 the
ceremonial "Ghost Dance," intended to hasten the
fulfilment of the prophecy, was inaugurated at Pine
Ridge. Because of its strong appeal to the Indians
under the existing conditions, the Dance soon spread
amoQgother Teton reservations until the Indians were
in a trenzy of reli^ous otdtemait. The newly-
appointed f^ent at Pme Ri^^ became frightened and
called for troops, thus precipitating the outbreak of
1800. By 1 December 3000 troops were disp(»ed in the
nei^bourhood of the western Sioux reservations the
under orders of General Nelson Miles. Leading
events of the outbreak were: the killing of Sitting
Bull, his son, and six others on 15 December, at his
camp on Grand River, Standing Rock reservation,
while resisting arrest by the Indian police, six of whom
were killed in the encounter; the flignt of Sitting Bull's
followers and others ai Standing Rock and Cheyenne
River reservations into the Bad Lands of western
Bouth Dakota where they joined other refugee
"hostiles" from Pine Ridge and Rosebud; the fight at
Wounded Knee Creek, twenty miles north-east of
Pine Ridge agency, 29 December, 1890, between a
band of surrendered hostiles under Big Foot and a
detachment of the Seventh Cavalry under Colonel
Forsyth. On 16 Jan.,lS91, the hostiles surrendered to
General Miles at Pine Ridge, and the outbreak was at
an end. With the restoration of peace, grievances were
adjusted and the work of civilisation resumed.
Under provision of the general allotment law of 1887
negotiati(Mi8 were concluded from time to time with
the various bands by which the 8i» (rf the reaervai-
tkaiB was still further curtailed, and lands allotted
in severalty^ until now almost all of the Sioux Indi-
ans are individual owners and well on the way to
full citizenship. Indian dress and adornment are
nearly obsolete, tc^ether with the tipi and aboriginal
ceremonial, and the great majority are clothed in
citisen's dress, living in comfortable small houses
with modem furniture, and engaged in farming; and
atook raising. The death of the old chirf, Red Cloud,
at Fine Ritwe in 1909, removed almt^t the last link
binding the Sioux to uieir Indian past.

Reugiods Status. — in 1909 nearly 10,000 of the
25,000 Sioux within the United States were officially
reported as Christians. The propwrtion is now
probably at least one-half, of whom about half are
Catholic, the others being chiefly Episcopalian and
Fresbyt^an. The Catholic missions are: Our
Lady of Sorrows, F<^ Totten, N. D. (Devil's Lake
Res.), Benedictine; St. EUzabetb, Cannonball, N. D.
(Standing Rock Res.), Benedictine; St. Peter, Fort
Yates, N. D. (Standmg Rock Res.), Benedictine;
St. James, Porcupine (Shields P. OJ, N. D. (Stand-
ing Rock Res.), Benedictine; St. Benedict, Stand-
ing Rock Agency, S. D. (Standing Rock Res.), Bene-
dictine, St. Aloysius, Standing Rock Agency, S. D.,
Standing Rock Res.), Benedictine; St. Edward,
Standing Rock Agency, S. D.^ (Standmg Rock Res.),
Benedictine; St. Bede, Standmg Rock Agency, S. D.
^taoding Rock Res.), Benedictine; Immaculate
Conception, Stephan, S. D. (Crow Creek Res.),
Bmedictine; St. Matthew, Veblen Co. (Britton P. O.)
S. D. (former Sisseton Res.), secular; Corpus Christi,
Cheyenne River Agency, S. D. (Chey. R. Res.),
secular; St. Francis, Rosebud^ B. D. (Rosebud Res.),
Jesuit; Holy Rosary, Pine Rid^, S. D. (Pine Rid^
Res.). Jesuit. The two Jesuit missions maintam
boaraing<scfaools, and are assisted by Franciscan
Sisters. The Immaculate Conception mission also
maintains a boarding-^hool, with Benedictine Sis-
ters. At the Fort Totten mission a monthly paper,
"Sina Sapa Wocekiye Taeyanpaha" ^lack-gown
Prayer Herald), entiray in the Sioux language, is

SiUiihed under the editonhip cS Fadier Jennw
unt, who has been with the missifm from its foun-
dation. Notable events in the religious life of the
tribe are the Catholic Sioux oongreesee held in the
summer of each year, one in North and one in South
Dakota, which are attended by many hi^ church
dignitaries and mission workers and several thousands
of Cat^hc Indians. Of some 470 Christian Sioux
in Canada about mie-fourth are Catholic, chi^y at
Standing Buffalo Reservation, Sask., where they an
served from the Oblate mission school at Qu'Appelle.

OsoANizATioN AND Cui^TUBE. — ^Tho Sioux Were
not a compact nation with centralised govmunent
and supreme head chief, but were a confederacy of
seven allied sub-tribes speaking a common language,
each with a recognized head chief and each subdividea
into bands or viUiaAee governed by subordinate chi^s.
The seven sub-tr£es, fnnn east to west, were: (1)
Mdcwakantonwan (Mde-wakanton) Village (people)
of the Spirit Lake (i.e. Milk Lac); (2) Wakhpekute
"Leaf Shooters": (3) Wakhpetonwan (Wahpeton),
"Village in the Leaves": (4) Sisitonwan (Sisseton),
"Village of the Marsh"; (5) Ihanktonwan (Yankton),
"Vill^e at the End"; (6) Ihanktonwanna (Yank-
tonai), "Little Yankton"; (7) Titonwan (Teton),
"Villako of the Prairie". Of theee, the first four,
originally holding the heads of the Mississippi, con-
stitute the Isanti (Santce) or eastern, dialectic group;
The Yankton and Yanktonai, about the lower and
upper courses of the James River respectively,
together with the Assiniboin tribe constitute the
central dialectic group. The gr^t Teton division,
west of the Missouri and comprising three-fifths of
the whole nation, constitutes a third dialectic group.
The Teton are divided into seven principal bands,
commonly known as Ogalala (at Pine Rit^e) ; Brule
(at Rosebud and Lower Brul£); Hunkpapa (at
Standing Rock) ; Blackfoot (at Standing Rook and
Cheyenne River); Miniconju, Sans-Arc, and Two
Kettle (Cheyenne River). Among the more seden-
tary eastern bands chiefship seems to have been
hereditary in the male line, but with the roving west-
ern bonds it depended usually upon |H«-eminent
ability. In their original home about the heads of
the Mississippi the Sioux subsisted chiefly upon wild
rice, fish, and small game, and were expert canoe
men, but as they drifted west into the plains and
obtained possession of the horse their whole manner
of life was changed, and they became a race of eques-
trian nomads, subsisting almost entirely upon the
buffalo. They seem never to have been f^culturid
to ai^ great extent. Thdr dwelling was the birch-,
bark lodge in the east and the buffalo-skin tipi on the
plain. Their dead were sometimes deposited in a
coffin upon the surface of the ground, but more often
laid upon a scaffolding or in the tree-tops. Food and
valuables were left with the corpse, and relatives gashed
their bodies with knives and cut off their hair in token
of gri^. Besides the knife, bow, and hatchet of the
forest warrior, they carried also on the plains the lance
and shield of the horseman. Polygamy was recog-
nized. There was no clan system.

To the Sioux the earth was a great island plain
surrounded by an ocean far to the west of which was
the spirit world. There were two souls — some said
four — one of which remained near the grave after
death, while the other travelled on to the spirit
world, or in certain cases became a wandering and
dangerous ghost. In the west also, m a magic house
upcm the top of a high mountain and guarded by
four sentinel animals at the four doorways, lived the
Wakinyan, or thunders, the greatest dt the gods,
and mortal enemies of the subterraneim earth spirite
and the water spirits. The sun also was a great
god. There was no supreme "Great Spirit , as
supposed by the whites, no ethical code to their
supematurauBm, and no faeavoi or hell in their

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wpirit world. Among animals the buffalo was natu-
rally held in highest veneration. Fairies and strange
monsters, both good and bad, were everywhere,
usually mvisible, but sometimes revealing them-
selves in warning portent. Dreams were held as
direct revelations of the supernatural. Taboos,
fasting, and sacrifices, including voluntary torture,
were frequent. Among the great ceremonials the
annual sun dance was the most important, on which
occasion the principal performers danced at short
intervals for four days and nights, without food,
drink, or sleep, undergoing at the same time painful
bodily laceration, either as a propitiation or in ful-
filment of a thanksgiving vow. The several warrior
orders and various secret societies each had their
special dance, and for young girls there was a pub^y
ceremony. (For cults and home life see works of
Dorsey and Eastman quoted in bibliography below.)
In physique, intellect, morality, and general manli-
ness the Sioux rated among the finest of the Plains
tribes. Under the newer conditions the majority
are now fairly industrious and successful farmers apd
stock-raiuers.

LANonAGE ANi> LiTERATDHB. — The Sioux language
is euphonious, sonorous, and flexible, and possesses a
more ^undant native literature than that of any
otbiex tribe within the United States,with the possible
exception of the Cherokee. By means of an alphabet
system devised by the early Presbyterian mission-
aries, nearly all of the men can read and write their
own language. The printed literature includes
religious worKs^ school textbooks, grammars, and
dictionaries, miscellaneous publications, and three
current mis^on joumalfl, Catholic, as already noted,
Presbyterian, and Episcopal^ all three entirely in
Sioux. The earliest publication was a spellin^-Dook
by Rev. J. D. Stevens in 1836. In linguistics the
principal is the "Grammar and Dictionary of the
Dakota Language", by Rev. S. R. Riggs, published
by the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, in 1852,
and republished in part, with editing by Dorsey, by
the Bureau of Am. Ethnology, Washington, in 1892-4.

Population. — Contrary to flie usual rule with
Indian tribes, the Sioux have not only held their
own since the advent of the whites, but have appar-
ently slightly increased. This increase, however, IS due
largely to incorporation of captives and intermarriage
of whites. We have no reliable estimates for the
whole tribe before 1849, when Governor Ramsey
gave them "not over 20,000", while admitting that
some resident authorities gave them 40,000 or more,
iliggs in 1851 gives them about 25,000, but under-
estimates the western (Teton) bands. By official
census of 1910 they ntwiber altogether 28,618 souls,
including alt mixed-bloods, distributed as follows:
Minnesota, scattered, about 929: Nebraska, Santee
agency. 1155; North Dakota, Devil's Lake (Fort
Totten) agency, 986; Standing Rock agency, 3454;
South Dakota, Flandreau agency, 275, Lower Brul6,
469, Crow Creek, 997, Yankton, 1763, Sisseton,
1994, Cheyenne River, 2690, Rosebud, 5096, Pme
Ridge,6758. Canada: Birdtail,OakLake,OakRiver,
Turtle Mountain, Portage La Prairie (Manitoba),
613; Wahspaton, .Standing Buffalo, Moosejaw, Moose
Woods (Bask.), 455. Those in Canada are chiefly
descendants of refugees from the United States
in 1862 and 1876.

Bktakt and Murch, Ritf. of the Oreal Matvtere hy the Sioux
Indians (St. I'etcr, 1872) ; BdrkaD Cath, Inb. MwstONS, Annvat
RtporU of the Direclor (WBstuDgton) ; Annual Report* of the Depl.
of tnd. Affairs (Oltawa, Csnada); Carver, TratOt through
Ike Interior Parlx of N. Am. (1766-8) (London, 1778, and later
edition!)) ; Catux, Mannert. CxMomi and CondUinn of the N. An.
Ind*. (London, 1841. and later editions) : CHnrENDBi*. An. Fur
Trade (New York, 1902); Ckittbnden amd RicBABDaoM, Lift,
LeUmand TraveU of Fr. Pierrt-Jtan D» Smtl, (New York. 1905) ;
CoifMiHsiONBB or IND. AiTAtRa. j4»nual Reportt (Waahintton);
Condition of thM Indian 7Wh*, R*port of Joint Apcewi/ Commiltet
(WMhiDston, 1867): Dobut, Stvdv of SiovaK CuOt, In llth
Rtpt. Bvr. Am. Mut. (WaaUnctOtt, 1894); Eastmait, Indian

B«yAs«l (Nflw York. 1008); lonL Wigwsm Smninau (Boato^

19U9); FisxKn, WarpaA and Bitauae (Cbicaco, 1^1; Hat-
DBN, Cmli. to tht Bthtography and PhitUogu <V th« Ind. Tribom
of the Mitovri VatUv in TVon*. Am. PAOm. Soe., n. a., XII (Hiil-
uclpbia, 1862); Hemnbfin, Dt*er^lion dt la LottitioTtt (nwis,
1083), ti. Sbxa (New York, 1880) ; Hinuan and Wxua, JornixU
of the Ret. S. D. /f inman (Philadelpfaia, 186B]- Jmif AadtfKma,
ed. Thwait«a, 73 vols., eqieciaUy Otiawa tmd lUinoi*, L— LXXt
(Cleveland, 1896-1901); Indian Affairt: Low and Troatim,
ed. Kappler, (WftahiioittoD. 1903-4); Kbatiho, SxpoiMon
(Lona'i) to the Sourcee of St. Peter'* River (Philadelphia, 1824,
and later editions); Lkwis akd Clark, Original Journal* of tht
Bxpoditim of 1804-6. ad. Tbwaites.S toU.(N«w York, lOM^
Dumeroue other editions more or leas oomplete, the fint offioial
report beins contained in the Meteage from the Preiidoni, Wmtik-
ington. 1806); McGbb, Siauan Indian* ia ISth Repl. Bv. Am.
Ethnologu (Washiogton, 1897): McKbnmkt awd Hall, Uiit,
Ind. TtUm* of North Am. (Phdadelphia, 1864, and other ed»-
tions): McLAroHUN, Mn Friend tAe Indian (Boatou, 1910);
Malucrt, Ptetograph* of the N. Am. Indiaru in 4th RepL Bur.
Am. Bthnoloffv (Wasbington, 1886); Idkm. Picture Writing
the Am. lad*, in 10th RepL Bur. Am. Ethnotogv (Waahioctoo,
1893); MAROBr. Dtcouvertea tt UabtieaemeTUa dt* Frantai*
(a vols., Paris. 1879-86); Maximilian, PaiwcB or Wied, Travde
in the interior of ff. Am. (London, 1843; oiinnal Oenoan ed.
2 vok., Coblena, 1839-41); Milu, Ptrmmal RtcMeaion* (Chi-
easo, 1896): Minnetota. Hitt. Soc. CoO*. (1872-1905): MooNxr,
Siouan Tribe* of tht Bait, Bull, tt. Bureau Am. Sthnoiofm (Waab-
iDpon, 1895; Idku, The Ohoit Dane* Religion and Siotix Oxd-
brMifc of 1890 ia 14th Rept. Bur. Am. Ethttoloav, II (Waahington,
1896); Neill. Hi*L of Minnetota (Philaddphia, 1858); Nev
York, Document* Relattng lo the Colonial Ritt. of (15 vols.,
Albany, 1S53-87) Nicoixbt,, Report on . . . Upper Mieeieeippt
(Senate Doe.) (Washington, 1843); North Dakota Hi*t. Soe.
ColU. (2 vols., Bismarck, 1906-8) ; Parkman, Oregon Trail ( New
York, 1849, and later editions): Pkrrin dp Lac, Vt^/age* dam
Ui deux Louieianee, 1801-S (Pans and Lyons, 1805): Pixt, Bxpo-
diiion to the Source* of the MitiMippi (Philadelphia, 1810);
PiLUNO, Bill, of the Siouan Languagee, BuU. 5, Bvr. Am. Blhnol-
ooy (Washington, 1887); Poole, Among the Sioux of Dakota
(New York, 1881); liAUSxr, Report on Sioux in Rtpl. Comener.
Ind. Afairt for 1849 (Washington, 18^); Ratoux, Amhum*
eenoee. Memoir* and Lecture* (St. Paul, 1890) ; RiQos. The Dakota
Language in CoU*. Minn. Hist. Soc., I (St. Paul. 1851, reprint
St. Paul, 1872); Idkm, Grammar and Diet, of the Dakota Larv-
guage: 8mith*onian Contribution*, IV (Washington, 1852); Isni.
Tahkoo Wahkan or the Gotpd ammm the Dakota* <3oa\aa. 1869);
lUKM, Mary and I: Forty Year* with the Sioux (Chicago, 1880) ;
RoBiNBON, Hilt, of the Sioux Indiana in CoUe. South Dakota
Hilt. Soo.. II (Aberdeen, S.D., 1904): Rotcb and Thomas.
Indian Land Ceetion* in 18th Rept. Bur. Am. Ethnology, II Cffnabr
ington, 1899); Schoolcraft, TraveU . to the Souroea

of the Mi*ei*eivpi (Albany, 1821) ; Idcm, Hitl. Condition and
ProtpeeU of the Indian Tribe* of the V. S. (6 vols., PhUadel-
phia, 1851-7): Sheridan (in cAaiw), Record of Engagement* with
Hostile Indian*, etc., 1808-188$ ^aabin^n, 1882); Shea, Hiit.
of the Catholic Afisiioni among the Indtan Tribe* of the U. S.
(New York, 1865); Idem, Due. and BxpLof the Mi»*i*tippi Vol-
Ui/ (New York, 1852; and Albany, 1903); Ds 3usr. Oregon
Million* (New York, 1847: Tt. edition, Ghent, 1848);
Idem, Weitem Mi**ion* and Mi**ionarie* (New York, 1863);
(see also CmiTBiratBN and RiCHABDaoN), South Dakota Hi*t.
*'oc. Coll*. (3 vole., Aberdoeu, 8. D., 1902-6); Wall. RecoUeo-
tioni of the Sioux Maeiaere U8$t) (Lake City. Minn., 1909);
Warren, Exploratioru in the Dakota Country, 1855, Senata
Doc. (Wnabington. 1856); Wabbkn, Hiei. of the Ojibvay* in
.Vinn. Hist. Soc CoUe.,\ (St. Paul, 1885); Whipple. Liohte
and Shadowi of a Long Bpiieopate (New York, 1899) ; Wiieontin
Hitl. Soe. CoU*. (16 vola., Madiaon, 1855-1902).

• James Moohbt,

Slpibo Indiam, a numerous tribe of Fanoan lin-
guistic stock, formerly centring about the Pisqui and
Aguaitia tributaries of the upper Ucayali River, Prov-
ince of Loreto, north-eastern Peru, and now found as
boatmen or labourers along the whole course of that
stream. They speak the same language as the
Conlbo, Pano, and Setebo, whom they resemble in
habit and ceremonial.

The Siptbo became known about the same time as
their cognate tribes early in the seventeenth century,
but opposed a determined rcsist^ce to the entrance
of both gold-hunters and missionaries (1657), for a
long time frustrating al! Christianizing efforts in the .
UcayaJi region by their constant raids upon the mis-
sion settlements, particularly of the Setebo. In 1670,
in common with other tribes of that r^on, they were
greatly wasted by smallpox. In 1736 theyr broke the
power of the Setebo in a hloody battle, but in 1764 Uie
Franciscan Father Juan de Frezneda entered their
country and so far won their good will that he suc-
ceeded in making peace between the two tribes and
in the next year (176S) established the first mission
among the enlpibo under the title of Santo Domingo

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de ^squi. Tbia was shortly folknrad by tb« founding
of Santa Barbara de Archani and Santa Ciue de
Aguaitia in the same tribe, together with a resump-
tira <A work among the Conibo, first undertaken in
1685. Among oUm labonms in the Sipibo field at

Aboriqihal Vn.LA.ox on thi Pacbttu Riveb, Pxsn

this period was Father Joa6 Amich, author of a history
of the Ucayali missions. Suddenly uid without warn-
ing in the summer of 1766 all the river tribes attacked
the missions simultaneously, slaughtered nine of the
misBionaries together with their neophytes, and com-
pletely destroyed all that had been accomplished by
years of perseveriiu sacrifice. Rungato, a Setebo
ohid, who bad profesBed the greatest friendship for
the missionaries, appean? to have been the leader.
The reason of thr outbreak was never knoiui. It may
have been jealousy of authority, impatience of re-
sti'ant, covetousnesd of the mission propeity, some
unrecorded outrage by the Spaniards on the frontier,
some dream, or superstitious panic such as are of so
frequent occurrence among savages. A small relief
expedition sent out in cham of three Franciscans the
next year learned the detaiu of the massacre, and was
forced to turn back, but was permitted to retire with-
out molestation.

This last rising of the wild tribes of the middle
Ucayali was in some measure an echo of a similar

ABOHionfAL Bone on tbk Ucatau Ritzb
n» fc"f*"f bags contsin pounded maoioe root fram whiob tbe
poiaonon juieB u being pnnad ost.

riring of the wfld Campa tribes on the upper branches
<kF the same stream in 1742, led by Juan Santos, an
^XMtate Quichua Indian, who assumed the title of the
Inca Atahualpa (see QuicauA), and resulting in tiie

dertnnstion of afl the missions of that region and
slauxhter of nearlv eighty Franciscan missionaries.
Of tnis rising of the Campa, Hemdon says: "It is
(juite evident that no distaste for the CathoUo religion
induced this rebellion; for in the year 1750, eight
years afterward, the Marquis of Mina-hermosa,
marching mto this country for the punishment of the
rebels, found the church at Quimisi in perfect order,
with candles burning before the images. He bumea
the town and ofauroh, and six years after this, when
another entrance into this country was made by Gen-
eral Bustamente, he found the town r^uilt and a
laree cross erected in the middle of the plaza. I have
had occasion myself to notice the respect and rev-
erence of these Indians for their pastors, and their
delight in participating in the ceremonial and sense-
striung worship of the Roman Church." A similar
instance is recorded of the revolted Pueblos (q. v.),
as also the unconverted Setebo. Following close
upon the massacre of 1766 came the expulsion of the.
Jesuits by royiU decree in the following year, and the
UcayaU region was given over to barbarism until
1791, when by direction of the superior of the Fran-
ciscan college of Ocopa, Father Narciao Girbal with
two companions once more braved the wilderness
dangers and made
succesrful founda-
tion at Sarayacu
(q. v.) int ■) which
mission and its
branches most of
the wandering
river Indians wctc
finally gathered.

A description
<A the Sipibo will
answer in most
of its details for
all the tribes of
the Ucayali and
Huallaga region,
within the former
sphereof influence
of the Franciscan
missionaries, with
the addition that
certain tribes,
particularly the
Casbibo, were
noted for their cannibalism. There was very little tribal
solidarity, each so-called tribe being broken up into
petty bands ruled by local chiefs, and seldom acting
together even against a common enemy. They sub-
sisted chiefly on fish, game, turtle eggs, bananas, yuccas,
and a little com, iwriculture, however, being but
feebly developed. Tne root of the yucca was roasted
as bread, ground between stones for flour, boiled or
fried, while from the juice, fermented vrith saliva,
was prepared the intoxicating masaio or chic/ia, which
was in requisition at all family or tribal festivals.
Salt was seldom used, but clay-eating was common
and sometimes of fatal consequence. Their houses,
scattered simply at intervals along the streams, were
of open framework thatched with palm leaves.
The arrow poison^ usually known as curari, was pre-
pared from the mice of certain lianas or tree vines
and was an article of intertribal trade over a great
extent of territory. They either went, entirely
naked or wore a short skirt or sloevele.H8 shirt
woven of cotton or bark fibre. Head flattening and
the wearing of nose and ear pendants and labrets
were common. They blackened their teeth with
a vegetable dye. The modem civilized Indians
dress m light peon fashion.

Although most of the tribes could count no hi^er
than five, their general mentality was hieh^ and they
progrsMed lapi^ in civilized arts, jhfii religic"

A Sipibo Ttpb

ized arts. Th^ rebgum

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waa ftTfimMm, dmninated by the yttUmi or prieets, but
with few great oeremonies. As among all savages,
disease and death were commonly ascribed to evil
spirits or witchcraft. Polygamy was universal, the
women being frequently obtained by raids upon other
tribes. Among their barbarous customs were the
eating of orisoners of war, and sometimes of deceased
pfu«nt8, WB killmg of the helpless and of deformed
children and twins, and a sort of circumcision of
yoimg girls at about the age of twelve years. A part
of the Sipibo still roam the forests, but the majority
are now civilized and employed as boatmen, rubber-
gatherers, or labourers along the river. In common
with all the tribes of the region their numbers are
steadily decreasing. See also Sbtbbo Indians.

Cooault particularly: Raimondi, El Pent. II and III, Hitl. d4 la
Qtoffrafia ad Penl, bks. i and ii (Lima, 1876-79), Raimondi de-
rives much of his information from a MS. history of the Fran-
eiaean missiona, by Fernando Rodri^ea, 1774, preoerved in the
oonvtmt at Lima: Idem, Provineia LiUcral th Lareto (Lima, 1862),
ooDdenaod tr. by Bollart in Anthropoloaieal Knieto (Lon-
don, May, 1863): Brinton, Ameriam Kaee (New York, 1S91);
Cajbtblnau, Bxptditim dan* U$ portiM cenfrolo lU CAvUrioue
du Sud. IV (Pans, 1891) ; Ebcbbabot, Indiaru oj Peru in SmilA-
•on. MUcd. CaU»„ quarterly issue, V (Washington, 1909), 2;
Hebndon, Exvbiratvm of the Amaaon (WashinKtoo, 1854); Ob-
DlKAjaa, Lm 3at<«afrM du Ptrmt in Rtvue d" Sthnoffraphie, VI
(Fftcia, lSS7);SMnBaadLovs,/oiirn«v^wn UmatoParA (Lon-
don, 1836).

James Moonet.

Slrach. See Ecclesiabticus.

Siridus, Saint, Pope (384-99), b. about 334; d.
26 November, 399. Siricius was a native of Rome;
his father's name was Tiburtius. Siricius entered the
service of the Church at an early age and, according
to the testimony of the inscription on his grave, was
lector and then deacon of the Roman Church during
the pontificate of Liberius (362-66) . After the death
of Damasus, Siricius was unanimously elected his
BUcceasor (December, 384) and consecrated bishop
IHt>bably on 17 December. Ursinus, who had been
a rival to Damasus (366), was alive and still main-
tained his claims. However, the Emperor Valentinian
UI, in a letter to Pinian (23 Feb.. 385), gave his
oonsent ttf the eleotkm that had been held and praised
the piety of the newly-elected bishop; consequen^y
no difficulties arose. Immediately upon his eJeva^
tion Siricius had occasion to assert his primacy over
the universal Church. A letter, in which questions
were asked on fifteen different points concerning bap-
tism, penance, church discipline, and the celibacy of
the clergy, came to Rome addressed to Pope Da-
masus by Bishf^ Himerius of Tarragona, Spain. Siri-
eiiB answered this letter on 10 February, 385, and
gave the decisions as to the matters in question, ex-
ercising with full consciousness his supreme power
of authority in the Church (Constant, Epist. Rom.
Pont. ", 625 sq.). This letter of Siricius is of special
importance because it is the oldest completely pre-
served papal decretal (edict for the authoritative de-
cision of questions of discipline and canon law). It is,
however, certain that before this earlier popes had also
issued such decretals, for Siricius himself in his let-
ter mentions "general decrees" of Liberius that the
latter had sent to the provinces; but these earlier ones
have not been preserved. At the same time the pope
directed Himerius to make known his decrees to the
neighbouring provinces, so that they should also be
observed there. This pope had very much at heart
the maintenance of Church discipline and the obser-
vance of canons by the clemr and laity. A Roman
synod of 6 January', 386, at witich eighty bishops were
present, reaffirmed in nine canons the laws of the
Church on various points of discipline (consecration
of bishops, celibacy, etc.). The decisions of the coun-
cil were communicated hy the pope to the bishops of
North Africa and probably in the same manner to
others who had not attended the synod, with the com-
mand to act in accordance with them. Another letter
whudi was sent to various ohurcbee dealt Trith tiie deo-

\ snucnrs

tion of vorthy bishops and priests. A synodal letter
to the Gallican bishops, ascribed by Coustant and
others to Siricius, is ass^ed to Pope Innocent I by
other historians (P. L., XIII, 1179 sq.). In all his
decrees the pope s^>eakB with the consciouraiess of his
supreme ecclesiastical authority and of his pastoral
eare over all the churches.

Siridus was also obliged to take a stand i^inst
heretical movements. A Roman monk Jovinian came
forward as an opponent of fasts, good works, and the
higher merit oi celibate life. He found some ad-
herents among the monks and nuns of Rome, About
390-392 the pope held a synod at Rome, at which
Jovinian ana eight of his followers were condemned
and excluded from communion with the Chur<^.
The decision was sent to St. Ambrose, the great
Bishop of Milan and a friend of KrieiuB. Ambrose
now held a synod of the bishops of upper Italy
Trtiich, as the letter says, in agreement with his do*
oision also condemned the heretics. Other heretics
including Bishop Bonosus of Sardica (390), who was
also accused of errors in the dogma of the Trinity,
maintained the false doctrine that Mary was not
always a virgin. Siricius and Ambrose opposed
Bonosua and his adherents and refuted their false
views. The pope then left further proceedings
sfainst Bonosus to the Bishop of Thessalonica and
the other Illyrian bishops. Like his predecessor
Damasus, Sincius also took part in the PriscUlian
controvert ; he sharply condemned the episcopal
accusers of Priscillian, who had brought the matter
before the secular court and had prevailed upon the
usurper Maximus to oondemn to death and execute
Priscillian and some of his followers. Maximus
sought to justify his action by sending to the pope the
proceedings in the case. Siricius, howevo-, excom-
municated Bishop Felix of Trier who supported
Ithaoius, the accuser of Priscillian, and in whose city
the execution had tEdcen place. The pope addressed
a letter to the Spanish bishops in whicn he stated the
oonditions under which the converted Priscillians were
to be resfaffed to communion with the Church.

Accrarding to the life in the "Liber Pontificalis"
(ed. Duchesne, I, 216), Siricius abo took severe
measures against the Maniclueans at Rome. How-
ever, as Duchesne remarks Ooc. cit., notes) it can-
not be assumed from the writings of the converted
Augustine, who was a Manichsean when he went to
Rome (383), that Siricius took any particular steps
agiunst them, yet Augustine would certainly have
commented on this if such had been the case. The
mention in the "Liber Pontificalia" belongs properly
to the life of Pope Leo I. Neither is it probable,
as Lauren thinks (Gesch. der rom. Kirche, I, 633),
that Priscillians are to be understood by this mention
of Manichieans, although probably Priscillians were
at times called Manichteans in the writings of that
age. The western emperors, including Honorius
and Valentinian III, issued laws i^;aiDSt the Manl-
clueans, whom they declared to be political offenders,
and took severe action against the members of this
sect (Codex Theodosian, XVI, V, various laws). In
the East Siricius interposed to settle the Meletian
schism at Antioch; this schism had continued not-
withstanding the death in 381 of Meletius at the
Council of Constantinople. The followers of Mele-
tius elected Flavian as his successor, while the ad-
herents of Bishop Paulinus, after the death of this
bishop (388), elected Evagrius. Evagrius died in
392 and through Flavian's management no successor
was elected. By the mediation of St. John Chrysos-
tom and Theophilus of Alexandria an embassy, led
by Bishop Acacius of Beroea, was sent to Rome to
persuade Siricius to recognize Flavian and to re-
admit him to communion with the Church.

At Rome the name of Siricius is particularly con-
nected with the banlioa ovw the grave of St. Paul

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on the "Via. Osttensui which was rebuilt by the emperor
as a ba^ea of five Msles during the pontificate of
Siricius apd was dedicated by the pope in 390.
The name of Siricius is still to be found on one of the
pillars that was not destroyed in the fire of 1S23,
and which now stands in the vestibule of the side
entrance to ihe transept. Two of his coutemjMra-
ries describe the character of Siricius diqiara^gly.
Paulinas of Nola, who on his viat to Rome m 395
was treated in a guarded manner by the pope, speaks
of the vrbid papas »itj>erba ditcretio, the hautdit^
policy of the Roman bishop (Epist., V, 14). This
action of the pope is, however, explained by the fact
l^t there had been irregularities in the election and
consecration of Paulinus (Buse, "PauUn von Nola",
I, 193). Jerome, for his part, speaks of the "lack
<rf ju(fement" <« Siricius (Epist., cxxvii, 9) on ac-
count of the tatter's treatment of Rufinus of Aqui-
leia, to whom the pope had §iven a letter when
Rufinua left Rome m 398. which showed that he
was in oonmnmion with tne Church. The reason,
however, does not justify the judgment which Jerome
expressed against the pope; moreover, Jerome in his
polemical writings often exceeds the limits of pro-
priety. All that is known of the labours oi Sinohia
refutes the criticism of the caustic hmnit of Bethle-
hem. The "Liber Pontificalis" gives an incorrect
date for his death ; he was buried in the eoem^rium
of Priscilla on the Via Salaria. The text of the in-
scription on his grave is known (De Rossi, "In-
scriptiones christ. urbis Ronue", II, 102^ 138).
His feast is celebrated on 26 November. His name
was inserted in the Roman Martyrology by Bene-
dict XIV.

Liber Pmti/., sd. Ddchesnb. I, 216-17; CouaTANT, Bpitt.
Roman. Pont., I; Jxrwi. R«a. Poid. Rom.. I. 2ad ed., 40-42;
Bab0T, La plua ancitnne DfcrftdU (Paria, 1904); Lanoen, CmcA.
der rAn. Kircht, I (Bonn, 1881), 611 sqq.; Radbcren, Jahrh. der
diruU. KireAe (Freiburg, 1897); QsnAB, Qe$ck. Rowu u. dtr
fttlMte, I, pMwm; HsraLK, JS:<»mlMW»wc*H II. Sod ed.. 4fi-<8, 51.

J. P. KlRBCH.

Bizieto, GuouEUfOj cardinal and scholar, b. at
Guardavalle near Stilo in Calabria, 1514; d. at Rome.
6 October, 1585. The son of a physician, he receivea

an excellent edu-
cation, made the
acquaintance of
distinguished
scholars at Rome,
and became an in-
timate friend of
Cardinal Marcello
Cervino, later
Pope Marcellus
II. He prepared
for Cervmo, who
was President of
the Council of
Trent in its initial
period, extensive
reports on all the
important ques-
tions presented for
discussion. After
his appointment as
custodian of the
Vatican Library,
Sirleto drew up a
complete de6(»rip-
tive catalogue cS its Greek manuscripts and pre-
paied a new edition of the Vulgate. Paul IV named
nim prothonotary and tutor to two <A his neph-
ews. After this pope's death he taught Greek
and Hebrew at Rome, numbering St. Charies Bor-
romeo among his students. Dunng the conduding
period of the Council of Trent he was, although he
eontinued to reside at Rome, the constant and most
heeded adviser of the oardmaMegatcs. He was him-

self created cardinal in 1565, became Bishop of San
Marco in Calabria in 1566, and of Squillace in 1568.
An order of the papal secretary of state, howevar, en-
joined his residence at Rome, where he was named, in
1570, hbrarian of the Vatican Library. His influence
was paramount in the execution of the scientific un-
dtftakings decreed hy the Council of Trent. He col-
laborated in the pubuoation of the Roman Catechism,
presided over the Commissions for the reform of the
Roman Breviary and Missal, and directed the work of
the new edition of the Roman Martyrology. Highly
appreciative of Greek culture, he entertained veiy
friendly relations with the East and encouraged aU
efforts tending to ecclesiastical reunion. He was at-
tended in his last illness by St. PhUip Neri and was
buried in the presence of Sixtus V.

HosTER. NomenclatOT LU.. I (2d ed., Iniuibniok. 1892). 95-e;
BIcHEB-BiRON. Hill, du brttiairt, II (Paris, 190S), 169-71,
punm.

N. A. Webeb.

Siixnlum (Szer^m), Diocese op (Sirmiensis),
situated near the modem town of Mitrovitz in
Slavonia; its church is said to have been founded by
St. Peter. The district of Szer6m was subject to
the Archbishop of Kalocsa after the Christianisation
<A Hungary. In 1228, the archbishop petiUoned the
Holy See, m consideration of the large extent of his
diocese, to found a new bishopric, and in 1229
Gregory IX established the See of 8ier€m, the juris-
diction of which covered almost exclusively the coun-
try on the right bank of the Sava River. The see
was under the Turkish Government in 1526. It had
no bishop from 1537 to 1578, and was held by a
titular bishop after 1624. In 1709 the see was re-
established with some changes in its territory.
Clement XIV united it with Bosnia and Diakovar
in 1773.

SsOkImti. Vindieim Sintneniet (BiuU, 1746) ; Faslati,
lUyricum murum, VII, 449-811: Put. Specimen HitwdOaa
Hwmaria, II, 362-98; A kalolilnu MaeyarofnOa (Budapest,
1902).

A. Aiatisr.

Slnacoidi Jacques, one of the greatest adiolan of
the seventeenth century, b. at Riom in the Depart-
ment of Puy-de-D6me, France, Oct., 1559; d. in
Paris,70ct.,1651.
He entered the
Society of Jesus
in 1576 and was
appointed in 1581
[mifesBor of clas-
sical lai^piageB in
Paris, where he
numbered St.
Francis de Sales
among his pupils.
Called to Rome
in 1590, he was
for sixteen years
private secretary
to the Jesuit su-
perior general,
Aquaviva, devot-
ing his leisure mo-
ments during the
some period to
the study of the
literary and historical treasures of antiquity. He
entertained intimate relations with several learned
men then present at Rome, among them Bellormine
and particularly Baronius, to whom he was helpful
in the composition of the "Annales". In 1608 he
returned to Parid, and in 1637 became confessor to
King Louis XIII. His first literary production ap-
peared in 1610, and from that date until the end of
nis life almost evnyyear witnessed the publication
of aome new woric. The results of his literary labours

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are chiefly represeoted by edititms of Greek and Latin
Chrtatian writing. Thecxloret of Cyrus, Ennodius,
Idatius of Galliciaj Sidonius Apollinaris, Theodulpn
of Orleans, Paachasius Radbertus, Flodoard, and Hinc-
mar of Rheims are among the writers whose works
he edited, either completely or in ^rt. Of greatim-
portance were his editions of the capitularies m Charles
tiie Bald and successors and of the ancient councils
of France: "Karoli Calvi et successorum aliquot
BVanciffi regum Capitula" (Paris, 1623); "Concilia
antiqua Galliffi" (Paris, 1629). His collected works,
a complete list of which will be found in de Backer-
Sommervogel (VII, 1237-60)_, were published in
Paris in 1696 and again at Venice in 17^^.

Db BACKBB^HMBtTOOBi, BM. J» la comp. de Jtaiu, VII
(BnineU, 1896). 1237-61; CoLOUito, Vit du Phe Sirmmd (Ls
Roi^ieUa, 1671) ; Cuuicbs, fiwv. /}u(. (London, 18IG>, s. v.

N. A. Webeb.

Sis. See Flavias.

Sisinnius, Pope, date of birth unknown; d- 4 Feb..
708. Successor of John VII, he was consecrated
probably 15 Jan., 70S, and diedafter a brief pontificate
of about three weeks: he was buried in St. Peer's.
Be was a Syrian by birth and the son of <Hie John.
Althouf^ he was so dieted with gout that he was
unable evra to feed himself, he is nevertheless said
to have been a man of strong character, and to have
been able to take thought for the good of the city.
He gave orders to prepare lime to repair the walls
of Rome, and before he died consecrated a bi^p for
Corsica.

Lib&F Poatifia^, I, 338; Makt*. The IAm* of the Popei in the
Xoriy MiddU Agf, I, pt. u (St. Louia and London, 1902), 124.

Horace K. Mann.

Sifters of Charts of (Unclxmat!, Ohio.—

On 27 October, 1829, at the request of Bishop
Fenwick of Qncinnati, several sisters from Mother
Seton's community at Enunitsburg, Maryland,
opened an orphanage, parochial school, and academy
on Sycamore Street opposite the old cathedral, then
occupying the present site of St. Xavier's Church and
college. When Bishop Purcell built the new cathe-
dral on Eightii and Plum Sts., sistera moved to
Thkd and Phim Sts., and later the academy was
transferred to George St., near John. When Father
Etienne, siiperior of the Daughters of Charity of
France, in December, 1850, effected the affiliation of
the sisterhood at Emmitsbuiv with the Daughters
of Charity of France, Sister Margaret George was
superior in Cincinnati. She had entered the com-
munis at Emmitsburg early in 1812, and had filled
tibe office of treasurer and secretary of the community,
teaching in the academy during most of Mothn-
Seton's life. She wrote the early records of the
American Daughters of Charity, heard all the dis-
cussions r^r(£ng rules and constitutions, and left
to her community in Cincinnati letters from the first
bishops and clergy of the United States, Mother
Seton B original ^umal written in 1803 and some
of her letters, aad vMuable writing of her own. She
upheld Mother Seton's rules, constitutions, tradi-
tions, and costume, confirmed by Archbishop CarroD
17 Jan., 1812, objecting with Archbishop Carroll
and Mother Seton to the French rule in its fulness,
in that it limited the exercise of charity to females
in the oiphan^es and did not permit the teaching
of boys in the schools. The sisters in New York
had separated from Emmitsburg in December, 1846,
because they were to be withdrawn from the boys
orphans^. When it was finally dedded that the
commum^ at Emmitsburg was to affiliate with the
FVenoh DaiuEhters of Charity, the sisters in Cin-
dnnati laid oefore Archbishop Purcell their desire
to preserve the original rule of Mother Seton's
foundation. He confirmed the sisters in their de-
sire and notified the superior of the French Daughters
ci Chazity that he would take under his protectaon

the followers of Motiier Seton. Archbishop Purcell
became ecclesiaatical superior and was succeeded
by Archbishop Elder ana Archbishop Moeller.

The novitiate in Qnciooati was opened in 1852-
During that year twenty postulants were received.
The first Catholic hospital was opened by the ast^^
in Nov^nber, 18^. In February, 1863, the siateni
took charge of the Mary and Martha Society, n
charitable organization established for the benefit
of the poor ^ the city. On 15 August, 1853, the
sisters purchased their first property on the come*
of Sixth and Parks Sts., and'opened there in Septem'
ber a boarding and select day-«chooI. The following
July they bought a stone house on Mt. Harrison near
Mt. St. Mary Seminary of the West, and called it
Mt. St. Vinc^t. The community was incorporated
under the laws of Ohio in 1854 as "The Sisters of
Charity of Gncinnati, Ohio". Mother Margaret
George, Sister Sophia Gillmeyer, Mother Josephine
Harvey, Sister Anthony O'Connell, Mother Retina
Mattingly, Sister Antonio McCanrey, and Sister
Gonsalva Dou^erty were the incorporatoia. In
1856 Mt. St. Vincent Academy was transferred to
the "Cedars", the former home of Judge Aldenon.
It remained the mothovhouse until 29 S^t., 1869,
and the boarding-school until July, 1906. It is now
a day academy and a residence for tJie ristoB teach-
ing adjacent parochial sc^huIs. In 1857 Bishop
Bayl^ of New Jersey sent five postulapts to Mt.
St, Vincent, Cedar Grove, Cincinnati, to be trained
by Mother Margafet George. At the conclusion
oi their novitiate, Mother Margaret and Sister
Anthony were to have gone with them to Newark,
New Jersey, to renuun until the little community
would be well established, but affairs proving too
urgent, Motiier Margaret interceded with the New
YaA community, and Asters Xavier and Catherine
were appointed superiors over the Uttte band. In
July, 1859, Mother Margaret George having held
the office of mother for the two terms allowed By the
constitution, was succeeded by Mother Josephine
Harv^. During the Civil War many <^ tiie sisters
served in tiw hoiQiitals. Between ISoi and 1866 the
sisten had taken charge of ten parochial schools.
Archbishop Lamy of New Mexico, and Bishop
Machebreuf of Colorado, both pionew priests of
Ohio, in 1865 petitioned Archbishop Purcell for a
colony of Sisters of Charity to open a hospital and
oiphanage in tJie West. Accoroingly four sisters
left Cincinnati 21 August, 1865, arriving at Santa
FS, 13 Sept., 1865. The archbishop gave them bis
own reeddence which had been used also as a seminary.
There were twenty^five orphans to be eared for and
some sick to be nursed. On 15 August, 1866, Jo-
seph C. Butler and Lewis Worthington presented
Sister Anthony O'Connell with the Good Samaritan
Ho^ital, a building erected by the Government for
a Marine Hospital at a cost of $300,(K)0. Deeply
impressed by the charity done in "old St. John's
duri^ the war, these non-Catholic gentlemen bought
the Goremment hospital tot $90,000 and placed the
deeds in the hands of Sister Anthony, Butler su^est-
injg the name "Good Samaritan". Early in 1870
Bishop Domenec of Pittsburg, desirit^ a diocesan
brancn of Mother Seton's community, sent four
postulants to be trained in the Cincinnati novitiate.
On tiieir return they were accompanied by five of
the Cincinnati sisters who were to remain with them
for a limited time, and to be vrithdrawn one by one.
Finalhr all were recced but Mother Aloyna Lowe
and Sister Ann Regina Ennis, the Conner being
superior and the tatter mistress of novices. Mother
Aloysia governed the community finnly but tenderly,
and before her death (1889) had the satisfaction of
sedng the sisters in their new mother-houae at Seton
Hill, Gremsburg, Pa., the academy having bean
bbeuei, and the chapel dedicated, 3 Mav, 188B.

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MotlMr Aknna'i term of office htd oqnred 10 Ju^,
1889, and she was saeoeeded by Baker Ann Regina
(d. 16 May, 1894). The community at Oreensbun,
Pa., at present number more than three hundred.
Their St. Joseph Academy at the mother-house is
flourishing; they teach about thirty parochial schools
in. the Dioceses of Altoona and Fittoburg and conduct
the Pittsburg Ho^ital and Rosetia FoumUing Asylum
in Pittdsuif.

From 1S6B to 1880 the dsters in Cincinnati
opened tlurty-tiu<ee branch houses, one of these hang
the St. Joseph Foundling and Maternity Hospital,
a gift to Sister Anthony from Joseph Butler. Jn
1869 a site for a mother-house, five miles from Cedar
Grove, was purchased. The first Mass was offered
in the novitiate chapel, 24 October, 1869, by Rev.
Thos. S. Byrne, the chaplain, the present Bishop of
Nashville, Tomessee. In 1882 the buildii^ of the
new mother-house began under his direction. Before
its completion Mother Regina Mattingly died (4
June, 1883). Mother Josephine Harvey again as-
sumed the office. In 1885 the new St. Joseph
was burned to the ground. The present mother-
house was bwm at once under the superintendence
of Rev. T. S. Byrne. Mt. St. Mary Seminary,
closed mnce the financial troubles, was now used
for the sisters' novitiate. In July, 1886, the asters
took possession <d the west wing of the mother-house,
and the following year the seminarv re^>ened.
Motlier Josephine Harv^ resigned the office of
mother in 18S8, and was succeeded hy^ Mother Mary
Paul Hayes, who filled Mother Josephine's unexpired
term and was re-elected in July, 1390, dying the fol-
lowing April. Mother Mary Blanche Davis was ai>-
point»l to the office of mother, and held it until
July, 1899. During her incumbentrv the Seton Hos-

§ital, the Glockner Sanitarium at Colorado Springs,
t. Joseph Sanitarium, Mt. Clemens, Mich., and
Santa Maria Institute for Italians were begun;
additions were made to the mother-house. During
the administration of Mother Sebastian Shea were
built: the St. Joseph Sanitarium, Pueblo; the San
Rafael Hospital, Tnnidad; the St. Vincent Hospital,
Santa F6, New Mexico; the St. Vincent Academy, Al-
buquerque: and the Good Samaritan Annex in Chfton.
Mother Mary Blanche resumed the duties of office
in 1905, and was re-elected in 1908. During these
terms a very large addition was built to the Glockner
Sanitarium and to the St. Mary Sanitarium, Pueb-
lo; the Hospital Antonio in Kenton, Ohio: a laige
boarding school for boys at Fayetteville, Ohio; ~ the
new Seton Horoital was bought; the new Good Sa-
maritan Hospital wasbegun. Manv parochial schools
were opened, amongtbem a school for coloured chil-
dren in Memphis, Tennessee.

The community numbera: about 800 members;
74 branch houses; 5 academies; 2 orphan a^lums;
1 foundling a^lum; 1 Italian institute; 11 hospitals
or sanitariiuns; 1 Old Ladies' Home; 53 parochial
schools throughout Michigan, Ohio, Tennessee, Col-
orado, and New Menoo.

SiSTBB MaBT AoNBS.

Bitten oi the Uttle ConQwny of Mary, a

oongr^tion founded in 1877 in England to honour
in a particular manner the maternal Heart of the
Blessed Vir^, especially in the mystei^ of Calvary.
The Nsters m^ke an entire consecration of them-
selves to her, and aim at imitating her virtues. They
devote thaoBelves to the «ok and ^ng, itdiich is
their primnpal extuior work. They nurse the sick
in their own homes, and tHao receive them in the
ho^MtoIs and nursmg^omes attadied to their con-
vents. Th^ make no distinction of class, national-
ity, or creed, and exact no chai^ for their services,
but aocwt any ofierii^ whioh mi^r be made them.
Bendes uie pmmal attendaaoe i» the acfc, tiuy an

} 8I8T0IB

bonnd to pn^ oraitanualfy for the during, and in tb«
novitiate miteb before toe Blessed Saannieat, both
t:^ day and night, prayins for t^ (tying. When
circumstanoea require it, the usters may engage in
various forms of misedou work, especifuly in poor
districts. The rules received final approbation from
Leo XIII in 1893. The order conducts houses in:
Italv (1 in Rome, 1 at Florence, 1 at Fiesole): Eng-
land (3 in Londcm, 1 at Nottingham); Ireland (1 at
lomerick. 1 In Fermoy); Malta (1); United States
(Chicago); Australia (2 at Sydney, 1 at Adelaide);
South Africa (Port Elizabeut). The sisteis when
in the convent wear a black habit and blue vol,
with a white cloak in the chapel; when nursing, the
habit is of white linen, with a olue v^.

An association of pious women, known as " Pie
Donne" or "Affiliated", are aggregated to the order,
and shsdre in its prayers and good wotIcs, some re-
siding in their own homes, others living m the con-
vent, though in part separated from the community.
A confraternity is attached to the order, called the
Calvai^ Confraternity, the members o[ whi(^ as^st
those m their last agony by their prayers and, if
possible, by personal attendance.

MoiHBB M. Patbicc.

Blftiike Oholr.— Although it is known that the
Churdk, from her earliest days, employed music in
her cult, it was not imtil the time of her emei^ence
from the cataoonUw that she began freely to display
her beauty and splotdour in sa^ed sons. As early
as in the pontificate of Sylvester I ^14-35) we
find a regularly-constituted company of singers, under
the name of sdwla cantorvm, livmg together in a
building devoted to their exclusive use. The word
sdiola was in those days the Ic^sl designaticm of an
assoeiatum of eouals in any cfJhng or profesuon and
did not primarily denote, as in our time, a sdiool.
It had more the nature of a guild, a characteristic
which clung'to the papal choir for man^ centuries.
Hilary II (^1-8) ordained that the pontifical singers
live in community, while Gr^ory the Great (590-
604) not only made permanent the existing institu-
tion attached to St. John Lateran and including at
that time in its membership monks, aecukr clergy,
and boys, but established a second and similar one m
connexion wit^ the Bastlica of St. Peter. The latt^
is supposed to have served as a sort of preparatory
school for the former. For several centuries the
papal scAoIa canlorum retained the same general
character. Its head, archicanior or primiceritts, was
always a clergyman of high rank and ofim a
bishop. While it was his duty to intone the various
chants to be followed by the rest of the angos, he
was by no means t^eir master in the modem techni-
cal sense.

It is at the time of the transfer of the papal see
from Rome to Avignon in the thirteenth century that
a marked change takes place in the institution.
Innocent IV did not take his achola cantorum with
him to his new abode, but provided for its continu-
ance in Rome by tummg over to it properties, tithes,
and other revenues. Community life among the
singers aoems to have come to an end at this period.
Cl^nent V (1305-14) formed a new choir at Avignon,
consisting for the most part of French singers, who
showed a decided preference for the new developments
in church music — the dSchani and falsioordoni,
whidi had in the meantime gained maA vogue in
France. When (kegory XI (1370-^ retnmed to
Rome, he took his singers witii him and amalgamated
them with the still-existing, at least in name, aneioat
eohoUt cantorum. Before the sojourn of the papal
Court at Avignon, it had been the duty of the acKola
to accompany the pope to the church where he held
station, but after the return to Rome, the custom
eBtaUiobed at Avignm of "■'•*****'"g all pontifieal

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SRiru

30

{unctioH in the p^ial chun^ or chapel wu ood-
tinued and has exiatod ever since. The priinieerim
of former times is now no longer mentioned but is
replaced by the magiater capdUe, which title, however,
continues to be more an honorary one held by a bishop
or prelate than an indication of technical leadndiip,
as may be gathered from the relative positions as-
ngned to various dignitaries, their pren»atives, etc.
Inus the magMer capetlcB came immediat^ after
the cardinals, followed, in the order given, ay the
taeritta, caniorea, capellani. and clerici.

With the building by Sixtus IV (1471-84) of the
church for the celebration of all papal functions since
known as the Sistine Chapel, the original aehola
cantorum and subsequent capella porUificia or
eapeUa papcde, which still retains more or less of the
giuld chapter, becomes the capella aiatina, or Sis-
tine Choir, whose golden era takes its beginning.
XTp to this time the number of singers had varied
considerably, there being sometimes as few as nine
men and six boys. By a Bull dated NovembCT,
1483, Sixtus IV fixed the number at twenty-four,
six for each part. After the year 1441 the records
no longer mention the presence of boys in the choir,
the high voices, soprano and alto, beu^ thenceforth
sung by natural (and occasionally unnatural) soprani
faUetli and high tenors respeotivdy. Membo^p
m the papal choir became the great desideratum oa
singers, contrapuntists, and composers of every land,
which accounts for the presence in Rome, at least
for a time, of most of the great names of that period.
The desire to re-establish a sort of preparatory school
f<Hr the papal choir, on the plan of the ancient achola,
and incidentally to become independent of the ultrsr
montane, or foreign, singers, led Julius U (1503-13)
to issue, on 19 February, 1512, a Bull founding -the
capella Julia, which to this day performs all the choir
duties at St. Peter's. It became indeed, and has ever
mnce been, a nursery for, and steppin^^-stone to^ mem-
bership in the Sistine Choir. The high artistic aims
of its founder have, howevra*, but rarely been at-
tained, owing to the rarity of truly great <^oir-
masters. Leo X (1513-21), himself a muaiciao, by
ehooong as head of die o^aniiation a real musician,
irrespective of his clerical rank, took a step which was
of the greatest importance for Uie future. It had the
effect of transforming a group of vocal virtuoai on
equal footing into a compact vocal body, whose in-
t^pretation of the ereatest works of polyphony
which we possess, ana which were then coming into
odstmce, became the model for the rest of the world,
not only then but for all time. Leo's step was some-
what counteracted by SixtusV (1585-90), who orAeted
the singers to elect their leader anniudly from tiieir
own number. Paul II (1534r-W) on 17 November,
1545, publi^ed a Bull approving a new constitution
of the choir, which has been in ktrce ever since, and
according to which the choir-master proposes the
candidates for membership, who are then examined
by the whole company of singers. Since that time
the state of life of the candidate has not been a
factor.

While the Sistine Choir has, since its incipiency,
underanne many vicissitudes, its artistic ana moral
level fluctuating, like all things human, with the
mutations of the times, it has ever had for its purpose
and object to hold up, at the seat of ecclesiastical
authority, the highest model of liturgical music as
weQ as of its performance. When the Gregorian
mdodies were still tiie sole music of tiie C^undi, it
was the papal ohoir that set the standard for the
rest of Chnstendom, both as regards the purity of
the melodies and their rendition. Mter these melo-
dies had blossomed into polyphony, it was in the
Sistine Chapel that it reeeivM adequate interpreta-
tion. Hov the artistic degenoation, whidi cuurdi
nnwo snSered in diffennt periodB m many oonntarieif

new took hold for any length of time. The use

of instruments, even of die organ, has ever been ex-
cluded. The choir's ideal has always been the
purely vocal style. Sinee the accession of the preeent
pope, and under its present conductor, the falsetto
voices have been succeeded by boy^ voices, and the
artistic level of the institute has been raised to a
higher point than it had occupied for the jvevioua
thirty or forty years.

HABnu., BaiuteinefOrMunkofiehiehta, III, Di« rOmiieha Sehota
CanlontM und di* pSpiUiehen KapeiUttitger bi* tw MitUdet W.
Jahrhunderti (Leipiig. 1888); Schelle, Die paptdiehe SSrwr-
tJtvU in Rom (L«ip»g. 1872); Kixnls, ChoraUehuU (Fretbufa.
1899); Baho, Mtmorit teria>~eriiiekt oUUa nto « ddU optrt dt
Oiotaani Fitrimti da Pudnlrina (Rohm, 1828).

Joseph Otten.

Sitlfls, Titular See of (SmrBNSis), in Mauretania
Sitifensis. Sitifis, situated in Mauretania Csesaren-
sis, on the road from Cuthage to Cirta, was of no im-
portance under the Numidian kings and became
prominent only when Nerva established a colony
of veterans there. When Mauretania Sitifensis waa
created, at the close of the third century, Sitifis be-
came its capital. Under the Vandab it was the chief
town of a district called Zaba. It waa still the capital
of a province under Byzantine rule and was then a
place of strategic importance. Captured by the
Arabs in the aevenfli century, it was almost ruined
at the time of t^e French occupation (1838). It is
now Setif, the chief town of an ammdiaaement in the
Department of Constantine, A^eria. It contuna
15,000 inhabitant, of whom 3700 are Europeans
and 1600 Jews; it has a trade in cattle, cereals,
leather, and cloths. Interesting Christian inscrip-
tions are to be found there, one of 452 mentioning
the relics of St. Lawrence, another naming two
martyrs of Sitifis, Justus and Decurius; there are
a museum and the ruins of a Byzantine fortress.
St. Augustine, who had frequent relations with
Sitifis, informs us that in his time it cont^ned a
monastery and an episcopal school, and that it suf-
fered from a violent earthquake, on which occa^on
2000 persons, through fear of death, received baptism
(Ep., Ixxxiv: Serm., xix). Five bishops of this see
are known: Severus, in 409, mentioned in a tetter of
St. Augustine; Novatus, present at iba Council erf
Carthage (411), where he opposed the Donatist
Marcian, present at iSxd Council of Carthage (419),
dying in 440, mentioned in St. Ai^ustine's liters:
lAwrence, in 452; Donatus, present at the Council
of Carthage (484), and exiled by Huneric; Optatua,
at tiie Council of Carthage (525).

Shits, Diet, of Oretk and Roman Qooq.. a. v. SOifi: MOluw,
AoteaA PtoUmv. ed. Didot, I. 612; TouLorra, G600. d* CAMqtM
ehrHientu: Ma*irHani» (MootnuU. 1894), 185-9; DiUL.
h'Afrique hyanline (Puis, 1896), paanm.

S. Pftntrofcs.

Sltjar, BtrBNAvsNTDRA, b. at Porrera, Island of
Majorca, 9 Dec., 1739; d. at Sut Antonio, Cal., 3
Sept., 1808. In April, 1758, he received the habit
of St. Francie. After his ordination he joined the
Collie of San Fernando^ Mexico. In 1770 he was
assigned to California, arriving at San Diego, 21 Ma^,
1771. He was preset at the founding of the Mia-
non of San Antonio, and was appointea first mission-
ary by Father Junipero Serra. He toiled there until
his death, up to which time 3400 Indians had been
baptized. Father Sitjar mastered the Telame lan-
guage, spoken at the Mission of San Antonio, and
compiled a vocabulary with Spanish explanations,
published at New York in 1861. Though the list
of words is not as long as Arroyo de la Cuesta's dio-
tionaiy of 2884 words and sentenoee in Uie Mutaun
idiom of Mission San Juw Baulista, Sitjar's pvea
the pronunciation and fuller »planationB. He also
left a journal of an enloring erpedition vrtiich he
acoompanied in 1795. His ho^ was interred in the
oanetuaiy of the dmzoh.

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81XTUB

ArcMMt ^ Jtfifuion </ Santa Borboro; Jtoeordt ^ if Mm ^»
itntomo; Sitjab, VMofrularv, in tau'« i«brarv «^ Ammitm
Unffuutie* (New York, 1881) ; Ekouubot, TJU Awietooni in
Coiv/ornta (fUrbor Sprinn 1W7); BAMeaon, CoKAxfiis, II (San
Fnaouoo, 1S86).

ZePHTBIN ENOaLHABDT.

Bitten. See Sioh, Diocesb of.

Siunift, a titular see, suffragan of Sebastia in

Armenia Prima. Siunia is not a town, but a province
situated between Go^tcha, Araxa, and A^ovania,
in the present Russian districts of Chamakha, or
Baku, and Elisavetpol. The real name should be
Sisacan^ the Persian form, for Siunia got its name
from Sisac, the son of Gegham, the fifth Armenian
sovereign. Its first rulers, vassais of the kings of Ar-
menia w the shahs (rf Persia, date back to the fourth
century itf our era: about 1046 it became ao inde-
poident kingdom, out only till 1166. The Church
of Siunia was established in the fifUi century or per-
ham a little earlier. It soon became a metropolis
subject to the CathoUcoe of Armenia, and, as we see
in a letter of the patiiarch Ter Sargis in 1006, it
counted twelve crosiers, which must signify twelve
suffragan sees. The archdiocese contained 1400
villages and 28 monasterieB. In the ninth oen-
tuiy the metropolitan see was fixed in the convent
of TaUieo, situated between Ouronta and Migri,
sixty-two miles south-east of Lake Cokcha. Sep-
arated for a brief interval from Noravank, the See of
Siimia was reunited to it, but was defimtively sep-
arated again in the thirteenth century. In 1837 the
Diocese of Siunia was, by order of the Synod of
Etchmiadzin, suppressed and subjected directly to
the caUu^ieos under the supervision of the Bishop
of Erivan, who had a vicar at Tatheo. The complete
list at the bishops and metropolitans of Siunia, from
the fifth century till the nineteenth century, is kiiown;
amongst them we may mention Petros, a writer at
the b^inning of the sixth centtuy, and Stephanos
Orbelian, the historian of his Qburch. It is not
known why the Roman Curia introduced this episcopal
title, which does not appear in any Greek or Latin
"Notitia eiHscopatuum , and was nev^ a suffragan
of Sebastia.

La QviSM, Orient ekniMiniu. I (Pvis. 1740), 1443; Bbosiwt,
£Mm dkrMMOffwiMt do pHiwM A dM n^ttoptAiXtt df Bwmit in
MfatfiidaMcadlMia (to da iSatet-PAmbourv. IV (1862),

SraFSAMOB Obbblum, HUtain i» la Swumw, tr. Bao^
■■r (BMint-Fatanborg, ISM).

S. Vailh*.

Sim. See Skbasiu, AnnNUH Cathouc Dio-
caas OF.

fill Dayi' Work, Thb. See Hbxaehsbon.

Biztni I, Saint, Popk (in the oldest documents,
Xtbtdb is uie i^teUine used for the first three popes of
that name), succeeded St. Alexander and was followed
\ys St. TelesphorUB. According to the "Liberian
Qttalogue" of popes, he ruled the Church during the
reign of Adrian "a consulatu Nigri et Aproniani usque
Vero III et Ambibulo", that is. from 117 to 12fi.
Eos^ius^ who in his "Chronicon made use of a cat-
a^pM of popes different from the one he used in his
"ffistoria £oeleaiaBtica", states in his "Chrouicon"
that Sixtus I was pope from 114 to 124, while in his
"History" he nukes him rule from 119 to 128- Alt
authorities agree that he reigned about, ten years.
He was a Roman by birth, and his father's name was
Pastor. According to the "Liber Pontificalis" (ed.
Duchesne, I, 128), he passed the following three or-
dinances: (1) that none but sacred ministers are al-
lowed to touch ihe sacred vessels: (2) that bishops
lAo have been summoned to the HoW See shall, upon
their return, not be received by tiwir diocese exoept on
presenting Apostolic letters; (3) that aftw the Pref-
ace in the Mass the priest wall recite the Sanctus
with the people. The " Felieian Catalogue" of popes
and tha wmhu nur^nologies sin him the title of

martyr. His feast is celebrated on 6 Aprfl. He was
burifKl in the Vatican, beude the tomb of St. Peter.
His relics are said to nave been transferred to Alatri
in 1132, though O. Jozei (" II corpo di S. Sisto I., papa
e martire rivendicato alia basilica Vaticana"^ Rome,
1900) contends that they are still in the Vatican Ba-
silica. Butler (Lives of the Saints, 6 April) states that
Clement X gave some of his reUcs to Cardinal de
Rets, who placed them in the Abbey of St. Michad in
Lorraine. The Xystus who is commemorated in the
Canon of the Mass is Xystus II, not Xystus I.

AWi <SS., April. I, 531-4; lAber foiaijieali; ed, Dccnaain.
I (Puia. 1886), 128; Mabini, Cennt Uariei popotari •oproS.
Siito I, papa e martire, « tuo atUo in Alatri (Poliffno, 1884); de
PBBBns, D»l porUifioaio di S. Siito I, papa « martire, deUa tratw-
larion€ dtiU me raJiguu da Roma mc, memorM (Alatri, 1884);
Babhbt in Did. ChriaU Biog., a. v. Sixttu (2) L

MlCHAKL OtT.

Siztufl n (Xtotub), Saint, Pon, elected 31 Aug.,
257, martyred at Rome, 6 Aug., 258. His origin is
unknown. Th6 "Liber Pontificalis" says that he was
a Greek by birth, but this is probably a mist^e, ori^
inating from the false assumption that he was identi-
cal with a Greek
philosophy of the
same name, who
wa4 the author of
the so-oalled
"Sentences" of
Xystus. During
the pontificate ol
his predecessor,
St. ^phen, a
sharp dispute had
arisen between
Rome and the
African and Asi-
atic Churches,
concerning the re-
baptism of here-
tics, which had
threatened to end
in a complete
rupture between
Rome and the

Churohesctf Africa Hud or Br. Snrua II

and Ana Minor Datail from Uie Siatioe MadooBa.
fsee Ctpbian of Rapb«>l
Carthaqk, Saint). Sixtus II, whom Pontius (Vita
Cypriani, cap. xiv) styles a good and peaceful priest
{bonuB et pacificus aacerdos), was more conciliatory
than St. Stephen and restored friendly relations wiUi
these Churches, though, like his predecessor, he up-
held the Roman usage of not rebaptizing heretics.

Shortly before the nontificate of Sixtus II the Em-
peror Valerian issued his first edict of persecution,
which made it binding upon the Christians to partici-
pate in the national cult of the pagan gods and for*
bade them to assemble in the cemeteries, threatening
with exile or death whomsoever was found to disobey
the order. In some way or other, Sixtus II man-
aged to perform his functions as chief pastor of the
Christians without being molested by those who were
duumd with Uie execution of the imperial ediot.
But during the fint days of August, 258, the emperor
issued a new and far more cruel edict against the
Christians, the import of which has been preserved in
a letter of St. (Cyprian to Successus, the Bishop of Ab-
bir C>ermaniciana (Ep. Ixxx). It ordered bishops,
priests, and deacons to be summarily put to death
("episcopi et presbyteri et diaconee incontinenti ani-
maavertantur ). Sixtus II was one of the first to
fall a victim to this imperial enactment ("Xistum in
Ktimiterio anlmadversum sciatis VIII. id. Augusti et
cum eo diaecr.cs quattuor" — Cyprian, Ep. Ixxx). In
order to escape tLe vigilance of the imperial officers he
assembled lus il-ck on 6 Ai^ust at one of the lees-
known eemettt^ that of PTtetextatus, kit side

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of the Appian Way, nearly oppraite the cemetery of
St. CallUtus. While seated on his chair in the act of
addressing his fiock he was suddenly apprdiended by a
band of soldiers. There is some -doubt whether he
was beheaded forthwith, or was first brought before
a tribunal to receive his sentence and then led back
to the cemetery for ezeeutitm. The latter opinion
seems to be the more probable.

The inscription which Pope Damasus (366-84)
placed on his tomb in the cemetery of St. CalUstus
may be interpreted in either sense. The entire in-
scription is to be found in the works of St. Damasus
(P. L., XIII, 383-4, where it is wrongly supposed to
be an epitaph for Pope Stephen I), and a few frag-
ments of it were discovered at the tomb itself by de
Rossi (loser. Qirist., II, 108). The "Liber Pontifi-
calis" mentions that he was led away to offer sacri-
fice to the gods ("ductus utsacrificaratdemoniis" — I,
155). St. Cyprian states in the above-named letter,
which was ^Titten at the latest one month after the
martyrdom of Sixtus, that "the prefects of the City
were daily urging the persecution m order that, if any
were brought before them, they might be punishea
and their property confiscated". The pathetic meeting
between St. Sixtus II and St. Lawrenoe, as the former
was being led to execution, of which mention is made
in the unauthentic "Acts of St. Lawrenoe" as well as
by St. Ambrose (OSiciorum, lib. I, c. xH, and lib. II,
c. xxviii) and the poet Prudentius (Peristephanon, II),
is probably a mere legend. Entirely contrary to
truth is the statement of Prudentius (ibid., lines
23-26) that Sixtus II sufTered martyrdom on the
cross, unless by an unnatural trope the poet uses the
specific word cross ("Jam Xystus adfixus nutn") for
martyrdom in general, as Duchesne and Allard (see
below) Sliest. Four deacons, Januarius, Vinoen-
tius, Magnus, and Stephanus, were apprehesided with
Sixtus and beheaded with him at the same ceme-
tery. Two other deacons, Felicissimus and Agapi-
tus, suffered martyrdom on the same day. The feast
of St. Sixtus II and these six deacons is celebrated on
6 August, the day of their martyrdom. The remains
of Sixtus were transferred by the Christians to the
papal crypt in the neighbouring cemetery of St. CBlli»-
tus. Behind his tomb was enshrined the blood-
stained chair on which he had been behe^ed. An
oratory (OrotoPium Xysli) was erected above the
cemetery of St. Prsetextatus, at the spot where he was
martyred, and was still visited by pilgrims of the
seventh and the eighth century.

For some time Sixtus II was believed to be the au-
thor of the so-called "Sentences", or "Ring of Suc-
tus", originally written by a Pythagorean philosopher
and in the second century revised by a Christian.
This error arose because in his introduction to a Latin
translation of these "Sentences" Rufinus ascribes
them to Sixtus of Rome, bishop and martyr. It is
certein that Pope Sixtus II is not their author (see
Conybeare, "The Ring of Pope Xystus now first ren-
der^ into English, with an historical and critical com-
mentary", London, 1910). HanoAck (Texte und
Untersuchun^ zur altohrist. Liter&tur, XIII, XX)
ascribes to him the treatise "Ad Novatianum", but
his opinion has been generally rejected (see Rom-
bold m "Theol. Quart^chrift^', LXXII, Tubingen,
1900). Some of his letters are printed in P. L., V,

79- 100. A newly discovered letter was pubUshed
by Conybeare in "English Hist. Review", London,
1910.

Ada SS.. Aug., II, 124-42; Dcchebnh, Libtr PontifiealU, I,
155-6: fiAB.vBT in Did. CkrUI. Biog., s. v. Xytftu; Rohaclt dk
Fleurt, Z,m Sainla de la mesie. III (Paris, 1893): Healt, The
yaterian Peneeution (Boston and Now York, 1905), 176-9: Al-
LASD, Im derniiru p«rsinUio7u du troitiimt tUdt (Paris, 1907),

80- 92, 3)3-349; de Rossi, Roma Sotterama, II (Rome, 1864-77).
87-97; WiLPKBT, Die Papilgrdber tmd iKs COeiKmffrvJt in dtr
KeUakombe det hi. Callitlia, tupplemant to OB Rom's Roma'
MdroMa (Fi«ibut« im Sr., 1900).

My»y*M. Orr.

Slztui nz rXTBTDs), Saint, Pon, oonssented
31 July, 432; d. 440. Previous to his accession he
was prominent among the Roman clei^ and in cor-
respondence with St. Augustine. He reigned during
the Nestorian and Pelagian controversies^ and it was
pmbably owing to his conciliatory diapositioa that he
was falsely accused at leanings towanu these haee^.
As pope he ai^iroved the Aeta of thi Cooncil <d
Ephesua and endeavoured to restore peace between
Qrril <rf Alexandria and John of Antioch. In the
Pelagian controversy he frustrated the attempt of
Julian of Eclanum to be readmitted to oommunion
with the Catholic Church. He defended the pope's
right of supremacy over lihricum against the local
bishops and the ambitious draigns of Proclus of Con-
stantinople. At Rome he restored the BasiUoa (rf
libmuSf now known as St. Maty Major, enlai^ed the
Basilica of St. Lawrence-Without-tho-Walls, and ob-
tained precious gifts from the Emperor VaWitinian
III for St. Peter's and the Lateran Basilica. The
work which asserts that the consul Baasus accused
him of crime is a forgery. He is the author of eight
letters (in P. L., L, 583 sqq.), but he did not write the
works "On Riches", "On False Teachers", and "On
Chastity" ("De divitiis" "De malis doetoriboB",
"Deoastitate") attributed to him. Hisfeastisk^
on 28 March.

DtJCHESwa (eel.). Lib. Pont., I (Paris. 1886). 126-27, 232-37;
BAiiMBr in Did. Ckrid. Biog., a. v. Sixlut (3); Gkisar. Hi^am
of Rome and the Popee, tr. Capfadelta, I (St. Louia, I9I1),
DOS. 54, 135, 140, 144. 154.

N. A. WSBBB.

Sixtus IV (Francesco della Rovbeb), Pope, b.
near Abisola, 21 July, 1414; d. 12 Aug., 1484. His
parents were poor, and while still a child he was
destined for the Franciscan Order. Later he studied
philosophy and theology with great success at the
University of Pavia, and lectured
at Padua, Bologna, Pavia, Siena,
and Florence, having amongst other
eminent disciples tne famous Car-
dinal Bessarion. After filling the
post of procurator of his order in
Rome and Provincial of Liguria,
he was in 1467 created Cardinal
of S. Pietro m Vmcoh by Paul II. .
Whatever leisure he now had was
devoted to theology, and in 1470 he

Sublished a treatise on the Precious
lood and a work on tihe Immaculate Conoc^ition,
in which latter he endeavoured to prove that Aquinas
and Scotus, thoi^h differing in words, were really
of one mind upon the question. The conclave wUmi
assembled on the death of Paul 11 elected him pope,
and he ascended the chair of St. Peter as Sixtus tV. '

His first thoudit was the prosecution of the war
against the Turks, and legates were appointed for
fVanoe, Spain, (jennany, Hungary, and Poland, with
the hope of enkindling mthusiasm in theee countries.
The crusade, however, achieved little beyond the
bringing back to Rome of twenty-five Tundsh pris-
oners, who were paraded in triumph throiu^ the
streets of the city. Sixtus continued the poucy of
his predecessor Paul II with regard to fVance, and
denounced Louis XI for insisting on the royal con-
sent being given before papal decrees could be pub-
lished in nis kingdom. He also made an effort like
his predecessor for the reunion of the Russian Churdi
with Rome, but his negotiations were without result.
He now turned his attention almost exclusively to
Italian politics, and fell more and more und^ lus
dominating passion of nepotism, heaping riches aod
favours on his unworthy relations. In 1478 took
place the famous conspiracy of the PazEi, planned
by the pope's nephew — (Cardinal Rafael Riario— to
overthiow the Medici and bring Florence under tfaa
ItiBiii. The pope was oognisant^ the idot tfaouib

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probably not of the intention to aasaasinate, and even
laid Fl{»«nce under interdict because it rose in fury
against the conspirators and brutal murdererv of
Giuliano de' Medici. He now entered upon a two
yewiG^ war with Fkiranoe, ami enoow^ged the Vene-
tians to attack
Ferrara, which he
wished to obtain
for his nephew
Girolamo Riario,
Ercole d'Eflte, at-
tacked by Venice,
found aliifle in al-
most every Italian
state, and Ludo-
vico Sforza, upon
whom the pope
relied for support,
did nothing to
hel^ him. The
allied princes
forced Sixtus to
make peace, and
the chagrin which
this caused him is
said to have hast-
ened his death.

Henceforth, un-
til the*Reformar-
tion, the secular
interests <rf the
papacy were of
paramount im-
portance. Th^ at-
titude of Sixtus
towards the con-
spiracy of the
Pazzi, his wars
and treachery, his
promotion to the
hi^iest offioes in
the Church irf
such men asPietro
and Girolamo
Riario are blots
upon his career.

BflBAI. Vd CoHimiOBATB TBS DeVSAT

or nn Trntu at Otramto, 1481
Obwne: Portrait of Stxtua IV. Re-
rtnt: Allegorical figure of Conatancy,
with the line fnun Virnl, .£iMkl. VI, 853:
" To apmm tba Eubamtn sod mm Uw
ptood", with the added mnda: "Tboa
■itable,OSixtua."

Neverthelees, there is a praiBeworthy side to his
pontificate. He took measures to suppress abuses
m the Inquisition, vigorously opposed the Wal-
denses, ami annulled the decrees oi the Council
al Constance. He was a patron of arts and letters,
building the famous Sistine Chapelj the Sistine
Bridge across tiie Tiber, and becoming the second
founder of the Vatican Library. Under him Rome
onoe more became habitable, and he did much to im-
prove the sanitary conditions of the city. He brought
down water from the Quirinal to the Fountain of
Trevi, and b^an a transformation of the city which
death akme hmdered him from completing. In his
private life Sixtus IV was blameless. The gross
accusations brought against him by his enemy
Infessura have no foundation; his worst vice was
nepotism, and his greatest misfortune was that he
was destmed to be placed at the' head of the States
of the Church at a time when Italy was emerging
from Ihe era of the republics, and territorial princes
like the pope were forced to do battle with the great
de^Mits.

PAOToa. BitUrv at On Fopt*, TV CLondon, 1894): Quoo*
Bomra, Komi in Ou MiddU Agu. VII Ooodon, 1002) ; CaMioanm,
BM. «fllM ftywv, IT (LoDdoo, 1901); BnaxHunw, OMcAfeUf
Otr JtMwfMano* <fi haUm (IMH); Faum, .Siaftu tV vnd Of

R. Ubban Butlsb.

BIzttu V, Pops (Feucx Pkbkiti), b. at Grotta-
man near Montalto, 13 December, 1521: elected 24
April, IfiSS; crowned 1 May, 1586; d. in tlie Quirinal,
XIV.-3

27 August, 1590. He belonged to a Dalmatian family
which in the middle of the pr "

centu^ had Bed

to Italy from the Turks wfio were devastatmg Dlyria
and threatened to invade Dalmatia. His father was
a gardener and it is said of Felice that, when a boy, he
was a swin^erd. At the age of nine he oame to the
Minorite oon^^t at Montalto. where his unole,
Salvatore, was a friar. Here he became a nonce at
the age of twelve. He was educated at Montalto,
Ferrary and Bologna and was ordained at Siena
in 1547. The talented young priest gained a hieh
reputation as a preacher. At Rome, where in 1652 he
preached the Lenten sermons in the Church of Santi
Apostoh^ his successful preaching gained for him the
fnendship of very influential men, such as Cardinal
Carpi, the protector of his order; the Cardinals Caraffa
and GhisOeri, both of whom became popesj St.
Philip Neri and St. Ignatius. He was successively
appomted rector of his convent at Siena in 1550, of San
Lorenzo at Naples in 1553, and of the convent of the
Fran at Venice in 1556. A year later Pius IV ap-
pointed him also counsellor to the Inquisition at
Venice. His seal and severity in the capacit? of in-

3uisitor displeased the Venetian Govoiunait. which
emanded and obtained his recall in 1560. Having
returned to Rome he was made counsellor to the Holy
Office, professor at the Sapienza, and general procu-
rator and vicar Apostohc of his order. In 1565 Pius
IV designated him to accompany to Spain Cudinal
Buoncompagni (afterwards Gregory XlII), who was
to investigate a charge of heresy against Archbishop
Carraniaof Toledo. From this time dates the antip-
athy between Peretti and Buoncompagni, which de-
clared itself more openly during the latter's pontificate
(1572-85). Upon his return to Rome in 1566 Pius V
created him Bishop of Sant' Agata d^ Goti in the
Kingdom of Naples and later chose him as his con-
fessor. On 17 May, 1570, the same pope created him
cardinal-priest with the titular Church of S. Simeone,
which he afterwards exchanged for that of S. Girolamo
dei Schiavoni. In 1571 he was transferred to the See
ofFermo. He was
popularly known
as the Cardinal di
Montalto. Dur-
ing the pontificate
of Gregory XIII
he withdrew from
public affairs, de-
voting himself to
study and to the
collection of works
of art, as far as
his scantv means
permitted. Dur-
ing this time he
edited the works
of St. Ambrose
(Rome, 1579-
1585) and nected
a villa (now Villa
Maseimi) on the
Eeguiline.

(Gregory XIII
died on 10 April,
1585, and after a
conclave of four
days Peretti was
elected pope by
"adoration on
24 April, 15S5. He took the name Sixtus V in
miemory of Sixtus IV, who had also been a Minor-
ite. The l^end that he entered the conclave
on crutches, feigning tJie infirmities of old age, and
upon his election exultantly thrust aside his crutches
and appeared full of life and vigour has long been ex-
ploded; it Tca^, however, have been invented as a

MOMUHBKT or SlXTVB V — FomUU

Banlios of St. Hafy Mb)ot

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34

jmnbol of his forced inactivity during the nam ot
GrMCory XIII and the remarkable energy which he
dtspuyed during the five years of his pontificate. He
was a Dom ruler and especially suited to stem the tide
of disorder and lawlessness which had broken out
towards the end of the reign of Gregory XIII. Hav-
ing obtained the oo-operation of the neighbouring
states, he exterminated, often with excessive oiidty,
the system of briganda^ which had reached immense
proportiona and terrorized the whole of Italy. The
number of bandits in and about Rome at the death of
GrcKory XIII has been variously estimated at from,
twelve to twenty-seven Uiousand, and in little more
th^ two years afto" the accession of Sixtua V the
Papal States had become the most secure country in
Europe.

Of almost equal importance with the extomination
of the bandits was, in the opinion of Sixtus V, the rear-
rai^tement of the papal finances. At bis accession the
papal exchequer was empty. Acting on his favourite
prmciple that riches as weU as seventy are necessary
for good government, he used every available means
to replenish the state treasury. So successful was he
in the accmnulation of money that, despite his enor-
mous eoipenditures for public buildinss, he had shortly
before ms death d^xisited in the CastellQ di Sant'
Angelo three million teudi in gold and one million six
hundred thousand in silver. He did not consider that
in Uie k)ng run so much dead capital withdrawn from
circulation was certain to impoverish the coimtry and
deal the death-blow to commerce and industry. To
obtain sudi vast sums he economized everywhere,
except in works of architecture; increased the number
of salable public offices; imposed more taxes and ex-
tended the fflonh*, or public ioana. that had been insti-
tuted by Clement VII. Though extremely econom-
ical in other ways, Sixtus V si>ent inunense sums in
erection of public works. He built the Lateran Palace;
completed theQuirinal; restored the Church of Santa
Sabina on the Aventine; rebuilt the Church and Hos-
pice of San Girolamo dei Schiavoni; enlarged and im-
proved the Sapienza; foimded the hospice for the poor
near the Fonte Siafo; built and richly onuuneated tlie
C|wp«i«( ttie Cradlo in the B|tBUiea «f Swtft Mvu
MamnrBi: wmpleied the cupola of Sfc.-fiBia^e; raised
the obelieka of the Vatican, of Santa Mfl^Abtfapor^
of the Lateran, and of Ssjita Maria del Popcu^ r»-
stored thf. ndumna of Trajtin and of Antoiiiniis Pin3,
plaqiiiK (hi^ BtaUif nf Si. I'hIit im (In- funriLir and that
of St. PiLu[ Ml Ou: hitUT; or-.^tied tlif "\":ilJC!Ln I.ihrary
V-ith its ailjoiiiiiic priiiliiiR-offide ^nd Ihat, nin^ of tin;
Vatican Palace which ia inhabited by the popt^; built
m«ny magnificrat etreete; erected varioiis monaa*
t^Kes; supplied Home with water, the "Acqiijv
ralitw", which he brought to the city over a distance
of twenty milw, partly unilerpround, partly on elevated

Saeducta. At Bologmi }k fouiidiMi thf. Collcgio Mcm-
to for fifty stuiit-nte from I he Marrli of Anions.
FK^reaenW ^ffo (he ri^forma whiiih SixJm V in-
troduced io the management of ecclee^a^ittcul .ifTiHrH.
On 3 Deo-, 15Sfi, he issued the Bull "PoatquamvcruH",
fljjn^ the number of sBrdinalB at seventy, namely, six
MCdmal-bisbope. MMSonl^prieel^ and fourteott
cmiipal-de&Qons. Btfon Iiu pontifiaatfli, eoclesiaati-
tal^uinesa was genmlly dunLarged by the pope In
PODtHeiory with the cardlnalBL There were, indeed, a
few permanent cardiiiaUtial con pri^ftJit ions, but the
Bphere of their comiK lcTify w:vh vfry liniiteiL In his
Bull "Immejoaa Kterni Df-i", of II Kfbruary, ITiSa, he
established fifteen permanent con|n*egations, some of
which were concerned with spirituM, others with tem-
poral affairs. They were the Congr^tions : (1) (rf the
Inquisition; f2) of the Segnatura; (3) for the Estfd>-
liamnent of Churches; (4) of Kites and Cerononies;
(5) of the Index of Fortiidden Bo(^: (6) of the Coun-
eil of Trent: (7) of the Regulars; (8) of the Bishops;
(9) of the Vaticaa Press; (10) of the Annona, for the

Srovisiomng of Rome and the provinces; (11) the
Tavy ; (12) of the Public Welfare: (13) of the Sapi-
enza; (14) of Roads, Bridges, and Waters; (15) of
State Consultations. These congr^ations lessened
the work of the pope, without in any way limiting hia
authority. The final decision belonged to the pope.
In the creation ojf cardinals Sixtus V was, as a rule,
guided by their good qualities. The only suspicion of
nepotism with which he mi^t be reproached was giv-
ing the purple to his fourteen-year-old grand-ne[meir
Alessandro, who, however, did honour to the Sacred
College and never wielded an undue influence.

. In 15SS he issued from the Vatican Press an edi-
tion of the Septuagint revised according to a Vatican
MS. His edition of the Vulgate, printed diortly b&*
fore hia death, was withdrawn from circulation oa
accountoC its many tram, oorrected, and reissued in
1592 (see BELLAmaNB, Robbbt FiuNcia RowTLtra,
Venerable). Though a friend of the Jesuits, he ob-
jected to some of their rules and especially to the title
"Society of Jesus". He was on the point of fhanging
these when death overtook him. A statue which nad
been erected in hia honour on the Capitol during his
lifetime was torn down by the rabble immediately
upon his deaUi. (For lus rations with the various
temporal rulers and his attetmls to stem the tide of
Ftotestantism, see Counteb-Reforuation, The.)

Von BObnbb, Sixtt-Quint (Pftria, 1S70), tr. Jxaninoham
Qioiidon, 1872); Baleani, Rome uTuUr Sixtu* V in Cambridom
Madwn Hilary, III (London, 1905). 422-55; Robaroi, SiiU
V gttla tuinoHeKnalia (Rome. tSOO); Iti. Yiia di Sialo V
(LoMiuia, 1069), tr. FASmwoBSS (London, 1754), unralisUai
TcupEsn. Sloria ddla nia • aetU di Sitto V (Rome, 1769):
CBOAitB, Vita di Sitto V (Nqilef. VJiSi; hoBXtm, Siitiu V
und Mint Zeit (Mains, 1852); DuvuNiL, Uiit. dt 8ixt»-QmM
(PariB, 1869): Capkamica, Papa Sitto. itoria dd : XVI (MiUn,
1884); OsAiiAin, SiUo V e la HMWuUnocioM (fcOa «. Stda
(Ronw, 1910); Oobabimi, Giowmni npM • 5isto V (BoIosda,
1879); Sbobraik. attMhiinl at Btnri IV (Puis, 1861);
djoKOMt, MenwrU aMlograj* di Papa Sitto Y in ArMvio dma
Sot. AoMona dt atoria patria (Roma. 1882); Bbmaddcci, Sialo
V. Dndiei UUvt tewKK (Tolentino. ISSffl; Dalla Santa, Un
daeumsnto tiudtto ptr la tteria di Siato Y (VMiioe, 1896); BoM-
Scom, PompiKo StuM da Ptnoia » Sitto papa V (Poruipa,
1893): Paou, Stila V ai landM ffiMsari, IKB): HABraa in
Amv. CaA, QtiarUrly Kniav. Til (HiUadeMd*, 1878), 498-581.

MICHAXL OtT.

Skaxg%, Peter, theologian and missionary, b. ftt
Grojec, 1536: d. at Craoow, 27 Sept., 1612. He
began his education in hia native town in 1552;
he went to study in Cracow and afterwards in War^
saw. In 1557 he was in Vienna as tutor to the young
Castellan, Teczynski; returning thence in 1564,
he received Holy orders, and later was nominated
canon oi Lemberg Cathedral. Here he hwax to
preach his famous sermons, and to convert Protes-
tants. In 1568 he entered the Society of Jesus and
want to Rome, where he became penitentiary for the
PoU^ language at St. Peter's. Returning to Poland,
he worked in the Jesmt collies of Pultusk and Wilna,
where he converted a multitude of Ftoteetants,
Calvinism being at the time prevalent in those parts.
To this end he first published some works of oontro-
versy; and in 1576, m order to convince the numer-
ous schismatics in Poland, he issued hia great treatise
"On Uie Unity of the Church of God^', which did
much good then, and is even now htid in great es-
teem. It powerfully promoted the cause of the Union.
Kiiw Stephen B^tnori prized Skarga greatly, often
profited by his aid and advice, took him on one of hia
expeditions, and made him rector of the Academy
of Wilna, founded in 157S. In 1584 he was sent
to Cracow as superior, and founded there the Brother-
hood of Mezcy and the " Moos pietaUs", meanwhile
effecting numerous conversions. He was appointed
court preacher by Sidsmund lU in 1SS8, and for
twenty-four years filled this post to the great advan-
tage of the Church and the nation. In 1506 the
Kuthenian Church was united with Rome, largely
through lus efforts. When the nobles, h^ed
Zebnydoiraki, revcdted against SigiBmund UI,

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35

ftirga waa sant en a nuflBicai of oooeiliation to the
nbdB, whidb, howerer, proved fruitlees. Be^eB
the oontroversial works mentkHied, SkarKa published
a "History of the Oiurch", and "Lives t4 the Saints"
(Wilna, 1579; 25th ed., LemberR, 1S83-S4), poaaibly
the most widdy read book in Pouuid. But most im-
portant of all are his "Sormona for Sundays and
Hohdays" (Cnuwir, 1695) and "Sennwis oa the
Seven Sacraments" (Cracow, 1600), whidi, besides
tikeir dowing eloquence, are profound and instruetive.
Id atraition to theee are "Sermons on Various Oo-
casions" aad the "Sermons Preached to thd Diet".
These last for inq>iration and feelinx are the finest
raoduetions in the literatuce of Pound b^ore the
nrtitims. Nowhere are there found such style, elo-
quence, and patriotism, with the deepest religioua
oonvietKHi. Skarni occupiee a hu^ place in the
htei^ture and the nistory of Poland. His efforts to
convert heretics, to restore schismatics to unity, to
prevent comiptiim, and to stem the tide of pubUc and
political license, tending even then towards anarchy,
were indeed as to this last point unsueoesgful; but
tiiat was the nation's fault, not his.

RTimoiCKi. Peter Skaw a»d Att <w« (Lmnberg. iSS2) ; Poi<-
Konmi, Lift of Ptttr Skarna (Cncow, 1884} ; Bobbstbi3KI, Ser-
wumt Us (h« DiM (Craoow, 1870) ; Chmanowbki, Preface to Stmoru
lotiM Ditt (2Dd «d., Wjtmw, 1897); TABNOwaKi, Sehaoiboak of

tmt. I (CiMow, 1003)— «jr In FoUdi.

S. TjUtNOVSKI.

Skoda (Scheoda) , Josef, cdebrated clinical lecturer
and diwnostician and, wiui Rokifcansky, founder of
die modem medical schod of Vienna, b. at Pilsen in

Bohemia-10 December, 1805: d. at Vioma, 13 June,
1881. Sicoda was the son of a kx^mith. He at-
tended the gymnasium at Pilsen, entered the Univer^
Bty of Vienna in 1825, and received the degree of
Dootorof Medicine on 10 July, 1831. He first served
in Bohemia as physician during the outbreak of
cholera, was assistant physician m the general hos-
pital of Vienna, 1832-38, in 1839 city physician (rf
Vieniia for the poot, am on 13 Februa^, 184(^
oa ihe reoomomendation of Dr. Ludwig, Freiheir von
Tttrkheim, chairman oi the imperial committee of
education, waa appointed to \he unpaid position of
chief phj^cian of the department for consumptives
just opened in the general hospital. In 1846, thanks
to the energetic measures of Karl Roldtansky, pro-
fessor of patnoloeical anatomy, he was appointed pro-
fessor of Uie medical clinic against the widies of the
rest of the medioal faculty. In 1848 he began to'
lecture in German instead of Latin, being tM first
professor to adopt this course. On 17 July, 1848^ he
waa elected an active member of the mattiematico-
physictd section of the Academy of Sciraces. Early
in 1871 he retired from his profeesonihip, and the oc-
casion was celebrated by the students and the popula*
tion of Vienna by a great torchlight prooeesion in his
hmour. Rokitsjiaky oaUs him "a lignt for those who
study, a modd for HioBe who strive, and a lodc for
those who despair". Sloida's benevoleiit diq>oa»>
tiukis best shown by the fact that, notwithstanding his
largft income and known simplicitT of life, he mt a
oomparativdy small fortune, and in his will bequeathed
le^bciee to a number of benevolent institutions.

Skoda's great merit lies in his develmtment of the
methods <» physical investigation. The discovwy
of the method of percussion diagnosiB made in 1761
the Viennese phyncian, Leopold Auenbrugger
(1722-1809), had been forgotten, and the knowleo^
« it was frat revived in 1808 by Corvisart (1755-
1821), ooiul^iAvsician to Ni^leon I. Laennec
(1787-1826) uid his pupils Piorry and BouiUaud
added auscultation to this method. Skoda besan his
ctinical studies in close connexion with pathological
anatomy while assistant physician of the hospital,
but his wpsriors failed to undwstand his course,
•nd in 1887, by wi^ of puaujunait, traiuf en«d him.

to the ward Ux tiw insanev as it was dainksd that the

patients were annoyed by his investigations, espe*
cially hy the method of percussion. His first publica-
tion, "Uber die Perkussion" in the "Mediziniaohe
JahrbOcher des k.k. teterreichcBD Kaiserstaates", IX
(1836), attractedbut little attenttoa. This pfl4>er was
f<dh>wed by: "Vim dan Hersatoss und die dmok dte
Heixbewegunaon vaiusaohtMi Tfine und Ober die
Anwendung der Perkussion bei Untersuchung der
Organe des tJnterleibes", in the same periraical,
vofe. XIII, XIV (1837); "Uber Abdominaltyphus
und dessen Behandlung mit Alumen crudum' , also
in the same periodical, vol. XV (1838): "Untersuoh-
ungsmeUiode sur Beetimmung des Zuatandes des
Hersena", vol. XVIII (1839); "Uber Pericarditis
in patholo^soh-anatomischer und diagnoetisehn
Besiehung", XIX (1839): "tJber Piorrye Semiotik
und Diagiiostik", vol. XVIII (1839); "tfber die
Diagnose der Hersklappenfehler'^ vol. XXI (1840).
His small but up to now unsuipassed chief work,
"Abhandlung ttber die Perkussion und Auskulta-
tion" (Vienna, 1839), has been repeatedly published
and bandated into fore^ languages. It established
his universal renown as a diagnostician. In 1841,
after a journey for research to Paris, he made a sep-
arate division in his depattmemt for skin diaeases
and_ tiius gave the first impulse towards the reor-
ganisation of dermatolc^ by Ferdinand H^xra.
In 1848 at the request of the ministry of education
he drew up a memorial on the reorganization of the
study medicine, and encouraged later b^ his advice
the founding of the present hi^er administration of
the medical school of Vienna. As regards therapeu-
tics the accusation was often made ak^nst him that
he held to the "Nihilism" of the Vienna School.
As a matter fact his therapeutics were exceedingly
simple in contrast to the great variety of remedial
agents used at that time, which he regarded as useless,
as in his experience many ailments were cured with-
out medicines, merely hy suitable medioal super-
vision and proper diet. His hig^ sense of duty as a
teacho*, the large amount of woric he performed as a
physician, and the early appearance of oi^anio heart-
trouble are probably the reasons that from 1848
he published lees ana less. The few papeis which he
wrote from 1850 are to be found in the transactions
of the Academy of Sciences and Ihepoiodioal of the
Society of Physiciana of Vienna of which he was the
honorary president.
DaiMSB, Skoia (VMons, 1881).

LbOPOU) SaKTELDEB.

Blade, Jobh, Vsndbablb See Bodbt, John, Vsn-

EBABLB.

Slaadsr is the attributing to another of a fault
of which one knows him to be innocent. It contains
a twofold malice, that which grows out of damage
unjustly done to our neighbour's good name and that
of lying as well. Thet^ogians si^ that this tatter
guih considered in itself, in so far as it is an offence
against veracity, may not be grievous, but that never-
tfadess it will frequently be adviswle to mention
it in oonfession, in order that the extent and method
of reparation may be settled. The important thing
to note of Blander is that it is a lesion of our neigh-
bour's r^t to his reputation. Hence moralists hold
that it'is nbt specifically distinct from mere detrao-
ticm. ) For th» purpose of datermining the qwdea
of 1^ bin, the manner in wMoh the injuiy is <u»ne is
n^^ble. There is, however, tiiis difference be-
tween slander and detraottui: that, whweas there
are circumstances in which we may lawfully exprae
the misdeeds which another has actually committed,
we are nevar allowed to blacken his name by diarging
him with what he has not done. A tie is intainsically
evil uid can never be justified by any cause or in any
ciroumstanosa. SUncier invtrivea a vwlation of enm-

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mutfttive itutioe and therefore impoata on its pa>

Eetrator the obligation of testitution. Vint of all,
e must undo the iniury of the defaniation itaelf.
There seems in general to be only one adequate way
to do this: he must umpl^ retraot his false state-
ment. Moralists sav that if he can make full atwe-
ment by declaring that he has made a mistake this
■ win be Boffieient; otherwise he must unequiTooaUy
take bade his untruth, even at the expense of ex-
hibiting himself a liar. In addition he is bound to
make oompensation to his victim for whatever losses
may have oeen sustained as a result of his malioioua
imputation. It is supposed that the damage which
ensues has been in some measure foreseen by the
slanderer.

Bum, JUofiHoI of Hand ThMtom (N«w York, IWHQ; BaL-
Luiifi, Op- th4oL nor. (Prato, 1899); d'Ahnibalc, Summvla
UuoL mar. (Boms, 1906); Obmioot, Thiol, moral. itutiU (Lou-
vftiB. 18M).

Joseph F. Dkunt.

SlftfMT. — How numeroue the flavee were in
Roman society when Christiaoity made its app«u>-
anee, how hara was their lot, and how the ctunpeution
of slave labour crushed free labour is notorious. It is
the scope of this article to show what Christianity has
done for slaves and t^ainst slavery, first in the Ro-
man wOTtd, next in that society which was the result
of the bsiDsrian invanoiis, and lastly in the modem

WOTld.

I. Thb CmjBCH AND Roman SiiAtbbt. — ^The
first miasionariee of the GoQ>el, men of Jewi^ orijdn,
came from a coimtry where slavery existed. But
it existed in Judea under a form very diffovat from
the Roman form. The Mosaic Law was merciful
to the slave (Ex., xxi; Lev., xxv; Deut., xv, xvi, xxi)
and carefully secured his fair wage to the labours
(Deut., xxiv, 15). In Jewish society the slave was
not an object of contempt, because labour was not
deq>ised as it was elsewhere. No man thot^t it
beneath him to ply a manual trade. These ideas
and habits of life the Apostles brought into the new
society which so rapid^ grew up as the effect oi
their preaching. As this sooie^ mchided, from the
first, faithful of all conditions — rich and poor, slaves
and freemen — the Apostles were obli^ to utter
their beliefs as to the social inequaUties which so
pn^oundly divided the Roman world. " Far as many
<tf you as nave been biqitixed in Christ, have put oa
CSuist. There is neither Jew nor Greek: there is
neither bond nor free: there is neither male nor female.
For you are all one in Christ Jesus" (Gal., iii, 27-28;
cf. I C^r., xii, 13). From tliis principle St. Paul draws
no political conclusions. It was not his wish, as it
was not in his power, to realize Christian equality
either by force or by revolt. Such revolutions are not
effected of a sudden. Christianity accepts society as
it ia, influeneii^ it for its traiuformation through, and
only tbrou^ mdivktual soub. What it donands in
the first place fmn mastera and from slaves is, to live
as brethren— ocnnmanding with Miuity, without
threatening, remembering that God is the master of
all — obeying with fear, but without servile flattery,
in simplicity heart, as they would obey Christ (dT.
Eph., vi, 9; Col., iii, 22-4; iv, 1).

Hiis language was understood by masters and by
■laves who became oonverts to Cihristianity. But
miu^ slaveB who were Christians had pagan masters
to whom this sentiment of fraternity was unknown,
and who stunetimes exhibited that cruelty of which
moralists and poets so often speak. To such slaves
St. Peter points out thedr duty: to be submissive
"not only to the good and gentle, but also to the fro-
ward not witb a mere inert resignation, but to nve a
good example and to imitate Christ, Who also sunesed
unjustly (I Peter, ii, 18, 23-24). In the eyes of the
Apostles, the Wave's eonditiim, peculiariy wretdied,
peculiarly ej^naed to temptations, bws all the mm

effioadous testinumy to Uie new religion. St. Paid
recommendfl slaves to seek in all things to please Hua
masters, not to contradict them, to do them no wrong,
to honour them, to be loyal to them, so as to make the
teaching of God Our Saviour shine forth before the
eyes ctf all, and to prevent that name and teaching
frran heSng blaquhMned (cf. I Tim., vi, 1; Tit., ii, 9,
10). The Apoamie writmos show how large a plaoe
slaves oeoupud in the Chuiw. Nearly all Uie names
of the Christians wlam St. Paul salutes in his Epistle
to the Romans are servile cognomina: the two groups
whom he calls "those of the household of Aristobulus"
and "those of the household of Narcissus" indicate
Christian servitors of those two oontemporariea ot
Nero, His Epistle, written from Rome, to the
Philippians (iv. 22) bears them greying from the
saints c£ Oesars household, i. e. oonvwted alaves of
the imperial palace.

One fact which, in the Church, relieved the con-
dition of the slave was the absence amongChristians
of the sncient scorn of labour (Cicero, "De off.", I,
xUi; "Pro Flacro", xviii; "Pro domo", xxxiii; Sueto-
nius, "Claudius", xxii; Seneca, "De beiiefictia", xviii;
Valerius Maximus, V, ii, 10). Converts to the new
rdigion knew that Jesus had been a carpenter;
they saw St. Paul exercise the occupation of a ten1>*
maker (Acts, xviii, 3; I Cor., iv, 12). "Neither did
we eat any man's bread", said the Apostle, "for
nothing, but in labour and in toil we worked night and
dayMest we should be chargeable to any cu you"
(II Thess., iii, 8; cf. Acts, xx, 33. 34). Such an ex-
ample, gmn at a time when those who laboured
were accounted "the (begs of the city", and those
who did not labour Uved on the public boimty,
constituted a very efficacious form of preaching.
A new sentiment was ther^y introducea into the
Roman world, while at the same time a formal
discipline was being established in the Church.
It would have none of those who made a parade of
their leisure^ curiouty in the Greek and Roman
cities (II Thess.. iii, 11). It declared that those who
do not labour do not desorve to be fed (ibid., 10).
A Christian was not permitted to Uve without an
occupation (Didache, xii).

Religious equalitv was the negation of slavery
as it was practised by pagan society. It must have
been an exaggeration, no doubt, to say, as one author
of the first century said, that "slaves had no religion,
orhadon^foreignreUgions" (Tacitus, "Annals",XlV,
xUv): taaany were m^ben m funerary eoU^ia under
Uie invocation of Roman divmities (Statutes oi the
CoUegeofLanuviuM, "Corp.Inscr. lat.",XIV,2112).
But in many circumstances this haughty and formalist
religion excluded slaves from ita functions, which,
it was held, their presence would have defiled (Cicero,
"Octavius", xxiv). Absolute relifpous equality,
as proclaimed by Christianity, was therefore a
noveltjr. The Church made no account of the social
condition of the faithful. Bond and free received
the same sacraments. Clerics of servile origin
were numerous (St, Jerome, Ep. Ixxzii). The veiy
Chfur oi St, Peto* was occupied by men who had
been slaves— Pius in the second century, Callistus
in the third. So complete— one might almost say,
so levelling — was this Christian eguiJity that St.
Paul (I Tim., vi, 2), aI^d^ later, St. Ignatius (Polyc,
iv), are obliged to admonish the slave and the hand-
maid not to contemn tbdr masters, "believera like
them and sharing in the same benefits". In giving
them a plaoe in reli^ous aociety, the Qiurch restored
to slaves the family and mamage. In Roman law,
neither legitimate marriage, nor regular paternity,
nor even any impediment to the most unnatural
unions had existed for the slave (Digest, XXXVIIL
viii, i, S2; x, 10, { 5). ThatsUv^ of ten endeavoured
to override this abominable position is touchingty
jnovad by innumenble mortuaiy inacriptions; but

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SLATIRT

87

ILATUtT

«he name of uxor, which the alaTe mman Ulces in

Uieae ioaeriptioms is Toy praeahous, tor no law
protects her bonour, and with her thoe is no adultery
(Dimat, XLVIII, v, 6; Cod. Justin., IX, ix, 23).
In the Church the mamage of slaves is a sacrament;
it poaBesBM "the Kriidity^' of one (St. Baul, Ep.
ezoiz, 42). The Apostolic Constitutions impose
upon the master the duty of making his sUve contract
"a legitimate marriwe^' (III, iv; VIII, xxxii).
St. Jotm Chryaostom declares that slaves nave the
marital power over their wives and the paternal
over their children (" In Ep. ad Ephes."^ Horn, xdi, 2).
He says that "he who has immoral rdations with the
wife of a slave is as culpable as he who has the like
relaticms with the wife of the prince: both are adul-
terers, for it is not the condition of the parties that
makes the crime" ("In I Thees.", Hom. v, 2; "In
II Theas.'", Hom. iii, 2).

In the Christian cemeteries there is no difference
between the tombs of slaves and those of the free.
The inscriptjona on pagan s^ulchree — whether the
eottanbarium oommim to all tiie servants <rf <m6
household, or the burial plot of a funerary colU^wn
of slaves or freedmen, or isolated tombs — always mdi-
cate the servile condition. In Christian epit^hs it is
hardly ever to be seen ("Bull, di archeol. christiana",
1866, p. 24), though slaves formed a considerable part
of the Christian population. Sometimes we find a
slave honoured wiUt a more pretentious s^ulchre
than others of the faithful, like tiiat of Ampliatiis
in the eemetenroC Domitilla ("Bull, di archeol. chriat.",
1881, pp. 57-74, and pi. Ill, IV). This is particularly
BO in the case of slaves who were mar^rn: the ashes
of two slaves, Protus and Hyacinthus, buraed alive
in the Valerian persecution, had been wrapped in a
winding-sheet oi gold tissue (ibid., 1894, p. 28).
Martvnlom eloquently manifests the reUgious
equality of the slave: ne displays as much firmness
before the menaces of the persecutor as does the
free man. Sometimes it is not for the Faith atone
that a slave woman dies, but for the fatth and diastt^
equally threatened — "pro fide et castitate occisa
est" (''Acta 8. Duke" in AcU SS., Ill March, p. 552).
Beautiful assertions of this moral freedom are found
in the accounts of ^e mar^rdoms of Uie slaves
Ariadne, Blandina, Evelpistus, Potamienna, Felicitas,
Sabina, Vitalis, Poiphyrus, and many others (see
Allard, "Diz lecons sur to martyre , 4th ed., pp.-
155-44). The Church made the mfranchisement
of the slave an act of disinterested (Parity. Fanm
masters usutdly sold him his liberty for his market
value, on receipt of his p^nfully amassed savings
(Cicero, "Philipp. VIII", Seneca, "Ep. kxx"); true
Christians gave it to him as an alms. Sometimes
the Church redeemed slaves out of its common
resources ^t. Ignatius, "Polyc", 4; Apos. Const.,
IV, iii). Heroic Christians are known to have sold
tiiemselves into slavery to ddiver slaves (St. Ctanoit,
"Cor.", 4; "Vita S. Joannis Eleemosynarii" m Acta
SS., Jan., II, p. 506). Many enfranchised all the
slaves they had. In pagan antiquity wfadesale en-
franchisements are frequent, but they never include
all the owner's slaves, and they are uways by testa-
mentary diRpoeition — that is when the owner cannot
be impoverished by hia bounty (Justinian. "Inst.", I,
vii; "Cod. Just.", VII, iii, 1). Only Christians en-
franchised all their slaves in the owner's lifetime, thus
effectually despoiling themselves of a considerdile
part of their fortune (see Allard, "Les esclaves chr^
tiens", 4th ed., p. 338). At the b^inning of the fifth
century, a Roman millionaire, St. Mdania, gratui-
tously granted liberty to so many thousand of slaves
that her biographer declares himself unable to give
their exact mmiDer (Vita S. Melaniffi, xxxiv). Pula^
dius mentums ei^t thousand alavea freed (Hist.
Lauaiaca, oxix), much, taking the average price of a
alave as about $100, would represent a value of $800^

000. But Palladiaa wrote befiffe 406, whiehwasloog
before Mdania had completdy exhausted her im-
meose f<vtune in acta ot libenlity of all kinds (Ram-
poUa, "S. MeUnia (Mumore", 1005, p. 221).

Pimiitive Christianity did not attadc slavery
dinotjy ; but it acted as thoiudi shmiT did not
exist. By inqming the best tf its cAiildnn with
this hcr<Hc cluurity, examples of irbidi have been
given above, it remotdy prepared the way (or the
abolition of slavery. To reproach the Qiuroh of
ihe first ages with not having condemned slavery
in principle, and with ha^^ng tolerated it in fact,
is to blame it for not having let loose a fri^tful
revolution, in which, perhaps, all civiliiation wcnUd
have poished with Roman society. But to say,
with Cicootti (II tramonto della schia^tii, Vr. tr.,
1910, pp. 18, 20), that primitive CSiristianity had not
even "an embryonic visi<m" of a society in which
there should be no daveiy, to say that the Fathers
of the Church did not feet "the honor of davery",
is to display either stjrange ignorance or singular
unfairness. InSt.Grego]^(rfNy8Ba(InEoelenaBtem,
hom. iv) the most energetic and absolute rcqirobation
of slavery may be found; and again in numecoos
passages of St. John duysostom's disoounsi we
nave the picture of a society without slaves — a
society composed only of free woikos, an ideal
portrait of which he traces with the most eloquent
rosistenoe (see the texts dted in Allard, "Les eMUTes
Chretiens", pp. 416-23).

II. Thb CntTBCH Aim Slavxrt attmb the
Babbarun Iktasiohb. — It is b^rond the scope of
this article to discuss the l^islative movement
which took place during the same period in le^rd
to slaves. From Angiitis' to (Donstantine statutes
and jmisprudence tended to afford them ^^ter
protection against ill-treatment and to fa^tate
mfranchisement. Under the Christian emperors
this tenden^, in spite of relapses at certain points,
became daily more maiked, and aided, in the sixth
eentuiy, in Justinian's very libend lefpslatitm (see
Wallon, "Hist, de I'eeclavage dans I'antiouit^", III.
ii .and x). Although the civil law on slavery still
laned behind the demands of Christianity ("Tm laws
of (js»ar are one thing, the laws of Chnst another",
St. Jerome writes in "Ep. Ixxvii"), neverthdesi very
n«at pnmess had been made. It continued in the
Eastern f^npue (laws of Basil the Maoedcmian,
of Leo the Wioe, id CUnstantine PofplmogeDitns},
but in the Weet it was atoiptly diecM by the
barbarian invasions. Those invawons wen calam-
itous for the slaves, increasing their numbers whidi
had begun to dinunidi, attcT subjecting Uiem to
lecialation and to customs much harder than those
which obtained imder the Roman law of the period
(see Allard, "Lee oriffines du servage" in "Rev. dee
questions lustoriques , April, 1911). Here again the
Church intervened. It did BO in three wi^b: radeem-
ing slaves; legislatii^ for their boiefit in its eomioilB;
setting an example of kind treatment. Dooumente
of the fifth to the seventh century are full of mstanoes
(rf captives cairied off frtmi conquered cities by the
baibarians and doomed to slav«>y, whom bisnops,
prieets, and monks, and pious laymen redeemed.
Redeemed captives were sometimee sent back in thou-
sands to their own country (ttiid., jfp. 303-7, and
Lesne, "Hist, de la ptopn6U eccwdaatique en
France'' 1910, pp. 357-^).

The Churches of Oaul, Spidn, Britiun, and Itahr
were incesstmtly buqr, in numerous oouneilB, with
the affairs of the slaves; protection of the maltreated
alave who has taken refuge in a church (Councils
of OrI6ans, 511, 538, 549; Council of Epooe, 517):
protection of freedmen, not only t^ose manumitted
in eedetiia, but also those freed by any other process

UJLTXRT 3

nUdit^ of mairiages oontnoted with fall lmoiri<-
«dge ot the dreumatanoee between free pecsom and
slaves (CouncUs ot Veiberie, 7fi2; of Compidgne. 750) :
rest for slaves on Sundays and feast diiys (Oounoil
of Auxerre, 678 or 535; of GhAlon-suT'Saone, middle
of the sevmUi century; of Rouen, 650; of Wessex,
091; of Bei^hamflted, 697); prohibition <tf Jews to
possess Christian slaves (Council of Orleans, 541;
of MAcon, 581; of CUchy^ 625; of Toledo, 589, 633,
656^; suppression of trainc in slaves b^ fwbidding
theu* sale outside of the kingdom (Council of Ch&lon-
sur^adne, between 644 and 650) ; prohibition aeunst
reducing a free man to slavery (Council of Cuchy,
625). Lees liberal in this respect than Justinian
(Novella cxxiii, 17), who made tacit oonsoit a
sufficient condition, ^e Western diMnpline does not
pennit a slave to be nused to the priestliood without
the fonual ctmsent of his master; nevertheless the
councils held at Orleans in 511, 538, 549, ^lile im-
posing canonical i)enaltie8 upon the bishop who ex-
ceeded his authority in this matter, declare such an
ordination to be valid. A council held at Rome in
695 under ^e premdeney of St. Gnuoty the Qxeat
permits the slave to become a monx without any
consent, express or tacit, of his master.

At tiols period the Churdi found itsdf beeomii^
a great proprietor. Barbarian converts endowed it
largdy with real property. As these estates were
furnished with serfs attached to the cultivation of
the soil, the Church became by force of oircumstancea
a proprietor <tf human beings, for whom, in these
traubKniB timeik the relatiim was a great blessing.
The laws of the barbarians, ameMed throu^
Qiristian influence, gave ecclesiastical serfs a priv-
ileged p06iti<m: their rents were fixed; ordinarily,
they wCTe bound to give the proprietor half of their
labour or half of its products, the remainder being
left to them (Lex Alemannorum, xxii; Lex Bajuva-
riorum, I, xiv, 6). A council of the sixth century
(Eause, 551) emjoins upon bishofM that th^ must
exact of thor sms a luhter service than that peiv
formed the serfs oTU^ proprietors, and must
lemit to them one-fourth of their rents. Another
advantage of ecclesiastical serfs was the permanency
of their position. A Roman law of the middle of
the fourth century (Cod. Just., XI, xlvii, 2) had
forbidden rural slaves to be removed from the lands
to which they belonged : this was the cnigin of serfdom,
a much better condition than slavery properly so
called. But the barbarians virtuaUy suppressed this
beneficent law (Gregory of Tours, "Hiat. Franc",
VI, 45); it was even formal^ abrogated amockg the
Goths of Italy by the edict of Theodono (fi 142).
Nevertheless, as an exc^tionalprivilege, it remained
in force for the serfs oi the Church, who, like the
Church itself, remained under Roman law (Lex
BuTgondionima, LVIII, i; Louis I, "Add. ad l^;em
Langobard.", Ill, i). They shared besides, the
inalimmbility of all eccleeiastioal proporty Trtuoh had
been, established by councils (Rcmie, 502; Orleans,
511, 638; Epone, 517; CUchy, 625; Toledo, 589):
they were shelterod from the exacti(ms of the n^ral
officers by the immunity granted to almost all church
lands (KroeU, "L'inununit^ franque", 1910): thus
thdr position was generally envied (Flodoard, Hist,
eod. Remensis", I, xiv), and when the royal liberality
assisted to a church a portion of land out of the state
property, the serfs who cultivated were loud in their
expressions of joy (Vita S. Eligii, I, xv).

It has been asserted that the ecclesiastical serfs
were less foHunately situated because the inalien-
ability of church property prevented their being
enfranchised. But this is inexact. St. Gregcoy the
Great enfranchised serfs of the Roman Church
(Ep. vi, 12), and Hiere is frequent discusBiOB in the
councils in regard to eodedastieal freedmen. The
Council of Agde (506) givae the Inshop the ri|^t to

18 MLkmx

wifranahiee thcne serfs "who shall have deeeored it"
and to leave them a small patrimony. A Coimdl
of Origans (641) declares tJiat even if the bishcn>
has dissipated the property of his church, the serM
whom he has freed in reasonable number {nuntero
comp^enH) are to remain free. A Merovingian
formula shows a bishop enfranchising one-tenth of
his aerfa (Fwmule Biturigenses, viii). The Spanielt
councils imposed greater « reemctions, recognizing
&e right of a bishop to emranchise the serfs <A his
ehuren on condition of his indemnifying it out of his
own private property (Council of Seville, 590; of
Toledo, 633; of Menda, 666). But they made it
obligatory to enfranchise the serf in whom a serious
vocati(Mi to the priesthood was discerned (Coundl
<»f Saragossa^ 593). An English council ((>lchyt«^
816) orders tnat at the death of a bishop all the other
bisbt^ and all the abbots shall enfranchise three
slaves each for the repose of his soul. This last
clause shows again the mistake of saym^ that the
monks had not the right of manumission. The
canon of the Council of Epone (517) which f<Mrbids
abbots to enfranchise their ama was enacted in
order that the monks miAt not be left to woric with-
out asustance and has Been taken too literally. It
is inspired not only by agricultural prudence, but
fdso by the oonsideration that the serfs belong to
the community of monks, and not to the abbot mdi-
vidually. Moreover, the rule of St. Ferr^l (sixth
century) permits the abbot to free serfs with the
consent of the monks or without their eonsrait,
if, in tiie latter case, he replaces at his own expense
tiiose he has enfranchised. Hie statemrait that
ecclesiastical freedmen were not as free as the freed-
men of lay proprietors will not bear examination
in the light of facts, which shows the situation of the
two elates to have been identical, except that the
freedman of the Church carried a higher toerghdd
than a lay freedman, and therefore nis life was
better protected. The "Polyptych of Irminon",
a detailed description <tf the abboy lands of Sunt-
CS«roiainMifls-Pi^, shows tliat in the ninth century
the serfs of that domain were not numerous and led
in eveiy way the Ufe of free peasants.

III. Tax Chubch and Modern Slavebt. —
In the Middle Agw, slavery, properly so called, no
longer existed in Qiristian countries; it had been
replaoed by serfdom, an intmuediate condition in
which a man enjoyed all his personal rights exc^t
the right to leave the land he cultivated and the ri^^t
to freely dispose of his property. Serfdom soon
disf^peared in Catholic countries, to last longer
only where the Protestant Reformation prevailed.
But while serfdom was becoming extinct, the course
<rf events was bringing to pass a temporary revival
of slavery. As a consequence of the wars against
the Mussulmans and the commerce nuuntained with
the East, the European countries bordering on the
Mfiditerraneao, particularly Spain and ItaJy, once
more had slaves — Turkish prisoners and also,
unfortunate^, c^tives imported by conscienceless
tradws. Tliou^ these slaves were generally well
treated, and set at liberty if they asked for baptism,
this revival of slavery, lasting until the seventeenth
oentuiy, is a blot on Christian civilization. But
the number of these slaves was always very small
in comparison with that of the Christian- c^tives
reduced to slavery in Mussulman countries partic-
ularly in the Barbary states from Tripoh to tiie
Atlantic coast of Morocco. These captives were
cruelly treated and were in constant dan^ of losing
their faith. Many actually did deny their faith, or.
at least, were driven by despair to abandon all
rdigion and all morality. Ruigioua orders were
founded to succour and redeem Uiem.

The Trinitarians, founded in 1198 by St T<^
(tf Mfltlia and St. Felix of Valds, established hoiqjttalB

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for slaves at Algiera and Tunis in the aixteenth
and seventeenth centuries; and from its foundation
until the year 1787 it redeemed 900,000 stavee.
The Order of Our I^dy of Ransom (Mercedariana),
founded in the thirteenth century by St. Peter
Ndaseo, and established more eqwoial^r in France
and Spidn, redeemed 490,736 slaves between the
years 1218 and 1632. To the three regular vows its
founder had added a fourth, "To become a hostage
in the hands of the infidels, if that is necessary for
the deliverance of Christ's faithful." Many Mer-
cedariana kept this vow even to martjrdom. An-
other order undertook not only to redeem captives,
but also to give them spiritual and material assistance.
St. Vincent of Paul had been a slave at Akien in
1605, and had witnessed the Bufferings andf perils
ot Christian slaves. At the request of Louis XlV, he
sent them, in 1642, priests of the congregation which
he had founded. Many of these priest^ indeed,
were invested with consular functions at Tunis and
at Algiers. From 1642 to 1660 they redeemed about
1200 slaves at an expense of about 1,200,000 livres.
But their greatest achievements were in teaching
the Catechism and converting thousands, and in
preparing many of the captives to suffer the most
onwl mwtyrdom rather tnan deny the Faith. As
a Protestant historian has recently said, none of the
expeditions sent against the Barbary States by the
Powers of Europe, or even America, equalled "the
moral effect produced by the ministry of consolation,
peace and abnegation, going even to the sacrifice of
lib^y and life, which was exercised by the humble
sons of St. John of Matha, St. Peter Nolasco, and
St. ^noent of Paul" (Bonet-Mauiy, "France,
(diristianiame et civilisation", 1907. p. 142).

A secttid revival of slavery took place after the
discovery of the New World by the Spaniards in
1492. To give the history of It would be to exceed
the Umita of this article. It will be sufficient to
■recall the efforts of Las Casas in behalf of the abor-
igines of America and the protestations of popes
both against the enslavement o( those abongineB
and the traffic in slaves. England, Fr^ce,

Portugal, and Spain, aU participated in this nefarious
traffic. En^and only made amends for its trans-
gressions when, in 1815, it iodk. the initiative in the
Buppression of the slave-trade. In 1871 a writer
had the temerity to assert that the Papacy had not
yet been able to make up its mind to condemn
daveiy" (Ernest Bavet, Le christianisme et pea
origines", I, p. xxi). He forgot that, in 14^. Pius II
declared slavery to be "a great crime" (mofnum
scelus); that, in 1537, Paul III forbade the enslavement
of the Indians: that Urban VIII forbade it in 1639,
and Benedict XIV in 1741; that Pius VII demanded
of the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, the suppression
(tf the slave-trade, and Grwory XVI condemned it in
1839; that, in the Bull of Canoni«ation of the Jesuit
Peter Claver^ one of the most illustrious adversaries
irf slavery, Pnis IX branded the "supreme villainy"
(tummum nefas) of the slave-traders. Evemme
knows of the beautiful letter which Leo XIII, in
1888, addressed to the Brazilian bishops, exhorting
them to banish from their counti^ the remnants
of slavery — a letter to which the bishops responded
with their most ener^tic efforts, and some generous
slave-owners by freeing their slaves in a body, as
in the first ages of the Oiurch.

In our own times the slave-trade still continued
(o devastate A&ica, no longer for the profit of
Obrie^ian states, .from which all slavery nad di»-
wpeared, but for the use of Mussulman countries.
But as Euioiwan penetration progreesee in Africa,
the missionaries, who are always its precursors—
FMhers of the Holy Ghost, Oblat^ White Fathers,
ftandseans, Jesuits, Priests of the Mission of Lyons—
Uboor in the Sudan, Guinea, on the Gabun, in the

region of the Great Lakes, redeeming slaves and
establishing "b'berty villages." At the head of
this movement appear two men; Cardinal Lavigerie,
who in 1888 founded the SociStS Antieaelavaffiste
and in 1889 promoted the Brussels conference;
Leo Xin, who encouraged Lavigerie in all his projects
and, in 1890, by an EuOTclical once more oonoemning
the slave-tradoB and "the accursed pest of servitude
ordered an annual coUectioQ; Bs made !n m
Cathohc churches for the benefit of the anli-qlave^
work. Some modem writers, mostly of the Sodalisf
School— Karl Marx, Engel, Cicrotti, jwd, in a meas-
ure, Seligman — attribute the now almost complete
disappearance of slavery to t)ic i-rnlutjijn of interests
and to economic causes onty. The foregoing cxprtsi-
tion of the subject is an answer to th«ir fnatCTrali&Uc
conception of history, as showing that, if not the
only, at least the pnncipal, cause of thai disnppeaj-
ance is Christianity actmg tbrtiugb the autliontx- of
its teaching and the influence of its chari^.

Wallon, Hi$t. de I'tKlavagt datu FaniiquUi tPaxv, 1879) ;
Kahn, L'etda^aot ulon la BOU tt U TUmud (ParU, 1867) :
Patt, AfrmtehtMemmt des ndaMt (Pari* 1875): All4U>,
Lm adaK» cMtim* depuU let premitrt temp* He VBaliu jutqu'd
la fin M h domination rontaine «n Oeeidmt (Paris, IflOO) ; Ideh ,
EtdatM, MTfi tt Ma<N«0rtabIM (P«ri», 1884) ; iDWi, La phUotrpkU
aiUiaus tt rMdatav^iaStudm d'ktMtoirt 1 d'wrtUoUQi* (Pwifc
1899); iDEjrin Diet, d* FapoUveti^, tue. V (Paris, 1910). «. v.
EKlavage: Hamack, MUaion u. Atubreitung dw CItritUntumt
m dm 0r«fan drvi JakrhnndtrUn. I (Leipsis, 1006) ; Biot, De ra6»*
^tion d€ rndavigt anein m OeciilMt (Paris, 1840); Yanohu,
Da rahoHUion dn fadamve aneim au moyen Age (Paris, 1800);
Cochin, L'abotUion ds J'utiataat (Paris, 1861); Bsownlow,
LeetuTM cn Statery Mid S*r/dom in Bvrope (London and New
York, 1892): Poinunn, Lst a^uncAiMsincnls du Vi au XIII*
wieie m Rn. Bui.. XXXI (Paris. 1883); Cibbario, Delta
Sehtanti e rfsl Smaoffto (Milan, 1888); Cictoiti. II tramotUa
dma SektamA (Milan, 1800) : Tauho, 11 eonetOo dtUa SchiarM
da AntUiteUaid4Moriweolatt*ei(Rotae, 1908); BaftNiii, II HuaU
• la ScAtanlA (Rome, 1903); Dbsuhdum, L'ordre dtt TVuii-
tmret pour U wAat dtt capiift (Paris, 1903); Amkvlt. Tie de 8.
Vinemt de Paut, I, V (Pwls 1886) ; Bam-MAVKT. Pramee.
ehnehantem* at nnltMlwi* (Paris^ 1907); Pioun. Let musimw
aitk. fiantaxeee au XIX* eiide, V, AMoue (Paris, 1902); Klbih,
Le cardinal lavverts el eeeemwrea ^Afliqiu ?aris, 1808).

Paul AuI&bd.

81sr«nr, E>raicAi. Aivbct or— In Greek and R»*
man civiliEation slavery on an extensive scale forawd

an essential element of the social structure; and con-
sequently the ethical speculators, no less than the
practical statesmen, rt^nirded it as a just and indift*
pensable institution. The Greek, howev^-, assumed
that the slave population should be recruited nor-
mally only from the barbarian or lower races. The
Roman laws, in the heyday of the empire, treated the
slave as a mere chattel. The master posBeesed over
him the power itf life and death; the uave oould not
contract a marriage, or my other kind of con-
tract; in fact ne possessed no civil rights; in the eyes
of the law he was not a "peraon". Nevertheless Uie
settlement of natural justice asserted itself snffieiently
to condemn, or at least to disapprove, the conduct cn
masters who treated their aUves with signal in-
humanity.

Christianity found slavery in pgasBaaion timu^bont
the Roman world; and when Chi^tiamty obtained
power it could not and did not attempt summar-
ily to abolish the institution. From the b«pn-
nme, however, as is shown elsewhere in this article,
the Church exerted a steady powerful pressure for the
immediate amelioration <n the condition of tiie in-
dividual slave, and for the ultimate abolition of a sy^
tern which, even in its mildest form, could wlUi diffi-
culty be reconciled with the spirit of the Gospel and
the doctrine that all men are brothers in that E^vine
sonship which knows no distinction of bond and free.
From the banning the Christian moralist did not
condemn slavery as in »e, or essentially, against the
natural law or natural justice. The fact that slavery,
tempered with many humane restrictions, was
mitted under the Mosaie law would have sufficed to
prevent the hurtttntimi fimm

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Christian teachers as absolute immoral. Hiey, fol-
lowing the example of St. Pau^ imptUdthr accept
slavery aa not in itaelf incompatible with the Chris-
tiaa Law. The apostle counsels slaves to obey their
masters, and to bear with their condiUon patieatly.
This estimate of slavery continued to prev^ till it
became fixed in the systematized ethical teaching of
the schools; and so it remained without any con-
spicuous modification till towards the end of tiie
eighteenth ceatuiy. We mav take as representative
de Lugo's statement of the cnief argument offered in
proof of the thesis that slavery, apart from all abuses,
IB not in itself contrary to the natural law. "Slavery
consists in this, that a man is obtif^, for his whole
life, to devote his labour and services to a master.
Now as anybody may justly bind himself, for the sake
of some anticwated reward, to give his entire services
to a master tor a year, and he would in justice be
bound to fulfil this contract, why may not he bind
himself in like manner for a longer period, even for his
entire lifetime, an obligation imicn would constitute
slavery?" (I>e Justitia et Jure, disp. VI, sec. 2. no. 14.)

It must be observed that the defence of what may
be termed theoretical slavery was by no means in-
tended to be a justification of slavery as it existed
bistorically, with all its attendant, and almost
inevitably attendant, abuses, disr^anung the natural
ri^ts of the slave and entailing pemicioua conse-
quence on the character of the slave-holding class, as
well as on society in general. Concurrently with the
aCBrmation that slavery is not against the natural law,
the moralists specify what are the natural inviolable
rights of the slave, and the corresponding duties of
the owner. The nst iA this teachmg is aummariied
by Caidinal Qerdil (1718-1802) : " Slavery is not to be
understood as oonferring on one man the same power
over another that men have over cattle. Whea^fore
they erred who in former times refused to include
slaves among persons; and believed that however
barbarously the master treated his slave he did not
violate any right of the slave. For slaverv does not
abolish the natural equality of men: hoioe oy slavery
one man is understood to oeoame subject to the da-
inini<m of anotlua- to the extent that tos master has a
perpetual right to all those services wluoh one man
may justly perform for another; and subject to the
oondition thiat the maeter shall take due care of his
■lave and treat him humanely" (Comp. Inatit. Civil.,
L, vii). The master was judged to sin against justice
if he treated his slave cruelly, if he overloaded him
with labour, deprived him of adequate food and cloth-
ing, or if he sqiarated hudwad from wife, or the
mother from her young ohUdren. It may be said that
the api»oved ethical view of slavery was that while,
religiouslv spttking, it eould not be .oondenmed as
against the natural law, and had on its side the jua
amHum, it was looked upon with disfavour as at
beet merely tolm'able, and when judged by its conse-
quences, a positive evil.

The later moraiists, that is to say, broadly speak-
ing, those who have written since the end of the
eiptteeath century, though in fundamental agreement
with their predecessors, have somewhat shifted the
perspective. In possession of the bad historical
record of slavery and familiar with a Christian struc-
ture of society from winch slavery had been elimi-
nated, these later moralists emphasize more than did
the oldw ones the reasons for condemning slav^;
and they lay less stress on those in its favour. Whue
they admit that it is not, theoretically roeakin^ at
least, contrary to the natural law, they hold that it is
hardly compatible with the dignity of personality,
and is to be condemned as immoral on accoimt of the
evil consequencee it almost inevitably leads to. It is
but little in keeping with human dignity that one man
aluuld 80 far be deprived of his liberty as to be per-
petually aubjeot to the will of » maetw in eraytning

0 SUVEB7

that concerns his external life: that he should be oom-
pelled to spend his entire labour for the benefit of
another and receive in return only a bare subsistence.
This condition of degradation is a^;ravated by the
fact that the slave is, generally, deprived of all means
of intellectual development for himself or for his chil-
dren. This life almost inevitably leads to the de-
struction of a proper sense of self-respect, blunts the
intellectual faculties, weakens the sense of renxmsi-
bility, and results in a degraded moral standard. Oa
the other hand, the exercise of the slaveHnaster's
power, too seldom sufEiciently restrained by a sense of
justice or Christian feeling, tends to develop arro-
gance, pride, and a tyranmcal disposition, which in
the long run comes to treat the slave as a being wiUi
no rights at all. Besides, as history amply proves,
the presence ctf a slave population breeds a vast
amount of sexual immorauty among the slave-own-
ing class, and, to borrow a phrase ofLecky, tends to
cast a stigma on all labour and to degrade and im-
poverish the free poor.

Even granting that slavery, when attended with a
due regiuxi for the rights of the slave, is not in itsdf
intrinsically wronff, there still remains the important
questi<»i of the titles which a master can justJy
own a slave. The least debatable one, voluntuy ac-
ceptance of slavery, we have already noticed.
other one that was looked upon as legitimate was
purchase. Although it is against natural justice to
treat a person as a mere commodity or thing of com-
merce, nevertheless the labour of a man for his whole
lifetime is something that may be lawfully bought and
sold. Owing to the exalted notkm that prevailed in
earlier times about the poMa potattu, a father was
granted the right to bbII his son into stevray. if he
could not otherwise relieve his own dire distress.
But the theologians held that if he should afterwards
be able to do so, the father was bound to redeem the
slave, and the master was bound to set him free if
any)x>dy offered to repay him the price he had paid.
To sell old or worn-out slaves to anybody who was
likely to prove a cruel master, to separate by sale
husband and wife, or a mother and her little chudroi,
was looked upon as wrong and forbidden. Another
title was war. If a man forfeited his life so that he
could be justly put to death, this punishment mi^t
be commuted mto the mitigated penalty of slavery, or
penal servitude for life. On the same principle that
slavery is a llesser evil than death, captives taken in
war, who, according to the ethical ideas of the jut
geniivm, might lawfully be put to death by the vic-
tors, were instead reduced to slav^. Whatever justi*
ficatlbn this practice may have had in the jut gmiium
of former ages, none could be found tot it now.

When slavery prevailed as part of the social organ-
ization and the slaves were ranked as property it
seemed not unreasonable that the old juridical maxim.
Partus tequitur ventrem, should be accepted as peremp-
torily settling the status (A children bom in slavery.
But it would be difficult to find any justificatitm for
this title in the natural law, except on the theory that
the mstitution of slavery was, in certain conditions,
necessary to the permanence of the social organisa-
tion. An insufficient reason frequently offered in
defence of it was that the master acquired a right to
the children as codipensation for the expense he
incurred in their support, which could not be provided
by the mother who possessed nothing of her own.
Nor is there much cogency in the other plea, i. e. that
A person bom in slavery was presumed to consent
tacitly to remaioii^ in that coni^tion, as there was no
way open to him to enter any other. It is unneoes-
sary to observe that the practice of capturing savages
or barbarians for the purpose of mtdcing slaves of
them has always been condemned as a heinous offence
wunst justice, and no just tiUe could be created by
wis procedure. Was it lawful for owners to retain

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41

fa riavcry Uie desoeatdants ci those wfao had beat
made slaves in this unjust way? The last conspicu-
ous Catholic moralist who posed this questioD whoa it
was not merely a theoretical one, Kenrick, resolves it
ID the affirmative on the ground that lapse of time
remedies the orienal defect in titles when the stabil-
of aodety and the avoidance erf grave disturbances
demand it.

Sr. Tmomas. I-II. Q. mr. a. 5, ad 3«: U-II, Q. iTji. a. 3. ad
and a. 4, ad 2"-; d* Luoo, Dt j^C. M ivrt, dup. 3, S. S; Pvrp-
BMDOBV. t>rmi d* la Natur* M dw Gmu, L VI. oh. iii, s. 7; Qbo-
nuB, ZH JrtT* BtUi ac PaeU, 1. U, e. v, a. 37; KumicK, TIMomb
UanKt, tract. V, e. vl; Mam, IiuHtMmm Mm JhtaraNi,
pv. ii. a. if, o. iii. art. S; C&mttn, MmnifkUtumfkit (4th wi,
Rtibtut, 1904).

Jaub J. Fox.

SIftVM (IMn£ "Mkn")^ a tribe of the great D&i6
family <A American Indians, so caOed apparently
from the fact that the Oees drove it back to its
original northern haunts. Its present habitat is Uie
forests that lie to the weet of Great Slave Lake, from
Hay River inclusive. The Slaves are divided into
five main bands: those of Hay River, Trout Lake,
Horn MoontaiUj the foito cX the Mackenzie, and Fort
Norman. Their total populatimi is about 1100.
They are for the most part a people of unprepossessing
appearance. Their morals were not formerly of the
best» but since Uie advent of Catholic missioiiaries
they have considerably improved. Many of them
have discarded the tepees of'^old for more or less com-
fortable log houses. Yet the religious instinct is not
so strongly developed in them as with most of their
eimgeoOT in the North. They were not so eaeer
to reoem the Catholic misnonaries, and when the
first Protestant ministers arrived among them, tiw
fiboalities of the strangers had more effect on them
than on the other northern D&i^. To-day perhaps
one-twelfth of the whole tribe has embraced Protest-
antism, the remainder being Catholies. The spiritual
wants of the latter are attended to from the missions
<rf St. Joseph on Great Slave Lake, Ste. Anne, Hay
River, and Providence, Mackenzie.

MACmniB, VoMSM Ourmmh Vt» Continml of NorA Amtriea
(LoDdoQ, laoi); McLmam, Hot— of • TwmivfiM Ytari' Stniet
M tht ITiuiMn'* Bay Ttrrilant (Londoii, 1S19}; Pbtitot, i/tmo-
mpAMdM Dtni-DindjU; Insu, Avknir At Grand Xm do S«cIa«M
(Paris, 1801); Moaioa, TJto Owot iMiU Jtooi (neniw, in «oiUM of
pnhlfatlon. IMl).

A. O. MOBICB.

Slavonic Language aad liturgy.— Although the
Latin holds the chira place among the lituigical lan-
guages in «4iich the Mass is celebrated and the praise
vi God rented in the Divine OflSces, yet the Slavimio
language comes next to it among the lat^ages widely
osed tibroughout the world in the liturgy of the
Church. Unlike the Greek or the Latin languages,
each of which may be said to be representative of a
sin^e rite, it is dedicated to both the Greek and the
Roman Rites. Its use, however, is far better known
tbiou^out Europe as on expression of the Greek Rite;
for it ■ used anMm^ the various Slanenatiomdities
of ih» fi^rumtine Rite, whether Catholic or Orthodox,
and in that form is spread among 115,000,000 people;
but it is also used in the Roman Rite along the eastern
shores of the Adriatic Sea in Dalmatia and in the
lowor part of Croatia among about 100,000 Catholics
there. Whilst the Greek language is the norm and the
mi^nal of the Byzantine or Gre^ Rite, its actual use
as a church language is limited to a coi^aratively
BmaD number, rMkoning by population. The liturgy
and offices of the Bysantine Chttrdi were translated
from the Greek into what is now/)Id Slavonic (or
Church Slavonic) by Sts. Cyril and Methodius about
the year 866 and the period immediately foUowing.
St. Cyril is credited with having invented or adapted a
qMcial alphabet which now b^rs his name (Cyrillic)
in ordo* to express the sounds of the Slavomc lan-
guage, as spoken by the Bulgars and Moravians of
his day. (See Ctbil and Mbtboditts, Sautto.)

Later on St. Methodius translated the entire BlUe
into Slavonic and his discipks afterwards added other
works of the Gredc saints and the canon law. These
two brother sainta always odid>rated Maes and ad-
ninistered the sacraments in the Slavonic language.
News of their successful missionaiy work among the
pae[an Slavs was carried to Rome along with com-
pUmts against them for cd^ating the rites of the
Church m tlie heathen vernacular. In 868 Sunta
Cfrfl and Methodius were summoned to Rome by
Nicholas I, but arriving there after his death they
were heartuy received hy his successor Adrian II, who
(proved (x their Slavonic version of the hturgy- St.
irril died in Rome in 869 and is buried in theXliurch
San Clemente. St. Methodius was afterwards con-
secrated Archbishop of Moravia and Pannonia and re-
turned thither to his misBionary work. Later on be
was a^tin accused of using the heathen Slavonic lan-
guage in the cel^ration in the Mass and in the sao-
raments. It was a popular idea then, that as there
had been three languages, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin,
inscribed over our Lord on the cross, it would be sacri-
legious to use any other language in the service of the
Church. St. Methodius appealed to the pope and in
879 he was again summoned to Rome, beiore John
VIII, who after hearing the matter sanctioned the
use of the Slavonic language in the Mass and the
ofBcee of the Church, saymg among other things: " We
rightly praise the Slavonic letters invented by Cyril,
in which praises to God are set forth, and we order
that the glories and deeds of Christ our Lord be told in
that same langu^. N<v is it in anywise opposed to
wholesome doctnne and faith to s^ Mass- m that
■une Slavonic language (Nec same fidei vel doctrinn
aliquid obstat missam in eadem slavonioa lingua e»-
nere), or to chant the b<^ gospels .or divine lessmis
from the Old and New Testaments duly translated
and interpreted therein, or the other pvts of the di-
vine office : for He who created the three principal lan-
guages, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, abo made the
others for His praise and glory" (Bociek. Codex,
tom. I, pp. 43-44). From that time onward the Sla-
vonic tt^Eue was firmly fixed as a liturgical lat^age
of the Church, and was used wherever the Slavic
tribes were converted to Christianity imder the influ-
ence of monks and missionaries of the Greek Rite.
The Cyrillic letters used in writing it are adaptations
of the uncial Greek a^habet, wIul the addition of a
number of new letters to express sounds not found in
the Greek language. All Church books'in Russia, Ser-
via, BiUgaria, OTAustro-Hungaiy (whether used in the
Greek Catholio w the Greek Orthodox Churdies) are

Srinted in the old Cyrillio alphabet and in the ancient
lavonic tongue.

But even before St. Cyni invented his alphabet for
the Slavomc language tiiere existed certain runes or
native characters in which the southern dialect of the
lan^iuage was committed to writing. There is a tra-
ditum. alhided to by Innocent XI, that they were in-
vented by St. Jerome as early as the fourth centui7;
Jwi2 however thinks that twy were really the orig-
imu letters invented by St. C^nl and afterwards aban-
doned in favour of an imitation of Greek characters
by his disciples and successors. This older alphabet,
which still survives, is called the Glagolitic (from glaf
golaU, to sp^k, bet^use the rude tribesmen imagined
that the letters spoke to the reader and told him what
to aa^), and was used by the southern Slavic tribea
and now exists along the Adriatic highlands. (See
GLAOOLrnc.) The Slavonic which ia written in the
Gl^litic characters is also the ancient language, but
it differs considerably from the Slavonic written in the
Cyrillic letters. In fact it may be roughly compared
to the difference between the Gaelic of Ireland and the
Gaelic of Scotland. The Roman Mass was trans*
lated into this Slavonic shortly after the Greek liturgy
had been translated by Sts. Oynl and Methodius, so

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42

SLATS

that in the course of time among the Slavic peoples
the Bouthern Slavonic writtCQ in GlagoUtic letters be-
came the language of the Roman Rite, while the
northern Slavonic written in Cyrillic letters was the
language of the Greek Rite. The prevailing use of the
Latin language and the adoption of the Roman alpha-
bet by many Slavic nationalities caused the use oi the
OlaBoUtic to diminish and Latin to gradually take its
place. The northern Slavic peoples, like the Bohe-
mians, Poles, and Slovaks, who were conv^ted by
Latin missionaries, used the Latin in their rite from
the very first. At present the Glagolitic ia only used
in Dahnatia and Croatia. Urban vIII in 1631 defi-
nitively settled the use of the Glagolitic-Slavonic
missal and office-books in the Roman Rite, and laid
down rules where the clergy of each language came
in contact with each other in regard to church ser-
vices. Leo XIII published two editions of the Gla-
golitic Missat, from one of which the illustration
on page 45 is taken.

The liturgy used in the Slavonic langua|[ej whether of
Greek or Roman Rite, offers no pecuUanties differing
from the original Greek or Latin sources. The Ruth-
enians have introduced an occasional minor modifi-
cation ^ee RuTHBNiAN Rtte), but the Orthodox Rus-
sians, Bulgarians, and Servians substantially follow
the Byzantine litur^ and offices in the Slavonic ver-
sion. The Glagolitic Missal, Breviary, and ritual fol-
low closely the Roman liturgical books, and the latest
editions contain the new offices authorized by the Ro-
man congregations. The casual observer could not
distingutsn the Slavonic priest from the Latin priest
when celebrating Mass or other services, except by
hearing the languace as pronounced aloud.

OnfiKL, <3«tchie&t der Slatenaposltl CyriU, u. ifeUutd. v. der
•loviMAfn Liturgit (Vienna, 1S61); Habasiewicx, AnnaUt Au-
l&MO (liSinbers, 1862); Golubinsxt. luoria Ruttkoi Tterim, I
(Moscow, 1904), ii, 326-42; Tatloh, Usier dm Urapmng dt* ala'
ffoKKadbm AlpMuU (Berlin, 1881); Zcillbb, Ltt arioinea ehri-
titiam dan* la vnvinea dt DiUmaiia CPaiia, 1008); NitXas. KaUn-
darfum JVontub, I OtiiHteaok, 188^; SehM fOrtaU, VIII
(Paria. 1905). ^ , ^

Andrew J. SBincAN.

Slavs, Thb. — I. Name. — A. SUws. — At present
ike customuy name for all the Slavonic races is Slav.
This name did not appear in history until a late period,
but it has superseded all others. The general opinion is
that it appeared for the first time in written documents
in the sixth century of the Christian era. However,
before this the Alexandrian scholar Ptolemy (about
A.D. 100-178) mentioned in his work, "Ftuypa^iKii
6ipfrn<ru", a tribe called Sitwmi (ZtowipwO, which
was said to live in European Sarmatia between the
Lithuanian tribes of the Galinds and the Sudeni
and the Sarmatic tribe of the Alans. He also men-
tioned another tribe, Soubenoi (Soo^woC), which he as-
signed to Asiatic Sarmatia on the other side of the
Alani. According to Safaftk these two statements
T^er to the same Slavonic people. Ptolemy got his
information from two sources; the orthograpW (rf the
copies he had was poor and consequently he believed
there were two tribes to which it was necessary to as-
mpi separate localities. In reality the second name
rCTcrs very probably to the ancestors of the present
Slavs^ as does the first name also though with less
certainty. The Slavonic combination of consonants
tt was changed in Greek orthography into all, sUd, or
tkl. This theory was accepted by many scholars
before Safsffk, as Lomonoeov, Schlfiier, Tatistdi^, J.
"nmnmann, who in 1774 published a dissotation on
the subject. It was first advanced probably in 1679
by Hartknoch who was supported in modem times
by many scholars. Apart from the mention by
ftolemy, the expression Slavs is not found until the
sixth century. The opinion once held by some Ger-
man and many Slavonic scholars that the names .Sum
and SUw were the same and that these two peoples
were idenfieal, alUiough the Suevi were a braoon of

the Germans and the ancestors of the present Swa-
bians, must be absolutely rejected. Scattered names
found in old inscriptions and old charters that are
similar in sound to the word Slav must also be ex-
cluded in this investigation.

After the reference by Ptolemy the Slavs are first
spoken of by Pseudo-Cffiearios of Naziansum, wboee
work appeared at the banning of the sixth century;
in the middle of the sixth century Jordanis and Pro-
oopius gave fuller accounts of them. Even in the
earliest sources the name appears in two forms. The
old Slavonic authorities give: Slovene (pltiral from the
singular SlovSnin), the country is called SlovMtko, the
language slovSnesk jazyk, the people alovifisk narod.
The (Seeks wrote SotJ)en<ri (in Ptolemy ZwpenC),
but the writers of the sixth century used the teims:
Sklabenoi (SxXo^ijiwO, JSUauenoi (ZcXaviirof), jSMoU-
noi (SxXa/IikwO, SHauiwri (ZxAavum). The Romans
iised the terms: Sdaxteni, Sclavini, Sclauenia, Sdau-
inia. Later authors employ the expressions Slhla^
henoi i^eXapv^), SUdabinoi (SffXa^wt l&U^iPoC),
while the Romans wrote: Sthlaueni, SUdauini. la
the "Life of St. Clement" the expression ZtDu^twal
occurs; later writers use such terms as E$ldabinm
(Eo-jcXa/fipw), AakUtbinoi iA^xKaS^o^Sklalnnioi (SxXo-
pinM), Sklauenioi (ZicXow^irot). The adjectives are
sclaviniscus^ aclavaniscua, adavinicut, aclauanicus. At
the same time shorter forms are also to be found,
as: sklaboi (SxXajSoO, sthlaboi (se\i^)^ aclam, acfUavi,
adavania, later also alavi. In addition appear as
scattered forms: Sclattani, Sdanonet (SnXa^flwt, Eff-
ffKapifffuivol, 10\apoyfy«ts). The Armenian Moises cS
Choren was acquainted with the term Sklavajm: the
chronicler Michael the Syrian used the expression
Sglau or Sglou; the Arabians adopted the expression
Sclat), but because it could not be brought into har-
mony with their phonetical laws they changed it into
SakUib, SahSlibe, and later also to Sla»ye, Slavyun.
The anonymous Persian geography of the ieath cen-
tury uses the term Seljd^.

Various explanations of the name have been sug-
gested, the theory depending upon whether the longer
or shorter form has been taken as the basis and upcm
the acceptance of the vowel o or a as the qi-iginal
rootvowel. From the thirteenth century until SaJTafUc
the shorter form Slav was always r^arded as the
origin^ expression, and the name of the Slavs was
trMed from the word Slava (honour, fame), con-
sequently it signified the same as glorioai (altvroi).
However, as eariy as the fourteenth century and later
the name Slav was at times referred to the longer f<H*m
Slovinin with o as the root vowel, and this longer form
was traced to the word SUwo (word, q>eech), Slavs
signifying, consequently, "the talking ones", verbon,
veraces, i/iAy)iOTToi. Doorowsky maintained this ex-

C' nation and SafaHk inclined to it, consequently it
been the accepted theory up to the present time.
Other elucidations of the name.iSi<if, as tiovek^ ^maa)^
skala (rock), add (colony), alaU (to send), aoUmj
(nightingale), scarcdy merit mention. There is muoh
more reason in another obiection that Slavonic philol-
ogists have made to the aerivation of the word Slav
from slovo (word). The ending en or an of the form
Slov6nin indicates derivation from a_ topographical
designation. Dobrowsky perceived this difficulty and
therefore invented the topographical name Slooj/t
which was to be derived from sloi>o. With some res-
ovation Safafik also gave a geographical interpreta-
tion. He did not, however, accept the purely imag-
inary locality Slajy but connected the word Slovinin
with the Lithuanian Salava, l«ttish Sola, from which
is derived the Polish hdatoa, signifying island, a dry
spot in a swampy region. Aooordjng to_ this intCT^-
pretation the word Slavs would mean the inhabitants
of an island, or inhabitants of a marshy region. The
German scholar Grimm maintained the identity of the
Slavs with the Suevi and derived the name from doba.

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jHka (fnoAaa). The moat probable «^Mution is
tint deriTing the name {rom sI«k> (wwd); this.iB nq^
parted by tbe SUvonic name tar the GermauB Nenwi
(the dumb). The Slavs called themselvcB SloKtniy
that is, " the nKftkin^ once ", those who know words,
iridle Uiey otdled their neighboura the Gemaiie, ' ' the
dumb", that is, those who do not ikaow worda.

During the long period of war between the Germans
lod SlavB, which lasted until the tenth century, the

only a single tribe. Ptolemy called the Slave aa a
whole the Vtnedai and says they are "the great-
eat natkm" (fUTfUrrw t$tm). The Byzantinee of the
sixth century thought only of the southern Slavs and
incidental^ also of the RuasianB, who lived on the
boundaries of the Eastern Empire. With them the ex-
pression Slavs meant only the southern Slavs; they
called the Russians Anta, and distinguished sharply
between the two groups of tribes. In one place (Get.,

ASTERN EUROPE

•HOWINB

THE SLAVIC RACE

Shvonie territories in the north and soutfa'east ftrr-
nirtied the Germans large numbers at daves. The
Vaietian and other Italian eitiea oa the ooaat took
anmeraoB SlaTonic enitiTea from the omMsite side
of the Adriatic whom the^ resold to other places. The
8Uv8 frequently shared in the aetxure and eaq>ort of
thm countrymen as slaves. The Naretani, a pirati-
cal Sbvonic tribe living in the present district of
Southern Dalmatia, were especially notorious for their
daTv-trade. Russiaa princes exported large numbeis
vt daves from tb^ oountoy. The result is that the
ume Sltwhaa given tin wonl dme to the peiqte «f
Wertera £iinipe.

The qfuestkm atiU ndauuns to be answoed whether
the eqnes^CHi SIom indicated originaUy all Slavoiuo
tribes or only one or a few of than. The reference
is thn in Ptolemy riiom that tiw w«ml tbn iDMOtf

34, 35) J<ffdanis divides all Slavs into three KTOups:
Veneli, Skm, and Anta; this would correspond to the
mesent divisiDa of wwtem^ southern, and eastern
uava. Howevw, this mention appeus to be an ar-
bitraxy oomfainatton. in another pass^e he dewg-
nates the eastern Slavs by the name VeneU. Prob-
aUv he had found the ezpressiott Ven^ in old writers
and had learned personally the names Slavs and Ania;
in this way arose his triple division. Alt the seventh-
century authorities call all Slavonic tribra, both
aouUiem Slavs and wee tern Slavs, that belonged to
the kinnlom of Frinoe Samo, simply Slavs; Same is
caSed uie "nder of the Slavs", but bis peoples arc
ddled "the fflavs named Viudi" (Sdam cognomento
Winadi). In the eighth and ninth oenturies the
Csedu and Slavs of the Elbe vers geaeraUy called
■SbiXBt IDA tOaa.alb times Wmda, 1^ f£e Gl«;nuan and

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SLAVS 44 sum

Rmuui ehnmiolera. In the same way aR autboritiea «xth oentuiy vbAar the name of Sars. The umB

of the era of the Apostles to the Slavs, Cyril and Wend,, howera-, was never complete^ forgottcsi.

Methodim, give the name Slav without any diatine- The German ohroniolers used both names constantlj

tion both to the southern Slavs, to whicn branch without distioction, the former almost oftener than

both missionariee belonged, and to the western Slavs, the latter. Even now the SortM of Lusatia are called

among whom they laboured. As regards the eastern by the Gomans Wends, while the SoveaeB are fri^

SlavBorRussiuis, leaving out the mentiuL of Ptolemy quentily ealled Winds wd their language is eallad

afa-eady referred to, Jordanis says that at the be^^ WindiuL

niiw of the era of the migrations the Gotha had cox- ThosewhomaintaintfaetheOTythattheorighialhome
ried on war with the "nation of Slavs": this nation of the Slavs was in the countries along the Danube
must have lived in what is now Southern Russia. The have tried to refute the opinion that thea6 references
eartieet Russian chromcle, erroneously ascribed to the relate to the ancestors of the present Slavs, but thdr
monk Nestor, always calls the Slavs as a whole arguments are inconclusive. Besides these definite
"Slavs". When it besins to narrate the histoiy of notices there are seva-al otiiers that are neither clear
Ruttia it speaks indeed of the Russians to whom it nor certain. The Wends or Slavs have had con-
never u)pluB the deaignation but it also often neoted with them aa <^ bibal confederates of the
tcdls 01 the Slavs of Northern Russia, the Slavs of jwesent Slavs the Bvdinoi mentioned by Herodotus,
Noveorod. Those tribes that were alreacfy thor- and also the Island of Banoma mentioned by Phny
oughly incorporated in the Russian kingdom are (FV, 94), furthn the Venete, the original infawitants
simply called Russian tribes, while the Slavs in Noi^ of the present Province of Venice, as well as the
them Russia, who maintained a certain independence, .Homeric Venetoi, Csesar's Veneti in Gaul and Anglia,
were designated by the seneral eroressioa Slavs. Con- Mo. _ In all probability, the Afiriatio Veneti were an
sequently, the opinion advocated by Miklofiii, namely, Illyiiaa tribe related to thepresent Albanians, but
that the name Slav was original^ applied only to one nothing is known of them. With more reason can the
Slavonic tribe, 'm unfounded, 1Jion0D it has been nip> old stcuy that the (kettka obtained amber from the
ported by other scholars like Kxtk, FDtkitnski, Ciov River EaidanoB in the country of the Enet<H be ap-
mak, and Past^nek. plied to the Wends or Slavs; from which it may be
From at least the sixth century the expression Slav concluded that the Slavs w^ already living on the
was, therefore, the general designation m all Slavonio shores of the Baltic in the fourth century hetare
tribes. Wherever a Slavonic tribe rose to greater Christ.

Etlitical importance and founded an independent Mbet probably the name Wend was of foreign orion

ngdom of its own, the name of the tribe came to the and the race was known by this name only among the

front and pushed aside the general dcsignatioQ Slav, foreign tribes, while they called themselves Slavs. It

Wh£v& however, the Slavs attained no political pqww is poanble that the Slavs were origin^ly named Wends

but fell under the sway of foreign rulers they ronuned by the early Gauls, because the root Wend, or Wind, is

known by the general name of Savs. Among the found eroeoially in the dietricta once occupied by iha

succesrful tribes who brought an entire district under Gauls. The word was apparently a designation that

their sway and gave it their name were the Russians, was first applied to various Gallic or Celtic tribes, and

Poles, Czechs, Croats, and the Turanian tribe of the then given oy the Celts to the Wendic tnbea hving *

Bulgars. The old general name has been retained to north of them. The e:q)lanation of the meaning of

the present time by the Slovenes of Southern Austria the word is also to be sought from this point <d view.

(m toe Adriatic coast, the Slovaks of Northmi Hun- The radeavour was made at one time to derive the

eury, the imvinee Slavonia betwem Croatia and word frcnn the Teutonic dialects, as Danish tomd,

Hungai^ and its inhabitants the Slav<mian8, and the Old Norwwian wUn, Latin ttnda, meaning water.

Slovinoi of Prussia on the North Sea. Up to recent Thus Wends would signify watermen, people living

times the name was customary amoi^ the inhabitants about the water, people living by the sea, as proposed

of the most southern point of Dalmatia, which was by Jordan, Adelimg, and others. A derivation from

formerly the celebrated Republic of Dubrovnik ^Ra- the German wenden (to turn) has also been suggested,

Rusa). Until late in the Middle Ages it was retamed thus the Wends are the people wandering about; or

by the Slavs of Nov^rod in Northern Russia and by from the Gothic vinja, refated to the German toeidm,

the Slavs in Macedonia and Albania. These peralesj pasturej hence Wends, those who pasture, the ahep-

however, have also retained their specific natimuu ana herds: finally the word has been traced to the old root

tribil names. sm, bdonging t<Hrether. Woids wmdd, ^erefore,

B. Wenda. — ^A much older designation in the his- mean the allied. Pogodin traced the name from the

toricol authorities thou Slav ia the name Woid. It is Celtic, taking it from the early Celtic root vindoa.

under this designation that the Slavs first appear in white^ by which expression the dark Celts designated

history. The first certain referenoee to the present the light Slavs. Naturally an explanation of the

Slavs date from the first and second centuries. They term was also sought in the Slavomo language; thus,

were made by the Roman writers Pliny and Tacitus Kollar derived it from the Old Slavonic word Vn,

and the Alexandrian already mentioned Ptolemy. Sossinek from Slo-van, Perwolf from the Old Slavonic

Pliny (d. a.d. 79) aaya (Nat. tust.. IV, 97) that among root sfd, still retained in the O. Slav, oomparativa

the peoples living on the oth» side cn the Vistula bft< vettij meaning large and brought it into connexion

sides the Sarmatiana and othera are alao the Wends with the Russian Anti and VjatiXi; Hilferding even

{Venedi). Tacitus (G., 46) says the same. He de- derived it from the old East Indian desiKnation of the

scribes the Wrads somewhat more in detail but can- Aryans Vanita, and SafaHk connected uw w<»d with

not make up his mind whether he ought to include the East Indiana, a confusion tiut is also to be found

them among the Germans or the Suinatians; still in the ear^ writers.

they seem to him to be more closely connected with II. Obioinal Hoicb and Miorations. — There are

the first named than with the latter. Ptolemy (d. two thewies in regard to the original home <rf the

about ITS) in hiarwvpa^ut^ (III, fi, 7) eallstheVenedi Shtva, and these theories are in cfiarp opposition to

the greatest nation living on the Weoidio Gulf. How- each other. One conridm the r^ion of tne Danube

ever, he says later (III, 6, 8) that they live on the as the cnigind home of the Slavs, whence they roread

Vistula; he also speaks of the Venedic mountains (III, north-east over the Carpathians as far as the Volga

5, 6). In the craituriee immediately succeeding the . River, Lake Ilmen, and the Caspian Sea. The oth^

Wends are mentioned very rarely. The migrations theory regards the districts between the Vistula and

that had now begun had broudit other peoples into the Dneiper as their original home, whence thcw

the for^round until the Voiadu again iq^Mar fa ths i|nwf povtlMnst ovw the Caipathiane to tiia Bttl-

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SLATS

46

SLATS

km mod into ihe Alps, and towards ilis imiMnMi
the Oder and the Elbe.

The aneieiit Kieff ehnniole, erroneooBhr aaoribed
to the mcak Nestor, is the eartiest antbonty Quoted
for the tbeofy that the original hnne of the Sum is
to be aondit in the renm of.the Danube. Here fai
detaU is rdated for the first tune how tin £Bav8 spfead

not eonunit himselT to this view. The southern Slavs
have hdd this theiny from the earliest period up to
the preeent time wiui the evident intention to twee
on it their dainu to the dnmh Slavonio in tiie Lit-
any. At an early period. In the letter ctf Pope John X
(014-29) to the Oraatian Ban TomislaT and the
nikr Mihad, Uuve is a ref enoee to the

fiMfDanr. Pa. -ua- flBWI nsia an

n 9MUUib. Mtanpsm
IMa>a».m.OTc uwatiw. Pa.<utt*

aHiMin em » ibaaiHaUI. m. lU
■MuaAHsan «a feSi lan Msr*:
iihAnlnnB
■tei Hiin

«n mu$m assKli:

MKT rt MhAMM*

Bi HUM inteAtanr. MMumatii

Mtoa, MMk. mt. Pb.*Ibv PMrfta
■tot fciepi^i pMMSi MI asMft-
ki: i wm9tkHi

■s. IH. 'MrS'
taapMH MSI Bur*, Mto Bnasu

^^nsAa*Hrtna oh.

W MUM

irtlMWi laiBMigai It

■HBHII1

■ats paewi Mira uw pi mv*

aikii wraf M« muvAmi, uaa
un: faBM Ai mitu, au flmmnH
ilM pirart aArauA, mM ■ dbirs
ainiiu at I uai: Siiu iAm lea**

■MM eAMBQ MMVA I WASHMt I

puAapmi M Mwa aMii, i mma»:
■* ic* w

i, rt iMf* pAnat.
SMe aei Ktv ohmbA, aMwaa m*
n tlMfcaaiwr.
Punai. Fa. •«p* S «■ apnaUi,
IbKi, uAi: 80i t«s es*t mta: m

ton, MMam Hi WCi, lula M
Mun dbanHH pur»>
tuAf maMbinuft

a*!. IbKMnnhMMt.

3 fan amnn wtm, niai pia^iw
jwm iwn MiiL'lMi fi. Waw M
Ihnpnw I pu«., BMi pu eMuIra
3pt«n*H puMi ttbanJkm ■ rwa-
■■a til uAanAt pwu MnrtsMt,
kMudMn auA* » ptaten. Ma-

at. AiaAwA.
rnwiiswwi efM, UU, mAi>
mm f*mm^ ■ aeMMhrnMn
■UMi, ummt UspMlHwrn aM-
■nafacAM uMI aaMisdh m,
cMai pufbiBanln: mps,
cap Mnnaai, ainapjyimi at,
«eip piMMmlbam , eiAi
M. faapnuai.

^wtoat «i.
'ULmttwm ■■■yia eiAi mmm
mibA anil nasaifti anBHudkr
-trnt: ton aaiBMtan maaAi mAui
•■AaadhA, wftiMDau* pi icbMoa ei-
Aia aiHiaura, nuu ufcni riuHn-
dfeaairaa pmai dtori ailainUbi jbi,
ihft Mtnatkm iiaitoBi son mmttt-
aut p*im nAdkt « r*a— j, aaa
«u iM tm uurAu auMwi etaar
atawtanm, nuMbA pMuetn r^
ei eiAa uMaAaaim: eadta, wtka
■lAi HiBsuim aiasnBHHSMi bb-
ptaAvu Bimtapdtom iBHHBiini
Ml, oMi ecABirtan liAuainan bU'
bnA I Vuvin puibiHEtA-

eniMMMln m, a ■safe* nr-pu-

iiaiKiai f*>*tAiw at, aaa Nun
n «Mmp leagaawAu mbAA, n p^
■^Bman iBB*mfnw aaraoia «-
am: puliu «sdiaam«a rA aip
uiea BMS, aAa anntaptai AnsK
«i aa ■Bifiaa piiaiB>itip,

Olasoutic Mimal or m Rohax Rna
A pacB from the Mlm on Bpomb at SjpaaM, mstaiidiic tbs Qiadoal, TnuA, 0<Mpal
(Matt. il^ranOpMU Pnyw orcrtfaaBdda ud Gioom

from the lower Danube to all the ooimtriee occupied
later by them. The Norioans and Dlyrians are de-
elared to be Slavs, and Andromkoe and the Apostle
Fkul are called Apoirtles to the Shiva because tiiey
laboured in Dlyiia and Fwinonia. This view was
maintuned by the later ehroniders and historioal
writers of all Slavonic peopin, as the Tah Eadlubek,
"Chronikapol." (1206), Boguchwal (d. 1263), Dlugoe,
Matej Mieohowa, Deeius, and othen. Among the
Cseohs this theory was supported by Kosmas (d.
1125), Daltmir (d. 1324), Johann Marignola (1365-
1302), Pribik Pulkava (1374), and V. Hajek (1641).
The Ruflaians also developed their theories from the
■tatomenta of their first ehnmielsr, white the Greek
laoniboa HariHwidilne of the fifteenth eantury did

raevalent traditiim that St. Jerome invented the
BlavoniG alphabet. This tradition maintained itself
through the succeeding mituries, finding supporters
evm outside these countries, and was current at Rome
Itself. Conseqoently if we went to follow strictly the
written histo^al authoities, of which a number are
veory trustworthy, we would be obliged to support tite
theory that the original home of the Slavs ia in tbe
countries along the mnube and on the Adriatic coast.

However, the contrary is the case ; the original home
<rf the Slavs and the region from which their migra-
tions bcsan is to be sought in the basin of the Dnieper
sad in ue redon extending to the Carpathians and
the Vistula, it ia easjr to explatn the origin tt the
abovMnentkmed wlddy behercd oBinkHL At tin
Digitized byVaOOQlc

luvi 4& sum

b^finning of tike Old SUvonie literatim in tlMtsMinV di> int OQnei|fnid to facte ive cften ado|M^

Kingdom oi the Bukara the Bysaatine olironioles ot toricid writiagB. Among the SlaTonio hietorians and

Hamartolos and Malala, which were baaides of very j^ulologists sufqKtftins this theory are: Kopitar,

little value, were trandated into Slavoaio. These August SehlAtser, Saiarik, N. Areybafief, Fr. Radki,

chronicles give an account of the migrations of the Bielowdd, M. Imnov, L. Stur, Ivan P. Filevifi, Dm.

natirais from the r^ion erf Soiaar a<ter tiie Deluge. Somiricvaeov, M. Lec^vdov, N. Zakoaki, and J. Pic.

AoBording to this account the Europeans are the de- We have here an interesting pn>o{ that a tnulitiuk

VAA^a CKOA: Hf CO nOAK«10HHUI«l MOTH^H KpO-
IH, HOTfG^ CTf<idmOMt$ Eft$. Tu OfKO fitffKO

npfAmnMqiAK stim so Edrfroc H3p<i-
«HAH,no KOfnm^o ccofA fforpffii: uaakak-

ctk8h, Hu8rt$ioqifA hci\'Lih, sp^iiro a^utl h

' E«1«irOA<iTTlO, H UlUpOTfUIH, H IMOKilCOdlOef-

iM'k iA^Hopij^mvw Ghh TKoirw, c^ hhmki
CtfirfroMOKiH^ «(H» crk nffcf ymv h sjfttrHMv

H ff:HKOTKOpiK||fHm^ TKOIMVk ^XOrffk, HUtrk
H npiScHW, H to k{kH siKWKV ^tn^imim.

qpTfilA TSOiru!, H nplH^H so imt OtTHTH HAt\^

Urn ropf CO ()i\iAi% ciiAH, h a^i Hflffk hi*

KHAHMW GdpcCklSrfAH; H CnOAOEH ACp^KNOiO
^ TSOCfO pbKOlO nprnOA^TH H4<H^ flpflHtTOf TidO

E}Ki, .4iHdomiK\ S84H itit^ rp{iimo4^

Cnuiuo MtesU' ov Gkmk Ritb
A piae from tb* Xitorsy «f 8L John C^iyaastom, '™**'"fa«t th* Pnrm irf Adonrtkm
Jnat Won CotnmuniMi

sooidanta <^ Japhet, who Joum^red from S^aar by deeply rooted and extmding over numy oenturios ukd
way of Asia Minor to the Balkans; there they divided found in nearly all of the early native bistcoioal au-
into various nations and ^read in various directions, thorities does not agree with histortcal fact.
Consequent^ the Slavonic reader of these ohronioles At present most soholars are of the (^initm that the
would beheve that the starting point of the migrations original home of the ^vs in South-eastern Europe
of the Slavs also was the BaJkans and the r^on of must be sought between the Vistula and the Dneiper.r
the lower Danube. Because the historical aum>rities The reasons for this belief are: the testioKuiy td the
pkoe the ancient teibe ot the lUyriaos in this region, oldest aooounis of the Slavs, given as alreac^ men-
it was necessary to make this tribe also Slavonic. In tioned by Pliny, Tacitus, and Ptolemy: further the
the later bstties of the Slavs for the maintenance of close relationship between the Slavs and the Lettish
their luiguage in the Liturgy this opinion was veiy tril^eei, pointing to the fact that originally the Slavs
convenient, as appeal could be made for the Slavonic lived close to the Letts and Lithuanians; then various
claims to the authority of St. Jwome and even of Si. indications proving that the Slavs mint have beoi
Paid. Opinions which an waddbr, current yet vhu^ oiwnaOy. nogU^oun <tf the Finnish aioA Turania*

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SLATS 4

bibes. HistoncaJ iDvestigation haa shown that the
Thraco-lUyrian tribes are not the forefathers of the
Slaim, but form an independent family group between
the Greeks and the Latma. There is no certain proof
in the Balkan territory and in the region along the
Danube of the presence of the Slavs there before the
first century. On the other hand in the region of
the Dneiper emavations and archssological finds show
traces omy of the Slavs. In addition the direction of
the genereJ march in the migrations of the nations was
always from the north-east towards the south-west,
but never in the opposite dbection. Those who main-
tain the theory tlut the Slavs came from the rcffaa of
the Danube aot^t to strengthen their views by
the names of various places to oe found in these dis-
tricts that indicate Slavonic origin. The etymokwy of
these names, however, is not entirely certain; there
are othw names that appear only in the later author-
ities of the first centuries after Christ. Some a^tia
prove nothing, as they could have arisen without the
occupation of these districts by the Slavs.

It can therefore be said almost positively that the
<»^ginBl Imme of the Slavs was in the territory along
the Dniener, and farther to the north-west as far as
the Vistula. From these regions they spread to the
west and south-west. This much only can be con-
ceded to the other view, that the migration probably
took place much earlier than is generally supposed.
Probiujiy it took place slowly and by degrees. One
teibe would pu^ another ahead of it like a wave, and
they all spnad out in tibe wide territory from the
North Sea to the Adriatic and .^^ean Seas. Here and
there some disorder was caused in the Slavonic migra-
tion 1^ the incundona of Asiatic peoples, as Scythians,
Sarmatians, Avars^ Bulgar^ and Maeyars, as well as
by the German m]^ration from north-west to south-
east. These incursions separated kindred tribes from
one another or introduced foreign elements among
them. Takm altogether, however, the natural ai-
rangement was not much disturbed, kindred trUws
journeyed together and settled near one another in
the new land, so that even to-day the entire Slavonic
race presents a regular succession of tribes. As earty
as the first century of our era individual Slavomo
tribes might have crossed the boundaries of the orig-
inal home and hkve settled at times among strange^8
at a consid^able distance from the native country.
At times again these outposts would be driven back
and obUied to retire to the main body, but at the
first oppOTtunity th^ would advance acun. Central
Eiurope must tutve been largeljr populated by Slavs
as early as the era of the Hunnisn ruler Attita. or of
the migrations of the German tribes of the Goths,
Lombards, Gepids, Heruli, Rugians etc. These last-
mentioned peoples and tribes formed wariike castes
and militaiy oivanisatioos which became conepicu-
ous in history by their battles and therefore have
kft more traoee m Ute old h^orieal writings. The
^TB, however, fonned the lower strata oC the popula*
titm m Cmtral Europe; all the migrations of the other
tribes passed over them, and when the times grew
more peaceful the Slavs reappeared on the surface.
It is only in this way that the appearance of the Slavs .
in great numbers m these countries directly after
the close of the mirations can be explained without
there being any record in history of when and whence
they came and without tiieir original home being
depopohted.

in. CLASStnCATION OF TBB SnAVOHIC PEOPLBB.—

The question as to the classification and number of
the fflavonic peoples is a complicated one. Soien-
tifie investigation does not support the common
belief, and in addition scholars do not agree in their
opinions on this question. In 1822 the father of
EAavonie philok>gy, Joseph Dobrovdcy, recognized
■due Skvonic peoples and languages: Russian, 11-
lyiliii «■ Serb, Out, Sknrene, Koiotuush, Stovak,

7 SLATS

Bohemian, Lusatian Sorb, and Polish. In his
"Slavonic Ethnology" (1842) Pavel SafaHk enumer-
ated six languages with thirteen dialects: Russian,
Bolgarish, lUyrian, Lechish, Bohemian, Lusatian.
The great Russian scholar J. Sreznejevskij held that
there were eight Slavonic languages: Great Russian,
Little Russian, Serbo-Croat, Korotanish, Polish, Lu-
satian, Bohemian, Slovak. In 1865 A. Schleicher
emunerated eight Slavonic langut^^: Polish, Lusa-
tian, Bohemian, Great Russian, Little Russian, Serb.
Bulgarian, and Slovene. Franc Miklo&i6 coimtea
nine: Slovene, Bulgarian, Serbo-Croat, Great Rus-
sian, Little luissian, Bohemian, Polish, Upper Lu-
satian, Lower Lusatian. In 190? Dm. FJorinskij
enumerated nine: Russian, Bulgarian, Serbo-Croat,
SBovene, Bohemian-Moravian, Slovak, Lusatian,
Polish, and Kaiube. In 1898 V. Jagie held that
there were eight: Polish, Lusatian, Bohemian, Great
Russian, Little Russian, Slovene, Serbo-Croat, Bul-
garian. Thus it is seen that the greatest represen-
tatives of Slavonic linguistics are not in accord upon
the question of the number of Slavonic languages.
The case is the same from the purely philological
point of view. Practically the matter is even more
complicated because other factors, which often play
an important part, have to be considered, as religion,
politics etc.

At the present time some eleven to fourteen lan-
guages, not including the extinct ones, can be enu-
merated which lay claim to be reckoned as distinct
tongues. The cause of the uncertainty is that it is
unpossible to state definitively of sevCTal branches of
the Slavonic family whether they form an independent
nation or only the disJect and subdivision of another
Slavonic nation, and further because often it is im- -
possible to draw the line between one Slavonic people
and another. The Great Russians, Poles, Bohemians,
and Bulgarians are universally admitted to be dis-
tinctive Slavonic peoples with distinctive languages.
The Littte Russians and the Whito Russians are ixy-
io^ to develop into separate nationalittee, indeed the -
former have now to be recognized as a distinct people,
at least this is true of the Ruthenians in Austria-
Hungary. The Moravians must be included in the
Bohemian nation, because they hold this themselves
and no philologica], political, or ethnographical rea-
son opposes. The Slovaks of Moravia also consider
that tney are of Bohemian nationality. About sixty
years ago the Slovaks of Hungary began to devdop
as a separate nation with a separate literary languue
and must now be regarded as a distinct people. The
Lusatian Sorbs also are generally looked upon as a
separate people with a distinct language, A division
of this little nationality into Upper and Lower Lusa-
tiara has been made on account of linguistic, reli-
gious, and political differences; this distinction is also
evident in the literary language, consequently some
Bobolars regard the Lusatians as two different peoples.
The remains ot the languages of the former Slavonic
inhabitants of Pomerania, the Sloventzi, or Kafiubes,
are generally retarded at present as dialects of Polish,
though some distinguished Polish scholars main-
tain the independence of the Kafiube langu^. The
conditions in the south are even more complicated.
Without doubt the Bulgarians are a separate na-
tionality, but it is difficult to draw the line betwe^
the Buinrian and the Servian peopln, eepeeiaUy
in Macraonia. IHiilDlogically the Croats and Serbs
must be r^u^ed as one nation: politically, however,
and ethnographically they are distinct peoples. The
population of Southern Dalmatia, the Mohammedan
population of Bosnia, and probably also the inhabi-
tants of some parts of Southern Hungary, and of
Croatia cannot easily be assigned to a definite group.
Ag^n, the nationauty and extent of the Slovene!
living in tix eastern Alps and on the Adriatic coast
oamut be settled without fifftber invot^tion. t
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SLAVS ^

Worn a philological point of view the following
fundamental principlee must be taken Uu guidanee.
The Slavonic wcnrul in its flotire extent presents

Shilolovically a homogeneous whole without sharply
efined transitions or gradations. When the Slavs
settled in the localities at present occupied by them
they were a mass of tribes of closely allied tongues
that changed slightly from tribe to tribe. I<ater
historical development, the appmrance of Slavonic
kingdoms, the ^wth of literaiy languages, and var-
ious oivilisiiu; mflueoces from witlwut have aided
in bringing about the result that sharper distinctions
have been drawn in certain places, and that distinct
nationalities have developed in different localities.
Where these factors did not appearin sufficient number
the boundaries are not settled even now, or have been
drawn onl^ of late. The Slavonic peoples can be
separated mto the following groups on the basts of
philolo^cal differences: (1) Tne eastern or Russian
group; m the south this groupapproaches the Bul-
eurian; in the north-west tiie White Russiaii dulects
show an affinity to PoUali. The eastern group is
subdivided into Great Rusaan, that is, the prevail-
ing Russian nationalitv, then Little Russian, and
White Russian. (2) The north-western group. This
is subdivided into the I^hish languages and into
Slovak, Bohemian, and Sorb tongues. The first sub-
division includes the Poles, KaSubes, and Slovintzi,
also the extinct languages of the Slavs who formerly
extended across the Oder and the Elbe throughout
the present Northern Germany. The second sub-
divisKHi includes the Bohemians, Slovaks, and the
I^isatian Sorbs. The Slavs in the Balkans and in the
southern districts of the Austro-Hung^rian Monarchy
are divided philolodcally into Bulgarians; Stokauan^
who include all Serbs, the Slavonic Mohammedans of
Bosnia, and also a large part of the population of
Croatia; the Cakauans, who live partly in DiUmatia,
Istria, and on the coast of Croatia; the Kajkauans, to
whom must be asmgned three Croatian countries and
all Slovene districts. According to the oommon
opinion that is based upon a combination of phiIok>-
gical, political, and reugious reasons the Slavs are
divided into tne following natioiu: Rusaan, Poli^,
Bohemian-Slovak, Skivwes, Seri», Croats, Bul-
garians.

IV. PRE8ENTCom>rnoN— A. fiuwfons-— The Rus-
sians live in Russia and the north-eastern part of
Austria-Hungary. They form a compact hoa}( only
in the south-western part of the Russian Empue, as
in the north and east they are largely mixed with
Finnish and Tatar populations. In Austria the Little
Russians inhabit Eastern Galicia and the northern
part of Bukowina; in Hungary liieiy live in the eastern
part on the slopes of the Carpathians. Scattered
colonies of Little Russians or Ruthenians are also to
be found in Slavonia and Bosnia among the southern
Slavs, in Bu^aria, and in the Dobrudja. In Asia
Western Siberia is Russian, Central Sib^ia has num-
erous Russian colonies, while Eastern Siberia is
chiefly oocupied by native tribes. There are Rus-
sians, however, living in the region of the Amur
"River, and on the Pacifio as well as aa the Island of
Sag^ialien. Turkestan and the Kirghis steppes have
native populations with Russian colonies in the cities.
There are large numbers of Russian emigrants,
mostly members of sects, in Canada and elsewhere in
America. Brazil, Argentina^ and the United States
have man^ Little Rusuan immigrants. There are
small Russian colonies in Asia Minor and lately the
emigration has also extended to Africa. Aooording
to tne Russian census oi 1897 Uiere were in the Rus*
sian Empire 83,933,567 Russians, that is, 67 per cent
of the entire population of the empire. Allowing few
natural increase, at the present (1911) time there are
about 89 milUcMis. In 1900 thne were in Austria
8,376,970 RutbeniADs, in Hungvy m,W- Con-

sequently in 1000 the total number of Russians oould
be reokeoied at about 93 million persons. Tliis does
not include the Russian oolonists in other countries;

moreover, the numbers given by the official statistics
of Austria-Hungary ma^ be Car below reality. Claa^
fied by religion the Russian Slavs are divided as
follows: in Russia OrUiodoz Greeks, 95.48 pes
cent; Old Believers, 2.59 per cent; Cathohcs, 1.78
per cent: Protestants, .05 per cent; Jews, .uS per
cent; Mohammedans, .01 per cent; in Austria-
Hungary Uniat OredcBi 90.6 pw cent, the Orthodox
Greeks, 8 per cent. In the Rusman Empure, excluding
Finland and Poland, 77.01 per cent are illiterates; in
Poland, 69.5 per cent; Finland and the Baltic prov-
inces with the large German cities show a higher
grade of literacy.

The Russians are divided into Great RuasianSj
Little Russians or inhabitants of the Ukraine, and
White Russians. In 1900 the relative numbos of
these three divisions were «>prozimat^: Great Bu**
sians, 59,000,000; White lUusians, 6.200.000; Little
Russians, 23,700,000. In addition there an 3,800r
000 Little Russians in Austria-Hungary, and 500,000
in America. The Russian official statistics are
naturally entirety too unfavourable to the White
Russians and the Little Russians; private computa-
tions ,of Little Russian scholars give much high^ re-
sults.* :&usevBkij found that the little Russians
taken altogetha numbered 34.000,000; Kanim cal-
cuhited that the White Ruasiaos numbered 8,000.00a
A thousand years of historical development, different
influences of civilisation, different religious confes-
sions, and probably also the ori^al philological t^-
ferentiation have caused the Little Russians to de-
ydop as a separate nation, and to-day this fact must
be taken as a fixed factor. Among the White Rus-
sians Uie differaitiation has not developed to so ad-
vanced a stue, but the tendency exists. In classify-
ii^ ib» little Russians three different types can be
a^aan distinguished: the Ukrainian, the PodoUan-Gah-
cian. and the Podlachian. Ethncuraphically interest-
ing are the Little Russian or Rutheman tribes in the
Carpathians, the Lemci, Boici, and Husuli (Gouxouli).
The White Russians are divided into two groups;
ethnon-aphioally the eastern group is relateato we
GreatRussians: the western to the Poles.

B. Polea. — Tne Poles represent the north-weston
bruich of the Slavonic race. From the veiy eut^st
times they have lived in then: ancestral regions be-
tween the Carpathians, the Oder, and the North Sea.
A thousand years ago Boleslaw the Brave united all
the Slavonic tribes living in these territories into a
PoluUi kingdom. This ungdom, <!riiich reached its
highest prosperity at the ckwe of the Middle Apes,
then gradually declined and. at the close of the ei^-
teent£ centui^. was divided by the surrounding
powers — Russia, Prussia, and Austria. In Austria iha
Poles form the population of Western Galicia and are
in a large minonty throughout Eastern GiUioiaj in
Eastern Galicia the popuuition of the cities particu-
larly is preponderantly Polish, as is also a lar^ part
of the population of a section of Austrian Silesia, the
district of Teschin. Tlie Poles are lUKsfar ratresented
in the County- of Zips in Hungary and less largely in
other Hunnjian counties which bordor on Western
Galicia. There is a small Polish population in Bu-
kowina. In Pruaua the Polea live in Upper Sileoa,
f<ain a large majority of the inhabitants of the Prov-
ince of Posen, and also inhabit the districts of
Dantsio and Marienwerder in West Prussia, and the
southern parts of East Prussia. In Russia the Poles
form 71.95 per cent of the peculation in the nine
provinces formed from the Polish kingdom. In addi-
tion they live in the neighbouring district of the
Province of Grodno and form a rdstively large mi-
nority in Lithuania and in theprovinoesirf White and
little Russia, when they sre miiinhE-«wn«B «t Jams

Digitized by VjOOglC

■ULTI

SL4T8

CiteteB aod leaidaitB ot dtka. Aooordiu to tbs tmh
BUS of 1900 the Folea in Ruasia numbered about
8,400,000; in Austria, 4,259,150; in Gennany, in-
oludiDx the Kasubes and Mamriiuui, 3,450,200; in the
rest oiEun^ about 66,000; and in America about
1,500,000; ooneequently^tt^ether, 17,664.350. Caer-
kaweki reckoned the total nmnber of Poke to be
31,111,374; Strascewics held that they numboed
from 18 to 19,000,000. As reoarda religion the Polw
of Ruflsia are almost entirely Catholic; in Austria 83.4
per oeut are CatholiGs, 14.7^ per oent are Jews, and IS
per etaA are Protestants; in Germany theiy are also
almost mtire^ Catholios, only the Manuians in East
Prussia and a BmaU pcntion (d tiw Easubea axe
Protestuit.

Etlmogrfl(>hicaUy the Fohsh nation is divided into
three groups: the Great Poles live in Poeeiu Siksia,
and nusria: the little l^tles on the upper Vistola as
far as the San River and in tiie region <tf the Tatra
mountains; the Masovians east of the ^^atula and
along the Narva and the Bug. The Kasubes oonld
be called a fourth group. All these groups can be
subdivided again into a urge number ofbraiiches, but
t^e distinctions are not so striking as in Russia and
historical tradition keeps all these peopks firmly
united. The Kasubes five on the left bank ot
Vistula from Dantsie to the boundary ttf Pomemua
and to ^e sea. Aecnding to govenunent statistics
in 1900 there were in Germany 100,213 Kasubes
The very exact statistics of the scholar Ramult gives
174,831 Kasubes for the territory where they live in
larga bodies, and 200,000 for a total inchiding those
■ottered through GcfmaiQr, to which should be added
a furt^ 130,000 in America. Aooording to the
latest investisKtion thb Kasubes an what remams d
the Slavs oT Pomerania who are, otiunrise, Iouk
extinct.

C. iMaaUan Sorba.—Tha Lusatian S(»bs are the
lesidue of the Slavs of the Elbe who once spread
aeross the Oi^ and Elbe, inhabiting the whole of the
Iffflsent Northan Germany. Dunns oenturies of
combat witii Germans their numbers gradually
deeresysed. They are divided into three main
soups: the Obotrites who inlwbited the preeoat
MecUaabuxg, LftnelNirK, and Holetdn whcoioe they
extwded into tlie Old Haik; the Lutioi or Veltn, who
lived between the Oder add Elbe, the Baltic and
the Varna; the Sorbs, who lived on the middle course
trf the between the Rivers Havel and Bober. The
Lutici died out on the Island of RQeeai at ihe begin-
ning of the fifteenth century. In the middle of the
sixteenth century there were still large numbers of
Slavs in LQndbu^ and in the ntnrthem part of the Old
Mark, while thdr numben were kes in MeeUoibu^
and in Brandenburg. However, even in LOndwig
the last Slavs disi^peared between 1750-60. Only
the Lusatian Sorbs who lived nearer the borders of
Bohnnia have been able to maintun themsdves in de-
dining numbers until the present time. The resson
inobably is that for some time their territory belonged
to Bobeonia. At present the Lusatian Sorbs nunuber
about 160,000 persons on the upper course of the
ftxree. Tht^ are divided into two growie, which
differ 80 decidedly from each other in speech and cus-
toms that some ngpid them as two peopks; th^, also
hare two se^Mzate literatures. They are rapi(Uy be-
eoming Gennanized, especiallv in Lower Lusatia.
"Hie Lusatian Sorbs are Gatiuuics with exoqitien of
18,000 in U|»>er Lusatia.

D. BohmntmB and 8lo§ak§. — ^Tbe Bohemians and
fflonks (dso belong to the north-western branch of the
SlaTwdo peoplfls. lliey entered the regkm now con-
stituting Bohemia from the north and then smad
fsitbwmto wliat is now Mmvia and Northern Hun-
m/xft aod into tike present Lower Austria as far as the

Dinnbew TheBettleincnts<tf theStoraksinHi

noBt have extended far towards lite south,

as far as Late Flatten, where they «ame into contact
with the Slovenes who belonged to the southcni Sla-
vonic group. Probably, however, tiiey did not foi^
merly extend as far towards the east as now, and the
Slovaks in the eastern portion of Slovakia ^e really
Ruthenians who were Slovakanized in the late Midd^
Ages. Directly alter their settlement in these coun-
tries the Bohemians fell ^urt into a great number of
txibes. One tribe, which settled in the central part ci
the mesent Bohonia, bore tiie name at Caechs. It
gratuially brought all the other tribes under its con-
trol and gave them its name, so that since then the en-
tire people have been called Csechs. Ak>ng with this
name, however, the name Bohemians has also been re-
tained; it comes from the old Celtic people, the Boii,
who once lived in theee regions. Soon, however, Ger-
man eokmifls qirang up among the Bohemians or
C^edn. The eoknuts settled alMig the Danube <hi
tiiesoutiiem border oS B<diemia and also farther on in
the Panncmian plain. However, these settlements d^
wpeared during the storm of the Magyar incursion.
The Bohemians did not suffer from it as they did from
the later immigrations ot German colonists who were
brought into the oountry by the Bohonian rulers of
Uie native Prenuylidian dynasty. These colonists
lived throu^ the mountains which encircle Bohrania
and large numbers of them settled also in the interimr
flf the oounby. F^om the thirteenth century the lan-
guages of Bohemia and Moravia berame distinct
touEues.

Toe BohemiMW have emigrated to various countries
outside of BohemiarMoravia. In America there are
about 800,000 Bohemians; there are large Bohemian
oolonies in Russia in the province (A Volhynia, also
in the Crimea, in Poland, and in iriiat is called New
Buasta, alUweUicr numbering 50,385. In Bulgaria
there are Bohemian colonies in Wojewodovo and near
Hevna: there is also a Bohemian colony in New Zea-
land. Nearly 400,000 Bohemians live at Vienna, and
there are large numbers of Bohemians in the cities of
Lins, Pesth, Berlin, Dresden, Leipzig, Trieet; there
are smaller, well-organised Bohonian colonies in
near^ all Austrian cities, besides large Bohemian col-
onies in Hungaiv and Slavonia. m the last^nen-
tioned ooun^ there are Btduonians. These

settlements are modem. The Slovaks occupy the
south-eastern part of Moravia and the north-eastern
part of Hungary from the Carpathians almost to the
Danube. But thoe are scattered settlements of Slo-
vaks far into the Hungarian plain and even in South-
on Hungary, beeidee colonies of Slovaks in Slavonia.
On aooount Ot the barrenness of the soil of their native
land many Slovaks emigrate to America. According
to the Austrian eensas of 1900 there were 6,955,397
B<diemiana in Austria. The mtmbo* may be de-
cidedly higher. In Germany there were 115,000
Bohemians; in Hungary 2,019,641 Slovaks and 50,000
Bohemians; in America there are at least 800,000 Bo-
hemians; in Russia 55,000; in the rest of Europe
20,000. Consequently taking all Bohemians and
Slovaks together there are probably over 9,000,000.
If. as is justifiable, the figures for America, Vienna,
Moravia, Siksia, and Hungary are considoed entirely
too low, a maxunum ot about 10,000,000 may be ao*
oepted. As to rdigion 06.5 per cent of the Bohe-
mians are Catiiolics, and 2.4 per oent are Proteetuits;
70.2 per oent of the Slovaks are Catholics, 6.3 per cent
are Uniat Greeks, and 23 per cent are Protestants.

E. Slovmea.—The Slovenes bek)ng, together with
the Croats, Serbs, and Bulgarians, to the southern
group d Slavs. The Slovenes have the position
nrthest to the west m the AIim and on the Adriatic.
Hicnr first mpeared in this renon after the defMirture
of the Lombards for Italy and t^e first date m theu-
histttfy is 595, when they fou^t an unsuccessful
bataUe with the Bavarian l>uke Tsssik) on the field
ol T6blae)L They oooupied at firstgi much larger

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territoiy than at pnaeat. The^ extended alonff the
Drave as far as the Tyrol, reaching the vallevs of ih.%
Rivers Rienz and ^sack ; they also occupied tne larger
part cf what is now Upper Austria, Lower Austria as
far as the Danube, and from the district of the Lun-

fau in Southern Salsburff through Carinthia, Camiola,
tyria, the crownland m Gdrs-Gradiska, and a large
part of Friuh. Under German supremaev the terri-
tory occupied by them has grown consicla^ty leas
in the course of the centuiies. They still maintain
tbemsehres oabr in Camiola, in the northern part of
Istria, about QOn, and in the vicmity of Tneet, in
the moimtainous districts north of Udine in Italy,
in the southern part of Carinthia and Styria, and m
the Hungarian countries bordenns on the farther
side of the Mm- River. Carinthia is becoming
r^idl^r Germanised, and the absorption of the other
races in Hungary by the Magyars constantly ad-
vances. According to the census of 1900 there were
then 1,192,780 Slovenes in Austria, 94,903 in Hun-
ganr, 20,967 in Croatia and Slavwua, probably
37,000 in Italy, in America 100,000, and 20,000 in
other countries. There are, taking them alto-
gether, probably about 1,500,000 Slovenes in the
world; 99 per cent of them are Catholics.

F. Croatt and Serbs. — In speech the Croats and
Stubs are one people; they have the same literary
language, but use dinerent characters. The Croate
write wi^ the Latin characters and the Serbs with
the Oyrillic. They have been separated into two
peoples by rdigionj political development, and dif-
ferent foriQS of civihsation: the Croats came under
the influence of Latin civiUsation, the Serbs under
that of the Bysantinee. After the migrations the
warlike tribe of the Croats gained the mastery over
the Slavonic tribes then livmg in ihe territoiy be-
tween the Kulpa and the Drave, the Adriatic and the
River Cetina, m Southern Dalmatia. Th^ founded
the Croat Kingdom on the remains of Latm civihza-
tion and with Roman Catholicism as their religion.
Thus the Croat nation appeared. It was not until a
later date that the tribes living to the south and east
b^an to unite politically under the eld Slavcmio name
of Serbs, and m this region the Sorian nation de-
veloped. Decided movenkents of the M^nilation
came about lat<», bein^ caused eepeeialry 1^ the
Turkish wars. The Servian settlements, which wigi-
nally followed only a south-eastern oonne, now
turned in an entirelr opposite direction to t^e north-
east. The original home of the Serbs was abandoned
largely to the Albanians and Turks; the Serbs emi-
grated to Bosnia and across Bosnia to Dalmatia and
even to Italy, where Slavonic settlements still exist
in Abruui. Othen eroosed the boundaries ot the
C^oatEongdom and settled in larm numbers in Serria
and Slavonia, also in Southern Hungary, where the'
rian Government granted them reliootn and

Austrian

national autonomy and a patriarch of their own.
Some of the Serbs settled here wmt to Southern
Russia and founded there what is called the New
Servia in the Government of Kheraon. Consequfflitly,
the difference betwem the Croats and the Serbs
consists not in the langua^ but wamaSy in the re-
ligion, abo in the eivdlza^n, histoiy, and in the
form of handwriting. But all these characteristic
differences are not very marked, and thus there are
districte and sections of population which cannot be
easily assiened to one or the other nation, and which
both peoples are justified in claiming.

Taking Serbs and Croats togewer there are: in
Austria, 711,382; in Hungary and Croatia, 2,839,016;
in Bosnia and Hersegovma, probably 1,700,000; in
Montenegro, 380,000; m Servia, 2,298.651 ; Old Serria
and Macedonia, 350,000; Albania and the vilayet of -
Scutari, about 100,000; Itah', 6000; Russia, 2000;
Amttica and elsewhoe, 300.000. In additlm tirire*
are about 108,000 Schoknaos, BunjevsiaiM, and

Krasboraniaiis, 8erbo<Jroatian tribes in Hunnary,
who w«re not induded with thsM in the census. Con*
■equently tiie nmnber (tf this bipartite pecfrfe may be
zeckoned af>proximatdy as 8,700,000 poAons. Ac-
cording to Servian computation there are about
2,300,000 Croats in AustrisrHungary; the Croats
reckon their number as over 2,700,000. The con-
troversy resultB from the uncertainty as to the group
to wtam tlie Bosnian Mohammedans and the above-
mentioned Sehoksians, Bunjeviians, and Krashov^
nians, as well as the population of Southern Dafanatia,
belong. As to religion the Serbs an afanost exclu-
sively Orthodmc Gredc, the Groats Catholic, the great
majority of the inhabitants of Southern Datmatia are
Catholic, but many consider themselves as belonging
to the Servian nation. The branches in Hungary
mentioned above are Catholic; it is still undecided
whether to include them among the Croats or Serbs.

G. BulffoHaru. — The Slavonic tribes living in
ancient Rmnan Mcesia and Thrace south <^ tJw Danube
and south-«a8t of the Serbs as far as the Black Sea
came under the sway of the Turanian tribe of the
BidgarB, which eetidilished the old Kingdom of Bul-
garia in this regioQ as eariy as the second half of the
seventh oentu^. The oonquenHs soon bogan to
adopt the language imd customs of the subjugated
pec^le, and from this intermixture arose the Bul-
garian people. The histtmoal develoimient was not
a quiet and uniform one; there were oontinual mi-
gnMions and remigrations, conquests and inter-
mingling. When the Slavs first ent«red the Balkan
penutsula they spread far beyond thdr present
boundaries and even covered Greece and the Fdo-

gmnesus, which seemed about to become Slavonic.'
owever, thanks to their higher civilization and supe-
rior tactics, the Gredcs drove bade the Slavs. StilL
Slavonic setUements continued to exist in Greece and
the Peh>ponueBU8 until the late Middle Ages. The
Greeks were uded by the Turkish conquest, and the
Slavs wa« fo^oed to withdraw to the limit that is stUl
mamtained. The Turks then began to force back
the Slavonic potnilation in Macedonia and Bulgaria
and to plant colonies of their own peoole in certain
districts. The chief aim of the Tuncish colonixation
was always to obtain strategio points and to secure
the passes over the Balkans. The Slavonic j>opula-
tion also began to withdraw fnnn the pluns along the
Danube where naturally great battles were ^ten
fought, and which were often traversed by the Turk-
ish army. A part emurated to Hungary, where a con-
siderable number of Bulgarian settlements still exist;
othera journeyed to Bessarabia and South Russia.
After the liberattcm of Bulgaria the emigrants began
to return and the populatHm moved again ftom the
mountains into the vall^, while lam numbos of
T^iricB and Circassians went back nom Uberated
Bul^wia to Turk^.

On the other hand the emigration from Maeedonia
is still lai^. Owing to these uncertain conditions,
and especially on account of the slight investigation
of the subject in Maoedonia, it n difficult to give the
use ct the Bulgarian population even ^iproximat^.
la apprradmate figures the Bulgsrians munber: in the
Kii^dMUirf Bulgaria, 2,864,735; Maoedxmia, 1,200,-
000; Asia Minor, 600,000; Russia, 180,000; Rumania,
90,000; m other countries, 50,000, henoe there am
alt<wether perhaps over 5,000,000. In Bulgaria there
are besides the Bulgarian pc9>ulation^,644 Pomaks.
that is Mohammedans woo speak Buuarian, 1516
Serbs, 531,217 Turks, 9863 Gagauii (BulgariaBa who
speak Turkish), 18,874 Tatars. 06.702 Greeks in
cities a^aog the coast, 89,563 Gypsws, and 71,021
Rumanians. The kingdMo, theraore, is not an
disolutely htHnc^oieous nationality. In r^igion the
Bu^pariaoM are Orthodox Greeks with exowtion ot ib»
Pomaks, alreadymentionsd, and of tbePaulicia&swko
mCMboGos. The BulgiriaDB an dinged fats mnn^

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51

SLATS

tMT of branehes and diidects; it is often doobtful
irii^Mraune of thee/a subdiviaiona Bhould not be in-
dnded •mcmg the Sert». This is especially the case

Haoedonia, ooosequent^ all enumerationfl of the
popak^iu differ eactranely from one another.

U, on the ba^ of earlier leeults, the natural annual
grmrth of the Slavonic populations is taken as 1.4
po" cwt, it may be chuiaed that there were about
156-157 million Slavs in the year 1910. In 1900 all
tak^ together numbned apfKmimatdy
136^000 persons, divided thus: Rubbuuh, 94,000.-
000; Toka, 17»GOO,000; Losatian Serbs, 150,000;
Bohemians and Slovaks, 9,800^; Slovenes, 1,500,-
000; Seibo-Croats, 8,660,000; Bulgarians, 5.000,000.

Lbopold Lekabd.

Slan tn America. — The Slavic races have sent
krge numbers of thev pet^le to the United States uid
Caoada, and this immigration is coming every year
m moeasing numbers. The eariisst unmi^ticMi
began before the war of the States, but within the
past thirty years it has become so great as quite to
overshadow the Irish and German inunigration of
the earlier decades. For two-thirda of that period
DO accurate figures of tongues and nationalities were
kept, the immigrants being merely credited to the
p^tieal govemmoitB or countries from irtiich tibey
came, but wiUun the past twelve years more accurate
data have been preserved. During these years
(1899-1910) the total immigration into the TJmted
States haa been about 10,000,000 in round niuubers,
and (A these the Slavs have formed about 22 per cent,
(actually 2,117,340), to say nothing of the increase
of native-b(»n Slavs in Uiis coimtry during that
pniod, as well as the numbers of the eariier arrivals.
Bdiable estimates oomiMlad from the ^nrious raoial
soarees Aaw that time are from five and a half to
ta millifnu ot Slavs in the United States, inctoding
the native-bcnik of Slavic parents. We are gmemlly
imaware of these facta, because the Slavs are lees
conqnouous among us than the Italians, Germans, or
Jews; their languiwes and their histoiy are unfamiliar
and ronote, besic^ ibeiy are not so massed in the
great cities of this ooimtir.

I. Bohemians (Cech; adjective, Seakff, Btdiemian).
These peoi^ ou^t really be called CAdbA (CsecA),
bat are named Bohemians after the sbtHig^al tribe
of the Btm, who dwelt in Bohemia in Roman times.
By a curious perversion of language; on account <rf
TariouB eypsiee who about two centunee ago travelled
weatwara across Bohemia and thereby came to be
known in France as "Bohemians", the word Bohe-
mian came into use to designate one who lived an
(■47, eanlesslife, unhampered by aeaious responsibili-
ties. Sudi a meaning is, bowever, ihe very antithe-
OB of the serious conservative Chekh character. The
aaffles (rf a few Bohemiana are found in the early his-
ton of the United States. August^ Hehnan (1692)
of Bdiemia Manor, Maryland, and Bediich Filip
(Frederick Philipee, 1702) of Philipee Manor, Yonk-
m, New York, are the eanieet. In 184S the >ev<du^
tioufy uprisinra in Austria sent many Bohemians to
tin country. In the eighteenth century the Mora-
Tiao Brethren (Bohemian Brethren) li^ come in
large nund>ers. The finding of gold in California
in 1849-60 attracted manv more, especial^ as serfdom
and labour dues were abolished in BtAemia at the
(nd (rf 1848, which l^t the peasant and workman
free to travel In 1869 and the succeeding yean
■BDiinatHm was stimulated 1^ the labour strikes
IB BMMmia. and <m one occasiou all the wranm woric-
en of several dear factories came over and settled
IB New Y<a^. About 60 per cent of the Bohemians
■ad Mffiavians who have settled h^ are Catholics,
ud their churches have been fairly maintained.
TUr immkration during the past ten years has been
M^lOO^ andm 1910 the number of Bo$emia» in tba

United States, immigrants and native bom, was
reckoned at 560,000. They have some 140 Bohe-
mian CathoUe churches and about 260 Bahaman '
priests; their societies, schools, and general institu-
tions are active and fiourishing.

II. BuLQARiANB (BiUgor ; adjective bUlainki,
Bulgarian). — This part of the Slavic race inhabits
the present Kingdom of Bulgaria, and the Turkidi

Sovmces d Eastern Rumeha, r^resenting ancient
acedonia. Thus it bwpens imt the ButgwUns
are almost equally divided between Turicey and
Bulgaria. Their ancestors were the Bdsan ot
Bulgara, a Finnish tribe, which conquered, inter-
married, and coalesced with the Slav inhabitants, and
eventually gave their name to them. The BuJ^arian
tongue is in many reflects the nearest to the^urch
Slavonic, and it was the ancient Bulgarian which
Sta. Cynl and Methodius are sud to have learned in
order to evangelize the pagan Slavs. Tlie modem
Bul^rian language, written with Russian characters
and a few additions^ differs fnnn the other Slavic
languages in that it, like English, haa lost nearly every
inflexion, and, like Rumanian, has the peculiarity of
attaching the article to the end of the word, while
the other Slavic tongues have no article at all. The
Bulgarians who have gained their freedom from Turk-
ish supremacy in the {weeent Kingdun d Bulsiria
•re favly contoited; but those in Macedonia chafe
bitteify against Turkish rule and form a laziKe portion
of tboee who emigrate to America. The Bulgarians
are nearly all of the Gredc Orthodox Church; there
are some twenty thousand Greek Catholics, mostly
in Macedonia, and about 50,000 Roman Catholics.
The Greek Patriarch of Constantinople has always
claimed jurisdiotion over the Bulgarian Orthodox
Church, and he enfOToad his jurisdiction until 1872,
wb0a the Bulgarian exaroh was ^^»ointed to cKercise
supreme jurisdietion. Since that time the Bulgarians
have beoi in a state of adiism to the patriarch.
They are ruled in Bulgaria by a Holy Synod of their
own, whilst the Bulgarian ex^ch, resident in Constan-
tinople, is the headi of the entire Bulgarian Church.
He is ncogaixed by the Russian Church, but is
considered excommunicate by the Greek Patriarch,
who however retained his authority over the Gredc-
speaking churches of Macedonia and Bulgaria.

Bulguians came to the United States as early as
1890; out there were then only a few ot them as
students, mostly from Macedonia, brought luther by
mission bodies to stutK^ for the notestant ministiy.
The real immigration began in 1005, when it seems
that the Bul^Eurians discovered America as a land of
opportunity, stfanulated probably by the Turkish
and Greek persecutions then raging in Macedonia
uainst them. The railroads and steel works in
the West needed men, and several enterprising steam-
ebip agents brought over Macedonians and Bulga-
rians in large numbers. Before 1906 there were
scarcely 600 to 600 Bulgarians in the country, and
these chiefly in St. Louis, Missouri. Since ibm
they have been eomii^ at the rate of from 8000 to
10,000 a year, until now (1911) there are from
80,000 to 90,000 Bulgarians scattered throu^out the
United States and Canada. The mi^oril^ of them
are employed in factories, railroads, mmes, and sugar
works, (j^ranite City, Madison, and Cmcago, Iltir
nois: St. Louis, Missouri; Indianapolis, Indiana;
Steeiton, Pennsylvania; Portland, Oregon, and New
Yorit City all have a considerable Bulgarian popula-
tion. They also take to fanning and are scattered
tinou^out the ncKih-weet. They now (1911) have
three Gre^ Orthodox churches in tlu United states,
at Granite C^y and Madison, Hlinois, and at Stedton,
Pennsylvania, as well as several mission stations.
Their clergy consist of one monk and two secular
uieat«; and they also have a church at Tonmto,
Caaad^ There are no Bulgarian Catholics, either

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52

of Um OnA cr Rnuan Rite, suffieiait to fomi a
ehttfch here. The Bulgarians, unlike the other
Slavs, have no church wbeaefit societies or brother- .
hoods in America. They publish five B^gariaa
papers, of which the "Naroden Glas" of Orwita
C^ty is the most important.

III. Croatuns (Hrvat; adjective, hrvattki, Croa-
tian).— ^These are the inhabitants of Uie autonomous
or home-rule provinoe of Ooatia^Bavonia, in the
sontb^weBtem part of the Kin^dmn of Hungary where
it reaches down to the Adriatic Sea. It includes not
only thrau but also the Slavic inhiU>itants of Istria uid
D^matia, in Austria, and those <^ Bosnia and Herso-

Svina who are Catholic and use the Roman alphabet,
blood and speech the Croatian* and Servians are

Practically one; but relmon and politics divide them,
'he former are Roman Catholics and use the Roman
letters; the latter are Qtedc Orthodox and use modi-
fied Russian totters. In many of the plaeee on the
bordn^line sehool-^^dren have to team botli alpha-
bets. Ilie English word "cravat" is dNived from their
name, it being the Croatian neckpiece which the south
Austrian troops wore. Croatia^lavonia itself has a
population of nearly 2,600,000 and is about one-third
the size of the State of New York. Croatia in the west
is mountainous and somewhat poor, while Slavonia in
the east is levels fertile, and productive. Many Dal-
matian Croats from Beaport towns came here from 1800
to 1S70. Tia original emigration from Croatia-Sla-
Timia began In 1873, upcm tie completion of ihe new
railway connexions to the seaport of Fiume, when
some of the more adventurous Croatians came to the
United States. From the early eighties the Lipa-
Krfoava district fumidied much of the enugration.
Ilie first Croatian settlemmts were made in Calu-
met, Miehiean, while many of them beoame lumbeiy
men in Micnqian and stave^ttcrs along ibe Misns-
mppi. Around Agram (Z£gr£b, the Croatian o^jital)
the grape disease caused large deetmotion ctf vine-
yards and the consequent emigration of tiiousands.
Later on emigration began from Varasdin and from
Slavonia also, and now immigrants arrive from every
county in Croatia^lavonia. In 1899 the figures for
Oroatia-Slavonia were 2923, and bv 1907 the annual
immigration had risen to 22,828, toe largest number
coming from Agram and VEffasdin Counties. Sinoe
then it has fallen off, and at the present time (1911)
it is not quite 20,000. Unfortunately the govern-
mental statistics do not separate the Sloveniuis
from the Croatians in giving the arrivab of Austro-
Hungarian imm^^rants, but the Hui^arian figures
oi departures serve as checks.
The number of Croatians in the United States at

§ resent, including the native-bom, is about 280,000,
ivided according to their origin as follows: from
CroatiarSlavonia, 160,000; Dalmatia, 80,000; Bosnia,
20,000; Herz^vina, 15,(XN); and tiw remainder
from various parts of Hunga^ and Servia. The
largest g^up of them is in Pennsylvania, chiefly
in Uie neiehSouriiood of Pitti^urg, and ther number
probably from 80,000 to 100,000. IlliniHS has about
46j000, chieSy in Chicago. Ohio has about 35,000,
prmcipa^ in Cleveland and the vicinitv. Other
oonsiderable colonies are in New York, San Fran-
cisco, St. Louis, Kansas City, and New Orleans.
They are also in Montana, Colorado, taid Michigan.
The Dalmatians are chieSy engaged in business and
grape culture; the other Croatians are mostly labour-
ers employed in mining, railroad work, steel mills,
Btoc^azds. and stone quanies. Neuly all of these
are Cathobcs, and they now have one Greek Catholio
and 16 Roman Catholic churches in the United States.
The Greek Catholics are almost wholl]r from the
Diocese of Kriievai (Crisium), and are cmefly settled
at CSiioago and Cleveland. They have some 260
Bodetiea devoted to church and patriotic purposes,
and in some eases to Sodalism, but as yet hare

no Toiy larqe eentral mvanifation, the National
Ooirtian Union with 29,217 mmnbers bdng the
latest. Hiey publish ten new^>aper8, among them
two dailies, of which "Zajedmoar" the organ of
Narodne Hrvatske Zajeduoe (National G^natiMk
Union) is the beet known.

IV. Poua iPolak, a P<^; adjective polski, Polish).
— The Poles came to the United States quite early
in its histoiy. Aside from smne few eany aettlen,
the American Revdution attiaoted such noted men
as KosciuBsko and Pulaski, together with many
of thrar fellow-countrymen. The Polish Revolution
<^ 1830 brought numbers of Poles to the United States.
In 1851 a Polish colony settled in Texas, and called
their settlement Panna Marya (Our Lady Mary).
In 1860 they settled at Parisville, Michigan, aiid
Pf^nia, Wisconou. Many distinguished Polee served
in the Uvii War (1861-66) upon both sides. After
1873 the Polish immigration began to grow i^ace,
chiefly from Prussian Poland. Then the tide turned
wid came from Austria, and later from Russian
Poland. In 1890 tbey began to come in the greatest
numbers fnnn Austrian and Russian Poland, until
ihe flow from German Poland has largely diminished.
The immigration within the past ten years has been
as follows: from Russia, 53 per cent; from Austria
about 43 per oemt; and tmly a fraction over 4 par cent
from the Prussian or Gennan portion. It is es^
mated that there are at present about 3,(X)0,000
Poles in the United States, counting the native-born.
It may be said that they are almost solidly Catholic;
the dissident and distiubing elements among them
being but comparatively miall, while there is no
pureT^ Protestant element at all. They have one
Polish bishop, about 760 priests, and some 520
(AundieB and clu4>ds, beeidea 336 schools. Hiere
are large nnmbera, both men and womm, who are
membere of the various rdigious commimities. The
Poles publish some 70 newqjapers, amongst them
nine daili^ 20 of which are purely Catholic publi-
cations. Their religious and national societies are
large and flourishii^; and altogether the Polish ele-
ment is active and progressive.

V. Rttbsianb (RoUiyanin; adjective rosriuki, Rui^
dan). — ^The Russian Empire is the largest nation in
Eur^M, and its Slavic inhabitants (exclusive Pedes)
are composed of Great Russians or Northern Russians,
White RussianB or Western Russians, and the Little
Russians (Ruthenians) or Southern Russians. The
Great Russians dwell in the central and northern
parts of the empire around Moscow and St. Peters-
burg, and are so called in allusion to their stature and
great predominance in number, government, and
bnguage. The White Russians are so called from
the iffevailing colour of the clothing of the peasantry,
and inhabit the provinces lying on the borders of
Poland — ^Vitebsk, Mohileff , Mindc, Vilna, and Grodno.
Their langiuige differs but slightly from Great Rus-
sian, inclining towards Polish and Old Slavonic.
Hie Little RussianB (so called from their low stature)
differ comddenibfy f nun the Great RussianB in lain

Osand customs, and they inhabit the Provinces <rf
, Kharicoff, TchOTnigoff, Poltava, Podolia, and
Volhynia, and tne^ axe also found outside the Empire
of Russia in Gahoia, Bukovina, and Hungary (see
below, VI. RuTBBNiANs). The Great Russians ma^r
be regarded as tiie norm oS the Russian people. Their
language became the language of the court and of
literature, just as Hig^ German and Tusean Italian
did, and Huiy form the overwhelming majority ni the
inhabitants of the Rusrian Empire. They are inrao-
tically all Greek Orthodox, the Catholics in Rusria
being Poles or Germans where they are o{ the Roman
Rite, and Little Rusdans (Ruthenians) where they
are oi the Greek Rite.
The Russians Jiave hmg been settled in America,

* ' ras pop-

k

for AlaAa was Russian territory befcoe it wi

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58

diased by the United States in 1867. Hw Riuomi
Greek Orthodox church has been on American soil
for over a century. The immigraUrai from Russia
is however composed of very few Russians. It is
Nincipally made up ot Jews Qtussiaa and Poliah),
Poles, and lithuanians. Out of an aven^ emigra-
tion of from 250,000 to 260,000 annually from the
Russian Empire to the United States, 66 per wat have
been Jews and only from three to five per cent actual
Russians. Nevertheless the Russian peasant and
working cIabb are active emigrants, ana the exodus
from European Russia is rdatively large. But it
is directed eastward instead of to the west, for Russia
is intent iQ>on settling up her vast prairie lands in
Siberia. Hindrances are placed in the way of those
Russians (except the Jews) who would leave for
America or the west of Europe, while inducements
and advantages are offered for settlers in Siberia.
For the past five years about 500,000 Russians have
annually , migrated to Siberia, a ntmiber equal to
one-half 't^e immigrants yearly received by the
United States from all sources. They go in great
colonies and are aided by the Russiaa Government
by pants of land, loans of money, and low transporta-
titm. New towns and cities have sprung up aU over
Sibnia, \rtiich are not even on our maps, thus rivalling
the American settlement of the Dakotas and the North-
West. Many Russian religioua colonists, other than
the Jews, have come to America; but oft«i they are
not wholly of Slavic blood or are Little Rununs
(Ruthraoians). It therefore hwpens that tiiere are
verv few Russians in the Unitea States as oompared
with other nationalities. There are, according to the
latest estimates, about 75,000, chiefly in Pennsylvania
and the Middle West. There has been a Russian
colony in San Francisco for sixty years, and they are
numerous in and around New York City.

The Russian Orthodox Church is well established
here. About a third of the Russians in the United
States are opposed to it, being of the anti-govero'
ment, semi-revolutionary type iA immigrant. But
the others are enthusiastio hi snppOTt <^ their Church
and their national customs, yet their. Church includes
not only them but the Litue Russiaius of Bukovina
and a Terr lai^ number of Greek Catholics of GaU-
cia and Hungary whom they have induced to leave
the Catholic and enter the Orthodox Church. The
Russian Church m the United States is endowed by
the tsar and the Holy Govoning Synod, besides
having the support of Russian missitmsry societies
at home, and is upon a flourishing financial basis
in the United States. It now (1911) has 83 churches
and chapels in the United States, 15 in Alaska, and
18 in Canada, making a total of 126 places (A wor-
ship, besides a theological seminary at Minneapolis
ana a monastery at South Canaan, Pennsylvania.
Their

one

archimanc

making a total of 119, while the^ also exercise juris-
diction over the Servian and Syrian Orthodox clen^
besides. Lately they took over a Greek CathoUc
sisterhood, and now have four Basilian nims. The
United States ia now divided up into the following
six districts of the Russian Chxirch, intended to be
the territory for future diocesee: New York and the
New England States; Pennsylvania and the Atlantic
states; Pittsburg and the Middle West; Western
Pacific States; Canada; and Alaska. Tlwir statis-
tics of diurch population have not been published
latelv in their year-books, and much of theu* growth
has been of late years by additions gained from the
Greek Catholic Ruthenians of Galicia and Himgary,
and is due largely to the active and energetic work
and financial support tA the Russian cdmrat uidio^
ties at St. Fetmburg and Moscow.
IVy have (be "RunlEf^s PhwriKvaoyObAohiis

tvo Viaimopconoslichi" (Rusnan Orthodox Mutual
AidSociety) for men, founded in 1805, now (1911) hav-
ing 199 councils and 7072 monbers, and the women's
divsion of the same, founded in 1907, with 32 coundla
and 690 monbers. Thnr publish two church p^)eiB,
"American Orthodox Messragw", aad '^Svit";
although Uiere are some nine othw Russian papers
publiaiwd by Jews and SoeialiBts.

VI. RuTHiNiANS (Biuin; adjective rusdey, Ruthft-
nian). — These are the southern branch of the Rus-
sian family, extending from the middle of Aimtria-
Hungary across the southern part of Russia. The use
<A the adjective rvMkjf by both the Ruthenians and
the Russians pomits it to he translated into Ei^ish
by the word "Ruthenian" or "Riusian". Ihey
are also called Little Russians (Makroasiam) in the
Eknpire of Russia, and sometimes Buamiaki m Hun-
gary. The wpeUations " Little Russians" and
"Ruthenians" tuive oome to have alitaost a technical
meaning, the former indicating subjects of the Rus-
sian Empire ^o are of the Greek Orthodox Church,
and the latter those who are in Austria-Hungary ana
are Catholics of the Greek Rite. Those who are
active in the I^mdavic movement and are Ruaao-
philes are very anxious to have them called "Rus-
sians", no matter whence they oome. Hie Ruth^
nians are of the original Russo-Slavic race, and
save their name to the peoples making up the present
Russian Empire. They are Bi»ead alTover the south-
on part of Russia, in uie provinces of Kieff, KharkcA,
TehemuK>£^ Poltava, Podolia, and Volhynia (see
above, V. RussiANa), but by force o{ governmental
pressure and restrictive laws aie being slowly made
mto Great Russians. Only within the past five
yesTs has the use of their own form of language and
their own newqumers and ^ees been allowed by law
in Russia. Nearly evray Ruthenian author in the
onpire has written his chief wotks in Great Russian,
beoause denied the use ctf his own language. Tbey
are also epnad throua^wut the Provinces of Lublin,
in Poland; Galicia and Bukovina, in Austria^ and th»
Counties of Siepee, Saroe, Abauj, Zemphn, Un^
Marmos, and Bereg, in Hungarv. They have had
an (^portunity to develop in Austria and -also in
Huiwary. In the latter oountry the^» are doselv
allied with the Slovaks, and many of them speuc
die Slovak language. Tbey are all of the Greek
Rite, and witik the enep&m of those in Russia and
Bukovina are Catholics. Tber use the Ruasisn
alphi^t for their language, ana in Bukovina and a
portion of Galicia have a phonetic spelling, thus dif-
fering largely from Great Russian, even in words that
are common to both.

Their immigration to America commenced in 1880
as labourers m the ooal mines of Pennsylvania and
OiM, and has steadily increased ever since. Althou^
tl^ were the poorest class of peasants and labourers,
ilhterate for the most iMit and unable to grasp the
Ij^ngliwh language or American customs when they at'
rived, they have rapidly risen in the scale of proepoity
and are now rivalling the other nationalities in pro-
gress. Greek Ruthenian churches and institutions are
being establifdwd upon a substantial basis, and their
cleigy and schools are steadib' advancing. Hiey are
scattered all over the United States, and there are now
(1911) between 480,000 and 600,000 of them, cmmt-
ing immignuits and native bom. Thedr immigration
for the past five years has been as follows: 1907,
24,081; 1008, 12.361; 1900, 15,806; 1910, 27,907;
1911, 17,724; bemg an average of 20,000 a year.
They have chiefly settled in the State of Pennsylvania,
over half of them being there: but Ohio, New Yoric,
New Jersey, and Illinois have tiuge munbers of than.
The Gredc Rite in the Slavonic language is firmly
established thnn^ them in the United States, but
they suffer greatly frmn Rusnan OrthodcHEendeavows
toW them fnm the Oatholie Chnnh, as weB as

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from frequoit fatfenuU dissemdonfi (ohieflr of an oUp-
worid politioal nature) among thsDuelvee. Hwht
have 162 Greek Catholic churches, with s Cheek
clergy conasting of a Greek Catholic bishop who has
his seat at PhUadel^^iia, but without diooesan powers
as yet, and 127 prirats, of whom 9 are Basilian monks.
During 1911 Ruthenian Greek Catholic nuns of the
Order of St. Basil were introduced. The Ruthenians
have flourishing reUgious mutual ben^t societies,
whkdt also assist hi the building of Qnek duuroheB.
Hw '^Sc^edinenrya Gtekfr-KatoUehe^dkh Btatstv"
(Greek Catholic Union) in its s^or division has 509
brotheriioods or councils and 30,256 monbers,
while the junior division has 226 brotherhoods and
16,200 members; the "Russky Narodny Soyus"
(Ruthenian National Union) has 301 brotherhoods
and 15,200 memb^; while the "Obshchestvo Rus-
dukh Bratstv" (Society (A Russian Brotha-hood) luta
129 brotherhoods and 7360 members. There are
also mamr Ruthrauans who belong to Slovak organisBF-
tions. The Ruthenians publish some ten papas,
of which the "Amerikansky Rusaky Viestnik",
"Svoboda", and " Dushpastyr'' are the principal ones.

Vll. Sebvians (Srbin; adjective srpdei, 8er-
vian). — This designation applies not only to the
inhabitants of the Kingdom of Servia, but includes
the people of the following countries forming a geo-

Saphical althou^ not a poUtical wh(de: southttn
unmry, the Kin^oms <h Servia and Mtrntmegfrn,
the Tunosh Provmces of Kosaovo, Western Mace-
donia and Novi-Bacar, and the annexed Austriiui
provinces of Bosnia and Hereegovina. The last
two provinces may be said to furnish the shadowy
boundaiy line between the Croatians and the Ser-
vians. The two peoples are ethnolc^cally the same,
and the Servian and .Croatian languages are merely
two dialects of the mow Slavic toniue. Servians are
sometimes called Uie Shtohaaskij oecause the Ser<
vian word for "what" is akto, while the Croats use
the word cha for "what", and Croatians are called
Chakav^. The Croatians are Roman Catholics
and use the Roman alphabet ilaUniea), whilst the
Servians are Greek Orthodox and use the Cyrillo-
Russian- alphabet (ciriUca), with additional signs to
express special sounds not found in tihe Russian.
Servians who happen to be Roman Catholies are
called BunqevaH (diBtnibers, disseaterB).

Servian uunkration to the United States did not
ooinmenoe until about 1892, when several hundred
Monten^rins and Servians came with the Dahna^
tians and settled in California. It b^an to increase
largely in 1903 and was at its highest in 1907. They
are hurgely settled in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Ill^ois.
There are no governmental statistics showing how
many Servians come from Stfvia and how many
from the surrounding provinces. The Servian Gov-
ernment has establisned a special consular oflSce in
New Yoric City to look after Servian immigration.
There are now (1911) about 160,000 Servians in the
United States. They are located as foUows: New
England States, 25,000: Middle Atlantic States.
60,000; Middle Western States, 25,000; Western and
Pacific States, 26,000; and the remainder throuf^bout
tbe Southern States and Alaska. They have brotight
with them their Orthodox clergy, and are at present
affiliated -mih the Russian Orthodox Churcn here
although Uiey ^cpect i^ortly to have their own na-
tional bishop. Iliey now (1911) have in the United
States 20 churches (of which five are in Pennsylvania)
and 14 cler^, of whom 8 are monks and 6 seculars.
Hugr publish eigbt newnumers in Servian, of irtiieh
"Amerikanski ^bobran'' of FtttsburK, "Srbobran"
of New York, and "Sipeki Olasnik" ofSan Franctseo
are the most important. They have a large number
of church and patriotic sooietiee, <tf which the Seri>
Federation "Sloga" (Concord) with 131 dniitmx or
•ounoils and over 1(^000 membon and ."Fkoavjeta"

1 B.4?!

^ogress), compoaad of Sarnau faom Boaaia and
Henegovina, artt the moat promment.

YUI. Slovaks {^Umak; adjective »Uwetuik4j Sk>-
vak). — ^Theee occupy die nwtb>westera portion d
the Kingdom of Hungary upon the southern slopes
of the Cupathian mountains, ranging over a territcay
comprising the Counties of Poszony, Nyitra, Bars,
Hont, Zolyom, Trencs^n, Turoc£, Arva, Lipt6.
Scepes, Sdroe, ZempUn, Ung, Abauj, Gdmdr, ana
N6^raa. A wdl-dmned etmiical Ime is all that
divides iha Slovaks from the Rutheniand and the
Magjrars. Tieir language is ^moet the same as the
Bohemian, for thej^ received their literative and Uieir
mode of writing it from the Bohemians, and even
now nearly all Uie Protestant Slovak hterature is
from Bohemian sources. It must be r^embered
however that the Bohemians and Moravians dwcU
on the northern side of the Carpathian mountains
in Austria, whilst the Slovaks are on the aout^ of
Uie Carpathians and are wholly in Hunraiy. Between
the Moravians and the Slovaks, dwelling sfi near to
one another, the relationship was especial)^ dose.
The Slovak and Moravian people were amonx those
who first heard the story of Christ from the Slavonio
UMetles Sts. Cyril and Methodius, and at one time
their tribes must have extended down to the Danube
uid the southern Slavs. The Magyars (Hungarians)
oame in from Asia and the East, and like a wedge
divided tlus group of northern Slavs from tiuae on
the south.

The Slovaks have had no independent history and
have endured successively Polish rule, Magyar con-
quest, Tatar invasions, German Invading colonisa-
tion, Hussite raids from Bohemia, and the dynastic
wars of HuD^rary. In 1848-49, when revolution
and rebellitm were in the air, the Hungarians began
their war aminst Austria; the Slovaks in turn rose
gainst the Hungarians for Uieir language and national
customs, but on the conclusion oT peace they were
again incorporated as part of Hungary without any
<x their rights recognized. Later they were ruthlessly
put down when they refused to carry out the Hun-
garian decrees, particularly as they had rallied to
the Bui^rt of the Austrian throne. In 1861 the
Slovaks presented their famous Memorandum to
the Imperial Throne of Austria, praying for a bill
of rights and fco* their autonomous nationality.
Ster^Mfi Moyses, the distinguished Slovak Cathouc
bishop, besout^t the eii4>eTor to grant national
and language rights to them. The whole movement
awoke popular enthusiasm, Catholics and Protestants
wwking together for the common good. In 1862
high schoOB were opened for Slovaks; the famous
"Slovenska Matica' , to publish Slovsdc books and
works of art and to foster the study of the Slovak
history and language, was founded; and in 1870 the
Catholics sdso founded the "Society of St. Voytech",
which became a powerful helper. Slovak newBpapen
sprang into existence and 150 reading clubs and
libraries were established. After the defeat of the
Austrian arms at Sadowa in 1866, preesiire was re-
sumed to split the empire into two parts, Austrian
and Hungarian, each <» which was practically ind(H
pendent. The Slovaks Uienceforth came whol^
under Hui^farian rule. Then the Law c& Nationah-
ties was passed which recognized the predtxninant
position of the Magyars, but ^ve some small recog-
nition to the other minor nationalities, such as thia
Slovaks, by allowing them to have churches and
schools conducted in their own languaK.

In 1878 the active Magyariaation (rf Hungary was
undertaken. The doctrine was mooted that a native
of the Kingdom of Hungary could not be a patriot
unless he spoke, thought, and felt as a Magyar. A
Slovak of education who remained true to his ancestry
(and it must be remembered that the Slovaks were
tbmkoigbefoR theHungariaos oame) was considered

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dedoknt in patriotiBm. Tbe moBt advanced pol^ioil
view was ttiat a compFomifie with the Slovaks was
impoesible; that there was but oiie expedient, to wipe
them out f ar as possible by assimUatkm with the
Macjian. Slovak aohoob and inatitutkns wen
ordefed to be okwed, the diavtn of the "Matua"
wae annulled, and its library and ridi hiatorioal and
artistio oolleetionB, as well aa ita funds, weve oonfia-
oated. Inequiditiee of every kind before the law
were deviaecl for the undoing of the Slovaks and turn-
ing them into Hungarians; bo much so that one of
their authwa likened than to the Irish in their
troubles. The Hungarian aathorities in their en-
deavour tO! Boppnm the Skvak nataonalitr went
even to the «rtent fit taking awav Slovak Mildren
to be brought up as Magyars, and fori>ade them to
use Uieir language in school and church. The
2,000,000 Catholic Slovaks clung to Uieir ku^uage
and ^vio customs, but the clergy were educated
in their semioaries through the medium of the Magyar
tongue and required in their parishee to conform to
the atato idea. Among the 750,000 Piotestant Slovaks
the Govenmunt went even furtJwr 1^ taldns control
of their synods and bidic^ Even Sk)vaJc family
names were changed to Hungyian onee, and prefer-
ment was only thiou^ Hungarian channds. Natu-
rally, religion decayed under the stress and strain of
repressed nationaUty. Slovak priests did not per-
form their duties with ardour or diligence, but con-
fined themselves to the mere routine of canonical
obligation. There are no monks or rdigious orders
among the Slovaks and no provision is lude for any
kmd <rf eommunity life. Catechetieal fnetruetion
ia at a TniTiimiiin and is required to be avea whoiever
poaB3>le through the medium of the Bunganan lan^
guage. - There is no lack (rf priests in the Slovak
countrvj yet the practice of solemnizing the receptitm
of the nist oomtnunion, by the children is unknown
and many oAsr forms of Catholic devotion are
omitted. Evw the B<dT Roeary Society was
diaatdved, because its devottons and prooeedbtgB woe
onkdueted in Slovak. The result of governmental
nstricti<Hi <rf an^ national expression has been a
ecMnplete lack of mitiative on the part of the Slovak
priesthood, and it is needless to speak of the result
upon their flocks. In the eastern part of the Slovak
territtx^ where there were Slovuc-eputking Greek
CathoUcs, they fared slightly better in in^ud to
the attempts to make them Hungarians. Th^ the
liturgy was Slavonic and the ctegy who used the
Magvar tongue still were in doss touch with their
pec^ through the offices of iho Churdi.' All this
pressure on the part of the authorities tended to
inx>duoe an active Slovak emigration to America,
while bad harvests and taxation also otmtributed.

A few immigrants came to America in 1864 and
their success brought others. In the late seventiee
the Slovak exodus was well marked, and by 1882 it
was sufficimt^ important to be investigated by the
Hnngfviao Mmister of the latenar and direetitHiB
avm to re|a<ss it. The American imm^ration
nguree indicate the first important Slovak influx
in 1873 when 1300 immigrants came fnMn Himsanr,
which rose to 4000 in 1880 and to nearly 15,000 in
1884, most of Uiem settling in the mining and indus-
trial regions of Pennsylvwia. At first they came
from the Counties ct Zemplin, Saros, Sccpes, and
ITng, where there were also many Ruthenians. ThMr
were called "Huns" or "HunlaeB", and wem used
at first to fin the pUces left vaofuit by strSkers. They
were very poor and willing to work for little when
they arrived, and were accordindy hated by the
members of the various unions. The Slovak girls,
like the Irish, mostly weat into service, and because
tiiey had almost no expense for Uvinc managed to
earn more than the men. To-day the Sloiwks of
Ameriea are ba^bint to poMeas n nstianalieiikute

5 mjM

aad organiiati(»i, which pnomta a striking contrast
to the cramped development of their kmsmen in
Hungary. Their immigration of late years has ranged
aanuaUy from 52,368 in 1005 to 33,416 in 1010.
AltMewer it is estimated Uiat there are now sane
660,000 Slovaks m the United States, including the
native bom. Hiey are spread thnw^out the coun-
try, (diiefly in the f (ubwing states : FenneiylTOni&, 270,-
000; Ohio, 76,000; Illinois, 60,000; New Jersey, 60,000;
New York, 36,000; Connecticut, 20,000; Indiana,
15,000; MuBCHui, 10,000; whilst they range from 6000
to a few hundreds in the other states. About 460,000
of them are Roman Catholics^ 10,000 Greek Cathohcs
and 96,000 Protestants.

The first Slovak Catholic church in the United
States was founded by Rev. Joseph Kossalko at
Stzeator, Illinois, and was dedicated 8 Dec., 1883.
Following this he also built St. Joseph's Church at
Haaleton. Penns^vania. in 1884. In 1889 Rev.
Stolen Furdek founded the Church of St. Ladislas
at Cleveland, Ohio, toother with a fine parochial
sehof^, both of which were dedicated by Bishop Gil-
mour. The American bishtqia won anxious to get
Sovak priests for the increasing immigaticm, mi
Bidicv Gilmour sent Father Furadc to Hungary fw
that purpose. The Hungarian bishops were unwilling
to send Slovak priests at first, but as immigrati<m
increased they acceded to the request. At present
(1911) the Catht^ Slovaks have a elowy consiBting
of one bishop (Rt. Rev. J. M. Koudel&) and 104
priestfl, and nave 134 churches situated as follows:
m P6nnsylvaziiaj^81 (Dioceses <A Altoona, 10; Erie, 4:
Hairiaburg, 3; Philadelphia, 16: Pittsburg 35; and
Sorsnton, 14) ; in Ohio. 14 (in the Diocese of Cleveland,
12, ftnd Columbus, 2); in Illinois, 10 (in the Arch-
diocese of Chicago, 7; and Peoria, 3) ; in New Jersey,
11 (in the Diocese ot Newaik, 7; and Trenton, 4);
in New York, 6; and in the States of Connecticut, 3;
Indiana, 2; Wiaconsin, 2; and Minnesota, Michi^ut,
Missouri, Alabama, and West Virginia, one each.
Snne of the SknwK church buildings are voy fine
qiecimens of church architecture. Iliere are also
30 Slovak parochial schools, that of Our Lady Mary
in Cleveland having 760 pupils. They have also
introduoed an American order of Slovak nuns, the
Sisters oi Saints Cyril and Methodius, who are
established under the direction of Bishop Hoban in
the Diooeae of Scran ton, where they have four adiools.

The Protestant Slovaks followed the example (rf
the Cadu^cs and established thev first ohuroh at
Streatw, Illinois, in 1885, and later founded a chureh
at Minneapolis in 1888, and from 1800 to 1894 three
churches in Pennsylvania. They now have in the
United States 60 Slovak churches and congregations
(of which 28 are in Penn^lvania), with 34 ministers
(not including some 5 Presbyterian clerRymen), who
are organized under the name oi "The Slovak Evan-
gelical Lutheran Synod of America". The Slovaks
nave a hu^ numb^ ci t^anisationa. The principal
Gathdie ones are: Prva Katohcka Slovoisk^ Jednota
(First Sk>vak Catholic Union), for men, 33,000
members; Pennsylvinska Slovensk^l Rimsko a
Gr^o Kat(^fcka JecUiota (Pennsylvania Slovak
R(Hnan and Greek Catholic Union), 7600 members;
Prva KatoUcka SlovimskA ZenskA Jednota
Catholic Slovak Women's Union), 12,000 manbers;
Pmnaytvddaka Sloven^ Zenski Jednota (Penn^^
nnift Slovak Women's Union), 3600 membos;
Zivwia (Women's Lowue), 6000 members. Hiere
arc also: NArodn^ Slovensk^ Spolok (National
Slovak Society), which takes m all Slovaks exc^t
Jews, 28,000 members; EvanjeUcka Slovenski Jed-
nota (Srangelioal Lutheran Slovak Union), 8000
metdMra; Kalvinski SIovenskA Jednota (Preeby-
tesian Slovak Unkm), 1000 members; Neodvisl^
Ntiodnr Slovend^ Spolok (Lndependoit Natkmal
SkmkSoete^), 2000. members. They also have a

Digitized by Google

large and enterprising Frees, publishing stHne four-
teen papers, llie duef ones are: "Slovenal^ Den-
nfk" (Slovak Journal), a daily, of Pittsburx; '^Slovak
V Amerike" (Slovak in America), of New York:
"Narodne Noviny" (National News), a weekly, «
Pitteburg, Penn^lvania, with 38,000 oiroula&iMi;
"Jednota" (The Union), also a weddy, of Middto-
town, Pemiffyivania, with 35,000 circulatton; and
"Bratotvo" brotherhood) of WUkes-Barre, Pramsyl-
vania. There are also Protestant and Socialistic
Slovak journals, whose circulation is small. Among
the distmguiahed Slovaks in the United States may
be mentioned Rev. Joseph Murgas oi Wilke»-Ban«,
who, in addition to his work am<mg his people, has
perfected several inventions in wireless telegraphy
and is favourably known in other scientific matters.

IX. SLOVBinB {SUwenec; adjective tUweruki, Slove-
nian).— These come chiefly from south-western
Austri^ from the Provinces of Camiola {Kranjiko;
Ger., Krain). Carinthia (iCoroObo; Ger., KOmden),
and S^ria {stajertko; Ger., SUMrmarky, as wefl as
from Besia iBesja) and Udine iVidem) in north-
eastern Ita^, and the Coast Lands iPrimonko)
of AustrisrHungiuy. Their nei^bbdurs tm Hie souUi-
west are Italians; on the west and north, Gmnans;
on east, Germans and Magyars; and towards the
south, Italians and their STavio ne^;hbour8 the
Croatians. Most at them are bilingual, speaking
not only the Slovenian but also the German language.
For this reason they are not so readily distinguiaiable
in America as the other Slavs, and have less trouble
in assimilatii^; themselves. At home tiw m|un
centres of their language and Uterature have been
Laibach (Ljubljana). Klagenfut (Cdovec), Grai
(Gradec), and Cthn (Gorica)^ the latter city betng also
largely Italian. In America they are sometimes
known as Austriaxts, but are more often known as
"Krainer", that being the German adjective of
Krain (Carniola), from whence the lar^r number of
them come to the United States: sometimes the wwd
has even been mioinonounoea and set down as
"GrinCT". The ^venes became known sonewhat
early in the history of the United States. Father
Frederic Baraga was among fint of than to otHue
here in 1S30, and began his musionary woric as a
priest among the Indians fA Michigan, Wisconsm,
and Minnesota, and finally became the first Bishop
of Marquette, Michigan. He studied the Indian
languBces and wrote their grammars and history in
his Tanmis Ei^ish, Gennan, and Slovenian woiis.
He also publiraed several catechisms and rdigious
woi^ in SSovenian, and brou^t over several otha
Slovenian priests.

In Calimiet, Michigan, the Slovenes settled as
early as 1856; they first appeared in Chicago and in
Iowa about 1863, and in 1866 they founded their
chief farming colony in &x>Gkway, Minnesota.
Here they stiU preserve their own language and all
their minute local peculiarities, llieiy came to
Omaha in 1868, and in 1873 their present la^ o(rfony
in Joliet, Ulmois, was founded, llkdr eariiest
settlement in New York was towai^ the end of
1878, and gradually their numbers have increased
untU they have churches in Haverstraw and Rockland
Lake, where their language is used. They have also
established farm settlements in Iowa, South Dakota,
Idaho, Washington, and in additional places in
Minnesota. TI^ very active immigraticm b^an
in 1892, and has been (1900-1910) at the rate of
from 6000 to 9000 umually, but has latdy fallen
off. The official government statistics class them
along with the Croatians. There are now (1911)
in ^e United States a little over 120,000 SIovmm;
practically ail of them are Catholics, and with no
great differences or factions among them. There is
a leaning towards Socialism in the large minii^ and
manufaeturing centrea. In Pcauu;^vaiiia thtn an

} IL4VI

about 80,000: in (Miiq, 15,000; in Illinois, 12,000;
in Michigan^JOOO; in Minnesota, 12,000; in (jolorado,
10,000| m Wsshington, 10,000; in Montana. 5000;
in California, 5000; and in fact there are Slovenes
reported in almost every state and territory exoept
Georgia. Their immigration was caused by the
poverty of the people at h(»ne, especially as Cunida
18 a rocky and mountainous district without much
Sertilitv, and nu^eoted even from the times of the
Turkisn wars. Latterly the institution of Raffeisen
banks, debt-paying and mutual aid associations,
introduced among the people by the Catholic party
(Slovenska Ijudtwa Stranka), has diminished iinmi*
gration and enabled them to live more comfortably
at home.

The Slovenes are noted for their adaptability,
and have given many prominent missionary leaders
to the Church in the United States. Among them
are Bishops Baraga, Mrak, and Vertin (of Marquette),
Stariha (of Lead), and l>obec (of St. Cloud); Men-
signori Stibil, Bun, and Plut; Abbot Bernard Loo-
nua, Oj8.B.; and many others. There are some 92
Sknrenian priests in Ihe United States, and twoitgr-
five Slovenian churches. Many of their ehurahes an

Suite fine, especially St. Joseph's, Joliet, Illinois:
t. Joseph's, (jalimiet, Michigan^ and Sts. Cyril and
Methodius^ Sb^raygan, Wisconsm. There an also
mixed parishes where the Slovenes are united with
other nationalities, usually with Bc^emians, Slovaks,
or Germans. There are no exclusively Slovenian
religious ctnnmunities. At St. John's, Minnesota,
them an six Slovenian Benedictines^ and at Rod^
land Lake, New Yoi^, three Sbvenian FnnoiscanL
who an undertaking to establish a Slovenian ana
Croatian community. From them much <^ the
information herein has been obtained. Hie Francii^
can nuns at Joliet, Illinois, have many Slovenian
sisters; at Kansas City, Kansas, there are several
Slovenian sisters engaged in school work; and then
an some ^ovenians among the Notn Dame Sisters
of CUirdand, Ohio. AnUiishop Irdand oi St. Paul,
Minnesota, mat to Austria for Sknrenian seminarians
to finadi thor edueatifm hm, and also iqn^inted
three ^oventan prioeto as prof eeson in his tuoeesan
seminuy, thus {jroviding a SIovenian-Amoican
clCTgy for their parishes in nis province.

There are several church and benevolent organiia*
tions among the Slovenians in America. The princi-
pal ones are: Kranjsko Slovenska Katoli&ka Jednota
rKrainer Slovenian Catholic Union), oi^aniBed in
April, 1894, now having 100 councils and a member-
ship of 12,000; Jugoslovenska Katolidka Jednota
(South Slovenian Catholic Union), oi^anised in
Jan., 1001, having 90 councils and 8000 members;
besides these there are also Slovenska Zapadna
Zveza (Slovenian Western Union), with 30 councils
and about 3000 members, Drustva Sv. Bariwra
(St. Bfubara Society), with 80 councils, chi^y
among miners, and the semi-socialistic Delvaska
Fodpwna Zvesa (WoAiogmm'e B^ievoleskt Uniim),
with 25 councils and a eonsidovble member-
ship. There are also Sv. Rafaelova Dnilba (St.
Raphael's Society), to assist Slovenian umnigrants
founded by Father Kasimir, O.F.M., and the Society
of Sts. Cyrd and Methodius to assistSlovenian schools,
as well as numerous singing and gymnastic nganisa-
ticHis. The Slovraiians publish ten newn>apen in
the United States. Hie oldest is the Catholic weekly
"Amerikanski Slovmec" (American Slovene), es-
tablished in 1891 at Joliet, and it is the organ of the
Krainer Slovenian Catholic Union. "Glas Naroda"
(Voice <A the People), established in 1S02 in New
Yoik City, is a daily paper somewhat Liberal in its
views, but it is the omcial organ of the South Slavonic
Cathuie Unicm and the St. Barbara Society. "Ave
Maria" is a religious DKmthly publishea by the
RanoissHH cf Boeklaiid Lakn, New Yodc ''^Qlas-

Digitized by Google

57

StOTH

[" (The Herald) is a weekly of CalumeL Michi-
i; as are abo '^'Edinost" (Unity), of Pittabiug,

Bik'

f^DBvlvania; "Clevelandska Amoika", <tf Clere^
]Mid,01iio: "Narodm Veatnik" (People'a MMMmnr),
of Dulutb, Minneeota: and "Skwenaki Naiod^*
QSkmrniao People), d Pueblo, Colorado. There are
abo two purdy Socialietio weeklies in Qiicago:
"Proletarec" (Proletarian) and "Glas Svobode"
(Voice of Freedom). A very fine work. "Amerika
in Amerikanci" (America and the Americana),
desoriptive of all the United States and Slovenian
life and Llfvclnijiiii'iit hftre, Lj-h K'co imbluhcrJ by
Father J. M. Tniuk ai Klagenfiirtj Austria.

Bm^-ii. 0"^ --iltn-u FAli't' I7i;u'tij iNr^w Ynrk. llilllH. HaL-ar,
JErJi^if a .■^f;r,.[.n Cr.ii!,t-Kiiial\rkii;h Oiadwt Spoj. StdJack

Amfn.c<LTj:fi 1^1. [y<>ui-i. I^vtilii^ K <.i El CD BU K t Tha CatAeUe BohMman*
nf tfie LuUt'l Stiln lu '.A-iinpljiiii S-^wnw, {New Vofk, JdO-
Uu., iiv. M-Hi Ki.uEPr, V AmirUba (MmUooq. tfill);

£cnici& JVaK inHitniei u SMinj. Ananmi Atnthctim (A^rsTn,
ISOO}, lUinc. iis4t"ta Kolonuaeija i .ftarmi (Afkiij. llhVi);
Ebuhka, Hiatn'-va Po(j*fl V v^Bio-j/ca (Milw<Mjlt*e, 10aS-«!;
Jlhtil, Lvdni^i foi-k'i \ii -t-Ti^ri/c* ;I.('uil>^ra, 1B05>; KlUiTHt^n.,
TAi PcJm i-i ths t'lLiifi Sfitiif c-/ Ansrnf'} i I'tiilulelgihla, 190?;:
ProK>alactu K'lfrtiicij- (New Vork. 1900-13}! jtnuriJbuuti
AbhiH .wien-iIiPflJ-' {EX',.rijL^stea(i, 1007-13); FomoM, Zjwl
AlmtuboB e Aitenkv la Ti/^u'vift'o. Itl CHiwomberDk,
SmiH-W«TiioN, Aonul i^robfcmj in Haii^ory (LoodoD, IO'Wk
Frn>EK. CaOotic Stetf^ of Hunsanj (Wilktia-QAms, \Wm .
Ciril, rfc« 5i<wa*a «f flunpart (New York. 1W61; Stcjid,

Londt iJ lha Svb tLoiiJaii, IfKM): Kalen^Jar (Niw YotIc.

IRU}; »cniMr, iK* ShMian IVIcuda, 1BSI>; Sovrciifi^. r«'u't
tvimm StoMMMH CJolM, 1803); Tkttinc, Avierika in ^mert-

*^

ffltnnift^j Anton Mabtih, BiBbq> of Lavant, in
Bfaribar, Styria, Austria, noted Slovenian educator,
b. 1800; d. 24 Sept., 1362. The dawn of the nine-
teenth oentui^ found the Slovenian schools in a pre-
carious condition; their number was pitifully small,
and the courses they offered were inadequate and un-
satisfactory. This deplorable state was due to the
fact that the Austrian officials endeavoured to sup-
IHesi tiie national language, and, to ocHnpaas this
end, introduoed foreign teatdien thcnoughfy dis-
taste to the people, whom in ton they despised.
Moreover, books, magaiinei. papras, and ottier
educational influMtoea were lacking, not because they
would not have been gladly welcomed, but because
they were forbidden by the Government in its fear of
Panslavism. litus situation Bishop 61om&^ was com-
pelled to face. A man of initiative and discernment,
the diangea he wrought in a short time were wonda>
fal. Inthe Constitution <tf 1848, granting national
ri^ts long denied, he found his instrument. Follow-
ing this measure, thoui^ only after many futile at-
tempts, he received official sanction to undertake the
reform of the schools. The first fruits of his labours
were a series of excellent text-books, many from his
own pen, which proved powerful factors in uie growth
and development of raii^ous as well as national
edueatkm. Ihe founding (tf the we^y, "Drob-
tinice" (Crumbs), was hu next step. Essays and
bocdts on a great variety of subjects, embracing prac-
tically every question on which his countrymen stood
in need of eiuightenment, were published in quick
suooesskm, and hu vigonnis and incisive style, well
adapted to the intelligence of his readers, though not
lacking scholarly refinement, made his works ez-
oeedin^ popular. His pastorab and sermons con-
stitute a literature of lasting vahie. In 1841 besoiujht
to zealiie a dream of years — the eetabfidiment « s
society for Uie spread Catholic literature. Un-
fortoiutehr, the movement was branded as Pansla-
vistio, ana failed at the time; but ten years later this
organisation was effected, and Dmata m>. Mohora
began sending a few instructive books to Catholio
bomes. To-day, a million educational volumes have
been distributed among a million and a half of people.

Ahhooi^ Skaniek was ardent and aotire in the
{ntcnstamhb own race, yet he was admired and loved

1^ great men of othtf nations, and his kindness and
tact eliminated all bitterness from the controversies
in which he was foit^d to engage. Patriotism^ the
education of fab people, their temporal and qiintual
welfare, were his mspiriug motives, as the non-
Cathobc Makusev remarks: "Education, based on
religion and nationality, was his' lofty aim". Hu-
mihty and childlike simplicity marked his life. His
priests, sincerely devoted to him, frequently heard him
repeat the words: "When I was bora^ my mother
laid me on a bed of straw, and I desire no better
paUet when I die, asking only to be in the state of
grace and worthy <tf salvation".

GSAniTAjnni, Him. tf Sbvtnim lAttratart (1862).

P. Ctril Zupan.

Slotuuia (ScHum-AinTB, van dbb Slootbn),
John (John Gbffkn), polemical writer: b. at Geffen,
Brabant; d. at Cologne, 9 July, 1560. He joined
Uie Dominican order at Cologne about 1525. For
many years he ably defended the Faith against the
heretics by preaching and writing. Later he taught
■aored letten at Cousne, and m 1554 was made a
doctor ol theology. About thb same time he became
inior of his convent at Cologne, and as such exercised
tiie offices of censor of the faith and papal inquisitor
throughout the Archdiocese of Cologne and the Rhine
country. In the discharge of these responsible
duties Slotanui came into conflict with the learned
Justus VelsiuB, who in 1556, on account of heretical
teachings, was obliged to leave Cologne. The vehe-
ment wntings wfauh Vdsius afterwards published
against the Cobgiw theoki^ana moved Slotanus to
write two works in which neariy all the heretical
doctrines ot hb time are discussed with admirable
skill.

Among h)9 various works liiose most worthy of men-
tion are: " Diqnitationum adversua hsercuoos liber
unus" (Cologne, 1558); "De retinenda fide or-
thodoxa et oathoW adversus hsereeea et sectas"
(CologDe, 150D); "De barbaris naUonibua oon-
vertendb ad Christum" (Cologne, 1559). In the
last4uuned woric Slotanus witnesses to the ardent
missiwiaiy seal ^iriiiish fired the relipoua men of hb
time.

EcoABD. &rM. Ord. Pnd^ U, 175; Huma, Jfawwrfator;
Hstmn, 2«r OmMdilM dir KUbur TlWtfvm *m 19. JaMi. in
Katk. ZtiUehr. ftr ITiMnweka/l tnuf KmtL, II (OidogBB, 1845).
70 Vkvuo*, Kehm DaidiiieammekriJUMtr tuL t8. Johrk.
inXatMi* U(iwn S88«t

Cbab. J. Cauian.
Slotl^ one of the seven e^futal nns. In genraal it
.means disini^nation to labour or exertion. As a capi-
tal or deadly vice St. Thomas (H-II, Q- xzxv) calb it
sadness in uie face of some spiritual good which one
has to achieve (trialUia de bono spirituali). Father
^cksby aptly translates its Latin equivalent acedia
(Gr. iinfila) by saying that it means the don't-care
feding. A man apprehends the practice virtue to
be bwat with difficulties and chafes under the re-
s^aints imposed by the aervioe of God. The narrow
way stretches wearily before him and hb soul grows
sluggish and torpid at the thought of the painful tife
ioiimey. The idea of right living inspires not joy
but di^cust, because of its laboriousness. This is the
notion oommonly obtaining, and in this sense sloth
b not a specific vice according to the teaclung of St.
Thomas, out rather a circumstance of all vices. Oi^
dmarilv it irill not have tiie maUce of mortal sin un>
kss, « oouTBB, we mmcove it to be so utter tiiat be-
cause of it one b willii^ to Ind defiance to some serious
obli^tion. St. Thomas eompletea hb definition of
sloth by saying that it b toipor in the presence of
Binritual good which b Divine good. In other words.-
a man b then formally distreraed at the proq>ect of
what he must do for God to bring about or keep in-
tact hb friendship with God. In this sense sloth b
directly opposed to eharilar. It b then a mortal sin
imlsw (Iw «ct be bddng m entire adYertmpeor fii^
Digitized by V^OOQ It

8LTTHUK8T i

consent of the win. The trouble attached to main-
tenance of the inhabiting of God by charity arouses
tedium in such a person. He violates, therefore, ex-
pressly the first and the greatest of the oommand-
ments: "Thou shalt love the Lord thy dod wi^ tiiy
whole heart, and mth thy whole soul, and with thy
yrhole mind, and vith thy whiAe striBirth." (Maik,
Mi, 30).

RiCKABT. Moral TmuAm^ of SL Thomot (London, 1896);
SuTsa. Manual tforol Thmlom (Now Ynk, IMS); Bt.
TaoHM StuMM, u-IIt Q. xucv; BiUMsun, Optu thtotogieum
Morab (Fnto, 1898).

Joseph F. Dslant.

Slythurst, Tbouab, Ei^lish confessor, b. in Berk-
shire; d. in the Tower of London, 1560. He was
B.A. Oxon, 1530; M.A., 1534: B.D., 1543; and sai>-
plicated for the degree of D.D., 1554-5, but nevar
took it. He was rector of Chalfont St. Pet«r, Bucks,
from 1545 to 1555, canon of Windaor, 1554, rector of
Chalfont St. Giles, Bucks, 1555, and first President
of Trinity CoU^, Oxford. He was deprived of these
three preferments in 1559. On 11 Nov., 1556, he was
appointed with others by Canvocation to reKulate the
exercises in theology on the election <^ Carmnal Pole
to the chancellor^ip.

Wabtom, Li/ettfair Thtma* Pop» (London, 1772), S80; Calk-
«Ue Bteerd SoeUf PiAtiaUiant. I (London, 190S— ), 118; FoK.
Ada and Mmmimtt. VIII (London. 1843-^) , 636.

John B. wainewbioht.

SmalkaldicLeacuft, a polittoo^eligious allianee
formally concluded on 27 Feb., 1531, at Smalkalden
in Hesse-Nassau, amoi^; German Frotestant princes
and cities for their mutual defence. The compact
was Altered into for six years, and stipulated that any
mUitary attack made upon any one of the confede-
rates on account of religion or under any ether pretext
was to be considered as directed agamst th«n all and
resisted in common. The parties to it were: the Land-
grave I^ilipof Hesse; theEllector John of Saxony and
his son John Frederick ; the dukes FhiUp of Brunswick-
Qrubenhagen and Otto,. Ernest, and fraaoisof Bruns-
wick-Ltlneburg: Prince Wolfgang of Anhalt; the
counts Gebhard and Albrecht of Maosleld and the
towns of Strasbui^, Ulm, Constance, Reutlingen,
Memmingen, Lindau, Biberach, Isny, Magdebui^,
and Bremen. The city of Labeck jomed the league
on 3 May, and Bavaria on 24 Oct., 1531. The acces-
sion of foreup powers, notably England and France,
WHS solteite<Cand the allianee of the latter nation s^
cured in 1532. The prices of Samny and Hesse
'were appointed milita^ commanders of the confed-
eration, and its military strength fixed at 10,<X)0 infan-
try and 2000 cavalry. At a meeting held at Smal-
kalden in Dec., 1535, the alliance was renewed for ten
years, and the maintenance of the former military
strength decreed, with the stipulation that it should be
doi^wd in case of emerg^cy. In April, 1536, Dukes
Ulridi of WUrtembcrg and Bamim and PhiUp of
Pommuiia, the cities of Frankfort, Augsburg, Ham-
burg, and Hanover joined tiie lei^e with several
other new conf^erates. An alliance was oonchided
with Denmark in 1538, while the usual accession
of the German Estates which accepted the Refor-
mation continued to strengthen the organization.
Confident of its support, the Protestant prmoes intro-
duced the new religioa in numerous districts, sup-
pressed bishoprics, confiscated chunsb i»operty, re-
sisted nnperifu ordinances to the extent of refusiog
help a^inst the Turks, and disr^arded the decinons
of the Imperii Court of Justice.

Id self-defence against the treasonable machinations
of the confederation, a Catholic League was formed
in 1538 at Nurembei^ under the leaderdup of the
emperor. Both sides now activdy prcmred for aa
aimed conflict, which seemed imminoit. But B«otaa^
tions carried on at the Diet ot *Fhuikfort in 15w n-
goHedj part^ owing to the iBneM of the Laadgnm of

8 8ICITB

Hesse, in the patching up (rf a temporary peace. Hie
emperor during this respite renewed ms earnest but
fruitless efforts to effect a religious settlement, while
tiie Smalkaldic confederates continued their violent
proceedings a^inst the Catholics, particulariy hi the
territory of Brunswick-WoBenbattd, where Dvika
Hemy was unjustly expelled, and the new rd^gion in-
troduced (15^). It became more and more evident
as time went on that a conflict was unavoidable.
When, in 1546, the emperor adopted stern measures
against some of ike confederates, the War of Smal-
kalden ensued. Althou^ it was mainly a r^igious
conflict between Cathohes and Protestimts, the de-
nominational lines we^ not diarpl]r drawn. With
Pope Paid m, who promised financial and military
assistance, aeveral Protestant princes, the prinehutl
among whom was Duke Maurice of Surany, defenaed
the imperial and Catholic cause. The beginning of
hostilities was mariced nevertheless by the success of
the Smalkaldic allies; but division and iiresohitenees
soon weakened them and caused their ruin in South-
on Germai^^ where princes and cities submitted in
rapid succession. Hie battle of Mfihlberg (24 April,
1547) decided the issue in favour of the emperor in
the north. The Elector John Frederick of Saxony
was captured, and shortly after the Ijmdgrave Philip
of Hesse was also forced to submit. The oonditions
of peace included the transfer of the electoral dignity
from the former to his cousin Maurice, the reinstate*
ment of Duke Heoiy of WolfenbCtttel in his domin-
ions, the restoration of Bishop Julius von Pflug to his
See of Naumbui^Zeits, and a promise demanded of
the A^quished to rec(^niae and attend the Council
of Trent. The dissolution of the Smalkaldic League
folkiwed; the imperial success was complete, but ton-
porary. A few years later another conflict bn^e out
and ended with the triumph of Protestantism.

WiMCKMUiAim. D*r SdmalluU. Bmd U^OStf ». JVSm*
Jmfir Maigiimt/ri»iU (Stniburc 1893); HMSircWTn, Dis
Patilik der Sehtiialkaldener var AuabrwA de» SchmaJkdtd. Kritoea
(Berlin, IMl); Ideh, DU Polilik Kaiatr KarU V u. Lattdqraf
Philipji* ton ^MMii ««r Atubnieh dn Sehmaikald. Kritou (Mh<-
burs, IVXSi ; hvaarrmui, Dtr Sehmaikaid. Kntt in ItvrddnOtk-
land (Monster, 1908); Janbsen, HUt. of Uta Gemtan PwpU, tt.
Cbribtib, V (St. Louis, 1903}, puaim; Pasvok. HUorg V A«
Popei, tr. Smmh, X (St. Louia, IttIO), IW mq.

N. A. Wbbsb.

Snungdui, Abdo, ha^ogra^her, d. at the Ben-
edictine mona^»iy of Aruane, HerauH, in Southern
France, March, 843. He entered this monastery
when still a hoy and was brought up under the direo*
tion of Abbot St. Benedict of Aniane. On account of
his piety and talents he was ordained and put at the
head of the school at his monastery. In 7&4 he ac-
companied Ids abbot to the CounciTof Frankfort and
in 814 was made abbot in place of Benedict, i^io on
the invitatim of Louia-le-Debonnure had taken up
his abode at the imperial Court at Aix-la-Chapelle.
Smuragdus was honoured as a saint in his monastery.
He is Uie author of a life of St. Benedict of Aniane
which he wrote at the request of the monks of Cor-
nelimllnster near Aix-la-Chapelle, where Abbot B«i-
edict had died. It was written in 822, and is one o(
the most reliable ha^olo^cal productions of that
period Mabillon edited it in Ids "Acta SS. of Uie
Boiedictine Order" {sEeculum IV A, 192-217), whence
it was reprinted in P. L., Cin, 35^-84. It was
also edited by Waits in "Mon. Germ. Script.",
XV, I, 200-29.

Hutoirt ha.deia Pranee, V, 31-5: CnLUCB, Hiatoin oentraU
de* auUwt writ tt oeeliitiaitiqua. XII (Puia, 1863), 394; Ma-
WLUMT. Ada 3S. Ord. S. Ben., mm. IV, I, S80; Bbkkt, AOf^
iMHM OMck, dtr LiUniur dtt MUUaiUrt. II (L^iic 188Q,
3iS-8.

MicHASi. On.

Indtfat Gboboi. See Awrxl akd na iMtm,
DiocBsn or.

Sndth, JiUB. iomulist, b. at SkoUand, In the
ebetiaad tflk^^oat 1700)d. Jsb^ liaeTHeipsDt

Digitized by VjOOglC

SMITH

59

81IITB

Us bojrfiood at OoUand, a small plaoe belonging to
his mother, who was a member ca a branch of the
Bruoe family which had settled in Shetktnd in the
mxteenth century. He studied law in Edinbui^h,
became a solicitor to the Supreme Court there, ana
married a CathoUo lady (a coumn of Bishop Nfacdon-
etl of the Glenflsiny cLm), the result being his own
otmTerdon to Catholicism. Naturally hampered in
Ins oareer, at that period, 1^ his profesdon of CathoU-
he turned his attmtion to hterature, and became
the pioneer of Catholic joumalism in Scotland. In
1832 he ori^nated and e^ted the "Edmburgh Catho-
lic Magasme", which appeared somewhat inter-
mittentty in Scotland until April, 1838, at which date
Mr. South went to reside in Ltmdon, and the word
"Edinburgh" was dropped from the title of the
magaiine, the pubtication of which was continued for
some yean in London. Mr. Snuth, on settling in
Lond<ni, inaugurated the "Catholic Directory" for
Ehigland, in succesdon to the old " Laity's Directory ",
and edited it for many years: and he was also for a
short time editor of the "Dubhn Review", in 1837.
Possessed of considerable ^fts both as a speaker and
as a writer, he was always ready to put them at the
service of the Catholic cause: and durinf^ the years of
^g^tation immediately preceding Cathohc Emancipa-
ticm, as well as at a later period, he was one of the most
active champions of the Church m E^and and
Scotland. He made a brilliant deface in public of
Catholic doctrine when it was violently attacked by
certain prominent membera of the Established Church
of Scotland, and published in this connexion, in 1S31,
his "Di^cwues on the Catholic and Protestant Rules
of Faith", between a memberof the Protestant Ref-
ormation Society and a Catholic layman. He also
edited (1888) ChaUoner's abric^ent of Gather's
"Papist Misrepresented and Represented", with
copious notes. Mr. Smith was father of the Most
Rev. William Smith, second Archbishop of St.
Andrews and Edinburgh in the restored hierarchy of
Scotland, and a distin^nshed Biblical scholar.

QthhoW.Bibl.Dict.Bno.Cath„B.Y.; CatkoUe Dinelory for SM-
loiirf (1893). 204.

D. O. HuNmt-BLAm.
Smith, Jahbs a. See Saint Andbbws and Edim-

BUBOH, ARCHDIOCSSB OF.

8inlth» RicHABD, Bishop of Chalcedon, second
Vicar Apostolic of England; b. at Hanworth, Lincoln-
shire, Nov., 1568 (not 1566 as commonly stated); d.
at Paris, 18 March, 1655. He was educated at Trinity
College, Oxford, where he became a CathoUc . He was
adnutted to Uie English College, Rome, in 1586,
studied under Bellarmine, and was oniUuned priest 7
May, 1592. In F^., 1593, he arrived at VaUadolid
where he took the degree of Doctor of Theology, and
taught philosophy at the English College tiiri598,
when he went to Seville as professor of controversies.
In 1603 he went on the Enghsh misKon, where he made
his mark as a mismon^. Chosen to represent the
case of the secular dexgy in &e arehpriest oontrorernr,
he went to Rome, where he opposed Persons, who said
of him : " I never dealt with any man in my life more
heady and resolute in his opinions". In 1613 he
became superior of the small body of Enghsh secular
priests at Arras Coll^, Paris, who devoted them-
selves to controversial work. In 1025 he was elected
to succeed Dr. Bishop as vicar Apostohc, but the date
usually as^ned for his consecration as Bishop of
aialowion (12 Jaa.. 1625) must be wnmg, aa he was
not elected Mil 2 Jan. He arrived fai Ekwiaiid in
Ajml, of the same year, residmg ui Lord A^ntagu's
house at Turvey, Bedfordshire. As vicar Apostolic
he came into ocnmict with the regulars, claiming the
ri^ts of an ordinary, but Urban VIII decided (16
E>M^ 1^7) that he was not an ordinary. In 1S28
the GovenuMUt isnied a proelamatioa Ua his anesti

and in 1631 he witiufaewto Paris, when he Hved witii
Ridielieu till the cardinal's death in 16^; then he
retired to the convent of the T«iwgH«h Augustinian
nuns, where he died.

He wrote: "An answer to T. Bel's late Challenge"
(1605); "The Prudentiall Ballanoe of Religion",
(1609); "Vita Dominn Magdal^ue Montis-AcuU''
i. Viscountess Mimtagu (1609): "De auctore et
essentia Protestantica RetigioniB'' (1619), En^ish
tomslation, 1621; "Collatio doctrine Catholicorum
et Protestantium" (1622), tr. (1631); "Of the dis-
tinction of fundamental aad not fundamental points
of faith" (1645); "Monita t)U£edam utilia pro Sacer-
dotibus, Seminaristis, Missionariis Anglite" (1647);
"A Treatise of the best kinde of Confessors" (1651);
"Of the all-sufficient Eternal Proposer of Matters of
Faith " (1653) | " Florum Historia Ecclemastics gentis
Angforum libn septem" 1^1654). Many unpubhshed
doouments relating to his troubled episcopate (an
impartial history ol which y|et renuuns to be written)
an preserved in the Westininster IMooessn Archives.

DoDD, OKhtbA ffitarv, UI (Bnumla Hr« WotvnbMacpum,
1737-1742] tbo amxhulI from which moat subsoqiKOt biacrarphHi
were derivciJ. See hIn llofBei^B fldlUoB of Dodd fm Iwlhor
cUxninwats: Blwi.'Onorf, M^emoiri nf Putuani (LoDdon, ITVElT:
Coimiar Stale Pap^ti Dan-. SSii-tm: BcTPai. flMmfnit
Mtmoin of SwfM CotMta (Loaddn, ISIW; Snaiurr, Av
couai i^tiuBiHiMt Chaste (Loffltlab, iStS); FtJLUHBTCMi, £yfaV
Lytita de tSntM ^Mdira. leta}^ mif, /Ueanti ftw.^

8. J.. VI CE£Qtt4 iaaO); Bmut, WrmBfoi avum^

(Rome. 1»3}, % wvusoi mmJ wtitiimnmiMtr MMU ■■
some new tmSH iMBK in Diet. Htt, jKw.; Qsus*. B&k ;
Suo. Calk.* CmOK, Covtmt ^ Acl^hi'cwn Amilaitet i I _
(Puis, 1801); AM XfMqr Atei, C. R. S. FishUmtumv X n^mr
don, 191 l)k

Edwin Burton

Smith, Richard, b. in Worcestershire, 1500; d. at
Douai, 9 July, 1563. He was educated at Merton
College, Oxford; and, having taken his M.A. degree
in 15.30, he became r^strar of the university in 1532.
In 1536 Henrj^ VIII appointed him first R^us Pro-
fessor of divinity, and he took his doctorate in that
subject on 10 July in the same year. He subsequently
became master of Whittington College, London;
rector of St. Dunsttrn's-in-Uie-East; rector of Cuxham,
Oxfordshire: principal of St. Alban's Halt; and divinity
'reader at Magdalen College. Under Edward VI he
is said by his opponents to have abjured the pope's
authority at St. Paul's Cross (15 May, 1547) and at
Oxford, but tiie accounts of the proceedings are ob-
scure and unreliable. If he yielded at all, he soon
recovered and acoordingly suffered the loss of his
professorship, being succeeded b^ peter Martyr, with
whom he held a public disputation in 1549. Shwt^
afterwards he was arrested, but was soon 111x0*8100.
Going to Louvfun, he became professor of divinity
there. During Mary's CathoUc restoration he re-
gained most of his preferments, and was made royal
chaplain and canon of Christ Church. He took a

grominent part in the proceedings against Cranmer,
lidley, ana Latimer. He s«^ lost all bis benefices
at the change of relij^n under ElisiUMth, and after a
short imprisonment in Parker's house he escaped to
Douai, where he was appointed by Philip II dean (rf
St. Peter's church. There is no foimdation for the
slanderous stoi^ spread by the Reformers to account
for his deprivation of his Oxford professorship. When
Douai Univwmty was founded on 5 Oct., 1662, he was
mstalled as chancellor and professor of theology, but
only lived a few months to fill those offices. He wrote
many worics, the chief of which are: "Assertion and
Defence of the Sacrament of the Altar" (1546);
"Defence of the Sacrifice of the Mass" (1547);
"Defensio ccelibatus sacerdotum" (1550); "Diatriba
de hominis justificatione" (1550); "Buckler of i>he
CathoUo Faith" (1565-56); "De Missos Sacrificuo"
(1562); and several refutations cl Calvin, Melanoh-
thon, Jewell, and Beia, all p<d>li8liad in 15^.

FtMmn, XtumiU thonimMt. IV (Oxford. 1801); Pin, Dt iOut-
tram Antltm SeKpfarOiu (Fula, 1810) iDm^ ChwA ayUrt,

Digitized by VjOOglC

smxR

60

81I0BBI

n {Branab Mr* Wolvsrluuaptoa, 1737-42) : OAOmm, '£<Mr«
ami Papin ^Brnvni Villi Coormm, DM. HlaL Biw^ a.

EowiH Bmnw.

Smlthf Thouab Knar, b. at Boaton, Ham., 23
Sept., 1820; d. at NcrvrYork,14l>eo., 18S7; eldest aon
of Captain George Smith and Eliza Bicker Walter.
Both bia paternal and maternal f(»efatiierB were
active and prominent in the professional life and in
the Kovemment of New England. His parents moved
to Cincinnati in his early childhood, where he was
educated in a military school under O. M. Mitchel,
the astronomer, and studied law in the office of Chief
Justice Salmon P. Qiaae. In 1853 he was appmnted
roecial agent in ihe Post Office Department at
Wadiington, and lata- marshal for the muthem Dis-
trict of Ohio and deputy clerk of Hamilton County.
He entered the Union Army, 9 September, 1861,
as lieutenant-colonel, and was conspicuous in the
Battle of Shiloh, 6 and 7 April, 1862, assuming com-
mand of Stuart's Brigade, Sherman's Division, during
the second day. As commander of brigade in the
15th and 17th Army Coips, he urticipated in all the
campa^Ens of the Aimy of the Tennessee, beiiu
for some months on staff duty with General &ant.

Commissioned Brigadier^Oeneral of Volunteers, 11
August, 1863, he was assigned on 7 March, 1864, to
the command of the detached division of the 17t^
Army Corps and rendered distinguished service during
the Red River Expedition, protecting Admiru
Porter's fleet after the disaster of the main army.
After the fall of Mobile, he asstuned Uie command of
tiie Department of Southern Alabama and florida,
and then of the Post and District of Maine. He was
brevetted Major-General for oallant and meritwioua
service. In 1866 President Johnson appointed him
United States Consul at Panama. After the war
he removed to Torresdale, Philadelphia. At the
time of his death he was engaged in journalism in
New Yoric On 2 May, 1848, he married Elizabeth
Budd, daua^ter of Dr. William Budd McCuUmigh
and Arabella Sanders Ratt, ol Cincinnati, OhH>.
She was a gifted and devout wtnnan, and thiou^ her
influence and that of the venerable Archmshop
Purcell he became a Catholic some years before hn
death. He was remarkable for ms facility of
expression, distinsuished personal appearaiice, and
courtly bearing. He l^t five sons and three daughters.

Smith, Lift mut LtUtn «f 37umaa KiOg SmiA (Nnr Yak,

Wazovb Gborob Shith.

Snijynia^ LaTiw AncBiMocna or (SmmraKsis),
in Ana Minor. The (»ty of Smyrna rues like an
amphitheatre on the gulf which bears Its name. It
is the capital of the vilayet of Aldin and Uie starting-
point of several railways; it has a population of at
least 300,000, of whom 150,000 are Gredcs. There
are also numerous Jews and Armenians and almoet
10,000 European Catholics. It was founded more
than 1000 years b. c. by colonists from Lesbos who
had eimdkd tiie Lelegn, at a plaee now oalkd
Bouraabat, about an hour's diatanee from the prea-
eat Smyrna. Shortlv before 688 b. c. it was ciqitured
fa^ the lonians, under whose rule it became a very
nch and powerful city (Herodotus, I, 150). About
580 B. c. It was destroyed by Alyattes, King of Lydia,
Nearly 300 years afterwords Antigonus (32cM01
B. c), and then Lysimachus, undertook to rebuild it
on its present site. Subsequmtly comprised in the
Kingdom of Pergamus, it was ceded in 133 b. g. to
the Romans. These buiH there a judiciary oonvmttu
and a mint. Smyrna had a celebrated school of rhet-
oric, was one of the cities which had the title of metrop-
olis, and in which the concilium fettioum of Asia was
oelwrated. Demolished by an earthquake in a. d.
178 and 180, it was rebuilt by Marcus Aurelius. In
878 it was captured 1^ a Seat o( Arab MuanUmaiu.

Ihidar the inq>irmti(Hi Clemmt VI the Latint
tured it from the Mussulmans in 1344 and held it
until 1402, when Tamerlane destroyed it aftw slayins
thfr inhabitants. In 1424 the Turin enured it anx^
save for a brief occupation by the Venetians in 1472>
it has since belonged to them.

Christianity was preached to the inhabitants at an
early date. As early as the year 93, there existed a
Qinstian oonimumty directed by a bisbop for
whom St. John in the Apocalypse (t, 11; ii, 8-11) has
only words of praise. There are extant two letters
written early in the second century from Troas by St.
Ignatius of Antioch to those of Smyrna and to Poiy-
carp, their bishop. Through these letters and those '
of the Christians of Smyrna to the city of Philome-
lium, we know of two ladies of high rank who be-
longed to the Church of Smvma. There were other
Christiana in the vicinity of the city and dependent on
it to whom St. Poljrcarp wrote letters (Gus^ius,
"Hist, ecol.", V, xxiv). When Polycarp was mar-
tyred (23 Feb.), the Church of Smyrna sent an
encyclical concerning his death to the Church of Phi-
lomelium and others. The "Vita Polycarpi" attrib-
uted to St. Pionius, a priest of Smyrna martyred in
250, contains a Ust of the first bishops: Stratiea;
Bucolus: Polycarpj Papirius; Camerius; Eudsmon
(250)j/who apostatized during the persecution of De-
cius; Thraseas of Eumenia, martyr, who was buried at
Smyrna. Noctos, a Medalist heretic of the second
century, was a native of the city as were also Sta.
Pothinus and Irensus of Lyons. Mention should also
be made of another martyr, St. Dioscorides, vene-
rated on 21 Majr. Amoi^ the Greek bishops, a list of
whom am)ears in Le Quien, (Oriens Christ., I, 737—
46), was Metrophanes, tne great opponent of Fhotius,
who laboured in the revision the "Octoekos", a
Greek litui^cal book.

The Latin See of Smyrna was created by Qemeoit
VI in 1346 and had an uninterrupted succesdon
of titulars until the seventeenth century. This
was the beginning of the Vicariate Apostolic
of Asia Minor, or of Smyrna, of vast extent.
In 1818 Pius VII established the Archdiocese of
Smymaj at the same time retaining the vicariate
Apostohc, the jurisdiction of which was wider. Its
limits were those of the vicariates Apostolic of Meso-
potamia, Syria, and Constantinople. The archdio-
cese had 17,000 Latin CathoUcs, some Greek Mel-
chiteSj called Alepi, and Armenians under special
organization. There are: 19 secular priests; 55 regu-
lars; 8 parishes, of which 4 are in Smyrna^ 14 churches
with resident foiests and 12 without pnests; 25 pri-
mary schools with 2500 pupils, S collies or academies
with 800 pupils; 2 hospitals; and 4 orphaoaf;es. The
religious men in the archdiocese or the vicariate Apoa*
tolic are Franciscans, Capuchins, Lazarists, Domini-
cans, Saleaians of Von Bosco, Assumptionists (at
Koniah), Brothers of the Ctuistian Schools, and
Marist Brothers (at Metellin). Religious commimi-
ties of women are the Carmelites, Sisters of Charity
(13 houses with more than 100 sistersh Sistm of Sion,
Dommieans of Ivrte, Sisters of St. Joseph, and Ob-
latee of the Assumption.

Smith, Diet, of QrMk and Roman Oeoffr., a. HAinuroN, R«.
motcAm in Am Minor, I (London, 1842), Tbxieb. Anm

ififwUM (Puu, 1862), 302-08; Schbmbs, Smyrna (Vieiuw,
1873); lUiuuT, The tttiv* to the Seven ChureJiet of Atia (Lon-
don, 1904), 251-JS7; 0>ORaiADts, Smi/me (Paris, 18S5) : Rouqotc,
Smvme (Paris, 1892); CAHoa, Let lept Mite* dt I'Apecalvpw
(Pvnt, 189^; Filuon in Vio., DitA. de la Bible, a. v.; Mittionea
CathnHem (Rome, 1B07), 1&S-67; LAurAKfes, The Snm Start of
Oi» Apoealtfpie (Athens, 1909), in Greek; jBAM^AFtUTBDXBAZHT-
LoaiiNio, Saint Polyearpe et ton tombmtutur Is Afw. HVWjes sttr
It aiOs d« SnqrrTM (CkinstutiaoplB, 1911).

S. VailbA.

Snoxil Sturluaon, historian, b. at Hvammr^
1178; d. 1241. Snorn, who was the son of Sturia
Thortascm (d. 1182), was the most important Ice-
landic historian of the Middle Ages. In him were

Digitized by VjOOglC

mow

61

soBim

united the experienced statesman and the many-
aided scholar. Afl a child he went to the sohool of
Sa^und the Wiae at Oddi, of which, at that time,
Saonund's grandson J6n Loptsson was the head. On
hm fathn's aide Jte was related to the most di»-
tinguiflhed familieB of Iceland, while by his mother
Thora he was connected with the royal fanuly of
Norway. Under Mob skilful teacher Snorri was thor-
oughly tnuned in many branches of knowle(^e, but
he learned especially the old northern belief in the
gods, the sa^ concerning Odin^ xad Scandinavian (q.
Ei^iy. Bv a rich alliance Snom obtained the money b
to take a leading part in politics, but his political
course brouf^t him many cumgerous enemies, among
whom KingHaakon of Norway was the most power-
ful, and he was finally murdered at the king's in-
stigation. Snorri's importance rests on his literary
woriEB of wUch "Heiinskringla"^ (the world) is the
most important, nnce it is the chief authori^ for the
earlv history of Iceland and Scandinavia. However,
it does not contain retiable statements until the
history, which extends to 1177, reaches a late period,
while tne descriptions of the primitive era are largdy
vague uarratioiis of sagas. The SturlungarSaga,
which shows more of the local colouring of Iceland,
was probably only partly the work of Snorri. On the
other hand he is probably the author of the Younger
Edda called "Snorrsr-Edda", which was intended as
a textbook of the art of poetay. Its first part "Gyl-
faginning" relates the mythology of the North in an
interesting, pictorial manner, and is a compilation of
the Boogs of the early scalds, the songs of the common
peiqile, sagas, and probably his own poetic ideas.

Btmc, Snorra SturloMoru HitloriaakriminQ (Copenhuen,
1878); BAUMOAiinfBB. tfordiMiA* Fahrten. I (Fndburg. 1SS9).
SDS KM.; SgbCck. Stmtk LiUraturhitloria, I (Stookholm, 1890);
LuMSaOBO, Idandt ■taal«r«cUIM« SUUung ton dtr FrtitiaaUuit
bit itt w*m§ Tiwf (BerBn, IIX^, 17-18; Obiux, NonHadim 0m-
UMmh, tr. RumCB (HeUfdbnv, 1906), 116. Ufr-W.

Pins WnncANN.

Snow, Pbtbr, Venbrablb, English mutyr, suf-
fered at York, 15 June, 1598. He was bom at or
near Ripim, and arrived at the English College,
Reimflf 17 AprU, 1589, receiving the first tonsure
and minor oraera 18 August, 1500, the subdiaconate
at Laon on 22 Sept., and the diaoonate and priesthood
at SoissonsonSOandSl March, 1591. Held'tft^ Eng-
land on the following 15 May. He wasairested about
1 May, 1598, when on his way to York with Vener-
able Balph Grimston of Nidd. Both were shortly
after condemned, Snow of treason as beins a priest
and Grimston of fehmy, for having aided and assisted
him, and, it is said, having attempted to prevent his
apwehenaion.

Challonxr, iffitioiiarv PriuU, I, do. 112; Knox, Dottay
DiariM (Loodon, 187^.

John B. Wainbwright.

Sobatonim Ihdiani, once an important tribe
of the Piman lawch of the great Shoshonean lin-
guistic stock, occupying the territory of the Suita
Cruz and San Pedro Rivers, in south-eastern Arizona
and adjacent portion of Sonora, Mexico. In dialect
and Keneral custom they seem to have closely re<
sembTed the Pipago, by whom and by the closelv
cognate Fima most of them were finally absorbed.
Thar |ffincipal centre was Bac or Vaaki, later San
Xavier del Bac, on Santa Cruz River, nine nules south
from the present Tucson, Arizona. Here they were
visited in 1692 by the pioneer Jesuit explorer of the
south-west, Father Eusebio Kino, who in 1699 began
the church from which the mission took its name.
Other Jesuit mission foundations in the same tribe
were (Santa Maria de) Suamca, just inside the Sonora
line, established also by Kino about the same time, and
San Miguel de Guevavi, founded in 1732 near the
IRvaent Nogales, Arizona, all three missioni being
upon the Santa Cruz River. There were abo several

visiting stations. The missions shared the misfor-
tunes attending those of the Pima and Pd,pago, bat
continued to exist until a few years after the expul-
sion of the Jesuits in 1767. Before the end of the
century the tribe itsdf had disappeared, and in lator
years San Xavin ^)pears aa a P£pago settlement.
According to tradition the tribe was destroyed about
the year 1790 by the attacks of the wild Apache, by
whom a put were carried off, while the othns were
forced to inoorporate with tiie I^pago and Pima
' . v.).

BAKcaorr, HUi. North Mtxiean Statu and TfttM (3 voU.,
8aa Fnaciseo, 1886-9); Idem, Hitt. Aritona and N^u Mexico
ffl40 Froncisoo, 1889); Diaty of Frandtco Gwdt, 177S-8. ed.
CoDU (2 vols., New York, 1900); Hoikib, Handbook of Am«ri«m
IiKhatu (2 parts, Washbctoo, 1907-10): Rvdo tntatfo . . .
dteripdon g^eorapkiea d» la frotineia dt Sonora (,1789) (St.
AuKuitilM. 18S9>, tr. OoniBu in Roe. Am. Caik. Hitt. Sae.
(PSllHlelphis, ISM).

Jambs Moonxt.

Jom BOBIBBEI

Prom ftn va^gaed portrait ia theLourre

HobleaU, John, b. at Olesko in 1629; d. at Wil-
anow, 1696; son ot James, Castellan of Craoow and
descended by his mother from the heroic Zolkiewski,
who died in battle at Cecora. His elder brother Mark
was his com-
panion in arms
from the time of
the great Cossack
rebellion (1648),
and fou^t at
Zbarai, Bereste-
csko. and lastiy
at Batoh where,
after being taken
prisoner, ne was
murdered by the
Tatars. John,
the last of all the
family, accompa-
nied Csamieeki
in the expedition
to Denmark;
then, under
George Lubomu>
ski, he foiight the
Muscovites at
Cudnow. Lubo-
mirski revolting,

he remained faithful to the ki^ (Jdbn Osaimir),
became succesrivdy Field Hetman, Chwid Mar^
shal, and — after Revera Potocki's death — Grand
Hetman, or Commander-in-chief. His first ex-

Eloit as Hetman was in Podhajce, where, besieged
y an army of Cossacks and Tatars, ne at his
own expense raised 8000 men and stored the place
with wheat, baffling the foe so completely that they
retired with peat loss. When, in 1672, under Michael
WifiniowiecErs reign, the Turks seized Kamieniee,
Sobieski beat them again and again, till at the
crowning victory of Chocim they lost 20,000 men aod
a great mam^ guns. This gave Poland breatiiing-
space, and Sobieski became the national hero, so
that, King Michael dying at that time, he was unan-
imously elected king in 1674. Before his coronation
he was forced to drive back the Turkish hordes, that
had once more invaded the country; he beat them at
Lemberg In 1675, amving in time to raise tiie siege of
Tranbowla, and to save Chrzanowski and his heroic
wife, its defenders. Scarcely crowned, he hastened to
fight in the Ruthenian provinces. Having too few
soldiers (20,000) to attack the Turks, who were ten
to one, he wore them out, entrenching himself at
Zurawno, letting the enemy hem him in for a fort-
night, extricating himself with marrellous skill and
courage, and fineJly regaining by treaty a good part
of the Ukraine.

For Bome time there was peace: the Turks had
learned to dread iho " Unvanquished Nrnthem

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Lion", and Poland, too, was exhausted. But soon the
Sultan turned his arms against Austria. Passing
tluou^ Hungary, a great part of which bad tor one
hundred and fifty years been in Turkish hands, an
enormous army, reckoned at from 210.000 to 300,000
men (the latter figures are Sobieski's) marched for-
ward. The Emperor Leonid fled from Vienna, and
begged Sobieski's aid, which the papal nuncio also
implored. Though dissuaded by Louis XIV, whose
pouOT was always hostile to Austria, Sobieski heai-
tated not an instant. Meanwhile (July, 1683) the
Grand Visier Kara Mustapha, had amved before
Vienna, and laid siege to the city, defended by the
valiant Inn>erial General Count Stahrembeif;, with a
garrison of only 15,000 men, exposed to the horrors
of disease and fire, as welt as to hostile attacks.
Sobieski started to the rescue in August, taking his
son James with him; passing by Our I^y ssuictuary
ut Czenstodiowa, the troops prayed for a blessing
on their arms: and in the neginning of September,
having crossed the Danube and joined forces with
the German armies under John Geor^, Elector d
Saxony, and Prince Charles of Lorraine, they ap-
proached Vienna. On 11 Sept., Sobieski was on the
heights of Kahlenberg, near city, and tiie next
day he gave battle in the plain below, with an army
of not more than 76j000 men, ibe Germans forming
tbelrft wing and the PoleB under Hetmaos Jahcmowski
and Sieniairaki, with G«ieral KatskI in command of
the artillery, fomung the right. The hussars charged
wiUi their usual impetuosity, but the dense masses
of the foe were impenetrable. Their retreat was taken
for flight by the Turks, who rushed Forward in pursuit;
the hussars turned upon them with reinforcements
and charged again, when their shouts made known
that the ^'Northern Lion" was on the field and the
Turics fled, panio-strioken, with Sobieski's horsemen
atm in pursuit. Stillthebattleragedforatimealongall
the line; both sides foiight bravely, and the kmg was
everywhere commanding, fighting, encouraging his
men and urging them forward. He was the first to storm
the camp: Kara Mustapha had escaped with his life,
but he received the bow-etring in Belgrade some
months later. The Turks were routed, vlemia and
Christendom saved, and the news sent to the pope
along with the Standard of the Prophet, taken by
So^iieski, wbo himself had heard Mass in the
morning.

Prostrate with outstretched arms, he declared that
It was God's cause he was fighting for, and ascribed
the victory (Veni, vidi, Deus vicit — ^his letter to
Innocent XI) to Him alone. Next dav he entered
Vienna, acclaimed by the people as their saviour.
Leopold, displeased that the Foli^ king should have
all the glory, condescended to viat and thank him,
but treated his son James and the Polish hetmans
with extreme and hau^ty coldness. Sobiesid, though
deeply offended, pursued the Turks into Himgary,
attacked and- took Ostrzyhom after a second battle,
and returned to winter in Poland, with immense spoils
taken in the Turkish camp. These and the glory
shed upon the nation were all the immediate ad-
vantages of the great victory. The Ottoman danger
had vanished (atwer. The war still irent on: step
by st^ the foe was driven haek, and sixteoi years
later Kamieniee and the whole of Podolia were
restored to Poland. But Sobieski did not live to see
t^iw trium^di. In vain had he again and again at-
tempteil to retake Kami^uec, andeven had built a
stronghold to destroy its strategic value; this fortress
enabled Uie Tatars to raid the Ruthenian provinces
upon several occasions, even to the gates of Lemberf;.
He was also forced by treaty to ^ve up Kieff to Russia
in 1086: nor did be sueoeed in securing the crown for
his son James. His last days were spent in the bosom
of his family, at his castle of Wilanow, where he died
in 1606, broken down by political strife as mueh aa

2 SOCIAUaM

by illness. His wife, a Frenchwoman, the widow of
John Zamoyski, Marie-Casimire, though not worthy
ffit 80 great a hero, wsa tenderly beloved by him, «■
hia letters eliow: she influenced him greatly and not
always wisely. His family is now extinct. Chiles
Edirard, the Young Pretender, was his great-grand-
son— his son James' daughter, Clementine, having
married Jamea Stuart in 1719.

lAttif Jana III, KrOia poUkit^, do krolowdKanmitrty (8obi»-
tbi'u lettan to hia wife), publiahed by A. L. HKLeKL, 18£7. Two
volumes of "Acta Hittoriea", publuhed by th« Academie der
mnaiuolMftM. Tathah. John SMe$ki fOxford. 1881): Dd-
KMiT. iUmairtpomt mrmrAVhiaMndt aobUtki (Wumw, 18851:
RllDU, Mann III. XOmio ton PoUn (Vienna, 1883).

S. TiJRNOWSKI.

Sodaliam, a system of social and economic organi-
zation that would substitute state monopoly for pri-
vate ownership of the sources of production and means
of distribution, and would concentrate under the con-
trol of the secular governing authority the chief
activities of human life. The term is often used
vaguely to indicate any increase of collective control
over individual action, or even any revolt of the dis-

g)s8es8ed against the rule of the possessing classes,
ut these are undue extensions of the term, leading to
much confusion of thought. State control and even
state ownership are not necessarily Socialism: they
become soonl^ when thoy result in or tend towards tlie
|»ohibition of private ownership not only cS "natural
monopoUes", out also of all the sources of wealth.
Nor IS mere revolt against economic inequality So-
cialism: it may be Anarchism (see Anakcht) ; it may
be mere Utopianism (see CoiutuNisu) ; it may be a
just resistance to oppression. Nor is it merely a pro-
posal to make such economic changes in the social
structure as would bfuiish poverty. Socialism is this
(see Collectivism) and much more. It is also a
philosophy of social life and action, regarding eJl hu-
man activitiea from a definite economic standpoint.
Moreover modem Socialism is not a mere arbitrary
exercise at state-building, but a deliberate atten^it to
relieve, on exphcit principles, the existing social coit-
ditions, which are regarded as intolerable. The great
inequalities of human life and opportunity, proouoed
by the excessive concentration of wealth in the hands
of a oomparatively smaU section <rf tlie community,
have been the cause and still are the stimulus of what
is called the Socialistic movement. But, in order
to understand fully what Socialism is and what it
implies, it is necessary first to glance at the history of
the movement, then to examine ha philosophical and
religious tendencies, and finally to consider how far
these mav be, and actually have proved to be, in-
compatible with Christian thought and life. The
first requirement is to understand the origin and
growth of the movement.

It has been customary among writers of the So*
cialist movement to begin with references to Utopian
theories of the classical and Renaissance periods, to
Plato's "Republic", Plutarch's "Life of Lycurgus",
More's "Utopia", Campanella'a "City of the San",
Hall's " Munaus altw et idem ". and the like. Thence
the line of thought is traced through the French
writers of the eighteenth century, Meelier, Montes-
quieu, d'Argenson, Morelly, Rousseau, Mably, till,
with Linguet and Necker, the eve of the Revolution
is reached. In a sense, the modem movement has its
roots in the ideas of these creators of ideal common-
wealths. Yet there is a gulf fixed between the mod-
em Socialists and the older Utopiats. Their schemes
were mainly directed towards the establishment of
Communism, or rather. Communism was the idea
that gave life to their fancied states (see CoiuiuhismJ.
But the CoUectivist idea, whidb is the economic Imsis
of modem Socialism (see CoLLBcrtrisu), really
emerges only with "Gracchus" Babeuf and his
paster, "The Tribune of the People", in 1794. In the

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inaoifHto imied by him and his feUownxMupiEatoEi,
"Lea Egaux", is to be found « clear vision of the ooir-
leottve organisatiim <rf lociety, musb. as wmild be
largely aeo^ited by most modern Sodalista. Babeuf

was guillotiaed by the Directory, and his party mi^
wesaed. Meanwhile, in 17S3, Godwin in Endand
published his "fjiquiry Concerning Political Jus-
tioe , A work which, tnoiigh inculcatmic Anarchist-
Communism (see Anahcht) rather than Collectivism,
had much influence on Robert Owen and the school oi
£>etennini0t Socialists who sucoeeduf' him. But a
■inall group of Engiisfa writers in the early years of the
nineteenth oentury had realty more to da with the
development of Socialist thought than had either
Owen's attempts to found ideal communities, at
New Lanark and elsewhere, or the ooatemporary
theories and practice of Saii^-Simon and Fourier in
France.

These English writers, the earliest of whom, Dr.
Charlea Hall, first put forward that idea of a dommant
induatrial and social "^stem", which is the pervading
oonccfitkm of modem Socialism, worked out the van-
ous basio ^ainciples of Socialism, which Marx after-
wards utpropiiated and combined. Robert Thomp-
son, OfflviB, Hodgkin, Gr&y, above all William
Canientw, elaborated the theories of "surplus value",
of "[ffoductkm for profit", of "class-war",of the ever-
increasing exploitation of the poor by the rich, which
are the stuff of Marx's "Das Kapital", that "old
olothe»diop of ideas culled from Berlin, Paris, and
Lcmdon". For indeed, this famous work is really
noUiing more than a dexterous combination of Hege-
lian Evolutionism, of French Revolutionism, and of
the economic theories elaborated by Ricardo, on the
one iaad, and this group of EogliMi theorists on the
other. Yet the services of Karl Marx and o( his
friend and brother-Hebrew, Friedrioh Engels, to the
cause of Socialism must not be tmderrated. Theee
two writers came upon the scene just when the So-
cialist movement was at its lowebt ebb. In England
the work of Robert Owen had been overlaid by the
Chartist movement and its apparent failure, while the
writings of the economists mentioned above had had
but little immediate influence. In Fmice the Saint-
Simonians and the Fourierists had disgusted everyone
by the mcwal collapse of thdr systems. In Germany
Lasaalle had so far devoted nis brilliant enerpes
mmiy to Republicanism and philosoplqr. But in
1848 Msn and Engels published the "Communist
Manifesto", and, mere rhetoric as it was, this docu-
ment was the beginning of modem "scientific So-
cialism". The iofluence of Proudhon and of the
Revolutionary epirit of the times pervades the whole
manifesto: tlw economic analysis m society was to be
grafted on lata-. But already^ theare appear the ideas
of "the mat^alistic conception of history", of "the
bounjeoime" and " the proletariat ' ', and of class-war".

Ana 184S, in his exile in London, Marx studied,
and WToto, and organised with two results: first, the
foundation of "The International Workingmen'e As-
sociation", in 1864; second, the publication of the
first volume of "Das Kapital", in 1867. It is not
eaqr to judge which has had the more lasting effect
iqion Socialist movement. "The Intnnational"
■ERTe to the movttuent its wwld-wide character;
**Das Kapital*' elaborated and systematised the
lAiloeophic and economic doctrine which is still the
creed of the immense majoritv of Socialists. "Pro-
letarians of all lands, tmitel" the sentence with which
the Communist Manifesto of 184S conchidee, became
a reality with the foundation of the International.
For the first time since the disruption of Christendom
an «camiation took sb^M which had for its object
tlie unkn of the major portkin of all natkms upon a
common basis. It was not so widely supported as
both its upholdera believed and the frii^tened mon-
eyed interests imagned, Nor had this fint orgaaisa^

tion any promise of stability. From the outset the
influenoe M Marx steadi^ pvw, but it was confronted
by the opposition of Bakunm and the Anarohist schooL
By 1876 the lutematkmal was even fi»maUy at aa
end. But it had done its wwk: the organised wwk*
ing classes of ail Europe had realised the intema*.ional
nature both of their own grievances and of capitalism,
and when, in 1880, the first International Congress or
Soeialist and Trade-Uoion delegates met at Paris, a
"New International" came into being which exists
with unimpaired or, rather, with enhanoed energy to
the preemt day. Sinoe that first meeting aeveix
othtts have beoi held at int^vals of three m four
years, at which there has been a steady growth in the
number of delegates lu-esent, the variety ot nationals
ties r^resented, and the extent of the Socialistic iiw
fluence over its deliberations.

In 1900, an Intematiotial Socialist Bureau was es-
tablished at Brussels, with the purpose of sc^dtf^ing
and strengthfflung the intemationsu character of the
movement. Since 1901, aa Inter-ParliamMitaiy -So-
cialist Committee has giv^ further support to the
work of the bureau. To-day the international nature
of the Socialistic movement is an axiom boUi within
and wiUiout its ranksj an axiom that must not be for-
gotten in the estimation both of the strength and of
the trend of the movement. To the Intemationsj,
then, modem Socialism owes much of its 'aneeai
power. To "Das Ki4)ital" it owessuch iatelleotual
coherence as it still The success of tUs

book was immediate and considerable. It has been
translated into many languages, epitomised by many
hands, criticised, discuraed, and eult^sed. Thou-
sands who would style themselves Marxians and
would refer to "Das K^ital" as "the Bible of So-
dalinn", and the irrefragable basis of their creed,
have very probabl;^ never seen the or^;inal work, nor
have even read it in translation. Marx himself pub-
lished only the first volume; the second was published
under Engels' editorship in 1885, two years alter the
death of Marx; a third was elaborated by Engels from
Marx's notes in 1895; a fourth was projected but never
accomplished. But the influenoe of this torso has
been immense. With consummate skill Marx gath-
ered together and worked up the ideas and evidence
that had wigiaated with otuers, or were the floating
notions of the movement; mth the result that the new
international oqpuusation had read^ to hand a body
of doctrine to promulgate, tiie various national So-
cialist parties a oomxnon theory and programme for
which to work. And promulgated it was, with a de-
votion and at times a childBke faith that had no
slight resemblance to religious pn^ia^anda. It har
been severely and destruoUvely criticized by econo-
mists (rf many schoola, many m its leadii^; doctdnea
have been explicitly abandoned by the Socialist lead>
ers in different countries, some are now hardly de-
fended even by those leaders who label themselves
"Marxian". Yettheinfluenceofthebookperaists. The
main doctrines of Marxism are still thestuff of popular
Socialist belief in all countries, are still put forward
in scarcely modified form in the copious literature
produeed for popular consumption, are still enun-
ciated M imphed in pt^iular addraBeB even by some
ftf the very leaders who baveabandoned them inserious
controversy. Ins^teof the growth oi Revisionism in
Germany, ot Syndicalism in France, and of Fatuan
E:q>ertism in Vaif^md, it is still accurate to maintain
that the vast majority of Socialists^ the rank and file of
the movement in all countries, are adherent* of the
Marxian doctrine, with all its materialistic philosophy,
its evolutionaiy immorality, its dismptive political
and social ana^sis, its clau-oonBcious econonuos.

In Socialism, to-day, as m most departments ai
human thoudlit, the leading writers display a marked
^ness oS fundamental ualysis: "llie domain ot
Soualist thought "i says Lagarddle, haa beoome "aa

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intellMtual desert." Its protaeonista are UuiEely
oooupied, either in elaborating sonemes ot social re-
form, which not infrequently present no exclusively
Bocialiat diaracteristics, or else in ^wku^iag for
and disavowing inconvenient apphcations oy earlier
leadwB, of socialist philoaaphy to the domain ol
rdigion and ethies. Kevwtfieless, in so far as the
International movement remains d^nitdr Socialist
a( all, the formulse of its propaganda and tue creed of
its popular adhermta are predominantly the reflection
of those put forward in "Das Kwital" in 1867.
Moreover, during all this period of growth of the
modern Socialist movement, two other parallel move-
ments in all countries have at once supplemented and
counterpoised it. These are trade-umonism and oo-
cmwation. There is no inherent reason why mther ot
these movemoits should lead towards Socialism:
properly conducted and developed, both should ren-
der unnecessary anything that can correctly be styled
"Socialism". But, as a matter of fact, both these
excellent movements, owing to unwise opposition by
the dominant capitajisn, on the one hand, and in-
difference in the Churches on the other, are menaced
1^ SoeiaUsm, and may eventually be captured by the
more int^gent and energetic Socialists and turned
to serve the ends of Socialism. The traimng in
mutual aid and interdependence, as well as in self-
govoimient and business habits, which the leaders
oi the wage-earners have received in both trade-
unionism and the co-operative movements, while it
might be of incalculable bwefit in the formation of
the needed Christian democracy, has so far been
effective lai^ly in demonstrating the power that is
given by organization and numbera. And the leaders
of Socialism have not been slow to emphasize the les-
son and to extend the ailment, with sufficient plauai-
biUty, towards state monopolv and the absolutism of
the majority. The logic of their aif;ument has, it is
^e, been challenged, in recent years, in Europe by
the rise ctf the great CathoUc trad0-uai<Hi and oo*
opwative organizations. But in En^ish-^eaJdng
nations this ia yet tooome, and both oo-opontxHi and
trade-unionism are allowed to drift into the grip of
the Socialist mov«nent, with the result that what
might become a most exFective alternative for Col-
lectivism remains to-day its nurseiy and its support.

Parallel with the International movement has run
the loca^ propaganda in various countries, in each M
which the movement has taken its colour from the
national characteristics; a proeeaa which has con-
tinued, until to-day it is sometimes difficult to realize
that the different Dodies who are represented in the
International Congresses form part of the same agita-
tion. In Germany, the fatherland of dogmatic So
cialiam, the movement first took shape in 18^. In
that year Ferdinand Lassall^ the brilliant and
wealthy young Jewish lawyer, delivered a lecture to
an artisans' asaotaatiwi at Benin. Laaaalle was fined
by the authorities toe ha tonerity, but "The Wtak-
ing Men's Programme", as Uie lecture was styled, re-
sulted in The Universid Gierman Woridng Mea's
Association, which was founded at Leipzig under his
influence the following year. Laasalle commenced a
stormy progress throughout Germany, lecturing, or-
ganizing, writing. The movement did not grow at
firat with the rapidity he had fficpected^ and he him-
self was killed in a duel in 1854. But his tn^ death
aroused interest, and The Working Men's Amodation
grew steadily till, in 1869, reinforwd by the adhesion
of the various organieations whtdi had grown out of
Marx's prop^^da, it became, at Eisenach, the
SociaJist Democratic Working Men's Party. Lieb-
kneciht, Bebel, and Singer, all Marxians, were its chiel
leaders. The two former were imprisoned for treason
in 1870; but in 1874 ten membere of the party, includ-
ing the two leaders, wwe returned to the RMehstSff
by 450,000 voteif. The Govenunnt attonpted re-

pressum, wiUi the usual result of consolidating and
strengthening the movement. In 1875 was heB the
celebrated congress at Gotba, at which was drawn up
the programme that formed the basis of the party.
Three years later an attempt upon the emperor's me
was made the excuse Sot renewed repreeakm. But it
was in vain. In ^ite of attcsnate posecution and
eaaays in state Socialism, on the part of BismttdE, the
movement progressed steadihr. Bismarck fell rrom
power in 1890 and since then the party has grown rap-
idly,and is nowthestrongeat political body in Germany.
In 1899 Edward Bernstein, who had come imder the
influence of the Fabians in England since 1888, started
the "Revisionist" movement, which, while attempt-
ing to oonoentrate the energies of the party more
d^nitdy upon spedfio reforms and "reviamg" to
extinction many of the most cherished doctrines of
Marxism, has yet been subordinated to the practical
exigencies of politics. To all appearance the Socialist
Party is stronger to-day than ever. The elections of
1007 brought out 3,258,968 votes in its favour; those
of January, 1912, gave it 110 seats out of a total of 397
in the Reichstag — a gain of more thui 100 pa- cent
over its lastprevions rqiresentation (53 seats). The
Marxian "£&furt Programme", adopted in 1891, is
still the official creed of the Partjr. But the "Re<
visionist" policy is obviously gaining ground and, if
the Stuttgiut Congress of 1007 be any indication, is
rapidly transforming the revolutionary Marxist party
into an opportunist body devoted to specific soci^
reforms.

In France the progress of Socialism has been upon
different lines. Afto' the collapse of Saint-Simonism
and Fourierism, came the agitation of Louis Blanc in
1848, with his doctrine of "The Right to Work".
But this was side-tracked by the triumphant poli-
ticians into the scandalous "National Workshops",
which were probably deliberately established on
wrong lines in order to bring ridicule upon the agita-
tkm. Blanc was driven into exile, and Fi«nch So-
cialism lay dormant till the ruin of Imperialism in
1870andtneoutbreakoftheCommuneinl871. This
rising was suppressed wttb a ferocity that far sur-
passed the wildest excesses of the Communards;
20,000 men are said to have been shot in cold blood,
many of whom were certainlv innocent, while not a
few were thrown alive into the common burial pits.
But this savagery, though it temporarily qudled the
revolution, dud nothmg to obviate the Socialist
movement. At first many of the scattered leaders
declared for Anarchism, but soon most of them
abandoned it as impracticable and threw their en-
ergies into the propagation of Marxian Soci^sm. In
1879 the amnesty permitted Jules Guesde, Brouase,
Malon, and other leaders to return. In 1881, after
the Anarchist-Communist group under Kropotkin
and lUdus had seceded, two parties came into exist-
encCt the i^rportunist Alliance Sooialiste RtouUU
oatne, wd tM Marxian Fttrti Ouvrier SodaJiste R6vo-
lutionaire de France. But these parties soon ^lit up
into others. Guesde led, and still leads, the Irre-
ooncilables; Jaur^ and Milterand have been the
leaders of the Parliamentarians; Brousse, Blanqm,
and others have formed their several communistic
croups. In 1906, however, largely owing to the in-
fluence of Jaur^s, the lees e:^«me parties united
again to form Le Parti Soeialiste Unifie. 'Hua body
is but loosely formed of various irreconcilable groups
and includes Anarchists like Herv£, Marxists like
Guesde^ Syndicalists like Lagardelle, Opportunists
like Millerand, all of whom Jaurte endeavours, with
but slight success, to maintain in harmony. For
right across the Marxian doctrinairianism and the
opportimism of the parliamentary group has driven
the recent Revolutionary Syndicalist movement.
Tbia, which is really Anarchist-Gommuniam weridne
thtoui^ trade-unkmiam, is a movement distruatful of

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qntems, favourable to Tiolence. tend-
ing towHrds deatnietive revolution. The Coni^^ra-
tion Gto^rale du Travail ia rapidly abeorbins the So-
cialist movement in Fnmce, or at least robbing it of
the ardent element that gives it life.

In the British Iske the Socialist movement has had
a leas stormy career. After the collapse of Owenism
and the Chartist movement, the jHw^ical genius of
the nation directed its chitf reform energies tomrds
the oomolidation of the trade anions and the building
up of the great cooperative oiterprise. Steadily, for
some forty years, the trade-union leaders worked at
the strengthening of their respective oraanixations,
whieh, with their dual character of frienoly societies
and professional associations, had no small part in
traimng the working classes in habits of combmation
for common ends. And this lesson was emphasized
and enlarged by the Co-operative movonen^ which,
siHinging from tiie tiny efforts of the Rochdale Pio-
neers, spread throughout the oountsy, till it is now
one of the mightiest businesB oiganizations in the
world. In this movemoit many a labour leader
learnt habits of business and of successful committee
work that enabled him later on to deal on,equaI^ or
even on advantageous, terms with the representatives
of the owning dassee. But during all this period of
trainii^ the Socialist movemoit pn^ier la^ dormant.
It was not until 1884, with the foundation of the
strictly Marxian Social Democratic Federation bv
H. M. Hyndman, that the Socialist propaganda took
active form in England. It did not achieve any great
immediate success, nor has it ever since shown signs
of appealing widely to the Engli^ temperament.
But It was a beginnmg, and it was followed by other,
more inclusive, organisations. A few months after
its foundation the Socialist League, led by William
Morris, seceded from it and had a brief and stormy
e3dstenc& In 1893, at Bradford, the "IndepeKfent
Labour Party" was formed under the lead^hipof
J. Keir Haroie, with the direct purpose of carrying
Socialism into politics. Attached to it were two
weekly papers. ^'The Clarion" and "The Labour
Leader"; the formear of which, by its sale of over a
million copies of an able little manua^ "Merrie
Engtand'*, had no small part in the diffusion of

S polar Socialism. All these three bodies vnsn
arxian in doctrine and largely working class in
membership.

But, as early as 1883, a group of middle-class stu-
dents had joined together as The Fabian Society.
Tliis body, while calling itself Socialist, rejected the
Marxian in favour of Jevonsian economics, and de-
voted itself to the social education of the public by
means of lecture^ pamiAIets and books, mi to the
qnead of Collectmst ideas by the "permeatwn" of
public bodies and political parties. Immense as have
Dctni its achievements in this direction, its constant
|»eoecupation with practical measures of reform and
its contact with or^nized par^ politics have led it
rather in the direction of the "servile State" than of
the Socialist Commonwealth. But the united efforts
of the various Socialist bodies, in concert with trade
unionism, resulted, in 1890, in the fbnnaticm ofthe
Labour Representation Committee which,seven years
later, had developed into the Labour Party, with
about Uiirty representatives in the House of Commons.
Already, tu>wever, a few years' practical acquunt-
ance with party politics has diminished the Socialist
orthodoxy of tbeXabour Part^, and it shows signs of
becoming absorbed in the details of party contention.
Significant commentaries appeared m the summer of
1911 and in the spring of 1912; industrial disturb-
ances,^ singularly resembling French Syndicalism, oo-
eurred spontaneously in most commercial and min*
ing centres, and the whole Labour movement in tlw
British Isles has reverted to the Revolutkmaiy ^pe
Ibst last appeared in 1880.

In every European nation the Socialist movement
has foUowed, more <»- leeS faithfully, one of the three
preceding types. In Belgium, Switzerland, Denmark,
and Italy it is wedominantly parliamentaiy; in Rus-
sia, Spam, and Portugal it displays a more bitterly
revolutionary character. But evoywhere the two
tendencies, parliamentary and revolutionary, struggle
for the upper hand; now one, now the other becoming
predominant. Nor is the movement in the United
States any exception to the rule. It began about
1849, pur^ as a movement among the German and
other immigrants and, in spite of the migration of the
old Intematioual to New York in 1872, had but little
effect upon the native population till the Heniy Geor^
movement of 1886. Evesi then jealousies and divi-
sions restricted its action, till the reoiganization of
the Socialist Labour Party at Chicago in 1880.
Since then the movement nas spread r^idly. In
1897 appeared the Social Democracy of America,
which, uniting with the majority of the BociaJist La-
bour Party in 1901, formed the present rapidly grow-
ing SociaLgt Party. In the Umted States the move-
ment is stilt strongly Marxian in character, though a
Revisionist school is growing up, somewhat on the
hoes of the English Fabian movement, under the in-
fluence of writers like Edmond KelW, Morris Hillquit,
and Professors Ely and Zueblin. But the main bo^
is still crudely Rerolutionary, and is likely to remam
so until the political democracy of the nation is more
perfectly reflected in its economic conditions.

These main points in the history of Social^m lead
up to an examination of its spirit and intention. The
best idealism of earlier times was fixed upon the
soul rather than upon the body: exactly the opposite
is the case with Socialism. Social questions are
almost entirely questions of the body — ^public healtii,
sanitation, housii^, factory conditions, infant mor^
tality, employment of women, hours of work, rates of
wages, accidents, uneroplojnuent, pauperism, old-ece
pensions, sickness, infirmity, lunacy, feeblo-minded-
ness, intemperance, prostitution, physical deteriora-
tion. All these are excellent ends for activity in
themselves, but all of them are mainly concerned with
the care or cure of the body. To use a Catholic
phrase, th^ are <miortunilies for corporal works of
mercy, which may tack the spiritual intention tiiat
would make them Christian. The materia may be
made a means to the spiritual, but is not to be con-
sidered an end in itself. This world is a place of
probation, and the time is short. Man is here for a
definite purpose, a purpose which transcends the
limits of this mor^ life, and his first business is to
realize this purpose and carry it out with whatever
hd[» and guidance he may mid. The purpose u a
q)iritual one, but he is free to chocae or refuse the end
for which he was created; he is free to neglect or to
co-operate with the Divine assistance, which will ^va
his life the stability and perfection of a spiritual rathear
than of a material nature. This bein^ so, there must
be a certain order in the nature of his development.
He is not wholly spiritual nor wholly material; he has
a soul, a mind, and a body; but the interests of the
wral must be supreme, and the interests of mind and
body must be brought into proper subservience to it.
His movement towards perfection is by way of aaoent:
it is not easy; it requires continual exercise of the will,
continual discipline, continual training — it is a war-
fare and a pilgrimage, and in it are two elements, the
spiritual and the material, which are one in the unity
of his daily life. As St. Paul pointed out, there must
be a continual struggle between these two elements.
If the individual life is to be a suoceas, the niiritud
desire must triumph, the material one must be subr
ordinate, and when uiis is so the whole individual Hfe
is lived with proper economy, spiritual things hebm
wotnAt after as an end, while material things are
used merely aa a means to that end.^ . ,

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SOCIALISM t

The point, then, to be observed is that the n)iritual
life is really the economic life. From the Christian
point of view material neceeaities are to be kept at a
xninimum, ami matwial superfluitieB as far aapoedble
to be dispenaed with altogether. Hie Christian is a
soldier and a pilgrim who requires matmal things only
as a means to fitness and nothing more. In this he
has the example of Christ Himself, Who came to earth
with a minimum of material advantages and persisted
thus even to Uie Croes. The Christian, then, not
only from the individual but aiao from the social
standpoint, has chosen the better part. He does not
despise tlus life, but, just because his material desures
are subordiiiate to his q>iritual oues^ he lives it much
more reasonably, much more unselnshly, much more
beneficially to his neighbmus. The point, too, which
he makes against the Socialist is this. The Socialbt
wishes to distribute material goods in such a way as
to establish a substantial equality, and in order to do
this he requires the State to make and ke^ this dm-
tribution oompulsoiy. The Christian replies to him:
"You cannot maintain tikis widespread distribution,
f OT the simple reason tiiat you have no machinery for
induCinajg^ to deuie it. On the contrary, you do
all ^ou (fan to increase the selfish and accumulative
desires of men: you centre and concentrate all their
mterest on material accumulation, and then expect
them to distribute their goods." This ultimate dif-
ference between Christian and Socialist teaching must
be clear^ understood. Socialism f^propnates all hu-
man desires and centres tliem on the here-and-now,
on material benefit and material prosperity. But
material goods are so limited in quality, in quantity,
and in duration tJiat th^ are incapable of satisfying
human desires, which will ever covet more and more
and never fed satisfaction. In this Socialism and
Capitalism are at one. for their only quarrel is over the
bone upon which is the meat that perisheth. Social-
ism, of itself -and by itself, can do nothing to diminish
or oiseiidiiie Uie immediate and materialistic lust of
men, because Socialism is itself the most exaggerated
and universalized expression of this lust yet known to
history. Christianity, on the other nandj teaches
and practises unselfish distribution oS material ^oods,
both according to the law of justice and according to
tiie law of chanty.

Again, ethically speaking, Socialism is committed
to the doctrine of determinism. Holding that society
makes the individuals of viaeh it is composed^ and not
vice versa, it has quite lost touch with t^e invigorating
Christian doctrine of free will. This fact may be if
lustrated b;y its attitude towards the three great insti-
tutions which have hitherto most Stron^py exemplified
and protected that doctrine — the Church, the Family,
and private ownership. Socialism, with its essentially
mat^aJistic nature, can admit no raiaon d'iire for a
spiritual power, as oomplementaiy and superior to the
■eeular power of the State. Man, as the creature ci
a matenal eavironment, and as the subject of a mat^
nal State, has no moral responsibilities and can yield
to no aUefdance beyond that of the State. An^
power which daima to appropriate and discipline his
mterior Ufe, and which affords him sanctions that
transcend fw evolutionary and scientific determinism,
must necessarily incur Socialist opposition. So, too,
with the Family. According to the prevalent Socialist
teaching, the child stands DcAweeo two authorities,
that Its parents and that of the State, and of these
the State is cert^nly the higher. The State therefwe
is endowed with the higher authority and with all
powers of interference to t>e used at its own discretion.
Contrast this with the Christian notion of the Family
— an organic thing with an organic life of its own.
The State, it is true, must ensure a proper basis for
its economic life, but beyond that it should not int^
fore: its buf^ness is not to detach the members <tf the
family bran their body in ords to make thorn aepap

i SOCIALISM

rately and selfishly efficient; a member is cut off
from its bod^ only as a last resource to prevent or-
gnnic poisoning. The business of the State is rather
wat m hewing the Family to a healthy, oo-operatire,
and productdve unity. The State was never meant to
i4>propriate to itsen the main parental duties, it was
latner meant to povide the parents, eepecially poor
parents, with a wider, freer, heaJthier family sphere in
which to be properly parental. Socialimn, thm, both
in Church and Family, is impersonal and determinis-
tic: it deprives the individual of both his religious and
his domestic freedom. And it is exactly the same with
ibiR institution oi inivate pr(H>erty.

The Christian doctrine of looperty can best be
stated in the words of St. Thomas Aquinas: "In re-
gard to an extOTial thing man has two powers: one
IS the power of managing and controlling it, and as to
this it is lawful for a man to posAss private property.
It is, moreover, necessary for human life for three rea-
sons. First, because everyone is more zealous in
looking after a thing that belongs to him than a thing
that is the common property of all or of many; bfr<
cause each person, trying to escape labour,- leaves to
another ^what is evoybody's biuuness, as happens
where there are many servants. Sraondly, because
there is more order in the management of men's
affairs if each has his own work of looking after defi-
nite things; whereas there would be confusion if every-
one managed everything indiscriminately. Thirdly,
because in this way the reh^ons of men are kept more
peaceful, mnce everyone is satisfied with his own poa*
session, whence we see that quarrels are commmer
between those who jointly own a thing as a whole.
The other power which man has over external thinra
is the using of them: and as to this man must not hold
external things as his own propoty, but'as everyone's;
so as to make no difficulty, I mean^ in sharing when
others are in need" (Summa theologica, II-II, Q. Ixvi,
a. 2). U man, then, has the right to own, control, and
use private v^coperty, the State cannot ^ve him this
right or take it away; it can only protect it. Here, of
course, we are at issue with Socialism, for, according
to it, the State is the supreme power from which all
human rights are derived; it acknowledges no inde-
pendent spiritual, domestic, or individual power what-
ever. In nothing is the bad economy of Socialism
more evident than in its derogation or denial of the
truly personal and self-directive powers of human
nature, and its misuse of such human qualities as it
does not demise or deny is a plain confession of its
material and deterministic limitations. It is true
that the institutions of religion, of the family, and
of private ownership are liable to great abuses,
but the perfection of human effort and character de-
mands a freedom of choice between good and evil as.
their first necessary condition. This area of free
choice is provided, on the material stde^ by private
ownership: on the spiritual and matnial, by the
Christian Family; and on the purely spiritual by re-
ligion. The State, then, instead of depriviag men of
these opportunities of free and fine production, not
only of mat^ial but also of intellectual values, should
rather constitute itself as their defender.

In apparent contradiction,' however, to much of the
for^mg argument are the considerations 'put for-
ward hy numerous schools of "Christian Socialism",
both datholic and non-Catholic. It will be urged
that th«re cannot really be the opposition between
SociaUsm and Christianity that is here suggested, for,
as a matter of fact, many excellent and intelligent per-
Bons in all ooimtries are at once convinced Christians
and ardent Socialists. Now, before it is possible to
estimate correctly how far this undoubted fact can
alter the conclusions arrived at above, certain preroaaea
must be noted. First, it is not practically possible to
oonsida' Sodalism soldy as an economic or social doc-
trine. It has kng passed the stas&o^puretiMory and
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aocaAun

toouunc

attained the tmportions of a movement: it is to-day a
doctrine emboaied in programmes, a eyeiem o!
thought and beli^ that is put forward as the vivifying
principle of an active propaganda, a thing organiuilly
connected with the intellectual and moral activities
of the millions who are its adherents. Next, the views
of small and scattered bodies of men and women, who
profess to reconcile the two doctrines, must be allowed
no more than their due weights when contrasted with
the expressed beliefs of not only the majority of the
leadii^ eqxments of Socialism, past and present, but
also of the immense majority of the rank and file m aJl
nations. Thirdly, for CathoUca, the declarations ot
supreme pontiCTs, of the Catholic hierarch;^, and of the
leading Catholic sociologists and economists have an
impor^t bearins on the question, an evidential force
not to be lightly dismissed. Lastly, the real meaning
attached to the terms "Christianity" and "Social-
ism", by those who profess to reconcile these doc*
trines, must always be eliafed brfore it is possible to
estimate either what doctrines are being reooncilad or
how far that reoonciliation is of any practical ade-
quacy.

If it be found on examination that the general
trend of the Socialist movement, the predominant
opinion of the Socialists, the authoritative pronounce-
ments of ecclesiastical and expert Catholic authority
all tend to emphasise the philosophical cleavage indi-
cated above, it is probably safe to oonchide that those
who pnrfesB to reconcile the two doctrines are nii»-
t^en: either their gtaep of the doctrines of Christi-
anity or of Socialism will be found to be imperfect, or
else their mental habits will app(»r to be so lacking in
discipline that they^ are content with the profession of a
belief in incompatible principles. Now, if Socialism
be first considered as embodied in the Socialist move-
ment and Socialist activity, it is notorious that every-
where it is antMonistic to Christianity. This is above
oil olear in CatnoUc countries where the Socialist or-
ganiiationa are maikedljr anti-Christian both in pro-
fession and practice. Itis true that of late years there
has appeared among Socialists some impatience of
remainmg mere catspaws of the powerful Masonic
anti-clerical societies, but this is rather because these
secret societies are largely Migineered by the wealthy
in the interesta of capitalism than from any affection
for Catholicism. The European Socialist remains
anticlerical, even when he revolts against Masonic
manipulation. Nor is this really less true of non-
Catholic countries. In Germany, in Holland, in Den-
mark, in the United States, even in Great Britain,
organized Socialism is ever prompt to expresa (in its
practical programme, if not in its formulated creed) its
oontempt for and inherent antagonism to revealed
Christianity. What, in public, is not infreciuratly
d^recated is clearly enough implied in projects of
legislation, as well as in tm moital attitude that is
unial in Socialist circles.

Nor are the publi^ed views of the Socialist leaders
and writers less explicit. "Scientific Socialism" be-
^m as an economic exposition of evolutionan|"mate-
riailism; it never lost that character. Its German
fbunders, Marx, Ethels, Lassalle, were notoriously
anti-Obrwtian both m temper and in acquired phil-
Dsophy. So have been its more modem exponents in
Qtnaaay, Bebel, laebknecht, Kautsky, Dietsgen,
Bemstem, Singer, as well as the popular papers — ^the
"Serial Demokrat", the "Vorw&rts", the "Zim-
merer", the "Neue Zeit" — which reflect, while ex-
pounding, the view of the rank and file; and the
Gotha and Erfurt programmes, which express the
nraeUcal aims of the moirement. In fVanoe and the
Netboiands the f(miier and present leaders of the
various Socialist sections are at one on the question
of Christianity — Lafargue, Herv£, Boudin, Guesde,
Jaori^ Viviam, Sorel, Briand, Oriffuetbes, Lai^^elle,
TAy, Reoard, Ni«iweiihuis, Vandervelde— «11 ace

anti-Christian, as ar^the popiilar newnupen, like
"La Guerre Sociale", "L'Humanittf" % Sodat
iste", the "Petite R^publique". the "Raoht voor
Allen", "Le Peunle". In Italy, Austria, Spain, Rus-
sia, and Switseriand it is the same: Socialism goes
hand in hand with the attack on Christianity. Only
in the Bnglish-epea^g countries is the rule appar-
ently void. Yet, even there, but slight acquaintance
with the leading personalities of the Socialist move'
ment and the habits of thought current amooK them,
is suffieimt to dispel the illusion. In Great Britam
orataia prominent names at onoe oocur as plunly
anti-Chnstian — Aveling, Hyndman, Pearson, Blatdi-
foni, Bax, Quelch, Leatham, MorriB, Standring —
ma^ of than pioneers and prophets of the movement
in England. The Fabians, Shaw, Pease, Webb,
Guest; independents, like Wells, or Orage, or Car-
penter: popular periodicals like "The Clarion",
''The Socialist Review", "Justice" are all markedly
noiHChristtaa in spirit, though some of them do pro>
test wainst any necessary mcompatibiUty between
their doctrines and the Christian. It is true that the
political leaders, like Macdonald and Hardie, and a
fair proportion of the present L^ur Party might
insist that "Socialism is only Christianity in terms of
modem economics", but the very measures they ad-
vocate or support not unfrequently are anti-Chnstian
in principle or tenden<^. And in the United States it
is the same. Those who have studied the writing or
apeeches of wdl-4aiown Socialists, such as Bellamy,
Gronlund, Spargo, Hunter, Debs, Herron, Abbott,
Brown, Del Mar, Hillquit, Kerr, or Simmons, or
periodicals like the "New Yoric Volksseitung", "The
People", "The Comrade", or "The Worker", are
aware of the bitterly anti-Christian tone that per-
vades them a6d is inherent in their propaganda. ^
The trend of the Socialist movement, then, and the
del^erate pnmouncements and habitual thought of
leaders and followers alike, are almost imiversfUly
found to be antagonistic to Christianity. Moreover,
the other side of the question is but a confirmation
of this antagonism. For all three popes who have
come into contact with modem Socialism, Pius IX,
Leo XIII, and Pius X, have formally condemned it,
both as a genOTal doctrine and with regard to specific
points. The bishops and clergy, the lay experts on
socidi and economic questions, tne philoeophers, the
theologians, and practically tne whole body oi the
faithfm are unanimous in their acceptance of the con-
demnation. It is of little purpose to point out that
the Socialism condemned is Marxism, and not Fa-
bianism or its analogues in various countries. For, in
the first placej the main principles common to all
schools of Socialism have been explicitly condemned
in Encyclicals like the "Renim novarum" or the
"Graves de communi"; and, in addition, as has been
shown above, the main current of Socialism is still
Marxist^ and no adhesion to a movement professedly
international can be acquitted of the guilt of lending
support to the condemned doctrines. The Church,
the Socialists, the very tendency of the movement do
but confirm the antagonism of principle, indicated
above, between Socialism and Christianity. The
"Christian Socialists" of all countries, indeed, fall
readily, upon examination, into one of three cate-
gories. Either they are very imperfecthr Christian,
as the Lutheran followers of Stacker and Naumann in
Germany, or the Calvinist Socialists in France, or the
numerous vaguely-doctrinal "Free-Church" Social-
ists in England and An^ica; or, secondly, they are
but very inaccurately styled "Socialist"; as were the
group led by Kingsley, Maurice and Hughes in Eng-
land, or "Catholic Democrats" like Ketteler, Man-
ning, Descurtins, the "Sillonists"; or, thirdly, wha«
there is an acceptance of the main Christian doctrine,
side by side wiUi the advocacy of Revolutionary So-
QtaUam, aa is the case with the Ens^sb "Guild of St

Digitized by VjOOglC

6d

iOCUltSM

Matthew" or the New York CSiun^ Aaaooatloii for
the AdranoeDMiit ot the latereste of Labour, it can
oiUy be ascribed to that mental facility in holding at
the same time inoompatible doctrines, which is every-
where the mark of the "Catholic but not Roman"
school. Christianity and Socialism are hopeleesly in-
oompatible, and the logic of events makes this ever
clearer. It is true that, before the publication of the
Encyclical "Rerum novarum", it was not unusual to
aop^ the term "Christian SociaUsm" to the social
rnorms put forward throughout Europe by those
Catholics who are earnestly endeavouring to restore
the social philosophy of Catholicism to the position it
Ooeupted in the ages of Faith. But, under the guid-
ance of Pope Leo XIII, that crusade against the social
and economic iniquities of the present age is now more
correctly styled " Christian Democracy and no really
instructed, loyal, and clear-thinking Catholic would
now claim or accept the style of Christian Socialist.

To sum up, in the words of a capable anonymous
writer in "The Quarterly Review", Socialism has for
"its philosophical basis, pure materialism; its re-
ligioiiB basis is pure negation) its ethical basis the
theory that society makes the mdividuals of which it
is composed, not the individuals society, and that
thu«fore the structure of society determines indi-
vidual conduct, which involves mcnral irresponsibility;
its economic basis is the theory that labour is the sole

Eroducer, and that capital is the surplus value over
are subsistence produced by labour and stolen by
c^italists; its juristic basis is the ri^t of labour to
the whole product; its historical basis is the industrial
revolution, that is the change from small and handi-
craft me^ods of production to lai^ and mechanical
ones, and the warfare of classes; its pohtical basis is
, democracy. . . . It may be noted that some of these
{iKtses] have already hem abandoned and an in ruins,
others are bennning to shake; and as this process
advances the defenders are compelled to retreat and
take up fre^ positions. Thus the form of the doc-
trine cnan^ and undergoes modification, though
all cUng still to the central principle, which is the
substitution of public for private ownership."

I. History of the SocUliat MoTSment: (I) Oeneral: — Cnrr, Lm
sociaUtlt* atUmand* (Pmria, 1907); Dm Seilhac, Lm ooni/ri*
au«n«r* cn France (Reuns, 1908); Hii^^iht, Hiatory of SoevUitm
in th« UniUd 8Uttf (New York, 1902); Kibktjp, Sittory of So-
«falwm (London, 1909); Ijbcocq, La qtiettitm toeiaU ait niii
aiteU (Paris, 1909); t-oms, Hiutoirt du mmu^mmt lyndfeol m
Fnmct (Paris, 1907) ; Piilu>utish, Hutoire du Bourtu dt TravaU
(Pvis, 1902); Rac, Ctmtemvoranf SoeioHm (LondoD, 1908);
BoifBJBT, Soeialinn and th* SocuUttl Mot»ment (London, 1909);
fitOOOABT, The New Socialitm (London, 1909); Tugam-Baro-
MOWBXT, Modem Soeiali*m in iU HMorioal Development (LondoD,
IBIO): ViLLiKms, The eocialiet Mattnml in England (London,
1910); WiNTKRXB. L« uoeialiame eonUmpomin (Psris, 1895).
O) Utopian ud RevolutionMy Attempts. — ^Boonakotti, BabmtfB
Conepincu for BqualUti (London, 1836) ; Ccllxn, Adv«n-
ture* in Soeialiem (London, 1910); Hinds, American Commv-

Parii Commune (London, 18BS); Nordbopp, Commtinittie So^
ciitMs in the United Slat^ (London, 1875); Notcs. Hittoru
a/ AuMfioM Soeialiemi (Philsdelphift, 1870). (3) Biogmiiluea
at Sooiftliit LaMders. — Bkknstein, Ferdinand LaeeaUe a« a
Soeiat Reformer (London, 1893); Booth, Saint^imon and Saint-
Simmitm (London, 1871); Gbobob, Life of Henry George (Lon-
don, 1900) ; GiBBiNB, Brigtieh Social Reformere (London, 1907);
Jacuon, Bernard SAau, a numooraph (London, 1909); Jones,
The Life, Time»andLaboureofR(&ertOwin(ljanaaia, 1900); Mac-
Kail, Lift of Wiiliam Morrie (2 vols., London, 18M); SrABOO,
Karl Marx, hie Life and Work (New York, 101Q}; Tatlor,
Leadere of Sodaliam (London, 1908).
IL History of Moremeats Influencins Socialism: (1) Co-
>tion. — Fat, Co-operation at Rome and Abroad (London,
HoLTOAKB, Hiitory of Co-operation (2 vols., London, 1908);
LAviBONE, Le rlgime coop^atif (Paris. 1910); Poma, Co-opera-
Hm moeenent in Oreai Britain Uiondon, 1899). (2) Combina-
tions of Labour and CapltaJ. — Db Skilhac, Lee grivae (Paris,
1900); DiuoENT, Let oruntationa eyndicaiet (Paris, 1909); Elt,
Monopoliee and TrueU (New York, 1900); Hirst. Monopolie*.
Truete, and Raridle (London, 1905) ; Howkll, 7Vad« Unioniem
Old and Nea (London, 1907); Kibkbride and Stbrbett, The

ncK (LoaAm, 1001). (3) LagiiUtioo.^>namraBAM ams Hao-

werat

1908):

untUB. Ondinee of Bnglieh Induttriat Bietary (CimbildM,
1894} ; HuTOBiira and Habrisok, Hietorg of Factory Legittatton
niondoD, 1910); Nicbolus amd Macxat, Hitory of the BngUth
Poor Law {3 vols., London, 1910) ; Webb, BT^ieh Poor Lav
Paiiey ILoLdaa, 1909); Juxm, OranU in Aid (London, 1911):
Idbu. The StaU and the Doctor (London, 1910). (4) Municipal
and AdminisiratiTe Aetivities. — Dabwin, Municipal OmeerAip
(London, 1907) ; Jolt. La Suitee politique et eaeiale (Paris, 1009):
Idem, L Itatie eontemporaine (Paris, 1911); Meteb, Jfunicipal
Otenerihip in Oreai Britain (London, 1006) ; Reeves, State ««•
perimente m Auebatia and Jv«w Zealand (2 vols., London, 1903);
SHAW, MuHietpal Omenunent in Oreat Britain (London, 1895);
Idbu. Mtmietpal Ootemment in Coniinental Europe (LondoOt
1896): Webbeb, The Oroalh of CUiee in the Nineteenth Cenliay

?<oiiaon, 1899); Zubblih, American Municipal Enterprite (No*
ork. 1002).

III. Socialism as Ezpoundod by Socialists. (1) Marxism.—
Bax, Setayi in Soeialiem tfeio and Old (London, 1905); Blatcb-
roBD, Merrie Enf^and (London, ISBfi); Enoblb, Soetaliem Ula-
pian and Seientifle (London, 1802); Febu, Soeialiem and Poet-
tire Science (London, 1905); Obonlund, The Co-operatiae Com-
monwsnUA (London, 1896); Htn«TEB, Sodali^ at Work (New
York, 1908) ; Htndmak, The Eeonomiee of Soeiatitm (London^
1896); JAirsia, Studiee in Soeialiem (London. 1906); Mabx,
Capital <3 vols., LtHidon, 1888, 1907, 1900); Mobbis and Bax,
Soeialiem ite Oroufh and Outcome (London, 1897) ; Sparoo, So-
eialiem, a Summary and InterpretatUMt (New York, 1906) : Idem,
The Svbalanes of Soeialiem (New York, 1910). (2) Revinoniam.
Revolutionary Syndicalism, Fabian Espertism. — Bernbtbim.
Epolutionary Soeialiem (London, 1B09) ; Clat, Syndicaliam oM
Labour (London, 1911); EtnoR, Modem Soeialiem ae Set FerAhg
SodaiiHe (New York, 1010); Fabian Eeeaye in Soeialiem (Lon-
don. 1009); Fabiefn Tract*. Not. 1-180 (London, 1881-1911);
OBiproELHES, L'aetion tyndicaliele (Paris, 1908); Idem, Vouagee
rfvolutionairet (Paris, 1910); HiUiQnrr, Soeialiem in Theary
and Practice (New York, lOOB); Kellt, Twentieth CerOvru
Soeialiem (London, 1010); LAOABDELUt. Le eodalimt ouerier
(Paris, 1011); Macdonald, Soeialiem and Society (London,
1905) ; Idem, The SocialiH Movement (London, 1011); Mm»-
HBix. Le todalieme (Paris, 1907); Idem, Le eyndieoHeme eontre
le to^alieme (Paris, 1B08) ; Pataiid and Pouqet, Comment nout
feront la rHolution (Pans, 1900); Preeeouni, La teoria eindi-
eaUata (Naples, 1900); Vandebtbldr. CoUecHnem and Induetrial
Reeelutton (London, 1007) ; Webb, T%e Prevention of Dettitution
(London, 1911); Wblu, Hew Worlde for Old (London, 1908).

IV. Catholiti CriUcism of Socialism. — ^Antoine, Court d'teono-
mi» todale (Paris, 1988). 523-68; Ardant, Le eoeiaUeme eonlem-
porain et la propriM (Paris, 1005); BrocAures ^unM d» I' Action
Populairt. Noe. 86, *8, i9. 97, 100. 183, 174, 199 (Reims. 1904-
11); CAaTELSiM, Le eocuiiieme et U droit de proprikt (Brussels);
Cathrein, Soeialiem, tie Iheoretieal haeie and praclieal opptteo-
tion (New York, 1904); Covai^,Cat^iemed'iconomieeoe.et polit.
(Paris, 1907) ; De BEimAC, L'lOowe eocial. (Paris, 1007) ; Devas,
Political Economy (London, 1907), 514-26; Eelleher. Private
oimertkip: ite baeie and equitable conditione (Dublin, 1911); Le
rot-Beauubit, CMeetieiem, a Study of Some of the Leading Qh««-
tione of the Day (hoadon, 1008): PEacR, Liberaliemue, Soctalie-
mueChrietl.aeeMechafleord.<ynn.b\iit, 1806); Prbuss, The Fun-
damental FaOaey of Soeialiem (St. Louis, 1908); Satatibb, Lee
tariatione du toeialiemeia Lemouvement eoe. (Paris, May, 1011);
ScHRiJVHBa, Handbook of Practical Eeononomiee (London, 1910),
25-18; ToDUAiNT, CoUoclimtme tt oommunieme (Paris, 1907);
WiNTESBB. Le to^alieme allemand et eee demiiree it<4vtione
(Paris, 1907).

V. Non-Catholic Criticism of Socialism. — Odtot, Sociaiietie
Fallaeiea (London. 1910); Funt, Soeialiem (London, 1908);
HoBBON, The Induetrial Syetem (London, 1009); Idem, The
Science of wealth (London, 1011); Kibkop. An Enquiry Into So-
cioliem (London, 1908); Malloce, A Critical Examination of
Soeialiem (London, 1908); Nicrolaon, Hielorical Progrete and
Ideal Soeialiem (London, 1804); ScRABrPLE, The Quinteeeenee of
Soeialiem (London. 1809); Skelton, 8ocialiem,a eritioal analyete
U»ndon, 1911): Soeialiem, lie Meaning and Origin; He Preient
Potition and Future Protpecte In Quarterly Review (April, July,
London, 1910): The Caee Agairut Soeialiem (London, IW9).

VL "Christian Socialism". — Catholiciem and Soeialiem in
Catholie Truth Society Pamphlete (2 vols., London, 1908. 1910);
CuNNnroHAU, Soei<Uum and Chrietianity (London, 1900); Qat-
BAUD, Un Catholique j>cut-il ttre eocialieter (Paris, 1907); Gold-
iTCiH, Sodaliem, the Nation of Fatherleee Children (New York,
1908); Headlau, Deabheb. Cupfobo. and Woolhan, Soeial-
iem and Religion in Fabian Soeialiet Seriea, no. 1 (London. 1908) ;
Laht, Catholiquee et Socialietee (Paris, 1910); Mino, The Char-
aderietiee and Ae Religion of Modem Soeialiem (New York, 1908) ;
Idbh, The Morality of Modem Soeialiem (New York, 1900);
NiTTi, Catholic Soeialtem (London, 1805); Noel, Soeialiem in
Church /fittorv (London, 1910); Sebtillanoes, Socialisms et
Chrietianieme 0>ariB, 1000) ; Sodebini, Soeialiem and Catholieiem
(London. 1896) : Stano, Soeialiem and Chrietianity (New York,
1905); WoBDSwoBTH, Chrietian Soeialiem in England (London,
1008).

VII. Christian Democracy. — Annie lociale inlemationaU, I-
III (Reims, 1910-12) ; Cauppe, L'attitude eoeiale dee calhaliquet
Frangaie au XIX* eitele (Paris, 1910) ; Idem, Lee lendencei eocxalee
dee eatholiguee libtraux (Paris, 1911); Catholie Social Guild
Pamphlete (2 vols., London, 1910-12); Crawpobd, Sieitteriand
To-day (London, 1911); Detab, Social Qtteetione and the Duty of
Catholiee (London, IOOT) ; Idem, The Key to the World'e Progreee
(London, 1006) ; OaBbiqubt, The Social Value of the Ooepet (Lon-
don, 1011); Guide Social, I-VI (Reims, 1004-09); Luoah, L*M-
Mtpnamsnl eocial de Jieue (Paris, 1907) ; Naddet, Le dtrielian-
inns Soejol (Paris, lOOS); PARKtMBOx (ed.), Deelitution and
SmumM JliBHdMi (LoDdnn. IBll); PtMOm, Oi^oUo Social WeA

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80CUU8TIG

69

SOCIALISTIC

tmOfmrny (8t. Louis, 1910) : Rtan, A Lwrino Wa^e. iUSOtiealand
Bemomia A»peeU (Now York. 1910); Th« CaiMie CkunA and
Labour in Catholic Truth Soeiehl FampAbU (London, 1908): Tha
Popt and th* PtopU (N«w Yon, 1909); Tusmamn, Le dimoppt-
mtni du oathclintnu tocial depuit roMydigiM Binmt thtvum
n>uis, 1909): Wnawt («d.), Svnaied LAmt tmd IM Trudt
Bwd» Ati (London. 1911).

LssuB A. St. h. Ton.
W. E. Camfbsll.

Socialistic Communities.— This title oompie-
hends those societies which maintain common owner-
ship of the means of production and distribution,
e. g., land, factories, and stores, and also those which
further extend the practice of cotnmon ownerahip
to consumable goods, e. g., houses and food. While
the majority of the groups treated in the present
article are, strictly spiking, communistic rather than
socialistic, they are frequently designated by the
latter term. The most important of them have
already been described under Communism. Below
a more nearly complete list is given, together with
brief notices of those societies that have not been
discussed in the formw articles. At the time of the
Protestant Reformation certain socialistic experi-
ments were made by several heretical sects, including
the Anabaptists, the Libertines, and the Famitists;
but these sects did not convert their beUefs along this
line into practice with sufficient thoroughness or for
a sufficient length of time to give their attempts any
considerable value or interest (see Kautsky, "Com-
munism in Central Europe at the Time of the Ref-
ormation", London, 1897).

The Labadists, a religious sect with communistic
features, founded a community in Westphaha, in
1672, under the leadership of Jean de la' Badie, an
apostate priest. A few years later about one hundred
members of the sect established a colony in Northern
Maryland, but within half a century both communi-
ties ceased to exist.

The Ephrata (Pennsylvania) Community was
founded in 1732, and contained at one time 300 mem-
bers, but in 1900 numbered only 17.

The Shakers adopted a socialistic form of or-
ganiBation at WatervUet, New York, in 1776. At
their most prosperous period their various societies
comprised about 5000 penons; to-day (1911) th^
do not exceed 1000.

The Harmonists, or Rappiste, were established in
Pennsylvania in 1806. Their maximum membership
was 1000; m 1900 they numbered 9. Connected with
this society is the Bethel Commuidty, which was
founded (1844) in Missouri by a group which in*
eluded some seceders from Harmony. In 1855 the
Bethel leader, Dr. Keil, organized another community
at Aurora, Oregon. The combined membership
of the two settlements never exceeded 1000 pereons.
Bethel dissolved m 1880 and Aurora in 1881.

The Separatists of Zoar (Ohio) were organised
as a socialistic community in 1818, and dissolved in
18%. At one time they had 500 memb^.

The New Harmony Community, the greatest at-
tempt ever made in this form of social organisation,
was founded in Indiana in 1824 by Robert Owen.
Its maximum number of members was 900 and its
length of life two years. Eighteen other communi-
ties fonned by saieders from the New Hannoinr
society were about equally short-lived. Other sociaf-
istic settlements that owed th«r foundation to the
teachings of Owen were set up at Yellow Springs,
Ohio; Nashoba, Tennessee (oompoeed mostly of
negroes) ; Haveretraw, New York; and Kendal,
Onaon. None of them lasted more than two years.

Tne Hopedale (Massachusetts) Community was
(^anized in 1842 by the Rev. Adin Ballou; it nevo-
had more than 176 members, and it came to an end
inlS57.

The Brook Fum ^assuhusetts) OommunHy was
srtiblished in 1842 hy the IVansoendentidiBt group

of scholars and writmi. In 1844 if^was converted
mto a Fouriwist i^ialsnx: this, however, was din
solved in 1846.

Of the Fonrieristte phalanges two had a very twisf
existenoe in Prance, and about thirty were organised
in the United States between 1840 and 1860. Their
aggregate membership was about 4600, and tlieir
longevity varied from a few months to twdve years.
Aside fmn the one at Brook Farm, the most note*
worthy were: the North American phalanx, founded
in 1843 in New Jersey under the direction ot Qreeley,
Brisbane, Channing, and other g^ted men, and dis-
solved in 1855; the Wisconsin, or Creeoo, phalanx,
organised in 1844, and dispersed in 1860; and the
Sylvania Association of Pennsylvania, which has the
distinction of being the earliest Fourieristic expeii*
ment in the United States, though it lasted only
ei^teen months.

The Oneida (New York) Community, the mem-
bers of whieh called themselves Perfectionists because
they believed that all who followed their way of life
comd become perfect, became a communistic or^
ganisation in 1848, and was converted into a join^
stock corporation in 1881. Its largest number of
members was 300.

The first loarian community was set up in Texas
in 1848, and the last came to an ^d in 1895 in Iowa.
Their most prosperous settlement, at Nauvoo, num-
bered more than 500 souls.

The Amana Commupito was organised on social-
istic lines in 1843 near Buffalo, New Yoik, but moved
to Amana, Iowa, in 1846. It is Uie one oommunistio
settlement that has increased steadily, though not
rapidly, in wealth and numbers. Its members rightly
attribute this fact to its religious character .and
motive. The oommunity enooraoee alxnit 1800
persons.

A unique oommunity is the Woman's Common-
wealth, established about 1875 near Belton, Texas,
and transferred to Mount Pleasant, D. C.^ in 1898.
It was organized by women who from motives of re-
ligion and conscience had separated themselves from
their husbands. As the members number less than
thirty and are mostly those who instituted ttte com-
munity more than thirty-five years ago, the tfxpea-
ment cannot last many years longer.

The most important of recently fotmded com-
munities was the Ruskin Co-opOTative Colony, or-
ganised in 1894 in Tennessee by J. A. Wayland,
edibn- of the sociaUst paper, "The Coming Nation".
While the capital of the commxmity was coUeotively
owned, ita products were distributed amtnig tiie
members in the form of wages. Owing to dissen-
sions and withdrawals, the colony was reorganised
on a new site in 1896, but it also was soon diraolved.
About 250 <tf the oolonists moved to Geonna, and set
up another oommunity, but this in a few years
ceased to exist.

A number of other oommunitiee have been formed
within recent years, most of which permit private
ownership of consumption-goods and private family
life. As none of them has become strong eitho- in
numbers or in wealth, and as all of them seem des-
tined to an early deathjthey wilt receive only the
brirfest mention here. Those worthy of any notice
are: The Christian Commonwealth of Georgia, or-
ganized in 1896, and dissolved in 1900; the Go-
operative Brotherhood, of Hurley, Washington: the
Straight Edge Industrie Settlement, of New Yoric
Oty; the Home Colony in the State of Washington,
which has the distinction of being the only anarohist
colony; the Mutual Home Anociation, located in Uie
same state; the Topolambo Colo^ in Mexico, whidi
lasted but a few months; and the fWhope (Alabama)
ESnf^Tax Corporation^ whidi has had a fair measura
of success, but whidi is neither soeiaUstio nor con^
munistic m tiie proper sense. ^-^ i

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socnniB

Bflriewing the history of socuUktie experimeatSL
we perceive that onlv those that were avowecUy ana
stroQgly religious, adoiitLng a aociaUstio organisaticm
as incidental to their religious purposes, have
achieved even temporary and partial success. Prao-
tiof^y spealdng, only two of these religious com-
munities remain; of these the Shakers are growing
steadily weaker, while the Amana Society is almost
Btatitmaty, ana, besidoi, is obliged to oarry on
some of Its iodustties with the aid of outside hirod
labor.

See bibliofcraphy under ComnrNisu. Hiwuir, Hittorv of
SoeuUiim in the UniUd StaUt (New York, 1903); Kent in
Bulletin No. SB of Ihe Department of Labor; Maixock, A Cantwrn
ofSoevalitticExoerimenUla TheDubiin Rnieu, July, 190B; Wolff,
SockUittie Commimim in th* United JSIate* in Tht American Catho~
Ue QvarieHjf Reiina, III (Fliiladdphia, 187S), 522; SocialiM Odlony
in Ir<»i»ini>ii&Kn Acmw, CXIV (London, 1894), 180.

John A. Rtah.

Sodetiw, Catbolic. — Catholic societies are very
numerous throughout the world; some are inter-
national in scope, some are national; some diocesan
and o^ers parochial. These are treated in particu-
lar under their respective titles throughout the En-
cyclopedia, or else under the countries or the dioceses
in which they exist. This article is concerned only
with Catholic societies in general. The right of asso-
ciation is one of Uie natural ri^^ts ol man. It is not
surjnising, therefore, tiiat frran earliest antiquity
societies of the most diverse kinds should have been
fonned. In pagan Rome the Church was able to
carry on its work and elude the persecuting laws,
only under the guise of a private corporation or so-
ciety. When it became free it encouraged the associ-
aticm of its children in various guilds and fraternities,
that (hey might more easily, while remaining subject
to the general supervision <A ecclesiastical authority,
obtun some special good for their souls or bodies or
both simultaneouslv. By a society we understand
the vohintuy and durable association of a number Of
persons who pledge themselves to work tc^ther to
obtain some special end. Of such societies there is a
great variety in the Church both for laymen and
clerics, the most perfect species of the latter beixig the
regular orders and religious congr^ations bound by
p«petual vows. As to societies of laymen, we may
oistmguish broadly three dasses: (a) confraternities,
which are associations of the faithful oanonically
erected hy the proper ecclesiastical superior to pro-
mote a Christian method of life by specif works of
piety towards God, e. g. the splendour of divine wor-
ship, or towards one's neighbour, e. g. the spiritual
or coqioral works of mercy (see CoNFRATiatNlTT) ;
(b) pious associations, whose objects are generally
the same as those of confraternities, but which are not
canonical^ erected (see Associations, Pious); and
(e) societies whose membos are Catholics, but
whidi are not in the s^ct sense <^ the word religious
societies. Some of these associations are ecclesiasti-
cal corporations in the strict acceptation of the term,
while others are merely subordinate and dependwt
parts of the parish or diocesan organization, or only
remotely connected with it. Church corporations,
inasmuch as tiiey are moral or Wal persons, have the
right, according to canon law, « making by-laws for
their association by the suffrage of the members, of
electing their own ofHcers, of controlling their prop-
erty within the limits of the canons, and of makii^
provisioUj according to their own judgment, for their
preservation and nwth. They have, consequently,
certain defined ri^ts, both original or thoee derived
from' their constitution, and adveaititious or what
they have acquired by privilege or concession.
Among (niginal rights of all ecclesiastical corporations
are the right of exclusion or the expelling <tf members;
of selection or the adoption of new members; (tf con-
Tetttion or meeting (or debate and counsel; <» assist-
amoe w aiding their asaociatos vnbo suffer mm a

0 boghths

tim kA ttwir eorpmate r^ts. Soeieties of nature
have an existence independent oS the individual mem-
bers and can be dissolved only by ecclesiastical de-
cree. Catholic societies which are not dhurch cor-
porations may be founded and dissolved at the will of
their members. Sometimes they are approved, or
technically praised, by ecclesiastical authority, but
they are also frequently formed without any interven-
tion £i the hierait^. In geueral, it may be said that
Catholic societieB ca any description are very desir-
able, t

The Church has always watched with singular care
over tJie various organizations formed by the faithful
for the promotion of any good work, and the popes
have enriched them with indulgences. No hard and
fast rules have be^ made, however, as to the method
of government. Some societies, e. g. the Propaga-
tion of the Futh and the Holy Childhood, are gen-
eral in their scope; otiwrs; e. g. the Church Extensron
Society of the United States, are peculiar to one
countiV. It sometimes happ^s that an association
formed, for one country penetrates into another, e. g.
the Piueverein, the Society of Christian Mothers, etc.
There are also societies instituted to provide for some
special need, as an altar or tabernacle society, or for
tne furthering of some special devotion, as uie Holy
Name Society. For societies which are general ia
Uieir scope, the Holy See frequently appomfs a car-
dinal protector and reserves the choice of the pren-
dent to itself. This is likewise done as a mark of
special favour to some societies which are only na-
tional, as the Church Extension Society of the United
States (Brief of Pius X, 9 June, 1010). In general, it
may be affirmed that it is the special duty of the
bi£uop and the parish priest to found or promote such
societies as the futhful of Uieir districts ma^ be in
need td. Utility and necessity often vary with the
circumstances of time and countrjy. In some lands it
has been found possible and advuablefortheCSiurch
authOTities to form Catholic societies of workingmen.
These are trades-unions under ecclesiastical auspices
and recall the old Catholic guilds of the Middle Ag[es.
Zealous bishops and priests nave made the promotion
of such societies, as in G^many and BeMum, a
special work, in the hope of preventing Catholic
workingmen irom being allured by temporal gain into
atheistic societies in which the foundations of civil and
religious institutions are attacked. In these unions a
priest appointed by the bishop gives religious instruc-
tions wnich are particularly directed af^tinst the im-
pious arguments of those who seek to destroy the
morab and faith of the workingman. Methods are
pointed out for regulating the family life according
to tlw laws of God: temperance, frugahty, and submis-
siiHi to lawful authority are ui^^, and irequentation

the sacram^tB insisted on. These unions also pro-
vide innocent amusements for their members. Such
societies at times add confraternity and sodality fea-
tures to their organisation.

There are a number of societies formed by Cat&i^cs
which are not in a strict sense Catholic societies.
Nevertheless, as the individual faithful are subject
to the authority of the bishop they remain subject to
tiie s^e authority even as members of an organise
tion. It is true that the bishop may not, in conse-
quence of his ecclesiastical jurisdiction, rule such
societies in the same sense as he does confrat^itiee
and pious associations, yet he retains the inalienable
rigiit and even the obl^^ation of preventing the fai^-
ful from being led into spiritual ruin throi^ societies
erf whatsoever name or purpose. He can, therefore,
if convinced that an organization is harmful, forbid it
to assist at church services in its regalia, and, when no
emendation results, warn individuals against entering
it or remaining members of it. Finally, there are so-
cieties which are eutirQly secular, whose sok purpose
is to promote or obtwa 0Qin9 owungiviali d<HneBtiCf

Digitized by VjOOglC

800IITIIS'

or political advantage, such as the ordinary 1^^e»-
unions. In Eoich organisations men of every variety
<tf rdigious belief combine together, and many Catho-
lics an found among the monbwe. Tha« can be no
objection to mch Bocietiee aa long as the end intended
and the means employed are licit and honourable.
It r^nains, however, tite duty of the bie^ops to see
that members of their flock suffer no diminution of
faith or contamination of morals from such organiza-
tions. Experience has proved that secular societies,
while perfectly unobjectionable in their avowed ends,
may cause crave spiritual dangor to theur members.
Biuiops and parish priests can not be blamed, there-
fore, if they display some anxiety as to membership
in societies which are not avowedly Catholic. If they
did otherwise, they would be false to their duly to-
wvds their nock. It may be well to quote here the
weighty words of an Instruction of tte Holy Office
(10 May, 1884); "Concerning artisans and labourers,
among whom various societies are,especiaUy deeiroue
of 8eenriI^; members that Uiey inay oeatn^ the very
foundatknu of religion and society, let the bishops
place before their eyes the ancient guilds of working-
men, which, xinder the protection of some patron
saint, were an ornament of the commonwealth and an
aid to the higher and lower arts. The^ will again
found such societies for men of commercial and liter-
xcy pursuits, in which the exercises of religion will go
hand in hand with the benevolent aims that seek to
assuage the ills irf sickness, age, or poverty. Tliose
who preside over such societies should see that the
members commend themselves by tfae>probity of thdr
mcffals, the excellence of their work, tne do^ty and
assiduity of their labours, so that they may more
securely provide for their sustenance. Let the bi^opa
themselves not refuse to watch over such societies, sug-
gest or approve by-laws, conciliate employers, ana give
every assistance and patronage that lie in theirpower."

There are many societies (tf Cathc^cs or societies
of which Catholics are members that employ methods
which seem imitations derived from vanous organisa-
tions prohibited by the Church. It may be well,
therefore, to state that no Catholic is allowed, as a
member of any society whatever, to take an oath of
blind and unlimited obedience; or promise secrecy of
such a nature that, if circumstances require it, he
may not reveal certain thin^ to the lawful ecclesiasti-
cal or civil authorities; or join in a ritual which would
be equivalent to sectarian wordiip (see Socibttbs,
Sbchet). Even when a societv is founded by Cath-
Ucs or is constituted principally of Catholics, it is
possible for it to degcoierate into a harmful organi-
sation and call for the intervention of the authoritv
al the Church. Such was the fate of the once bril-
liant and meritorious French society "Le Sillon",
which was condemned by Pius X (25 Aug., 1910).
It is often expedient for Catholic societies to be in-
oorporated by the civil authority as private corpora-
tions. In fact, this is necessary if they wish to possess
property or receive bequests in their own name. In
some countries, as Russia, such incorporation is
almost impossible; in others, as Germany and France,
tJbe Government makes many restrictions; but in
Englifdi-speaking countries there is no difficulty. In
England societies may be incorporated not only by
qxttial legal act. but also by common law or by pre-
scription. In tne United States a body corporate
may be formed only by following the plan proposed
by a law of Congress or a statute of a state legisla-
ture. The procure varies sli^tly in different
states, but as a rule incorporation is effected by filing
a pa]>er in the office (rf the secretary of state or with a
circuit judge, stating the object and methods of the
society. 'Iliree incorporators are sufficient, and the
petition will always be granted if tlie purposes
of the association are not inconsistent with the laws of
the United States oc of the particular state m queatim.

I soomn

Lacbcntios, /njtkMituMiM ^tim eedMiaatiei (PrIboWL UOQl

Wkrmb, Jut decntalium. III (Rome, 1901); Aicbneb, CompM*
dium jurit aecUnastici (Brixen, J896): Bebinqeb, DU AbUiut
(13th «d., Paderbom, 1»11; French tr.. 1905); Tatlob, Th9 Lmm
of trivaU CorvoratuMt (New York, 1902} ; Hmmdbook af OUMie
CharUabUiMdSoeM WaHu (London, ItfUj.

WiixzAH H, W. Fanning.

Societiea, Cathouc, Ahbkican Feobration op,
an or^auixation of the Catholic laity, parishes, and
societies under the guidance of the nierarc^, to
protect and advance their religious, civil, and swual
mterests. It does not destroy the autonomy of any
society or interfere witii its activities, but sedcs to
unite all of them for purposes of co-operation and
economy of forces. It is not a political organization,
neither does it^ask any pffivileges or favours for Cath-
olics. The principal object of the Federation is to
encourage (1) the Christian education of youth; (2)
the correction of error and exposure of falsehood and
injustice;. the destruction of bi^try; the placing of
Catholics and the Church in their true light, thus re-
moving the obstacles that have hitherto impeded their
progress; (3) the infusion of Christian principles into
public and social life, by combatting the errors threat-
ening to undermine the foundations of civil society,
notably socialism, divorce, dishonesty in business, ana
corruption in politics and positions of public trust.
The nrst oi^anisation to inaugurate the movement
for a concerted action of the societies Catholic
laym^ was the Knights of St. J<^. At their annual
meeting held at Cleveland in 1899 th^ resolved to
unite the efforts of their local conunanderies. In 1900
at Philadelphia they discussed the question of a fed-
eration of all the Catholic societies. As a result a
conv^tion was held on 10 Dec., 1901, at Cincinnati,
under the presidency of Mr. H. J. Fries. Two hun-
dred and fifty delenites were present under the guid-
ance of Bishop McFaul of Trenton, Bishop Meesmer of
Green Bay; now Archbishop of Milwaukee, the prind-

gal factors in the organization of the movement, Arch-
ishop Elder of Cmcinnati, Bishop Hoistmann (A
Cleveland, and Bishop Maes of Covingtcoi. A char-
ter bond was framed and the Federation formally
established, with Mr. T. B. Mimdian as its first presi-
dent. Since then annual conventions have been
hdd. The Fedraation represents close to two millicHi
Catholics. It has been approved by Popes Leo XIII
and Pius X, and practiculy all the hierarchy of the
country. The fruits of the labours of the organiM-
tion have been manifold; among other things it has
helped to obtain a fair settlement of the disputes con-
cerning the church property in the Philippines, per-
mission for the celebration of Mass in the navy-yards,
rnisons, reform schools; assistance for the Catholio
Indian schools and negro missioiis; the withdrawal
and prohibition of indecent pl^ tutd postcards. It
has prevented the enaotmoit of laws inimical to
Catholic interests in several state legislatures. One
of its chief wcffks has been the uniting of the Catholics
of differrat nationalities, and harmonizing their
efforts for self-protection and improvement. It pub-
lishes a monthly Bulletin, which cpntains valuable
social studies. The national secretary is Mr. Anthony
Matr€, Victoria Building, St. Louis, Missouri.

MATRii, Hitl. of lA» Fedtr. o/ Calk, Soc in The Catholic Column
Wan (ColuinbuB, Ohio, 18 Auc., 1911); McPaol, TIu Amir. Ptder.
o/ Caih. Soe. (CineinnBtJ, 1911).

A. A. MacBrlban.

SoctotiW) Skcbiit, a designation of which the exact
meaning has varied at different .times. I. Dbpini-
TioN. — '"'By a Mcret society was formerly meant a
society wjiioh was known to exist, but whose members
and places of meetmgs were not public^ known.
To-day, we imdo-stand by a secret society, a society
with secrets, having a ritual demanding an oath ot
aU^iance and aBCteey, prescribing ceremonies of a
rdieioUB cduracter,, auQh.aa tJiB una <tf the Bible» cither

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ht extracts therefrom, or by its being placed on an
altar within a todge-rOom, by the use m prayers, of
hymns, of religious signs and symbols, special funeral
services, etc.'' (Rosen, "The Catholic Church and
Secret Societies", p. 2). Raich gives a more elabo-
rate description: "Secret societies are those organisar
tions which completely conceal their rules, corporate
activity, the names of their members, their signs, pass-
words and usages from outsiders or the 'profane'.
As a rule, the members of these societies are bound to
the strictest secrecy concerning all the business of the
association by oath or promise or word of honour, and
often under tne threat of severe punishment in case of
its violation. If such secret society has higher and
lower dMjrees, the members of the higher degree must
be equalor c^^ul to conceal their secrets from their
brethren of a lower degree. Zn certain secret societies,
the members are not allowed to know even the names
of their highest o£Bcers. Secret societies were
founded to promote certain ideal lums, to be obtained
not by violent but by moral measures. By this, they
are £stin£ushed from oonspuseies and secret plota
which are formed to attain a particular object through
violet means. Secret societies may be reli^ous,
soientifio, political or social" (Kircnenlex., V, p.
519). Narrowing the definition still more to the
tei^nical meaning of secret societies {aoaetaies dan-
destifus) in ecclee^stical docimients, Archbishop Kat-
ser in a Pastoral (20 Jan., 1895) savs: ''The Catholic
Church has declared that she consiaers those societies
illicit and forlndden iriiioh (1) unite their members
for the purpose of conspiring against the State or
Church; (2) draumd the observance of secrecy to such
an extent that it must be maintained even before the
rightful ecclesiastical authority; (3) exact an oath
from their members or a promise of blind and abso-
lute obedience; (4) make use of a ritual and cere-
monies that constitute them sects. "

n. Obioin. — ^Though seeret Bocietaes, in the mod-
em and technical sense, did not exist in antiquity, yet
thexe were various organizations which boasted an
esot^ic doctrine known only to their members, and
carefully concftaled from the profane. Some date
societies of this kind back to Pythagoras (582-507
B. c). The Eleusinian Mysteries, the secret teach-
ings of Egyptian and Druid hierarchies, the esoteric
doctrines of the Magian and Mithraic worshippm
fumidwd material for auch secret organisations. In
Chrirtian times, such heresies as the Gnostic and
Mantcluean ^so claimed to possess a knowledge
known only to 'the illuminated and not to be shared
with the vulgar. Likewise, the enemies of the
religious order of Knights Templars maintained that
theorothers of the Temple, whUe externally professing
Christianity, were in reality pagans who veiled their
iinpiety under orthodox terms to which an entirely
different meaning was givm by the initiated. Ori^
inally, the various ^ilds of the Middle Ages were m
no sense secret societies in t^ie modem acceptation of
the term, tltoug^ some have supposed that symbolic
Freemasonry was gradually develoiied in those or-
ganizations. The fantastic Rosicruciana ore credited
with something of the natture of a modem secret so-
ciety; but the association, if such it was, can scarcely
be said to have emerged into the clear light of histoty.

III. MoDBBN Obganizations. — Secret societies in
the true sense began with symbolic Freemasonry
f^ut the year 1717 in Ijondon (see Masonrt). This
V^^read oath-bound association soon became the
pxunfdar or the parent of numerous other fraternities,
nearly all of which have some connexion with Free-
masonry, and in almost every instance were founded
by Masons. Among these may be mentioned the
lUuminati, the Carbonari, the Odd-Fellows, the
Ejiights m Pythias, the Qobb of Temperance and
mauSar sooeties whose numbo- js k^n. Based on
tiie mne ivineii^ as the secret otaat \o which they

2 80011X118

are affiliated are the women-auxiliary lodges, d
which almost every secret society has at least one.
These secret societies for women have also their
rituals, their oaths, and their d^prees. Institutions of
learning are also ioiected with the glamour of secretory
ganizationsand the "Eleusis"of Chi Omega (Fayette
ville, Ark.) of 1 June, 1900, states that there are twenty-
four Gredc letter societies with seven hundred and
sixty-eight branches for male students, and eight sim-
ilar societies with one hundred and twenty branches for
female students, and a total membership of 142,456 in
the higher institutions of learning in the United States.

IV. ArnTDDB OF Ecclbbiastical Authobitibb. —
The judgment of the Church on secret oath-bound
associations has been made abundantly clear by papal
documents. Freemasonry was condemned by Clem-
ent XII in a Constitution^ dat«d 28 April, 1738. The
pope insists on the objectionable character of societies
that commit men of all or no religion to a system of
mere natural righteousness, that seek their end by
tn^ding thdr votaries to secret pacts by strict oaths,
often under penalties of the severest character, and
that plot against the tranquillity of the State. Ben-
edict JCIV renewed the condemnation of his predeces-
sor on 18 May, 1761. The C^^bonari were declared
a prohibited society by Pius VII in a O>nstitution
dated 13 Sept., 1821, and he made it manifest that
oiganizations similar to Freemasonry involve an
equal condemnation. The Apostolic Constitution
"Quo Graviora" erf Leo XII (18 March, 1825) put
twetbw the acts and decrees <tf former pontiffs on the
subject of secret societies and ratified and confirmed
them. The dangerous character and tendencies of
secret organizations among students did not escape
the vigilance of the Holy See, and Pius VIII (24 Ma/,
1829) raised his warning voice oonceming those in
colleges and academies, as his predecessor, Leo XII,
had done in the matter of universities. The suc-
ceeding popes, Gr^ry XVI (15 Aug., 1832) and
Pius IX {9 Nov., 1846; 20 Apr., 1849; 9 Dec., 1864;
8 Dec., 1864; 25 Sept., 1865), continued to warn the
faithful against secret societies and to renew the ban
of the Church on their designs and members. On
20 Apr., 1884, appeared the famous Encyclical of
Leo XlII, "Humanum Genus". In it the pontiff
says: "As soon as the constitution and spirit of the
masonic sect were clearly discovered by numif est signs
of its action, by cases investigated, the publication
of its laws and of its rites and commentaries, with the
addition often of the personal testimony of those who
were in the secret, the Apostolic See denounced the
sect of the Freemasons and publicly declared its con-
'stitution, as contrary to law and right, to be pemi<
cious no less to Christend(Hn than to the State; and it
forbade anyone to enter the society, under the penal-
ties which the Church is wont to inflict upon excep-
tionally guilty persons. The sectaries, indignant at
this, thinking to elude or to weaken the force of these
decrees, partly by contempt of tJiem and partly by
calumny, accused the Sovereign Pontiffs who had
uttered tnem, either of exceeding the bounds of mod-
eration or of decreeing what was not just. This was
the manner in which they endeavoured to elude the
authority and weight of the Apostolic Constitutions
of Clement XII and Benedict XIV, as well as of
Pius VIII and Pius IX. Yet in the veiy society itself,
there were found men who unwillingly acknowledgea
that the Roman Pontiffs had acted within their runt,
according to the Catholic doctrine and discipune.
The pontiffs received the same assent, and in strong
terms, from many princes and heads of governments,
who made it their business either to delate the
masonic society to the Holy See, or of their own accord
by q>ecial enactments to brand it as pernicious, as for
example in Holland, Austria, Switserland, Spain,
Bavaria, Savoy and other parte of Italy. But, what
is pf the hi||wst iptpc^tfuipef tlie 90urae of ^voit^ ^

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soomns

demonstrated the prudence of our predeceeson".
Leo XIIZ makes it clear that it is not only the society
explicitly called Masonic Uiat is objectionable: "Thve
are several o^anised bodies which, thou^ Uiey differ
in name, in ceremonial, in form aiui ori^, are never-
theless ao bound togetaer by community of purpose
and by the similarity f>f their main opinions as to
make in fact one thing with the sect of the Free-
masons, which is a kind of centre whence they all go
forth and whither they all return. Now, these no
longer ^hovr a desire to remain concealed; for they hold
their meetings in the daylight and before the public
eye, and pubush their own newspaper omiu ; and yet,
wlusn thoroughly understood, they are round stiU to
retain the nature and the habits of secret societies."
The pope is not unmindful of the professed benevo-
lent aims of these societies: "They speak of their seal
for a more cultured refinement and of their love of
the poor; and they declare their one wish to be the
amelioration of the condition of the masses, and to
share with the largest possible number all the benefits
of civil life. Even were these purposes aimed at in
real truth, yet they are by no means the wbole at their
object. Moreovo-, to be enrolled, it is neeeseary that
candidates promise and undertake to be thencefor-
ward strictly obedient to their leaders and masters
with the utmost submission and fidelity, and to be in
re^iness to do their bidding upon the slightest expres-
sion of their will. " The pontiff then points out the
dire oonsequencee which result from the fact that these
societiee sstMtitute Naturalunn for the Chiuch o(
Christ and inculcate, at the very least, indifferentism
in matters oi religion. Other papal utterances on
secret societies are: "Ad Apostolici", 15 Oct., 1800;
"Prseehu^", 20 June, 1804; "Annum Ingressi", 18
Mar., 1902.

V. The Socibtibs Fobbidden. — ^The extension of
the decrees of the Apostolic See in regard to societies
Utherto forbidden under censure is summed up in
the weU-known Constitution "ApostoUcffi Sedis^' of
Pius DC, where excommunication is pronounced
against those "who ^ve their names to the sect of the
Masons or Carbonari or any other sects of the same
nature, which conspire against the Church or lawfully
constitutea Govsmpients, either openly or oovertly,
as well as those vrm favor in any manner these sects
or who do not denounce their leaders and chiefs".
The oondemnea societies here described are assod*-
ttons formed to antagonise the Church or the lawful
civil power. A society to be of the same kind as the
Masonic, must also be a secret organization. It is of
no consequence whether the society demand an oath
to observe its secrets or not. It is plain also that pub-
lic and avowed attacks on Church or State are quite
compatible with a secret organization. It must not
be supposed, howew, that only societiea which fall
directly under the fimnal censure of the Church are
prohibited. The Congr^tion of t^e Holy Office
issued an instruction on 10 May. 1884, in which it
says: "That there may be no possibility of error when
there is question of judging miich of these pernicious
societies fall under censure or mere prohibition, it is
certain, in the first place, that the Masonic and other
sects of the same nature are excommunicated, whether
they exact or do not exact an oath from tlushr men^
ben to observe secrecy. Besides these, there are
other prohibited societies, to be avoided under grave
sin. among which are especially to be noted those
which, under oath, communicate a secret to their
members to be concealed from everybody else, and
which demand absolute obedience to unknown lead-
as". To the secret societies condemned by name,
the Congregation of the Holy Office, on 20 Aug., 1804.
in a Demee addressed to the hierarchy of the United
States, added the Odd-Fellows, the Sons of TenH
pmnce, and the fijiights of Fyuiias.

VI. lbK»HTLTCf»n)BioaDSociniu.~ The<»der

of Odd-FeDowB was formed in England in 1812 as a
completed oi^anisation, though some lodges date back
to 1746: and it was introduced into America in 1819.
In the ''Odd-Fellows' Improved F&cket Manual" the
author writes: "Our institution has iuBtinotiTely^ as it
were, copied after all secret associations of religious
and moral character". The "North-West Odd-Fcl-
low Review" (May, 1805) declares: "No home can be
an ideal one unless the princq)lee of our good and
glorious Order are represented therein, and its teach-
ings made the rule of life". In the "New Odd-Fel-
lows' Manual" (N. Y., 1805) the author says: "The
written as well as the unwritten secret work of the
Order, I have sacredly kept unrevealed", though the
book IS dedicated "to all inquirers who desire to know
what Odd-Fellowship reaUy is". This book tells US
"Odd-Fellowship was founded on great religious prin-
ciples" (p. 348); "we use forms ofworship" (p. 364);
"Judaism, Christianity, Mohammedanian reoofimse
the only hving and true God" (p. 297). The Odd-
Fellows have chaplains, altars, nigh-priests, ritual,
<nder of worship, and fungal ceremonies. The order
of the Sons of Temperance was founded in New York
in 1842 and introduced into England in 1846. The
"Cyobpedia of Fraternities" says (p. 409): "The
Sons Of Temperance took the lead in England in
demonstrating the propriety and practicabihty of
both men and women mingling in secret society
lodges". That the object of this order and its ki^
dr^ societies is not confined to temperance "is evi-
denced by its mode of initiation, the form of the obli-
gation and the manner of religious worship" (Rosen,
p. 162). The order of the Kmghts of iVthias was
founded in 1864 by prominent freemasons (Cyclop,
of Fraternities, p. 263). In number, its membership
is second only to that of the Odd-Fellows. Rosen
(The -Catholic Church and Secret Societies) says:
"The principal objectionable features, on account ot
whidi the Catholic Church has forbidden its members
to join the Knights of Pythias, and demanded a with-
drawal of those who joined it, are: First, the oath of
secrecy by which the member binds himself to keep
secret whatever concerns the doings of the Order, even
from those in Church and State who have a right to
know, under certain conditions, what their subjects
are doing. Secondly, this oath binds the member to
blind obedienee, which is symbolised by a test. Qach
an obedience is against the law of man's nature, and
against all divine and human law. Thirdly, Christ is
not the teacher and model in the rule of life, but the
pagan Pythagoras and the pagans Damon, Pythias
Mid Dionysius" (p. 160). The "Ritual for the sub-
ordinate Lodges of the Knif^ts of Pythias" (Chicago^
1906) shows that this organization has oaths, degrees,

f relates, and a ritual that oontuns religious worship,
'he decree of the Holy Office concerning the Odd-
Fellows, Sons of Temperance, and Knights of Pythias,
though not declaring them to be oondemned under
censure, says: "The bishops must endeavour by all
means to keep the faithful from joining all and each
of the three aforesaid societies; and warn the faithful
against them, and if, after proper monition, they still
determine to be members of these societiee, or cio not
effectually^ separate themselves from them, they are
to be forbidden the reception of the sacraments." A
decree of IS Jan. , 1896, allows a nominal men^bo'ship in
these three societies, if in the judgment of the Apo^
tolic delegate, four conditions are fulfilled: that the
society was entered in good faith, that there be no
scandal, that grave temporal injury would result from
withdrawal, and that there be no danger of perver-
sion. The delegate, in granting a dispensation, usu-
ally requires a promise that the person will not attend
any meetings or frequent the lodge-rooms, that the
duee be sent in by mail or by a third party, fmd that in
case of death the society will have nothing to do with
the funeral, ^ i

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VII. Orders of Woubn.— In retard to female
secret societies, the Apostolic delegatioD at Washing-
ton, 2 Au^., 1907, declared (Ans. no. 15,352~C): "If
tbeae societieB are affiliated to societies already
nominal^ condemned by t^e CSiurch, they fall under
the same oondemnation, for they form, as it were, a
brandi of such societies. As regards other female
secret societies which may not be affiliated with socie-
ties condemned expressly oy the Church, the confessor
must, in cases of members beloi^ing to such societies,
i^ply the principlefi of moral theology which treat of
secret societies in general. " The document adds that
members of finale secret Boeieties affiliated to the
three societies condemned in 1894 will be dealt with
by the Apostolic del^^te in the same manner as male
members when the nec«Bary conditions are fulfilled.

VIII. Trades Unions.— The Third Council of
Baltimore (no. 253) declares: "We see no reason why
the prohibition of the Church against the Masonic
and other secret societies should be extended to organ-
isations of workingmen, which have no other <^iect
in view than mutual protection and aid for tneir
members in the practice ot their trades. Care must
be taken, however, that nothing be admitted under
any pretext which favors condemned societies; or
that the workingmen who belong to these organiza-
tions be induced, by the cunning arts of wicked men,
to withhold, contrary to the laws of justice, the labor
due from them, or m any other manner violate the

ts of their employers. Those associations are
entirely illicit, in which the members are so
bound for mutual defense that danger of riots and
murders is the outcome."

IX. Method op Condemnation. — Finally, in re-
gard to the condemnation of individual societies in
the United States, the council says (no. 255): "To
avoid confusion of discipline which ensues, to the
great scandal of the faithful and the detriment of
ecclesiastical authority, when the same society is
condemned in one dioi^se aad tolerated in anouier,
we desire that no society be condemned by name as
falling undo* one of the dasses [of forbidden societies]
bef(we the Ordinary has brought the matter before a
commission which we now constitute for judging such
cases, and which will consist of all the archbishops
of these provinces. If it be not plain to all that a
society is to be condemned, recourse must be had
to the Holy See in order that a definite judgmoit be
obtained and that imiform discipline may be pre-
served in these provinces".

Btbtmb. The CycUnx^ia of FreUemitiM (New York, 1907);
Cook, Reviatd KnighU of Pvthia* lUvttraitd — Ritual for Svb«rdi-
naU Loda*» of tk* Knighit of Pythia* Adopted bu the Suprtma
Lodge (Chiosco, 1900) ; Ide|I, Rented Odd-Fellovihip lUualrated —
The Compute Retieed Ritual (Chicago, 1906); Caknahan, Pylk-
ian Knighthood (CinoUuuti, 1888): F. i. L., The Order of the
KnigkU of Pythiae in Vnt Light of Ood't Word (Luthenui Tract)
(New Orieani, 1899); Dalluan. Odd-Fdiovi*hip Weighed —
Wanting (Pittdmrgh, 1906); Oerbbr, Der Odd-F^low Orden.
u. Dae Deertt torn ISff4 (Berlin. 1806); MacDili.and Blahcbabd,
Secret Soeietiei (Chicago, IS91); Daluiakn, Opinione on Secret
SodeUee {Pittsburgh, 1906); H. C. S., Two Dxteoureee Againtt
Secret (Mh-Bound Sodetiea or Lodge* (Columbus, O.. a. d.);
Kbluhki, College Secret Sodeliee (Chicago, 1894); Rosbn, The
Cathotie Church and Secret Soeietiee (Hollendale, Wis.. 1902);
Idbh, Reptji to my Critice of the Cath. Chweh and Secret Societiee
(Dnfawiue, 1908). See alw the ezteiuled bibliography appeztded
to article Masoirar.

WiLUAH H. W. Fanning.

Society implies fellowship, company, and has al-
ways been conceived as signifying a human relation,
and not a herding of sheep, a hiving of bees^ or a mat-
ing of wild animals. The accepted defimtion of a
Bociet)i| is a stable union of a pluralitv of persons co-
operating for a common piupose of benefit to all.
The fulness of co-opneration mvolved naturally ex-
tends to all the activities of the mind, will, and
extenud faculties, commensurate with the common
piupose and the bond of union: this alone presents
an ademiate, human woridn^together.

This defimtion is as old as the Schoolmoi, and em-

L S00IIT7

bodies the historical concept as definitixed by cogent
reasoning. Under such reasoning it has become the
essential idea <A society and rranains so still, not-
withstanding the perrernon <rf philosc^ihioal tenos
consequent upcm latw coofunon of man with beast,
stock, and stone. It is a priori only as far as chas-
tened by restrictions put upon it by the necessities of
known truth, and is a departure from the induetire
method in vx^e to-day only so far as to exclude
rigidly the aberrations of uncivilised tribes and do-,
generate races from the requirements of reason and
banc tiruth. Historical induction taken alone, while
inrestigatinfc efficient causes of society, may yet miss
itacoDontial idea, and is In peril of inducting iiraticmal
abuse with rational action and devdoinnent.

The first obvious requisite in all society is authority.
Without this there can be no seciu^ co-ordination of
effort nor permanency of oo-operation. No secure
co-ordination, for men's judgment will differ on the
relative value of metms for the common purpose, men's
choice will vary on means of like value; and unless
tiiare is srane neaddiip, confusion will result. No
pmnanenoe of oo-ttwratim, {m the best of mep relax
m thdr initial resolutions, and to hold them at a co-
ordinate task, a tight rein and a steady spur is needed.
In fact, reluctant though man is to surrender the
smallest tittle of independence imd submit in the
slightest his freedom to the bidding of another, there
never has been in the history of the world a successful,
nor even a smous attempt at co-operative effort with-
out authoritative guidance (see AtrrHOBtnr, Civn>).
Starting witii this definititm and requirement, philos-
ophy finds itself confronted with two kinds of society,
the artificial or conventional, and the natural; and on
pursuing the subject, finds the latter differentiating
itself into domestic society, or the family, civil society,
or the State, and reUgious society, or the Church.
Each of these has a special treatment under other
headings (see Family; State and Church). Here,
however, we shall state the philosophic basis of eadi,
and add thereto the theories which have had a vogue
for the last three centuries, thou^ breakiiw down
now under the strun of modem problems before the
bar of calm judgment.

Conventional Sociehbs. — The plurality of per-
sons, the commimity of aim, the stability of bond,
authority, and some co-opantion of effort beinc ele-
ments common to every form of society, the di^ren-
tiation must come from differences in the charactCT
of the purpose, in the nature of the bond. Q"^'^*?^
tions of authority as well as modifications in details
of requisite co-operation will follow on changes in the
purpose and the extent of the bond. As many, then,
as there are objects of hiunan desire attainable by
common effort (and their name is l^ion, from the
making of money, which is perils^ the commonest
tOHlay, to the rendering of pubhc worship to our
MalEer which is surely the most sacred), so manifold
are the co-operative associations of men. The chaN
actor, as well as the existence of most of them, is left
in full freedom to human choice. These may be de-
nominated conventional societies. Man is under no
precept to establish th-im, nor in universal need of
them. He makes or unmakes them at his pleasure.
They serve apassmg purpose, and m settuiK them up
men give them the exact ciiex&cter which th^ judge
at present suitable for their purpose, determining as
they see fit the limits of authority, the choice of means,
the extent of the bond holding them together, as well
as their own individual reservations. Everything
about such a society is of free election, barring the
fact that the essential requisites of a society must be
there. We find this type excmpUfied m a reading
circle, a business partneiwiq>, or a private charitabw
organisation. Of course, in establishing such asocoety
men are under the Natural Law of ri^t and wrong,
ai^ thm can be no moral bondy^ar example where

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the comxDon purpose is immoral. Thejr also fall un-
dvdie iBfltrictionaof the civil law, whan the eadstaioe
or action nidk an organiiation cranea to have a
bearing, whether promise or oi menace, upon the
common weal. In such case the State lays down its
easential requirements for the formation of such
bodies, and so we come to have what is known as a
legal society, a society, namely, freely estf^lished
under the sanction and according to the requirements
(rf the civil law. Such are mercantile corporations
and benefioial organisationa with civil charter.

Natuiul SoavinB.— Standing apart fnuB the
foregoing in a elaas by themselves are the family, the
State, and the Church. That these differ fnxn all
other societies in purpose and means, is clear and
universally admitted. That they have a general ap-
plication to the whole human race, history declares.
That there is a diff^nee between the bond holding
them in existmce and the bond of union in every other
society, baa been disputed — ^with more enthusiasm
and iinftpmftrinn, howevcT. than logical force. The
logical view of the matter brings us to the concept of
a natural society, a society, that is to say, which men
are in gmeral under a mandate of the natural law to
establish, a society by consequence whose essential
requisites are finmy fixed by the same natural law
To get at this is simple enouf^, if the philosophical
isoblflms are taken up in due order. Ethics may not
be divided from psycbtdofor and theodicy, any more
than from deductive loaic. With the proper pre-
misals then from one and the other here assiunedj we
lay tJbat the Creator could not have given man a fixed
nature, as He has, without willing man to work out
the purpose for which that nature is framed. He can-
not act idly and without purpose, cannot form His
creature discordantly with the purpose of His will.
He cannot multiply men on the face of the earth with-
out a plan for working out the destiny of mankind
at lai^. Tim plan must contain all the elonenta
neeeasary to His puipoae, and these neoeasaiy details
He must have willea man freely to accomplish, that
is to say, He must have put upon man a strict obliga-
tion thereunto. Other details may be alternatives,
or helpful but not necessary, and these He has left
to man's free choice; though where one of these ele-
ments would of its nature be far more helpful than
another, God's counsel to man will be in favour of the
frainer. God's will directing man through his nature
to his share in the full purpose the cosmic plan, we
kiMiw as the natural law, containing precept, permis-
■ton, and counsel, according to the necessity, help-
fulness, or extraordinary value of an action to the
achievement of the Divine purpose. We recognize
these in the concrete by a rational study (rf the essen-
tial characteristics of human nature and its relations
wiUi the rest at the univune. If we find a natural
antitude in man far an action, not at variance with
the general purpose of things, we recognize also the
licence of the natural law to that action. If we find
a more ui^ent natural propensity to it, we rec(^[nise
further the counsel of the bw. If we find the use of
a natural f actUty. the followii^ up of a natural pro-
pensity, inaeparaole frran the rauimal fulfilment ci
tiie ultimate deeUny ai the individual w <A the human
nee, we know that thereon lies a mandate of the
neural law, obliging the conscience oS man. We
must not, ^owever, miss the difference, that if the
need of the acticm or effort is for the individual natural
destiny, the mandate lies on each human being sever-
ally: but if the need be for ^e natural destiny of the
race, the precept does not descend to this or that par-
tinibr individual so long aa the neoessaiy bulk of
men accomptisb the detailso intended in the plan for
the natural destiny of the race. This is abstnet re^
Boning, but necessary for the understanding of a
natural socie^ in the fulness of its idea.

A Socnrr NArnuL bt Manda-ib.— A aoeiety,

then, is natural by mandate, when the law of nature
Bsts the weo^t upon mankind to establish that
society. Tbe precept is recognized by the natural
aptitude, {NTopensity, and need in men for the estab-
hshmmt of such a union. From this point of view
the gift of speech alone is sufficient to show man's
aptitude for fellowship with his kind. It is empha-
sised bv his manifold perfectibility through contact
with others and through their permanent companion-
ship. Furthermore his normal shrinking ftwn soU-
tude^ frtHn waiting out the problems ot life akow,
is endence of a social propensity to which mankind
has always jaelded. If again we consider his depen-
dence for existence and comfort on the multiplied
inxiducts of co-ordinate human effort; and his de-
pendence for the development of bis physical, intel-
lectual, and moral perfectibility on complex intercourse
with others, we see a need, in view of man's ultimate
destiny, th^t makes the actualization of man's ca^
paei^ of o^anized social oo-o])eration astrinesntlaw
upon mankmd. Taking then the kinds m social
organisation universally existent among men, it is
plain not only that they are the result of natural

Enqjeosities, but that, as analysis shows, they are a
uman need and henoe are prescribed in the code d
the Natural Law.

A SociBTT Natural in EssBNTiAii. — Further-
more, as we undttstand a l^;al contract to be one
which, because of its abutment on common interests,
the civil law hedges round with restrictions and reser-
vations for their protection, similarly on examination
we shall find that all agreements by which men enter
into stable social union are fenced m with limitations
set by the natural law guarding the essential interests
of the good of mankind. When, moreover, we come
to social unions prescribed for mankind by mandate
of that law, we expect to find the purpose of the union
set by the law (otherwise the law would not have pre-
scribed the union), all the details morally necessary
for the rational attainment of that purpose fixed by
the law, and all obstacles threatening sure defeat to
that purpose, proscribed by the same. A natural
society, then, besides being natural by mandate, will
also be natural in all its essentials, for as much as these
too shall be determined and ordained by the law.

Thb Family a Naturai. SpciEn. — Working alot^
these lines upon the data given by enierience, per-
sonal as well as through the proxy oi history, the
philosopher finds in man's nature, considered ph^o-
logically and psychologically, the aptitude, propensity,
and, both as s general thing and for mankind at large,
the need ot the matrimonial relation. Seeing tm
natural and needful purpose to which this relation
shapes itaelf to be in full the mutually perfecting com-
pensation of common life between man and woman,
as well as the procreation and education of the child,
and keeping in mind that Nature's Lawgiver has in
view the rational development of the race (or human
nature at large) as well as of the individual, we con-
clude not only to abiding rational love as its distin-
guishing characteristic, out to monogamy and a
stability that is exclusive of absolute divorce. This
gives us the eesential requisites of domestic society,
a stable uni<m of man and wife bound together to
work for a fixed common good to themselves sad
humanity. When this company is filled out with
childrra and its incidental complement of household
servants, we have domestic society in its fullness. It
is created under mandate of the natural law, for
thou^ this or that individual may s^ely eschew
matrunon^ for some good purpose, mankind may not.
The individual in exception need not be concerned
about the purpose of we Lawgiyer, as human nature
is so constituted that mankina will not fail of its ful-
filmemt. The efficient cause of this domestic union
in the concrete instance is the free ccmsent d the
initial ootq^ but the ohaneter of the4uridiGal bond

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Booorr

which they thus freely accept is detennined for tbem
by the natural law according to Nature's full purpose.
Husband and wife may see to their penMmal benefit
in choosing to establish a donjestic community, but
Uie intereBta of the child and of the future race are
B^^uarded by the law. The essential purpose of
this society we have stated above. The essential
requisite of authority takes on a divided character
of partaership, because of the separate funetkuui of
huHMUid and wife requiring authwity as well as call-
ing for harmonious ag^sement upon lietails of oommon
interest: but the headship of final decimon is put by
the law, as a matter of ordinary course, in the man,
as is shown by his natural characteristics marking
him for the pr^erenoe. The essential limitations
forbid plural marriage, raoenniioide, sexual excess,
unnecessary s^Huation, and absolute divorce.

Tbb State a. Natural Societt. — On the same
principle <tf human aptitude, propensity, and need for
'he individual and the race, we find the lai^w social
unit of civil society manifested to us as put of the
Oivine set purpose with regard to human nature, and
4X) under precept of the natural law. Again, ihe ex-
•leptional individual may take to solitude for some
imnobling purpose; but he is an exception, and the
bulk of muikmd will not hesitate to fulfil Nature's
redding and aooomplish Nature's puipose. In the ,
oonorete instance civil society, though morally in- '
oumbent on man to establish, still comes into existence
Inr the exercise of his free activity. We have seen
the same of domestic society, which begins by the
mutual free consent of man and woman to the accept-
ance of the bond involving all the natural rights and
duties of the permanent matrimonial relation. The
b^;inning of civil society as an historical fact has taken
on divers oolouis, far different at different times and

ftlaoes. It has arisen by peaceful expansion of a
andly into a widespread kmdred eventually linked
together in a civil union. It has q)rung from the
multiphcation of independent families in the coloniz-
ing of undevel<^>ed lands. It has come into being
under the strong hand of conquest enforcing law,
order, and civil organization, not always justly, upon
a people. There have been rare instances of its birth
through the tutwing efforts of the gentler type of
einlixers, ^o came to spread the Gospel. But the
hiridical origin is not obviously idoatical with this.
History alone exhibits only the manifold confluent
causes which moved men into an organised civil unit.
The juridical cause is qmte another matter. This is
the cause which of its character under the natural law
puts the actual moral bond of civil union upon the
manv in the concrete, imposes the concrete obu{|;ation
invwving all the rights, duties, and powers native to
a State, even as the mutuid oonsent ck ^ cwtracUng
paiiiea creates the mutual bond of initial domestic
society. This determinant has been under dispute
among Catholic teachers.

The common view of Scholastic philosophy, so ably
devdoped by Francis Suarez. S.J., sets it in the con-
sent Of the constituent members, whether given ex-
plicitly in the acceptance of a constitution, or tacitly
tqrBurauittmg to an cvganizatttm of another's making,
even if this oonsent be not ^ven by immediate sur-
render, but by gradual process of slow and often reluc-
tant acquiescence in the stability of a common union
for the essential civil purpose. In the early fifties of
the nineteenth century Luigi Taparelli, S.J ., borrow-
ing an idea from C. de Haller of Berne, brilliantly
developed a theory of the juridical origin of civil
govemmNit, which has dominated in the Italian
Ovlholic schools even to the present day, as well as
in CathoKo schools in Eurc^^ whose professm of
ethics have been of Italian training. In this theory
oivil society has grown into being from the natural
multiplication of cognate families, and the gradual
cstenaion ot parental poiver. The patriarohu Statt

is the primitive form, the normal type, tbou^ by
accidrat of circtUDStfuioe States may b^in here or
there from occupation of the same wide territray un-
der feudal ownership; by organization consequent
upon conquest; or in rarer instances by the common
oonsent of independent colonial freeholders. These
two CathoUc views part company fUso in declaring
the primitive juridical determinant of the concrete
subject of nmreme autiuvity (see Ajrvaosnrr, CmL).
TtMlay the Catholic sohods are divided between these
two positions. We shall subjoin below otho- theories
of the jtuidical origin of the State, which have no
place in Catholic thought for the simple reason that
they exclude the natural character of civil society and
throw to the winds the principles logically inseparable
from the existing natural law.
* With regard to the essential elements in civil so-
ciety fixed oy the natural law, it is fbst to be noted
that the normal unit is the family: tor not only has
the family come historicsUy before the common-
wealth, but the natural needs of man lead hihi first to
that aocial combination, in pursuit of a natural result
only to be obtained thereby; and it is logically oiniy
subsequent that the purpose of civil socie^ comes into
human life. Of course this does not mean that incU.-
viduals actually outade of ihe surrounding <^ family
life eamiot be constituent mfimbers of nvU aotax^
witii full dvie ri^ts and duties, but &ey are not the
primary unit; they are in the nature of things the ex-
ception, however numerous they may be, and beyond
the fainily limit of perfectibility it is in the interest of
complomentary development that civil activity is
exercised. The State cannot eliminate the family;
ndther can it rob it of its inaliemdile rights, nor bar
the fulfilment of its inseparable duties, though it may
restrict the exerdseef oerttun family activities so as to
co-mrdinate them to the benefit of the body politic.

Secondly, the natural object pursued by man in his
ultimate social activity is perfect temporal happiness,
the satisfacton, to wit, of his natural faculties to the
full power of tueir development within his capacity,
on his way, of course, to eternal felicity beyond earth.
Man's happiness cannot be handed over to him, or
thrust upon him by another here on earth; for his na-
ture mipposes that his posseanon of it, and so too in
iaige measure his achievement of it, shall be by the
exercise of his native faculties. Henoe, civil sodety
is destined by the natural law to give him his opportu-
nity, i. e. to ^ve it to all who share its citizenship.
This shows the proximate natural purpose of the
State to be: first, to establish and preserve social or-
der, a condition, namely, wherein every man, as far as
may be, is secured in the possesion and free exercise
of all his rights, natural and Iwd, and is held up to
the fnlfihnent en bis duties as mr as iiusy bear upon
the common weal; aeconclly. to put within reasonable
reach of all dtjiois a fair allowance of the means of
temporal happiness. This is what is known as external
peace and prosperity, prosperity^ being also denomi-
natod the relatively piarfect sufficiency of life. There
are misconceptions enough about the generic purpose
native to all civil society, De Haller thought that
there is none such; that oivil purposes are all rownfio,
peculiar to each specific "State. Kant limited it to
external peace. The Manchester School did the same,
leaving the dtizen to woric out his submstence and de-
velopment as best he may. The Evolutionist con-
sistently makes it the survival of the fittest, on the
way to developing a better type. The modem peril is
to treat the citizen merely as an industrial unit, mis-
taking national material progress for the goal of oivio
energy; orasamilitarTumt, lookingtoBelf-iUSBaTa-
tion as the nation's mst If not aoSy um. Ndther
material progress nor martial power, nor merely in-
tellectual civilization, can fill the reqpiirements of ex~
istipg and expandii^t human nature. The Stat«^
while proteoting a man's rights, murt_put him in the

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80CIITT i

ny <rf opportunity for derdoping his entire nature,
pfayncal, mental, aad moral.

Thirdly, the accompUduneut of this calls for an
authority which the Ijkwgiver of Nature, because he
has ordained this society, has put within the compe-
tency of the State, and which, because of its reach, ex-
tending as it does to life and death, to reluctant sub-
jects and to the posterity of its dtisenship, surpasses
the ct^)acity of its citizenship to create out m any
mere coorentional suiren^ of natural riphts. The
question of the origin of civil power and its ooncen-
tration in this or that subject is like the origin
society itself, a topic of dd>ate. Catholic philosc^hy
is agreed that it is conferred by Nature's Lawgiver
directly upon the social depositary thereof^ as par-
ental supremacy is upon the fatJiier of a family. But
the determination of the depoataiy is another matter.
The doctrine of Suarex makes the community itself
the depoatarv, immediatelj|^ and naturally consequent
upon its eetaolistmient of civil societjr, to be disposed
of then by th^ consent, overt or tadt, at once or by
degrees, according as th^ detmnine for themselves a
form of government. This is the only true philo-
sophical sense of the dictum that "governments de-
rive their just powers from the consent of the gov-
erned". The Taparelli school makes the primitive
determinant out of an existing prior right oi another
chM-acter, which passes naturally into this power.
Primitiv^y this is parental supremacy grown to pa^
triarchal oimensions and resultii]^ at the last in su-
preme civil power. Secondarily, it may arise from
other i^hts, i^owii^ natural aptitude preferentially
in one subject or another, as that of feudal ownership
of the territoiv of the^commimity , capacity to extricate
order out of chaos in moments of civic confusion, mili-
tary ability and success in case of just conquest, and,
finally, in remote instanoes by the consent of the
governed.

Finally, the means by which the commonwealtli will
work toward its ideal ooncUlion of the lai^est measure
of peace and prosperity attainable are embraced in
the just exercise, under direction of civil authority, of
the phyacat, mental, and moral activities of the mem-
bers of the conunumty: and here the field of human
endeavour is wide and expandve. However, the calls
upon the individual by the governmental power are
necessarily limited by uie soope <rf the natural purpose
of the State and by the inauenable prior r^ts and
inseparable duties conferred or imposed upcm the in<
dividual by tJie Natural Law.

RxuGiouB Society de facto a Supkhnatural So-
ciety.— If we analyze the moral development of man,
we find looming lai^e his obligation to worship his
Creator, not only privately, bUt publicly, not only as
an individual, but m social union. This opens up an-
other kind of society ordered by the natural law, to
wit, rdi^ous society. An examinataon of this in the
natural order and by force of reason ^cme would seem
to show that man, though morally obliged to socd^
worship, was morally free to establnh a parallel oi^an-
ization for such worship or to merge its fimctions
with those of the State, giving a oouble character
to the enlarged society, namely, civil and reUnous.
Historically, among those* who knew not Divine
revelati<m, men would mem to have been inclined
more to the latter; but not always eo. Of eoune, the
purpose and means of this r^vous social duty are so
related to those of a merely civil society that conmder-
able care would have to be exercised m adjustii^ the
bdance of intersecting ri^ts and duties, to define the
relative donuuns of religious and civil authority, and,
finally, to adjudicate supremacy in case of direct ap-
parent conflict. The development of all this has
been given an entirely different turn through the in-
tervention of the Creator in His creation by pontiTe
law revealed to man, changing the natural status into a
Id^ier cRUt dimiiiating mtuml Edwous sooetyi and

7 socniT

at the last establishing through the mission of our
Lord Jesus Christ an universal and unfailing retigioiu
society in the Churoh. This is a supematui^ re-
ligious society. (See Church.)

Non-Catholic Tbeobibs. — Thomas Hobbes, start-
ing from the assumption which Calvin had propagated
that human nature is itself p^erse and man essen-
tially inept for consorting with his fellows, made
the natural state of man to be one of universal and
continuous vnEirfare. This, of course, excludes the
Maker of man from having destined him originally to
society, since he would in Hobbes's view have given
him a nature exactly the reverse of a proportioned
means. Hobbes thought that he found in man such
selfish rivalry, weak cowardice, and greed of self-

f;lorification as to make him naturally prey upon his
ellows and subdue them, if he could, to his wanto,
making might to be the only source of ri^t. How-
ever, &idinp life intolerable (if not impos^ble) under
such conditions, he resorted to a social pact wiUi other
men for the establishment of peace, and, as that was a
prudent thing to do, man, adds Hobbes, was thus fol-
lowing the dictates of reason and in that sense the law
of nature. On this basis Hobbes could and did nu^e
civil authority consist in nothing more than the sum
of the phyncal might of the people massed in a
chosen centre of force. This theory was developed
in the "Leviathan" of Hobbes to account for the ex-
istence of civil authority and civil society, but its
author left his reader to i^ply the same pervoruty of
nature and exercise of phj^sical force for the taking of a
wife or wives and estaiblishjng domestic society.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, thou^ borrowing lately
fn»n Hobb^ and fearlessly carrying some of nis prin-
ciples to their most extreme issue, had a view in part
his own. As for the family, he was content to leave it
as a natur^ institution, with a stability, however,
commensurate only with the need of putting the off-
spring within reach of self-preservation. Not so for
the State. Man naturally, tie contended, was sylvan
and solitary, a fine type of indolent animal, mating
with his like and living in the pleasant ease of sha^
retreats by running waters. He was virtuous, suflS-
cAent to himself for his own needs, essentially free,
leaving others idone in thdr freedom, and deedrous of
being left alone in his. His life was not to be dia*
turbed by the f eVer of ambitious denres, the burden oi
ideas, or the restriction <tf moral laws. UnftHtu-
nately, he had a capacity and an itch for self-improve-
ment, and his invoitive genius, creating new conveni-
ences, started new deeds, and, to meet these more
readily, he ent»ed into transitory agreements with
other men. Then came differences, fraud, and quar-
rels, and so ended the tranquil ease and innocence of
his native condition. Throu^ sheer necessity of
edf-defence, as in the theory <tf Hobbes, he took to tlu)
ntablialunent oi civil society. To do so without loss
oi personal freedom, there was but one way, namd^,
that all the members should agree to merge all their
rights, wills, and personahties m a unit moral person
and will, leaving the subject member the satisfaction
l^t he was obeying but lus own will thus mei^ed^and
so in possesion still of full liberty in every act. Thus
civil authority was but the merger of all rights and
wills in tlw one supreme right imd will d the com-
munity. The meiging agreemoit was Rousseau'B
"Social Contract". iJnfortunatdy for its author, as
he himself confeesed, the conditicm of perfect, self-
sufficient, lawless man was never seen on land or sea;
and his aodal contract had no precedent in all the
centuries of the history of mm. His dream ignored
man's inalienable rights, took no account of coercing
wills that would not agree, nor of the unauthorised
memng of the wiUs of posterity, and drained all the
vitaSbr as well out oi autiiority as out of obediOBoe.
He 1^ authority a power shorn of the requisites
sential lia the purpose of dvil BeeuritK«-> t
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The erolutioniat, who has left the twisted turn of all
his theories in much of the oomnum language of the
da^, even after the theories themaclves have died to all
senous sciratifio ace^)tance. wished to make ediioa a
department of materialistic bioloEy, and have the a^-
gr^ate of human entities assemble by the same physi-
cal laws that mass cells into a living being. Man's
native tendency to persist, pure egoism, made him
shrink from the danger of destruction or injury at the
hands of other individuals, and this timidity became a
moving force dri^ong him to compound with lus peers
into a unit source ofstrei^th witoout which he oould
not perost. From common life in this unit man's ego-
inn Degan to take on a bit of altruism, and men ac-
quired at the last a sense of the common good, which
replaced their oripnal timidity as the spring of merg-
ing activity. Later mutual sympathy put forth its
tendrils, a sense of unity sprang up, and man had a
civil society. Herm was latent the capacity for ex-
pressing tl» genual will vhich when developed be-
came civil authority. This evolutionary process is
still in motion toward the last stand foreseen by the
theorist, a universal democracy clad in a federation
of the world. All this has been seriously and solemnly
presented to our consideration with a naive absence of
all sense of humour, with no suspicion that the human
mind naturally refuses to confound the unchanging
action of material attraction and r^ulaon with hu-
man oboioe; or to mistake the fruit of intelleetual
planning and execution f<a the fortuitous results of
blind force. We are not cowards all, and have not
fled to society from tiie sole promptings of fear, but
from the natural dedre we have of human develop-
ment. Authority for mankind is not viewed as the
necessary resultant of the necessary influx of all men's
wills to one goal, but is recognized to be a power to
loose and to bind in a moral sense the wills of in-
numenJble freemen.

The neo-pagan theory, renewing the error of Plato
and in a measure of Aristotie also, has made the in-
dividual and the f aimly mere creatures and chattels of
the State, and, pushing the error further, wishes to
orientate all moral good and evil, all right and dut^
from the authority of the State^ whose good as a na-
tional unit is paramount. This theory sets up the
State as an idol for human worship and eventually, if
the theory were acted upon, uioug^ its authors
dream it not, for human destruction.

The historical school, mistakitM; wia.t men have
done for what men should do and, while otim misring
the full induction of the past, scornfully rejecting as
empty apriorism deductive rcasonii^ from the nature
of man, presents a materialistic, evolutionary, md
positivistic view of human society, which in no way
wpeals to sane reason. No more does the theory of
Kfuit, as applied to society in the Hegelian develop-
ment (tf it; tnough, owing to its intellectual character
and appearance of ultimate analyns, it has found
favour with those who seek philosophic principles from
eourcra of so-cailed pure metaphyncs. It would be
idle to present here with Kant an analysis of the as-
sumption of the development of all human right from
the conditions of the use of liberty consistent with the
general law of universal liberty, and the creation of
civil government as an embodiment of universal
lib«^ in the unified mil of all the constituents of the
State.

ScARBX, De Opere Sdz Dientm. V, vii; Imi, Deftiuio Fidei,
III, ii. iii; Idbu, De Ltgibw, III, ti. ui, iv; CoaTA-RosBtTi, Phil-
otophia Moralit (Innsbruck, 1886) ; de Halleh, RMtauralion de la
Science PolUiipte: Tapakelu, DriUo NaturaU (Rome, 1855):
Mbtbh, Inttilxiliones JurU Naiuralit (Freiburg. 1900); Hobbbb,
Lniathan (Cambridge University Preas); Roubskao, Du Contrat
Social (Paris. 1896). The Social Contract, tr. TozER (London.
1909): Spknceh, The Sludy of Soeiohgi/ (Iiondon); Coute, Let
Priaeipei du PosUineme; Schaitlb, SUveture et La Viedu Carpt
Social: Blpntbchli. The Theory of the Stale (Oxford translation.
Clarendon Press, 1901) ; Stkrbbit, The Elhiea of Hegel (Boetoa,
1898): WOOOBOW WiLWH, ntiStatelBoston, im).

Chaelbs Macksst.

Sodetr, Tbz Cathouc Ghubch ExniiaioN. —
In thb UNma> Statbs.— The first active agitatkm
for a church extension or home misBion society for the
Catholic Church in Nortiii America was beram in 1904
by an article of the present writer, published in the
"American Eooleaaatical Review" (Philadelphia).
This article was followed by a discussion in the same
review, participated in b;^ several priests, and then by
a second article of the writer's. On 18 October, 1905,
the discussion which these articles artnised took form,
and, under the leadership d tiie Most Reverend James
Edwa»l Quidey, Archbishop ot Chicago, a new sc^
ctety, called ThiBCathoUc Church Extension Society
of the United States of America, was organised at a
meeting held in the archbishop's residence at Chicago.
The following were present at that meeting and be-
came the first board of governors of the society : The
Archbishops of Chicago and Santa Fe, the Bishop of
Wichita, the present Bishop of Rockford, Reverends
fVands C. Kelley, Q. P. Jenningu, £. P. Grahaon, £.
A. KeUy, J. T. Roche, B. xTo^Seilly, F. J. Van Ant-
werp, F. A. O'Brien; Messrs. M. A. Fanning,'Anthony
A. Burst. William P. Bre^, C. A. Plamondon, J, A.
Roe, and S. A. Baldus. All .these are still (1911) con-
nected with the church extenuon movement, except
Archbishop Bourgade of Santa F£, who has since died,
Reverends E. P. Graham and F. A. O'Brien, and Mr.
C. A. Plamondon, who for one reason or another have
found it impossible to continue in the work. The
Andibisliop of Chica^ was made cluurman of the
board, the present writer was elected president, and
Mr. William P. Breen, LL.D., of Fort Wayne, Indi-
ana, treasurer. Temporary headquarters were estab-
lished at Lapeer, Michigan. The second meeting waa
held in December of the same year, when the consti-
tution was adopted and the work formally launched.
A charter was granted on 25 December, 1905, hy the
State of Michigan to the new society, whose objects
were set forth as follows: "To develop the mission-
ary spirit in the cler^ and people of the Catholic
Chuioh in the United States. To assist in the erec-
tion of parish buildings for poor and needy places.
To support priests for neglected or provcrty-stricken
districts. To send the comfort of reli^n to pioneer,
localities. In a word, to preaerve the fiuth of Jesus
Christ to thousands of scattered Catholics in every
portion of our own land, espedaUy in the country dis-
tricts and among immigrants." In January, 1907,
the headquarters of the society were moved to Chi-
cago, and the president waa transferred to that arch-
diocese. In April, 1906, the society began the ijubli-
catiMi of a quarterly bulletin cidled "Extension".
In May, 1907, this quarterly waa enlarged and
changed into a monthlj^; its cuxiulation has steadily
incresased, and at the present time (1911) it has ovot
one hundred thousand paid subscribers. On 7 June,
1907, the society received its first papal approval by
an Apostolic Letter of Pius X addressed to the Arch-
bidiop of Chicago. In this letter His Holiness gave
unqualified praise tb the young oi^^anization and be-
stowed on its supporters and members many spiritual
favours. Chi 9 June, 1910, the pope issued a special
Brief by which the society was raised to the d^nity
of a can<mical institution, directly under his own
guidance and protection. By the terms of this Brief,
tiie Archbishop of Chicago is always to be chancellor
of the Society. The president must be appointed by
tiie Holy Father himself. His term of office is not
more than five years. The board of governors has the
right to propose three names to the Holy See for this
office, and to elect, according to their laws^ all other
officors of the society. The Brief also provided lor a
oE^inal protector, living in Rome. His HoUness
named Cardinal Swastian Martinelli for this ofiice,
and later on appointed the present writer the first
preddent undw the new r^pilations. The Brief
limits society'B aotivities to ti^United States

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aOOBIT

ana ita possessiiHis. A difiiU^ SHef WM issued to
the Qiarch Exten^on Society in Cimada.

SAnee the OTganization 6i the church ejrt<tittilotl
movemoiU the American society has expended ovtf
half a miUion doUan in miaaitmarjr work. It has
made about seven hundred gifts and loana to poor mis-
aoDB, and has hod about five hundred and fifty
chapeli built in places where no Catholic Church or
^wel existed previously and the scattered people
eould attend Mass only with gymt difficulty. Both
•odeties have been eduoatine many students for the
mlolona, and both have circulated much good Catho-
Bb lltflratun4 I'be AmeHean society operates a
"etApel car'' (itcmaifed by OfW Ito nMmbers, Am-
brose Petry, K. 0. S. G.), which etUfltti A minionary
into tbe remote districts along railroad lined. |n«Boh-
ing missions and encoiu^ng scattered CathoHw fo
form centres with their own little chapels as bef^nnlfigfl
rf future parishes. The Holy Father has particularly
blessed this chapel car work, and has given a gold
medal to the donor of tbe car cuid to the society in -
teooeoition of its usefulness. Another chapel car,
mam luser and better equipped, is now about to be
bnitt. The society has interested itself very ra-eatly
in the missionary work of Porto Rico and the Piiilip-
ome Islands, and has achieved substantial results.
The Canadian soctety has been very active in saving
the Ruthentan Catholics of the Canadian North- West
to the Faith, against which an active war has been
waged, especially by the Presbyterians. It was prin-
eiiwUy through the publicity given to this aoUvify by
tbe Canadian Society that the ntuation mis brought
to the attention of the bishops in Canada, who at the
firat nenary Council decided to raise $100,000 for tiiis
vork. The American society's first quinquenniid re-
jwrt shows splendid progress, and the present situa-
tion (tf both societies gives promise of great things to
come. A remarkable thing about the church exten-
aoD movemont is the reai^ response of the wealthier
dflBS of Catholics in the United States to its appeals.
Some Very l^e donations have been gjven. The
Ancient urder of Hibernians is rainng a fund of
150,000 for chwcl buildmg, and the Women's
CaUioIie Ord» of Foresters $25,000. The directors
intend to erect a college for the American mission.

Tbe church extension movement, as it exists in the
United States and Canada, has no close parallels in
other countries, but is not unlike the Boniface Associa-
tion in Germany or the (Euvre of St. Francis de Sales in
ftance. Membership is divided into founders (ISOOO),
fifemembers(S1000), fifteen-year members ($100), and
AnnualMembersCJlO). There is a Women's Auxiliary
in both soraeties which now be^ns to flourish. The
American society has also a branch for children called
the "Child Apostles' ' . From the pennies of the children,
ch^ls are to be built and each one called the "Holy
Innocents"; the children have just completed (1911)
tlie amount needed for their first chapel. The present
<^cers of the America society are: His Emmence,
Sebastiwi Cwtiinal Martinelli, Cardinal Protector;
Most Rev. James E. Quigley, D.D., Chancellor;
Most Rev. S. G. Messmer, D.D., Vice-ChanceUor;
Very Rev. Francis C. Kelley, D.D., LL.D., Presi-
dent; Rev.E.B.Ledvina, Vice-President and Genial
Secretarj-; Rev. E. L. Roe, Director of the Women's
Aimliary and Vice-President; Rev. W. D. O'Brien,
Director of the Child Apostles and Vice-President;
Mr. Leo Doyle, General Counsel and Vice-fteffldent;
Mr. John A. Lynch, Treasurer. The members of the
ttecutive committee are: Most Rev. James E. Quig-
ley.D.D.; Very Rev. Francis C. Kelley, D.D.,LL.D.,
Hev, Edward A. Kelly, LL.D.; Messrs. Ambrose
Petr>', K. C. S. Richmond Dean, Warren A. Cart-
ier, and Edward F. Carry. On the board of govem-
M8 are the Archbishops of Chicago, San Francisco,
Milwaukee, Boston, New Orieans, Santa F^^Ore^
with the bishopf povii^ton, Petrcdt, Wichita,

19 SOGBTT

Duluth, Brooklyn, Trenton, Mobile, Rookford, Kan-
sas City, Pittobuigh and Helena, and distinguished
priestfl and laymen.

Ik CjINada. — The church extension movement was
organised in Canada as an independent society (bear-
ins the nafflS of "Hie Catholic Church Extension
Society of Canada") by the Most Reverend Donatiis
Sburetti, Del^ate Apostolic of that country. Most
Rev. Fergus Patrick McEvay, D,D., Archbishop of
Toronto, Rev. Dr. A. E. Burke of the Diocese of
Charlottetown, Very Rev. Monsignor A. A. Sinnott,
secretary of the Apostolic Delegation, the Rev. Dr.
J. T. Kidd, chancellor of Torontb, the Right H(»iour-
able Sir Charles Fitapatrick, K. C- M. G., Chief Jus-
tice of Canada, and the present writer. The Cana^
dian society at once purchased tbe "Catholic Regis-
ter", a weekly paper, enlarged it, and turned it into
the official organ of the work. The circulation of this
paper has increased marvellously. Hie new society in
Canada received a Brief, similar to that granted tbe
American society, establishing it canonically. The
same cardinal protector wad appointed for both oi^an-
izations. The Archbishop oi Toronto was made
chancellor of the Canadian society, and Very Rev.
Dr. A. E. Burke was appointed preradent for the full
term of five vears. The officers of the Canadian
society are: His Eminence Cardinal Martinelli, Pro-
tector; The Archbishop of Toronto {see vacant).
Chancellor; Very Rev. A. E. Burke, D.D., LL.D.,
President: Rev. J. T. Kidd, D.D., Secretary; Rev.
Hu^ J. Canning, Diocesan Director; The Archbishop
of Toronto; Bight Hon. Sir Charles Fitzpatrick,
K. G. M. G., and the Premdent, Executive Com-
mittee.

FlUHdS C. KSLLET.

Socle^ for Promotlzis Christian Knowledga.

See Chbistian Knowledqe, Socixty for Prouot-

INQ.

Society of Foreign Uluituu of PariB.— The So-
ciety of Foreign Missions was estt^lidied 1668-63, its
chief founders being Met Pallu, Bishop of HeliopoUs,
Vicar Apostolic of Tonking, and Mgr Lambert de la
Motte, Bishop of Bertyus, Vicar Apostolic of Cochin-
China. Both bishops left Fnmce (1660-62) to go to
their respective missions and as true travellers of
Christ they crossed Persia and India on foot. The
object of the new society was and still is the evangeli-
zation of infidel countnes, by founding churches asid
training up a native clergy under the jurisdiction of
the bi^ops. In order tliat the society might recruit
members and administer its property, a house was e»-
tabli^ed in 1663 by the priests whom the vicars
ApostoUc had appomted their agents. This house,
whose directors were to form yoxmg priests to the
apostolic life and transmit to the bi^ops the offer-
ings made by charity, was and is still situated at Paris
in theRue du Bac. Known from the beginning as the
Seminary of Fore^ MiB8i(His, it secured the approval
of Alexander VII, and' tJhe l^al recognition, still in
force, of the French Government.

The nature and organization of the society deserve
e^iecial mention. It is not a religious order but a con-
gr^ation, a society of secular priests, united as
members of the same body, not by vows but by
the rule approved by the Holy See, by community
of object, and tbe Seminary of Foreign Missions,
vrbiish. is tbe centre of the society and the common
baau which sustains the other parts. On enter-
ing the society the missionaries promise to devote
themselves until death to t^e service of the missions,
while the society assures them in return, besides the
means of sanctification and perseverance, all neces-
sary temporal support and assistance. There is no
superior general; the bishops, vicars Apostolic, eu-
periors of missions, and kioara of directors of the setn-
jnary are the superiors of ihe society. The directors

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of the fleminary are chosen from among tJie mission-
aries and each group of misraons is represented by
a director. The blEuiops and vicars Apostolic are
appointed by the pope( after nomination by the mis-
gionaries, and presentation by the directors of the semi-
nary. Id their missions they depend only on Propsr-
ganda and tiiroi:^ it on the pope. No subject aged
more than thirty-fire niay be wlmitted to the semi-
nary nor may anyone become a member of the society
before having spent three years in the mission field.
Several pointe of this rule were determined from the
earliest years of the society's existence, others were
established by degrees and as experience pointed
out their usefulness. By this rule the society has
lived and according to it its history has been out-
lined.

This history is difficult, for owing to the length of

the journeys, the infrequent communieations, and the
poverty of resources the missions have developed with
difficulty. The chief events of the first period (1658-
1700) are: the publicatjon of the book "Institutions
apostoliquee", which contains the germ of tiie prin-
ciples of the rule, the foundation of the geno^ sem-
imuy at Juthia fSiam) .the evangelisation of Tonking,
Cochin China^ Cambodia, and Siam. where more than
40,000 Christians were baptized, tue creation of an
institute of Annamite nuns known as "Lovers of the
Cron", the establishment of rules among catechists,
^e <wmnation of thirty native priests. Beside these
events of purely religious interest there were others in
the political order which' emphasized the patriotism
of these evangeUcal labourers: through their initiative
a more active trade was established between Indo*
China, the Indies, and France; embassies were sent
from phee to place ; treaties were signed ; a fVench ex-
pedition to Siam took possession of Bangkok, Mer-
gin, and Jonselane, and France was on the verge of
possessing an Indo-Chinese empire when the blun-
dering^ of subalterns ruined an undertaking the failure
oS which had an unfortunate influenoe on the mis-
flions. But ihe most important work of the vicars
ApostoUc and the society is the application of the
fruitful [vinciple of the oiganization of chundies by
native priests and bishops. Thenceforth the aposto-
late in its progress has f oUowed this plan in every part
of the world with scrupulous fideUty and increasing
success. In the'second half of the dghteenth century
it was cluu^ed with the missions which the Jesuits had
possessed in India prior to their suppression in Portu-
Many of the Jesuits remainra there. The mis-
sions thereupon assumed new life, especially at Se-
tdioan, where remarieable bishops, Mgr Pettier and
Mgr Dufresse, gave a strong impulse to evangelical
work} and in Cochin China, where Mgr Pigneau de
Behame performed signal service for the king of that
country as his agent m making with France a treaty,
which WW the firet step towards the present splendia
situation of France in Indo-China. At the end of the
e^teenth oentury the French Revolution halted the
growth of the society, which had previously been very
rapid. At that time it had six bishops, a score of
miBsionariee, assisted by 135 native priests; in the
various missions there were nine seminaries with 250
students, and 300,000 Christians. Each y^ar the
number of adult baptisms rose on an averse of 3000
to 3500; that of infant baptisms in ariiculo vuniia was
more than 100,000.

In the nineteenth century the devek^iment of lika
aodety and its misnons was rapid and oondderable.
Several causes contributed to this; chiefly the charity
of the Propagati(m of the Faith and the Society of the
Hc^ Childhood; each bishop receives annually 1200
francs, each missionary 660 francs, each mission has
its general needs and works allowance, which varies
according to its importance and may amount to from
10,000 to 3^000 francs. The second cause was per-
tBButioo. fifteen minoonaxiea died in prism or wen

D soourr

beheaded during th^ seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turies and the b^inning of the nineteenth oentury,
but after that the mai^rrs among the missionaries
were very numerous. Tne best known are Mgr Du-
fresse, Vicar ApostoUc of Se-tchoan, beheaded in 1815;
Gagelin, Marchand, Jaccard, Comay, and DumouUn-
Bcnie from 1833 to 1838; and from 1850 to 1862
SchoefflCT, Vfowd, BonnanL^N^n, Chapddaine, N^l,
Cuenot, Vicar Apostolic ot Eastern Cochin China. If,
besides these, mention were made of the native priests,
catechists, and nuns, in short of all who died for
Christ, we should have a record of one of the bloodiest
holocausts in history. These persecutions were de-
scribed in Europe by books, pamphlets, annals, and
journals, arousing the pity of some and the anger of
others and inspinng numerous young men either with
the desire of martyrdom or that m evangelization.
Thenr moved European nations, especially PVance and
Enpand, to intervene in Indo-Oiina and China and
open up in these countries an era of liberty and pro-
tection till thai unknown. Another cause of the
prepress of the missionaries was the ease and fre-
quency of communication in consequence of the in-
vention of steam and the opening; of the Suez Canal.
A Twage could be made safehr m one montii which
had framerly required from ei^t to ten months amid
many dangers.

The following statistics of the missions confided to
the Society will show this development at a glance:
Mitsions of Japan and Korea. — ^Tokio, Nagasaki,
Osaka, Hakodate, Korea, total number of Catholics,
138,621; churchea or chapels, 238; bishops and mis-
donaries, 106; native priests, 48; catechists, 517; sem-
inaries, 4; soninarists, 81; communities of men and
women, 44, obtaining 399 persons; schools, 161, with
9(K24 pupils; orphanages and work-rooms 38, with 988
diildren; jrfiarmacies, dispensaries, and hospitals, 19.
MUsiont oj China and Tutet. — Western, Eastern, and
Southern Se-tchoan, Yun-nan, Kouy-tcheou, Kou-
ang-ton, Kouang-si, Southern Manchuria, Northern
Mimchuria. — Catholics, 272, 792; churches or chapels,
1392; bishops and missionaries, 408; native pnests,
191; catechist^ 998; seminaries, 19; seminarists, 661;
oonwiuiutiesiH men and women, 23, with 222 members:
schools, 1870, with 31,971 pupils; orphanages ana
work-rooms, 132, with 4134 children; pharmacies, dis-
pensaries, and hospitals, 364. Missions of Baatem
Indo-China. — ^Tongking, Cochin China, Cambodia.—
Catholic population, 632,830; churches or chapels,
2609; bi^ope and missonaries^ 365; native pnests,
491; catechists, 1153; seminaries, 14; seminarists
1271; communities of men and women, 91, with 2589
persons; schools, 1859, with 58,434 pupils; orphanages
and work-rooms, 106, with 7217 cliildren; pharmacies,
dispensaries, hospitals, 107. Missiona of Western
Indo-China. — SiMn, Malacca, Laos, Southern Bur-
ma, Northern Burma. — Catholics, 132,226; churches
or chapels, 451; bishops and missionaries, 199; nar
tive pnests, 42; catechists, 242; eeoninaries, 3: semi-
narists, 81; communities of men and women, 47, with
629 members; schools, 320, with 21,306 pupils: or-
phanages and work-rooms, 132, with 3757 cnildren;

yharmacies, dispensaries, hospitals, 86. Missions of
ndia. — Pondicherry, Mysore, Coimbatore, Kumbako-
nam. — Catholics, 324,050; churches or chapels, 1048;
bishops and missionaries, 207; native priests, 67; cate-
chiste, 274; seminu-ies, 4; seminarists, 80; communi-
ties of men and women, 54, with 787 members:
sdiools, 315, with 18,693 pupils; orphanages and
work-rooms, 57, with :^>46 children; pharmacies, dis-
pensarieSf and hospitals, 41.

In addition to tnese missionaries activel:^ engaged
in mission work, there are some occupied in the es-
tablishments called common, because they are used
by the whole society. Indeed the development of the
aodety ne<»SBitated undertakings which were not
needed in the part. Hoiqb a sanatorium for dek

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81

noBBiauaies has been eBtablisfaed at Hong-Eoig on
the coast of China; another in India among the
Nilgiri mountains, of' radiant appearanoe and in-
vigorating cUmate, and a third in France. In think-
ing of the welfare <^ the body, that of the soul was
not loBt Bight of, and a house of spiritual retreat was
founded at Hong-Koi^, wbiUier all tb6 priests of the
society may repair to renew their priesthr and ^>pe-
toUc fervour. To this house was added a printing
eBtablishmentj whrace issue the most beautiful works
of the Far East, dictionaries, grammais, books of
theology, piety, Christian doctrine, and pedago^.
Houses of oorrespondence, or agencies, were eetuh-
li^ed in the Far East at Shandiai, Hon^Kong,
Saigon, Singapore, and one at Marseilles. France.
The Seminary of the Fordgn Miaskxis which long
had only one section, has for twenty years had two.

LtTQOST, LtUru i rMque <U Langre* *ur b eonq. dt* Miantm*-
BtratiiTet (Paxw, 1842) ; Launat. HiH. giniraU da la SoeilU dm
Uiniont-Etrani^f (Pane, 1894) ;£>t>eum. hut. nirta<8oci.rfOTiK«-
Hoiu-Mtmniiirw (P&rU, 1904); Hiit. ntitMOtu (l« rfndt (Paris.
189S); Bitt. <U la mitntm dv Thibtt (Puis, 1903); HUt. de* mi»-
ridna de China S (Paris, 1903-8): Louvbt. La CoMiuAiiu rtli-
gUuae (Patit, 1885): Dalut, Bid. da VioUu da Corie (Puis.
1874); Maxnas, La raUgiM di Jiaaa nhuhW ok Japan (Paria,
18965. ^ _

A. IiAUNAT.

Society of JMua (Coufant op Jbsus^ Jbsutis),
a religious order founded by Saint Ignatius Loyola
(q. T.). D^gnated by him '"The Company Jesus"
to indicate its true l^der and its soldier spirit, the
title was latinized into "Societas Jeau" in the Bull of
Paul III ap^proving its formation and the first formula
of its Institute ( Regitnini militantis eeclesiEB'', 27
Sept., 1540). The term "Jesuit" (of fifteenth-cen-
tury origin, meaning one who used too fnely or appro-
priated the name of Jesus), was first applied to the
Society in reproach (154+-52), aad was never em-
ployed by its founder, though members and friends

the Society in time accepted the name in its good
sense, l^e Society ranks among religious institutes
as a mendicant order of clerks regular, that is, a body
of priests organized for apostohc work, following a
religioi
[BuUs
Gr^ry
May, 15S4].

As has been explained under the title "Ignatius
Loyola", the founder began his self-reform, and the'
enlistment of followers, entirely prepossessed with the
idea of Uie imitation of Christ, and without any plan
for a religious order or purpose of attending to the
needs of the days. Uneroectedly prevented from
carrying out tlus raiginal idea, he offered hie services
and those of his foUowos to the pope, "Christ upon
Eartii", who at onoe ^ployed them in such works
as were most pressing at the moment. It was only
after this and just b^ore the first companions broke
up to go at the pope's command to vanous oountries,
that the resolution to found an order was taken, and
that Ignatius was commissioned to draw up Constitu-
tions. This he did slowly and methodically; first
introducinK rules and customs, and aedng bow they
worked. He did not codify them fw the first en
vears. Then three years were given to formulating
laws, the wisdom of which had been proved by eroeri-
ment. In the last six years of the samt's life the Con-
stitutions so composed were finally revised and put
into practice everywhere. This sequence of events
explains at once how the Society, though devoted to
the following of Christ, as tbou^ there were nothing
else in the world to care ftnr, is also so excellent^
adapted to the needs ctf the da^. It b^an to atteiua
to tnem before it b^^ to le^slate; and its tegisUtF
tion was the codification oi those measures which had
been proved by experioice to be apt to preserve
its preliminary religious prinople among men actu-
ally devoted to the requirements of the Churob in
days not unlike our own.

The Society was not founded with the arowed

intention of opposing Protestantism: Ndther the
papal letters of approbation, nor the Constitutions of
the order mention this as the object of the new founda-
tion. When Ignatius began to devote himself to the
service of the Church, he had probably not heard even
the names of the Protestant Reformers. His early
plan was rather the conversion of Mohammedans, an
idea whioh^ a few decades after the final triumph of
the Christians over the Moors in Spain, must have
strongly appealed to the chiv^rous Spaniutl. The
name "Societas Jesu" bad been borne by a military
order ^iproved and recommended by Pius II in 1459,
the purpose of which was to fif^t u^ainst the Turks
and aid in qireading the Christian faith. The early
Jesuits were sent by If^ttus first to pt^n lands or to
CaUiolic counbies; to Protestant oountnes only at the
q>ecial request of the pope, and to Germany, the
cradle-land of the Reformation, at the urgent solici-
tation of the imperial ambassador. From the very
beginning the missionary labours of Jesuits among the
pagans of India, Japan, China, Canada, Central^ and
South America were as important as their activity
in Christian countries. As the object of the Society
was the propagation and streiicthmnfE of the Cathohc
Futh everywhere, the Jesuits naturally endeavoured
to counteract the spread of Protestfuitism. They
became the main instruments of the Counter-Refor-
mation; the reconquest of southern and western
Germany and Austna for the Church, and the pres-
ervation of the Cathohc faith in France and other
countries were due chiefly to their exertions.

Institute, CoNSTmmoNs, Leoislation. — The
<^oial publication which comprises all the re«ula-
tions of the Society its codex legum, is entitled " uisti-
tutum Societatis Jesu", of which the latest edition
was issued at Rome and Florence, 1869-91 (for full
bibUography see Sommervogel, V, 75-115; IX, 609-
61 1 ; for commentators see X, 705-710) . The Institute
contains: (1) The special BuUs and other pontifical
documents approving the Society and canonically
determining or r^uTating its various works, and
its ecclesiastical standing and relations. — Besides
thriwe already mentioned^ other important Bulls are
those of: Paul III, "Injunctum nobis", 14 March,
1543; Julius III, "Exposcit debitum", 21 July, 1550;
Pius V, "^uum reputamus", 17 January, 1565;
Pius Vll, "Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum", 7 Au-
gust, 1S14; Leo XIII, ''Dolemus inter alia", 13 July,
1880. ^ The Examen Generate and Constitu-
tions.— The Examen contains subjects to be ex-
plained to postulants and pomts on which Uiey an
to be exammed. The Constitutions are divided into
ten parts: (a) admissim; (b) dismissal; (c) novitiate;
(d) scholastic training; (e) profesuon and oHher grades
of membership; (f) religious vayre and other obliga-
tions as obsN^ed in the Society; (g) missions and
other ministries; (h) congregations, local and general
assemblies as a means of union and uniformity:
(i) the general and chief superiors: (j) preservation oi
the spirit of the Society. Thus far in the Institute
aB is oy St. Ignatius, who has also added "Dedara-
tions" ot vanous obscure parts. Then come:
Decrees of General Congregations, which have equal
aitthority with the (^institutions; (4) Rules, gen-
eral and particular, eto.j (6) Formulae or order of
business for the congregations; (6) Ordinations of gen-
erals, which have ue same authority as the rmee;

(7) uistnictions, some for superi(»8, oth^s for those
engaged in tha missions or otn» works of the Socie^;

(8) ddustris, or special counsels for superiors: (9)
The Book of the Spirituid Exercises; and (10) the Ratio
Studionim (q. v.), which have duwtive force only.

The Constitutions as drafted by Ignatius and
adopted finally by the first congregation of the Society,
lfi68| have never been alt^ed. Ill-informed writers
have stated that Lainei. the second general, made

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OMuidersble changes in the aaint's conception of the
orderj but Ignatius'a own last recensioD of the Con-
stitutions, lately reprxxlHced in facsiniile (Rome,
1908), exactly agrees with the text of the Constitu-
tions now in force, and contains no word by Lainei,
not even in the Declarations, or gloasee ad<fed to the
textj which are all the woric of Ignatius. The text in
use in the SodetT is a Latin version prepared under
the direction of the third coDereKation, and subjected
to & minute comparison with the Spanish original
preserved in the Society's archives, dming the fourth
congregation (1581).

These Constitutions were written after lon^ delib-
eration between Ignatius and his companions in
founding the Society, as at first it seemed to them
that the^r mig^t contmue their work without the aid
of a special Rule. They were the fruit of loi^ exp»-
rience and of serious meditation and prater. Tlm>u^-
out they are inspired by an exalted spirit of dianty
and of zeal for souls. They contain nothing unreason-
able. To appreciate them', however, requires a knowi-
rxlge of canon law as applied to monastic life and

tionate relations at mmibttra with superiors and wHh

one another, by the manifestation of conscience, tnon
or less practised in every religious order, aad by tnUtu&l
correction when this may be neceasary;, tt also applies
to the methods employed to ascertain the quahficar
tions of members for various offices or ministriee.

The chief authority is vested in the general congto>
gation, which electa the general, and could, for certain
grave causes, depose him. This body could also
Tthougfa there has never yet been an occasion for so
doing) add new Constitutions, and abrogate old
ones. Usually this congregation is convened on the
occasion of the death of a general, in order to elect
his successor, and to make provisions for the govern-
ment and welfare of the. Society. It also be
Ofdled at other times -for grave xeaMxui. It oonaotB
of liie ^eral, when aim, and hSa aaristanbi, the
provincials, and two deputies from each province or
territorial division of the society elected by the supe-
riors and older professed members. Thus authority
in the Societif eventimlly rests on a democratic basis.
But as there is no definite time for caUing the general

tUMt* hm^^^mrf n^-MfhfU jGff htm • *

HsouCTo Facswilk or Spanish MS. or the CoNannmoHs with Aotoorapb Corbections by St. Ickatius

also of their history in the light of the times for
which they were framed. Usually those who find
fault with them either have never read them or else
have misinterpreted them. Monod, for instance,
in his introduction to Bohmer's essay on the Jesuits
("Les j&uites", Paris. IBIO, pp. 13. 1^ recalls how
Michelet mistranslated the words of the Constitutions,
p. VI, c. 6, oUigtUionem adpeceatium, and made it ap-
pear that they require obedience even to the commis-
sion of sin, as if the text were dhligaiio ad peeeandum,
whereas the obvious meanine and purpose of the
text is precisely to show that the transgression of the
rules is not in itself sinful. Monod enumerates such
men as Amauld, Wolf, Lange, Ranke in the first
edition of 1^ "History", Hfiusso- and Droysea,
PhUippsoD and Qisrbonnel, as havii^ repeated the
same error, although it had been refuted frequently
since 1824, particularly by Gieseler, and corrected
by Ranke m his second edition. Whenever the Con-
stitutions enjoin what is already a serious moral
obUgation, or superiors, by virtue of their authority,
impose a grave obligation, transgression is sinftu;
but this is true of such tran^ressions not only in the
Society but out of it. Moreover such commands
are rarely given by the superiors and only when the
good <rf the individual member or the common good
unperathrely demands it. The rule throughout is
one of love inspired by wisdom, and it must be inter-
OTeted in the spirit of charity which animates it.
Thia is especially true of its provisions for the affe«>

congregation, which in fact rarely occurs except to
elect a new general, the exercise of authority is
usually in the bands of the general, in whom is vested
the fullness of administrative power, and of spiritual
authority. He can do anything within the scope of
the Constitutions, and can even dii^>ense with them
for good causes, though he cannot chanpe them. He
resides at RcHue, and has a council of assistants, five in
number at present, one each for Italy, France, Spain
and coimtnes of Spanish origin, one for Germany,
Austria, Poland, Belgium, Hungary, Holland, and one
for Enriish-epeaking countries — England, Ireland,
United States, Canada, and British colonies (except
India). These usually hold office until the death of
the general Should the general throu^ age or
infirmity become incapacitated for governing the
Society, a vicar is chosen by a general congr^tion to
act for him. At his death he names one eo to
act until the congregation can meet and elect his
successor.

Next to him in order of authority come the pro-
vincials, the heads of the Society, whether for an
entire country, as England, Ireland, Canada, Bel-
gium, Mexico, or, where these units are too large or
too small to make convenient provinces, they may
be subdivided or joined together. Thus there are
now four provinces in the United States: Cal^omia,
Maryland-New York, Missouri, New Orleans. In
all there are now twenty-seven provinces. The
provincial is appointed by the Keneral. with ampH

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adminUbtitive faculties. He too haa a council of
"conBultora" and an "admonitKHr", appointed by
the E;eneral. Under the proviDCial come tlie local
superiors. Of these, rectors of colleges, provosts
of professed houses, and masters of novices are
Mpointed by the general; the rest by the provincial.
To enable the general to make and control so man^
apptointments, a free and ample correspondence is
kept up, and everyone has the right of private com-
munication with him. No superior, except the
general, ia named tta life. Usually provincials and
rectors ,of colleges hold office for three years.

Members oi the Society fall into four classes:
(I) Nooiceg (whether received as lay brothers for tiie
domestic and temporal services of the order, or as
aspirants to the priesthood), who are trained in the
spirit and disciplme of the order, prior to making the
rel^ous vows. (2) At the end of two years the
novices make simple but perpetual tows, and, if
aq>iraiits to the ^esthood, become formed scJiolaa-
tic$; they remain in this grade as a rule from two to
fifteen ^eara, in which time they will have completed
all their studies, pass (generally) a certain penod in
teaching, receive the priesthood, and go through a
third year of novitiate or probation (the tertianship).
Accoraine to the degree of discipline and virtue, and
to the talents they display (the latter are normally
tested by the examination for the D^ree of Doctor
of nwology), they may now become formed coadju-
ton or prweased members of the order. (3) Fanned
atadjuUm, whether formed lay brothers or priests,
make tows, whi(ii, though not solemn^ are perpetual
on their part ; while the Society, on its side, binds itaelf
to them, unless they should commit some grave
offence. (4) The professed are all priests, who
midce, besides the three usual solemn vows of religion,
a fourth^ of special obedience to the pope in the matter
oC missioiu, undertaking to go wherever they are
sent, without even rei^uirin^ money for the joum^.
They also make certain additional, out non-essential,
nmple vows, in the matter of poverty, and Uie refusal
of external honours. The professed of the four vows
constitute the kernel of the Society; the other grades
are r^arded as preparatory or as subsidiary to this.
The chief offices can be held by the professed alone;
and though they may be dismissed, yet they must be
received back, if wilhng to comply witli the conditions
that may be prescribed. Otherwise they enitn* no
privil^es, and many posts of importance, such as
the government of colleges, may be held by membcors
of other grades. For special reasons some are
occasionally professed of three vows and they have
certain but not all the privileges of the other pro-
fessed. All live in community alike as regards food,
apparel, lodging, recreation, and all are aake boima
by the rules of the Societj;.

There are no secret Jesuits. Like other orders the
Society can, if it will, make its friends participators
in its prayers and in the merits of its good works;
but it cannot make them members of the order, un-
less they live the life of the order. There is indeed the
case of St.' Francis Borgia, who made some of the
probations in an unusual way, outside the hout^ca of
the order. But this was in order that he might be
free to conclude certain bumness matters and other
affairs of state, and thus appear the sooner in public as
a Jesuit, not that he might remain permanently out-
^e the common life.

Novitiate and Training.— Candidates for admission
come not only from the colleges conducted by the
Society, but from other schods. Frequently post-

Euluate or professionat students, and those who
_ ve already b^pm their career in business or profes-
sional life, or even in the priesthood, apply for admia-
abn. Usually the candidate applies in person to the
provinci^ ana if he considers him a lik»y subject he
tefeis him for examination to four of the mcffe exp^

rienced fath^. They question him about the aee^
health, poeatton, occupation of bis parents, their rdi-
gion and good character, theu: dependence on his
services; i^out his own health, obhgations, such as
debts, or other contractual relations; his studies, quali-
fications, moral character, personal motives as well as
the external influences that ma^ have led him to seek
admission. The results of their questioning and of
their own observation they report severally to the

SrovinciaL who weighs their opinions carefuCy before
eciding for or asamst the applicant. Any notable
bodily or mentu defect in the candidate, serious
indd>tedne88 or other obligation, previous member-
(diip in another reUgious order even for a day, indi-
cating instability of vocation, unqualifies for admis-
sion. Undue influence, particularly if exercised by
members of the order, would occasion stricter scrutiny
than usual into the personal motives of the applicant.

Candidates may enter at any time, but usually
there is a fixed day each year for their admission,
towards ihe close of the summer hoHdays, in order
that all may begin their training, or probation, to-
gether. They spend the first ten daj^s considering
the manner of life they are to adopt and its difficulties,
the rules of the order, the obedience required of its
members. They then make a brief retreat, meditat-
ing on what they have learned about the Society and
examining closely their own motives and hopes of per-
severance in the new mode of life. If all bie satisfac-
tory to them and the superior or director who has
charge of them, they are admitted as novices, wear the
clerical costume (as there is no special Jesuit habit),
and be^n in earnest the life of members of the Society.
They rise early, make a brief visit to the chapel, a
meditation on some subject selected the night before,
assist at Mass, revie* their meditation, breakfast,
and then prepare tor the day's routine. This con-
sists of manual labour, in or out of doors, reading
books on spiritual topics, ecclesiastical hbttny, biog-
raphy, particularly of men or women distinguished
for zeal and enterprise in missionarv or educational
fields. There is a daily conference by the master of
novices on some detail of the Institute, notes of
which all are required to make, so as to be ready,
when asked, to r^Kat the salient points.

Wherever it is possible some are submitted to
certain tests of their vocation and usefulness: to
teaching catechism in the vilUige churches; to attend-
ance on the sick in hospitals; to going about on a
pilgrimage or missionary journey without money
or other provision. As soon as posEdble all make the
spiritual exercises for thirty days. This is really the
chief test of a vocation, as it is also in epitome the
main work of the two years oS the novitiate and for
that matter of the entn« life of a Jesuit. On these
exercises the Constitutions, the life, and activity
of the Society are based, so that they are really
the chief factor in forming the character of a Jesuit.
In accordance with the ideals set forth in these
exercises, of disinterested conformity with God's
will, and of personal love of Jesus Chnst, the novice
is trained diligently in a meditative study of the
truths of religUHi, in the habit of self-knowledge,
in a constant scrutiny of his motives and of the
actions inspired by them, in the correction of every
form of self-deceit, illusion, plausible pretext, and
in the education of his will, particularly in making
choice of what seems best after careful deliberation
and without self-seeking. Deeds, not words, are
insisted upon as proof of genuine service, and a me-
chanical, emotional, or fanciful piety is not tolerated.
As tlie novice gradually thus becomes master of his
judgment and will, he grows more and more capable
of offering to God the reasonable service enjoined by
St. Paul, and seeks to follow the Divine will, as mani-
fested by Jesus Christ, by His vicar on earth, by the
bishops appointed to rule His Churchr4>y bb more

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immediate or religious superiors, and hy the civil
powers ri^tfulljr exercising authority. Tiiia is what
IS meant by Jesuit obedience, the characteristic virtue
(A the order, such a sincere respect for authority as
to accept its dedsions and ctmiply with them, not
merely by outward performance but in all ainoerity
with the conviction that compliance is best and that
the command expresses for the time the wul of God,
as nearly as it can be ascertained.

The noviceahip lasts two years. On its completion
the novice makes the usual vows of religion, the
simple vow of chastity in the Society having the
force of a diriment impediment to matrimtmy.
During the noviceship but a brief time daily is devoted
to reviewing; i»eviou8 studies. The noviceship over,
the scholastic members, i. e. those who are to become
priests in the Society, follow a special course in
classics and mathematics lasting two years, usually
in the same house with the novices. Then, in another
house and neigUbourbood. three years are given to
the study of pfiilosopby, about five years to teaching
in one or other of the public colleges of the Society,
four years to the stuc^ €rf theology, priestly orders
being conferred aft«" the third, and, finally, one year
more to another probation or noviceslup, mtended to
help the young priest to rraew his spirit of piety and
to learn now to utilize to the best of his ability all
the learning and experience he has acquired. In
exceptional cases, as in that of a priest who has
finimed bis studies before enterilig the order, allow-
ance ia made, and the training period need not last
ov« ten years, a good part d irtuch ia spent in active
ministry.

The object of the order is not limited to practising
any one class of good works, however laudable (as
preadiing, chanting office, doing penance, etc.) but
to study, in the manner of the Spiritual Exerofees,
what Christ would have done, if He were living in our
circumstances, and to carry out that ideal. Hence
elevation and lai^^ess of aim. Hence the motto
^theSodety: "AdMajwem DeiGloriam". Hence
the selection of the virtue of obedience as the charac-
terirtic of the order, to be ready for any call and to
keep unity in every variety of work. Hence, by
easy sequence, the omission of office in choir, of a
enecially distinctive habit, of tmusual penances.
Where the Protestant Reformers aimed at reor^;aniz-
ing the Church at large according to their particular
conceptions, Ignatius began with mterior self-reform;
and tatex uat bad been thoroudily established, then
the earnest preaching (tf self-reform to others. That
done, the Church would not, and did not, fail to
reform herself. Many rel^ous distinguished them-'
selves as educators before the Jesuits; but the Society
was the first order which enjoined by its very Consti-
tutions devotion to the cause of education. It was,
in this sense, the first "teaching order".

lie ministry of the Society consists chiefiy in
preaching; teaching catechism, especially to children;
administ^irw the sacraments, especially penance
and the Eudiarist; conducting missions m parishes
on the lines of the Spiritual Exercises; directing those
who wish to follow these exercises in houses of retreat,
seminaries, or convents; taking care of parishes or
of collegiate churches; organising pirus confraternities,
sodalities, unions of prayer. Bona Mors associations
in their own and in outer parishes; teaching in schools
of everv grade — academic, seminary, university;
writing tKK^, pamphlets, periodical articles; going
on foreign missions among uncivilized peoples. In
liturgical functions the Roman Rite is followed. The

E roper exercise of all these functions is provided for
y rules carefully framed by the general congregations
or the generals. All these regulations command the
. greatest respect on the part of every member. In
practice the superior for the time being is the living
, nil»-Hiot that he can alter or abrogate any nile, but

because he must interpret and determine its i^lic»*
tkm. In this fact and in its consequences, the Society
differs from every religious order antecendent to its
foundation; to this |nincipally it owes its life, activity,
and power to adi^t its Institute to modem condititma
without need of change in that instrument or ttf
reform in the body itself.

Hie story (A the foundation of the Society is told
in the article Ionattos Loyola. Briefly, after
having inspired his companions Peter Faber, Francis
Xavier, James Lainez, Alonso Salmer6n, Nicolas
BobadiUa, Simon Rodrigues, Claude Le Jay, Jean
Codure, and Paschase Brouet with a desire to dwell
in the Holy Land imitating ihe life of Christ, they
first made vows of poverty and chastity at Mont>
martre, Paris, on 15 August, 1534, adding a vow to
go to the Holy Land after two years. When this was
found to be impracticable, after waiting another
year, they offered their services to the pope, Paul III.
Fully another year was passed by some m imiversity
towns in Italy, by the others at Rome, where, after
encountering muui opposition and slander, aU met
together to agree <hi a mode ot life 1^ which th^
might advance tn evangelical perfection and heq>
otliers in the same task. The first formula of the
Institute was submitted to the pope and approved (rf
viva voce, 3 September, 1539, ana formally, 27 Sep-
tember, 1640.
CoHtrmmowa. — Comu inttituiormn SoeulatU /mw (Aai-

msp. Prasue, Rom«, f635, 1702, 1705. 1707. 1709. 1869-70;
FuiB, parual edition, 1827-38); QAaLZAHDi, De eoonition* ituti-
tvU (IMI): LANCtcnn, De prottontM itutit. Soe. Jm (1644);
Nadal. ScAoIia w eotutHuHonn (1883); Sqabbb, TntL M r«K-
oiotu 3oc Jwu (1626); Hitmfkkct, Tk* Bttiaiout SUOt (London,
IM^. n disMt of tha trantiM of Saam: Obwaui, Cammmit. im
dtemt portM cmmM. Sac An (3nl ad., Bnawli. 1901): Jtnln V
a« Sodtttf Iff Jttitt (Wadiinslon, 1839; Limdoo, '

Generaib Prior to the Suppression of the
SociETT.— (1) St. Ignatius Loyola (q. v.), 19 April,
1541-31 July, 1556. The Society spread rapidly
and at the time of St. I^iatius's death bad twelve
provinces: Italy, Sicily, Portugal, Aragon, Castile,
Andalusia, TTpp^ Germany, Lower Germany, France,
India (inchiding Japan), Brazil, and Ethiopia, the
last-mentioned province lasting but a shm-t time.
It met with opposition at the University of Paris;
while in Spain it was aevorely attacked uf Mekdilor
Cano.

(2) James Lainez {a. v.), 2 July, 1558-19 January,
1665. Lainez served two years as vicar-general,
and was chosen general in the first gennal oc»^;r^|^
tion, retfmled till 1558 (19 June-10 Sept.), owing to
the imfortunate war between Paul IV and I^ilip II.
Paul IV gave orders that the Divine Office should be
recited in choir, and abo that the generalate should
only last for three years. The pope died on 18 Au-
gust, 1559, and his orders were not renewed by his suc-
cesaorj Pius IV ; Indeed he refused Father Lainez leave
to resign whra his first triennium closed. Through
Hub's n^hew, St. Charles Borromeo, the Society
now received many privileges and openings, and prog-
ress was rapid. Father Lainez himself was sent to
the "C:k)Uoquy of Poissy", and to the Council <tf
Trent (1563-4), Saint Fruicis Borgia being left in
Rome as his vicar-general. At the death of Lainez .
the Society numbered 3500 members in 18 provinces
and 130 houses.

(3) St. Francis Borffia (q. v.), 2 July, 1565-1 Octo-
ber, 1572. One of the most delicate tasks of his^
government was to negotiate with Pope St. Pius V,
who dedred to reintroduce the nnnng of Office-
This was in fact begun in May, ISot, but only in
professed houses, and it was not to mterfere with
other work. Pius also ordained (Christmas, 1566)
that no candidate of any religious order for the priest-
hood should be ordained until after his profeesiMi;
and this indirectly caused much trouble to the Society,
with its disUnct grades of professed and ncmiiio*

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llnsed prieetB. AU had thstelate to be profeosed of
three towb, until Gregory XIII (Deoember, 1572)
allowed the ori^iinal practice to be restored. Under
hia adminiBbrabon the foreign miseioiiaiy work of the
order greatly increased and proapered. New mie-
fflons were c^>ened by tJbe Society in Florida, Mexioo,
and Peru.

(4) Everard Mercurian, Belgian, 23 April, 1673-1
Ai^fUBt, 15S0. Ft. Mercurian waa bom in 1514 in the
vilbge of Marcour (Luxemburg), whence his name,
which he B^ned Ererard de Maroour. He became
tin first noD-Spanish gmeral the Sooety. Pope
Gregor^r Xin, without oommanding, had expreesed
his desire for this, change. This, nowever, caused
great diseatisfaetion and opposition among a number
of Spanish and Portuguese members, which came to
a crisis during the generalate of Father Mercurian's
successor, Fatner Claudius Acquaviva. Father Tolet
was entrusted with the task oi obtaining the submia*
oon of Michael Baius to thedeoirionof theHo^See;
he euooeeded, but his sucoeas senred later to di^w cm
the Society the hatred of the JanaeniBts. Father Mer^
ourian, when general, brought the Rules to their final
form, compiling the ''Sununary of the Constitutions"
fnun the manuacripta of St. Ignatius, and drawing up
the "Common Rules" of the Society, and the particu-
lar rules for each office. He was greatly interested in
the foreign missions and established the Maronite and
Epg)i>h missions, and sent to the lattor Bteased Ed-
mund Canopion and Father Robert Pmschu. Father
Everard Mercurian passed thirty-two ^ears in the
Society, and died at the age of sixty-eix. At that
time tne Society ntmibered 6000 members in eighteen
provinces.

<5) Claudiua Acmumva, or Aquaviva (q. v.),
Neapolitan, 19 February, 1581-31 Januaay, 1615
(for the disputations on ^race, see Conorsoatio
DB AnxiuiB). After Ignabus, Acquaviva waa pei^.
haps the ablest ruler of the Soinety. As a legislator
he reduced to its present form the final parts of the
Institute, and the Ratio Studiorum (q. v.). He had
^so to contend with extraordinary obatacles both
from without and within. The Society was banished
from France and from Venicej there were grave differ-
ences with the icing of Spam, with Sixtus V, with
the Dominican theolooansj and within the Society
the riviUry betweoi Spaniard and Italian led to
unusual complications and to the calling ctf two
extraoVdinary general congregations (fifth and sixth).
Tlie origin of these troubles is perhi^ eventually
to be sought in the long wars of religion, which grao-
ually died down after the canoni«iI absolution of
Heniy IV, 1596 (in which Fathers Geoi^es^Toledo,
and Possevinus played important parts). The fifth
congregation in 1593 supported Acquaviva steai^"
against tiie opposing parties, and the sixth, in 1(
completed the union oi opinions. Paul V had in If
re-confirmed the Institute, which from now onwards
may be considered to have won a stable position in
the Church at large, until the epoch of the Suppree-
sion and the Revolution. Missions were established
in Canada, Chile, Paraguay, the Philippine Islands, and
China. At Father Acquaviva's death the Society num-
bered 13,112 members in 32 provinces and 569 nouses.

(6) Mutiua VUelUtchi (q. v.), Roman, 15 Novem-
ber, 1615-9 February, 1645. His gexieralate was
one of the most pacific and progressive, especially
in France and Spain; but the Thirty Years' War
workoi havoc in Germany. The canonization of Sta.
Ignatius and Francis Xavia (1622) and the first
centenary of the Society (1640) were celebrated with
great rejoicings. The great mission of Paraguay
began, toat of Japan was stamped out in blood.
Endand was raised in 1619 to the rank of a province
d the order, having been a mission until then. Mia-
■ons woe eatablished in Tibet (1024), Tonkin (If^,
and Uw Maranhfio ad40).

(7) Vincent Caraffa (q. v.), Neapolitan, 7 January,
1646-8 June, 1649. A few days before Father Ca^
raffa'a election as general. Pope Innocent X published
a brief "Prospero feficique statui", in which he
ordered a general congregation of the Sodety to be
held every nine years; it was ordained also that no
office in uie Society except the position of master d
novices should be held tor more than three years.
TTie latter regulation was revoked by Innocent's suo-
oesBor, Alexander Villon 1 January, 165S: and the
fonner by Benedict XIV in 1746 by the Bull " Devo-
tam", many dispensations having been granted in
the meantime.

(8) Francis Piccotomini, of Siena, 21 December,
1649-17 June, 1651 ; before his election as general he
had been professor of philosophy at the Roman
CoUmb; he died at the age of sixty-nine, having
passed fifty-three years in the Society.

(9) Aloj/wua Gf^redi, Roman, 21 January, 1652-
12 March, 161^: FatJier GottiMi died at the house
of the professed Fathos, Rome, within two months
after his election, and before the Fathers assembled
for the election and congregation had concluded their
labour. He had been a professor of theology and
rector of the Romail Coll^, and later secretaiy oi
the Society under Father Mutius Vitelles<^.

(10) Oownn Nickd, German, b. at Jttlich in 1582;
17 March, 1652-31 July, 1664. During these years
the struggle with Jansenism was growmg more and
more heated. The great controversy on uie Chinese
Rites (1646) was continued (see Ricci, Mxnxo).
Owing to his great age Father Nickel obtained from
the eleventh congregation the appointment cMf Father
John Paul Oliva as vicar-general (on 7 June, 1661),
with the approval of Alexander VII.

(11) John Pond Oliva, Genoese (elected vicar cum
jure nicceasionit on 7 June, 1661), 31 July, 1664-26
November, 1681. Daring hiB generalate we Society
established a mission in PerriSj which at first met with
great success, four hundred thousand converts being
made within twenty-five years; in 1736, however, the
mission was destroyed by violent p«secution.
Father Oliva's generalate occurred during one of tiie
most difficult periods in the history of the Societv,
as the controversies on Jansenism, the droU de r4st4e,
and moral theology were being carried on by the
opponents of Uie Society with the greatest acrimony
aaa violent. Father John Pmu Olt^ laboured
earnestly to keep up the Society's high reputation fw
learning, and in a circular letter sent to all the houses
of study urged the cultivation of the oriental lan-
guages.

(12) Charles de Noyelle, Bekian, 5 July, 1682-12
December, 1686. Father de Noyelle waa bom at
Brussels on 28 July, 1615; so great was his reputation
for virtue and prudence that at his electbn he reedved
unanimous vote oi the congregation. He had been
assistant for the Germanic provinces during more
than twenty yedrs; he died at the age of seventy, after
fifty years spent in the Society. Just about the time
of nis dection, the dispute between Louis XIV of
France and Pope Innocent XI had culminated in the
publication of the "Declaration du clerg^ de France"
(19 March, 1682). This placed the Society in a diffi-
cult pomtion in France, as its spirit of devotion to the
p^acy was not in harmony with the spirit of the
"Declaration". It required all the ingenuity and
ability of P^ La Chaise and Father de NoyeUe to
avert a disaster. Innocent XI was dissatisfied with
the position the Society adopted, and threatened to
suppress the order, proceeding even so far as to for^
bid the reception of novices.

(13) Tkyraiu QonzdUz (q. v.), Spaniard, 6 July,
1687-27 Oct., 1705. He interfered in the contro-
versy between Probabilism (q. v.) and Probabilior^
iam, attacking the former doctrine with energy in a
book puUibhed at I^Uingen in 1001.

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was on the whole in tavour in the Society^ this
caused diBcuasions, which were not quieted until the
fourteenth congregation, 1696, when, with the pope's
approval, Uberty was left to both sides. Fauier
Gonzdlez in his earlier days had laboured with great
fruit as a missionaiy, and after his election as general
encouraged the work of popular home miaaicmB. Hie
treatise De infallibilitate (Romani pontificia in de6-
niendia fidei et morum controversiiB". which was a
vi«}rouB attack on the doctrines laia down in the
"Declaration du clerg^ de France", was published at
Rome in 1689 by order of Pope Innocent XI; how-
ever. Innocent's successor, Alexander VII, caused the
work to be withdrawn, as its effect had been to ren-
der the 'relations between France and the Holy See
more difficult. Fatiier Gom^Ues laboured oamBstfy
to roread devotion to the aainta d Uie Society; ne
diea at Uie age of eigbty-^our, having pasiBd axbr-
tfaree years in the wder, during nineteen of whicb he
vas general.

(14) Mickdangdo TavUmrini, of Modena, 31 Jan-
uary, 1706-28 February, 1730. The long reign of
Louis XIV, 80 favourable to the Jesuits in many re-
spects, saw the bennning of those hostile movements
which were to leaH to we Suppression. The king's
autocratic powers, his Gallieaiusm, bis insistence on
the r^resaion of the Jansenists by force, the way he
ctHnpelled the Society to take his part in the quarrel
wititi Rome about the TSgale (16S«-8}, led to a fidse
utuation in which the -j^arta niij^t be reversed, when
the idl-powerful sovereign might turn against them,
or by standing neutral leave them the prey of others.
This was seen at his death, 1715, when tne regent
banished tiie once influential father confessor Le
Telli^, while the gallicanizine Archbishop of Fans,
Cardinal de Noailles, laJd them under an interdict
(1716-29). Father Tamburini before Ms election
as general had taught philosophy and theology for
twelve years and had been chosen by Cardinal
Renaud d'Este as his theologian; be had also been
provincial of V«iice, secretary-general of the Society,
and vicar-general. Durine the disputes concemins
the Chinese Rites (q. v.), tne Society was accused <»
resisting the orders of Holy See. Father Tam-
burini protest^ eoergettcally against this calunmy,
and when in 1711 the procurators of all the provinces
of the Society were assembled at Rome, he had them
sign a protest which he dedicated to Fope Clement
JU.. The destruction of Port-Royal and the con-
demnation of the errors of Queanel by the Bull
"Unigenitus" (1711) testified to the accuracy of
the opinions adoj^ted by the Society in these dilutes.
FaHhet Tambunni procured the canonization of
Saints Aloynus Gonzaga and Stanislaus Kosdca,
and the beatification of St. John Francis R^.
During his generalate the mission of Paraguay
reached its highest d^ree of success; in one year no
fewer than seventy-seven missionaries left for it;
the missionary labours of St. Francis de Geronimo
and Blessed Anthony Baldinucci in Italy, and Vener*
able Manuel Padial m Spain, enhanced the reputation
of the Society. Father Tamburini died at the age
of dghty-two, having spent sixty-five years in relimon.
At iae time of his death the Society contained 37
provinces, 24 houses of professed Fathers, 612 collies,
59 novitiates, 340 r^dences, 200 mission stations;
in addition one himdred and fifty-seven seminaries
were directed by the Jesuits.

(15) Francis Retz, Austrian (bom at Pranie, in
1673), 7 March, 1730-19 November, 1750. Father
Rets was elected general unanimously, his able
administration contributed mu<di to the welfare of
tlie Society; he obtained the canonization of St.
John Francis R^gis. Father Retz's generalate was
perii^)s the quietest in the history of the order. At
the time of Kts death the Society contained 39 prov-
inoes, 24 bouses of professed Fathers, 669 oolleges.

6 8001117

61 novitiates, 335 remdences, 273 miipion statioiu,

176 seminaries, and 22,589 members, of whom 11,298
were priests.

(16) Ignatitit VisamH, Milanese, 4 July, 1751-
4 May, 1755. It was during this generalate that the
accusations of trading were first made against Father
Antoine de La Valette, who was recalled from Mar-
tinique in 1753 to justify his conduct. Shortly before
dying. Father Visoonti allowed him to return to his
mission, whore tiie failure <tf hie oommNcial opera--
tion8,_ somewhat lata*, gave an opportunity to the
enemies of the Society in France to begin a warfare
that ended only with the Suppr^on (see beh>w}.
Trouble with Pombal also began at this time. Father
Visoonti died at the age of seventy-three.

(17) AIoyMiu CerOurioni, Genoese, 30 November,
1755—2 October, 1757. During his brief generalate
the most noteworthy facts were the persecution by '
Pombal of the Portuguese Jesuits and the trouble
caused by Father de La Valette's commercial aetivitiee
and disasters. Father Centurioni died at Castel
Gandolfo, at the age of seventy-two.

(18) Lorenzo Ricci (q. v.), Florentine, 21 May,
1758, till the Suppression in 1773. In 1759 the Socl-
es contained 41 raovinoea, 270 mismon posts, awl
171 BBininarieB. Frntet Ricd founded the Bavarian
province of the order in 1770. His generalate Saw
the slow death agony of the Society; within two yearn
the Portuguese, Brazilian, and East Indian provincee
and missions were destroyed by Pombal; close to two
thousand members-of the Society were cast destitute
on the shores of Italy and imprisoned in fetid dun-
geons in Portugal. France, Spain, and the Two
Sicilies followed in the footsteps m PombaL The
Bull "Apostolicum" of^ Clement XIII in favour itf
the Society produced no fruit. Clement XIV at
last yielded to the demand for the extinction of the
Society. Father Ricci was seized, and cast a prisoner
into the Castel San Angelo, where he was treated as
a criminal till death ended his sufferings on 24 Novem-
ber, 1775. In 1770 the Society contained 42 prov-
inces, 24 houses of jnpfessed Fathers, 669 coU^gea,
61 novitiates, 335 residenoe^ 273 mission stationsi
and about 23,000 membtts.

HisTOBT. IttUi/.—Tba hietory of tlie Jesuits in
Italy was in general very peaceful. The only serious
disturbances were those arising from the occasional
quarrels of the civil governments with the ecclesias-
tical powers. Ignatius's first followers w^ imme-
diately in great request to instruct the faithful, and
to refonn the cl^^, monasteries, and convents.
Though there was fittle organized or deep-eeated mis-
chief, the amount of lessra* evils was immense; tiw
poBsibility here and there of a catastrc^he was evi-
dent. While the preachers and missionaries evange-
lized the countiy, colleges were established at Padua,
Venice, Naples, Bologna, Florence, Parma, and other
cities. On 20 April, 1555, the University of Ferrara
addressed to the Sorbonne a most remarkable testi-
mony in favour of the order. St. Charles Borromeo
was, after the popes, perhaps the most generous of
all their patrons, and they freely put their best talents
at bis disposal. (For the difficulties about his aemi-
nan^ and with Fr. GuilioMazarino, seeSylvain, "Hist,
de S. Charles", iii, 53.) Juan de Vega, ambassador of
Charles V at Rome, had learnt to know and esteem
Ignatius there, and when he was appointed Viceroy of
Sicily he brought Jesuits with him. A ooU^ was
opened at Mesuna; success was marked, and its rules
imd methods were afterwards copied in other coU^es.
After fifty years the Society counted in Italy 86
houses and 2550 members. The chief trouble in
Italy occurred at Venice in 1606, when Paul V \aid
the city under interdict for serious breaches of eccle-
siastical immunities. The Jesuits and some other
retigious retired from tl:^ city, and the Senate in-
iqnred by Paolo Saipi, the dinffeoted Mar, paasBd

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a decree oi perpetual bamshment against them. In
effect, thou^ peace was made ere I^ig with the pope,
it was fifty years before the Society could return.
Italy during the first two centuries of the Society
was still the most cultured country of Europe, and the
Italian Jesutts enjoyed a hi«^ reputation for learn-
ing and letters. The elder S^neri is considered t^e
first of Italian i^reaohers, and there are a number of
oUiets of the first claas. llaffei, TorBellino, Strada,
Pallavicino,aDdBartdi (q. v.)ha'v«lefthiBtoncalworics
which are atill hi^ily priaed. Between Bdlannine
(d. 1621) and Zacchaiia (d. 1705) Italian Jeeuita of
note in theology, controversy ^and subsidiaiy acienoeB
are reckoned by the score. They also claim a laif;e
proportion of the saints, martyrs, generals, and mis-
'aionaries. (See also Bellecius; Bolgbni; Boeco-
vich; Possevinus; Scarauelu; Viva.) Italy was
divided into five provinces, with the following figures
for the year 1749 (shortly before the beginnineof the
movement fw the Simpression oi the Society) : Rome,
848; Naplee, 667; ^dly, 776; Venice, 707; Milan,
ffiSS; total, 3iB22 membCTS, about one-iialf of whom
were priests, with 178 houses.

Spain. — Though the majority of Ignatius's com-
panions were Span-
iards, be did not
^ther them together
in Sfiain, and the first
Jesuits i)aid axdy
passing visits there.
In 1544, however/
FathfT Araos, cousin
(tf St. Ignatius, and
a very eloquent
preacher, came with
six companions, and
then their success
was ru>id. On 1
September, 1547, Ig-
natius established
Uieprorinceof Spain
with seven houses
and about forty re-
ligious; St. Francis
Borgia joined in
1548;inl5dOLainez
accompanied the
Spanish troops in
their African cam-
paign. With rapid
success came unexpected opposition. Melchoir Cano,
O.P., a theologian of European reputation, attacked
the young order, which could make no effective reply,
UOT could anyone get the professor to keep the peace.
But, very impleasant as the trial was, it eventuall;/
brou^t advantage to the order, as it advertised it
well m imivowty circlok and moreover drew out de-
fenders of unexpected efficiency, as Juan de la Pefia of
the Dominicans, and even their ^eral, Fra Fran-
cisco Romeo. The Jesuits contmued to prosper,
and Ignatius subdivided (29 September, 1554) the
existing province into three, containing twelve houses
and 139 religious. Yet tliere were internal troubles
both here and in Portu^ under Simon Rodriguez,
which gave the founder anxieties. In both countries
the first houses had been established before the Con-
stitutions and rules were committed to writing. It
was inevitable therefore that tbe discipline mtro-
duced by Araoz and Rodriguez should have differed
somewhat from that which was being introduced by
Ignatius at Rome. In Spain, the good offices of
Boisia and the visits of Fath^ Nadal did much to
effect a gradual unification of system, though not
without difficulty. These troubles, however, ^ected
the higher officials of the order rather than the rank
and file, who were animated by the highest motives.
Jhb great preacher Ramfirei is eaid to nave attracted

600 vocations to religious orders at Salamanca in
the year 1564, ^ut fifty oS tliem to the Society.
There were 300 Spanish Jesuits at the death of Igna-
tiuB in 1566; and 1200 at the close of BOTgia's gener-
alate in 1572. Under the non-Spanish generals who
followed there was an unpleasant recrudescence of
the nationalistic spirit. Considerine the quarrels
which duly arose between Spain and^other nations,
there can be no wonder at such ebullitions. As has
been eqilained under Acquaviva, Philip of Spain lent
his aid to the discontented parties, of whom the vir-
tuous Jos^ de Acosta was the spokesman, Fathers
HenUindes, Dionysius Vdsquez, Henrfquez, and Mari-
ana the real leaders. Their ulterior object was to
procure a separate commissary-general for Spain.
This trouble was not quieted tul the fifth congrega-
tion, 1593, after which ensued the great debates de
auxiliis with the Dominicans, the protagonists on
both sides being Spaniards. (See Conqreoatio de
Auxiuia; Gbace, Controversies on.)

Serious as these troubles were in their own sphere,
they must not be allowed to obscure the fact tnat in
the Society, as in all Catholic organizations of Uut
day, Spaniards played tJhie greatest r61es. . When we

enumerate their
great men and their
great works, they
defy all comparison.
This consideration
gains further force
when we remember
that the success of
the Jesuits in Flan-
ders and in the parts
of Italy then united
with the Spanish
crown was largely
due to Spanish Jes-
uits; and the same
is true of the Jesuits
in Portugal, which
country with its far-
stretchjng colonies
was also imder the
Spanish Crown from
1581 to 1640, though
neither the organisa-
tion of the Portu-
guese Jesuits nor the
civil government of
the country itself was amaleamated with those of Spain.
But it was in the more abstract sciences that the
Spanish genius shone with its greatest lustre; Toledo
fd. 1596), Molina (1600), de Valentia (1603), Vfcquez
(1604). Sudrez (1617),Ripalda (1648), de Lugo (^1660)
(qq.v.) — these lonn a group of unsurpassed brilliance,
and there are quite a numbW of others almost equally
remarkable. In moral theology, S^chez (1610), Azor
(1603), Salas (1612), Castro Palao (1633), Torres
(Tumanus, 1635), Escobar y Mendoza (1669). In
Scripture, Maldonado (1583), Sahnertfn (1585), Fran-
cisco Ribera (1591). Prado (1595), Pereira (1610),
Sancio (1628), Pineda (1637). In secular literature
mention may be made especially of de Isla (q. v.),
and Baltaaar Graci^n (1534-1658), auUior of the
"Art of Worldly Wisdom" (El orAculo) and "El
criticon", which seems to have suggested the idea
of "Robinson Crusoe" to Defoe.

Following the almost univarsal custom of the later
seventeenth century, the kings of Spain generally
had Jesuit confessors; but their attemnts at reform
were too often rendered ineffective by court in-
trigues. This was especially the case with the
Austrian, Father, later Cardmal, Everard Nidhard
(confessor of Maria Anna of Austria), and Pdre
Daubenton, confessor of Fhihp V. After the era of
the great writers, the chief ^ory of-4he Spanish

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Jesuits is to be found in their larae and flouriahing
foreign miBsiqns in Peru, Chile, New Granada, the
Philippines, Paraguav, Quito^hich will be noticed
under "Missions , below. Tbey were served by
2171 Jesuitfi at the time of the Suppresaion. Spain
itself in 1749 was divided into five provinces: Toledo
with 659 members, Caatile, 718; Aragon, 604; Seville,
«62; Sardinia, 300; total, 2943 members (1342 priests)
in 158 houses.

Portugal. — ^At the time when I^atius founded his
order P<wtuea] was in faer heroic a^. Her nilm
were men of enterprise, her universities were full of
life, her trade routes extended over the then known
world. The Jesuits were welcomed with euthusi-
asm. and made good use of their opportunities.
St. Francis Xavier, traversing Portuguese colonies
and settlements, proceeded to make his splendid
missionary conquests. These were continued by his
confreres iQ such distant lands aa Abyssinia, theCongo,
South Africa, China, and Japan, by Fathers Nunhes,
Silveira, Aomta, Femandes, and others. At Coim-
bra, and afterwards at Evora, the Society made the
most surprising progress under such professors as
Pedro de Fonseca (d. 1599), Luis Molina (d. 1600),
Christovao Gil, Se-
bastifto de Abreu,
etc., and from here
also comes the first
oomprehensiTeseries
of pnilosophieal and
theological text-
books for students
(seeCoNiMBRi-
CENSEs). With the
advent of Spanish
monarchy, 1581, the
Portuguese Jesuits
suffered no less than
the rest of their
country. Luis Car-
valho joined the
Spanish opponents
of Father Acqua-
viva, and when the
Apostolic collector,
Ottavio Accoram-
boni, launched an in-
terdict against the
Government of Lis-
bon, the Jesuits, es-
pecially Diego de Areda, became involved in the
undignified strife. On the other hand they played
an honourable part in the restoration of Fortufpd's
liberty in 1640; and on its succees the difficulty
was to restrain King JoSo IV from giving Father
Manuel Femandes a seat in the Cortes, and employ-
ing others in diplomatic missions. Ajnongst these
Fathers was Antonio Vieira, one of Portu^'s most
eloquent orators. Up to the Suppression Portugal
and her colonists supported the following missions, of
which further notices will be found elKwhere, Goa
(original^ India), Malabar, Japan, China, Brasil,
Maranhfio. The Portuguese province in 1749 num-
bered 861 members (384 priests) in 49 houses.
(See also Vieiba. AjnvNio; Malaqrida, Ga-

BRIBL.)

France. — The first Jesuits, Uiough almost all Span-
iards, were trained and made their first vows in
France, and the fortunes of the Society in France
have always been of exceptional importance for the
body at lar^. In early yeus its young men were
sent to Fans to be educated there as Ignatius had
been. They were honiitably received by Guillaume
du Prat, Bishop of Clermont, whose h6tel grew into
the College de Clermont (1550), afterwards Known as
Louia-le-Grand. Padre Viola was the first rector,
but tlte public claaaes did not begin till 1664. Tbo

Parlmuat of Paris and the Sorbonne resisted veli»-
mentlr the lettera patent, which Henry II and, afta
him, Fnuuds n and Charles IX, had granted with
little difficulty. Meantime the same Bishop of Cl^
mont had founded a second college at BiUom in his
own diocese, which was opened on 28 July, 1556, be-
fore the first general congregation. Coll^^ at Mau-
riao and Pamiers soon tollowed, and between 1565
and 1575 others at Avi^on, Cnamb^, Toulouse,
Rodez, Verdun, Nevers, B<nx(eaux, Font-ArMousKm;
while Fatiiers Coudret, Auger, Roger, and P^letier
distinguished thcxnsehres by tneir apostolic labours.
The utility of the order was also shown in the Collo-
quies at Poissy (1561) and St-Germain-en-Laye by
Fathers Lainez and Possevinus, and again by Father
Brouet, who, with two companions, gave his ufe in liie
service of the plague-stricken at Paris in 1562; while
Father Matdonado lectured wiUi striking effect both
at Paris and Bourges.

Meantime serious trouble was growing up with
the University of Paris due to a number of petty
causes. Jealousy of the new teachers, rivalry with
Spain, Gallican resentment at the enthusiastie devo-
tion of the Jesuits to Rome, with perhaps a spice of

Calvinism. A law-
suit for the closing
of Clermont College
was instituted before
the Pariment, and
Estienne Pasquier,
counsel for uni-
versity, delivered a
celebrated plaido^er
against the Jesuits.
The Parlement,
though then favour^
able to the order,
was anxious not to
irritate ibe univer-
sity, and came to an
indecisive settle*
ment(5April, 1565).
The Jesuits, in spite
of the royal license^
were not to be in-
corporated in the
university, but tbie^
might continue their
lectures. Unsatisfied
with thisj the uni-
versity retaliated by preventing the Jesuit scholars
fnuu obtaining degrees; and later (1573-6), a feud was
maintained against Father Maldonado (q. v.), which
was eventually closed by the intervention of Gr^ory
XIII, who had also in 1572 r^sed the CoU^ of
Pont-ik-Mousson to the dignity of a univeraity.
But meantime the more or lees incessant wars of
religion were devastating the land, and from time to
time several Jesuits, especial^ ^^S^ ^d Man are,
were acting as army chaplains. iSey had no con-
nexion with the Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572);
but Maldonado was afterwards deputed to receive
Henry of Navarre (afterwards Henry IV) into the
Church, and in many places the Fathers were able
to shelter fugitives in their bouses; and by remon-
strance and intercession th^ saved many uves.

Immediately after his coronation (1575) Henry HI
chose Father Auger for his confessor, and for exactly
two hundred years the Jesuit court confessor became
an institution in France; and, as French fashions were
then influential, every Catholic Court in time fol-
lowed the precedent. Considering the difficulty of
any_ sort of control over autocratic sovereigns, the
institution of a court confessor was well adapted to
the circumstances. The occasional abuses of the
office which occurred are chiefly to be attributed
to the eorarlntaDt powers vesteq in the Mitoerat,

Faqadm or THX Roman Collxoe

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which no human guidance could save from poiods
decline and degradation. But this was more'
clearly seen later on. A crisis for French Catholi-
cism was near when, after the death of Francois,
Duke of Anjou, 15S4, Henri de Navarre, now an apos-
tate, stood heir to the throne, which the feeble Henry
III could not possibly retain for long. Sidee werft
taken wiUi entiiuaaam, and La aaxnte Ivw was formed
for the d^enoe vi thia Church (see Leaguk, Thh;
GnisB, House of; Fbancb). It was hardly to be ex-
pected that the
Jesuits to a man
should have re-
mained cool, when
the whole p<n>u-
lace was in a fer-
ment of excite-
ment. It was
morallyimpos-
aible to keep the
Jesuit friends of
the exaUMon both
sides from partic-
ipating in thoir
^rememMSures.
Auger and Claude
Matthieu were
respectively in
the confidence of
the two contend-
ing parties, the
Coiurt and the
League. Father
AcquaTiva sao-
eoeded in with-

Jonr Pavl Ouva, Elbvekts GBirtitAL
OF TBS SocisTT Or Jsirs, D. 1081

drawing bothfrom France, though wiUi great difficulty
and considerable loss of favour on either side. One or
twohecould not control for some time, and of these the
most remarkable was Henri Samerie, who had .be^
chaplain to Mary Stuart, and became later army
chaplain in Flanders. For a year he passed as diplo-
matic agent from one prince ctf the Le^ue to anouier,
evading, hy their means and the favour of Sixtus V,
all Acquaviva's efforts to get lum back to regular life.
But in the end discipline prevailed; and Acquaviva's
orders to respect the consciences of both sides
enabled the Society to keep friends with all.

Henry IV made much use of the Jesuits (especially
Toledo, PossevinuB, and Commolet), although they
had favoured the League, to obtain canonical absolu-
tion and the conclusion of peacej and in time (1604)
took PSre Coton (q. v.) as hu confessOT. Hiis,
however, is an anticipation. After the attoupt on
Hrauy's life by Jean Chastel (27 December, 1594),
the Parlement of Paris took the opportunity <A attack-
ii^ the Society with fxiry, perlwps in order to dis-
guise the fact that they had been among the most
extreme of the Leaguers, while the Society was among
the .more moderate. It was pretended that the
Society was responsible for Chastel's crime, because
he had once been their student: th«^ in buth he
was then at the university. The librarian of the
Jesuit College, Jean Guignard, was hanged, 7 Janu-
ary, 1505, because an old book against the king was
found in a cupboard of his room. Antoine Amauld,
the elder, brought into his jdaidoyer before the Parle-
ment every possible calumny against the Society, and
the Jesuits were ordered to leave Paris in three days
and France in a fortnight. The decree was etecuted
in the districts subject to tiie Paiiement of Paris,
but not elsewhere. The king, not being yet canoni-
eaUy absolved, did not then interfere. But the pope,
and many others, pleaded earnestly for the revocation
of Uie decree against the order. The matter was
wannly debated, and eventually Henry himself gave
the permission for its readmission, on 1 Sept., 1603.
99q9W|nadepeatU5e<tft^S(>det]r,ft»mdHforit^

gi;eat CoUege of La Flftche, encouraged its rrtifflrions
at home, in Normandy and B^am, and the commence-
ment of the foreign mf^ons in Canada and the Levant.

The Society immediately began to increase rapidly,
and counted thirty-nine colleges, besides other houses,
aod 1135 rdi^us before the king fell under Ravail-
Ws dagger (1610). This was made the occasion
for new assaults by the Parlement, who availed them-
selves of Mariana's book "De lege" to attack the
Society as defenders of tyranniei<u. Suarei's "De-
fensio fidei" was burnt in 1614. The young king,
Louis XIII, was too weak to curb the parlemen-
lairea. but both he and the people of France favoured
the Society so rffectively that at the time of his
death in 1643 their numbers had trebled. They now
had five^ovinces, and that of Paris alone counted
ovMT 13,()00 scholus in its colleges. The confessors
durii^ this reign were chanpied not unfrequently by
the manceuvres of Richeheu, and include Pferes
Arnoux de S^guiron, Suffren, Caussin (q. v.), Sirmond,
Dinet. Richelieu's policy of supporting the Ger-
man Protestants against Cathohc Austria (which
Caussin resisted) proved the occasion for angry po-
lemics. The German Jesuit Jacob Keller was beheved
(thou^ iwoof of authorship is altogether wanting
to have written two strong punphlets, "Mysteria
poUtica" and "Admonitio ad Ludovicum XIH",
against France. .The books were burned by the
hangman, as in 1626 was a work of Father SantarelUf
whidi toucbed awkwardly on the pope's power to
pronounce against princes.

The politico-religious history of the Society under
Louis XlV centres round Janseniun (see Jansenids
AND JANSBNisif) and the lives of the king's confessors,
especially P6rw Annat (1645-60), Femer (1660-74),
La Chaise (q. v.) (1674-1709), and Michel Le Tellier,
(q. v.), (1709-15).
On 24 May. 1656,
Blaise Pascal (q. v.)
published the first
of his "Provin-
ciales". The five

S repositions of
ansenius having
been condemned
by papal author-
ity, Pascal could
no longer defend
them openly, and
found the most
effective method of
retaliaticm was sat-
ire, raillery, and
countercharge
against theSociety .
He concluded with
the usual evasion
that Janseniua did
not write in the
sense attributed to
him hy the pope.
The"ftovinciales"
were the first note- „
worthy example in Claodto* Acquativa, Firra Gbnmui,

£<»nnl. l.— 0» ™» SOCIMT OF JHUI, D. 1616

tne J?Tencn l^l- Prom an engraving by HieronymuaWierx
guage of satire

written in studiously polite and moderate terms; and
their great literary merit appealed powerfully to the
Frenc£ love of clevmiess. Too light to be effectively
answered by refutation, they were at the same time
sufficiently envenomed to do great and lasting harm;
although they have frequently been proved to mis-
represent the teaching of the Jesuits by omissions,
alterations, interpolations, and false contexts, notably
by Dr. Karl Weiss, of Gratz, "P. Antonio de Escobar
y Mendoia ala Moraltheolof^ in Pascals Beleuditung
uad im Idflbte der Wabilieit".

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The cause of the Jesuite was also ootmiromised by
the various quarrels of Louis XIV with Iniiocent Hi,
especially conceroiogther^aleandtheGaUican articles
of 1682. (See Louis XIV and Innocent XI. The
difFerent standpoints of these articles may help to
iUustrate the differracee of view [wevalent within
the order on subject.) At &et there was a
tendency on both sides to spare the French Jesuita.
They were not at that time asked to subscribe to
the Galilean articles^ while Innocent overlooked their
adherence to the king, in hopee that their modera-
tion might bring about peace. But it was hardly
poasible that they should escape all troubles under a
dcHnination so preesins. Louis conceived the idea
of uniting all the French Jesuits under a vioar, inde-
pendent of the general in Rome. Before making
this known, he recalled all his Jesuit subjects, and all,
even the assistant, PSre Fontaine, returned to
France. Then he proposed the separation, which
Thyrsus Gonzdlez nrnuy refused. The provincials
of the five French Jesuit provinces implored the king
to desist, which he eventual^ did. It has been
allied that a papal decree forbidding the reoeptioa
ctf novices between 1684-6 was issued in wmishmait
ci the F^nch Jesuits g^vii^ support to Louis (Cr^
tineau-Joly). The matter is alluded to in the Brief
of Suppression; but it is still obscure, and would
seem rather to be connected with the Chinese rites
than with the difficulties in Franco. Except for the
interdict on their schools in Paris, 1716-29, by Car-
dinal de Noailles, the fortunes of the order were
very calm and i^oqperous during Uie wwuing ^f^a-
enijon. In 1749 the French Jesuits were divided
into five {nrovinces with members as follows: France,
891; Aquitaine, 437; Lyons, 773; Toulouse, 655;
Champt^e, 594; total, 3350 (1763 priests) in 158
houses.

Oermany. — The first Jesuit to labour here was BI.
Peter Faber (q. v.), who won to their ranks Bl. Peter
Canisius (q. v.), to whose lifelong diligence and emi-
nent holiness the rise and pron}arity of the German
provinces are especially due. In 1556 there were two
provinces, South Germany (Oermania Superior, up to
and including Mainz) and North Germany (Rhenana,
or Germania Inferior ^ including Flanders). The first
residence of the Society was at Cologne (1544), the
first college at Vienna (1552). The Jesuit colleges
were soon so popular that they were demanded on
evoy side, faster than they could be suppUed, and the
greater owps of these became freui provinces.
Austria branched off in 1563, Bohemia in 1623,
Flanders had become two sepuate provinoes by 1612,
and Rhineland also two provinces in 1^. At that
time the five German-speaking provinces numbered
over 100 colleges and academies. But meanwhile
all Germany was in turmoil with the Thirty Years
War, which had so far gone, generally, in favour of
the Cathohcpowm. In 1629 came the Re^utiont-
edikt (see CouNTia-RBioiucATioN), by wfakli tbe
emperor redistributed with papal sanction Ae fdd
church property, which had been recov««d from the
usurpation of the Protestants. The Society received
large grants, but was not much benefited thereby.
Some bitter controversies ensued with the ancient
holders of the properties, who were often Benedic-
tines; and many of the acquisitions were lost agam
during the next period of the war.

The sufferings of the order during the second period
were grievous. Even before Uie war they had been
systematically persecuted and driven into exile by
the Protestant princes, whenever these had the oppor-
tunity. In 1618 they were banished from Bohemia,
Moravia, and Silesia; and aSter the advent of Gus-
tavus Adolphus the violence to which they were
liable was increased. The fanatical proposal of
banishing them for ever from Germany was made by
him m 1631, and again at Fnmkfort m 1633; and

^ wooarr

this counsel of hatred acquired a hold whidi it still
exercises over the German Protestant mind. The
initial successes of the Catholics of course excited
further ant^wthies, especially as the great generals
TiUy, Wallcoistein, ana Piccolomini had been Jesuit
pupib. During the siege of Prague, 1648, Fatiier
PliM^y succesffluUy trained a corps of students for
the defence of tbe town, and was awarded the mural
crown for his services. The province of Upper
Rhine alone lost seventy-seven Fathers in the neld-
bospitals or during the fitting. After the Peace
of Westi^ialia, 1648, the tide of the Counter-Refor-
mation had more or less spent itself. The foundation
period had passed, and tbsm are few external events
to chronicle. The last notable conversion was that
of Prince Frederick Aueustus of Saxony (1697),
afterwards King of Poland. Fathers Vota and
Salerno (afterwaurds a cardinal) were intimately con-
nected with his conversion. Within the walls of their
colleges and in the churches throughout the country
the work of teaching, writing, and preaching contin-
ued unabated, while the storms of controversy rose
and fell, and the distant miawms, eq>eoialfy China and
the Spanish misrions of Souui America, claimed
scores of the noblest and most hi^-spirited. To this

giriod belong Philipp Jenigen (d. 1704) and Franz
unolt (d. 1740), perhaps the greatest German
Jesuit preachers; Tschupick, Joseph Schneller, and
Ignatius Wurz acquired an almost equally great
r^utation in Austria. In 1749 the German prov-
inces counted as follows: Gemumia Superior,
1060; Lower Rhine, 772; Upper Rhine, 497; Austria,
1772; Bohemia. 1239; total, 5340 members (2558
priests) in 307 houses. (See also the Index volume
under title "Society of Jesus", and such names as
Becan, Byssen, Brouwer, Drechsel, Lohner, etc.)

Hungry was included in the province of Austria.
The chief patron of the order was Cardinal PAz-
m^y (q. v.). The conversion of Sweden Was several
times attempted by German Jesuits, but they were
not allowed to stay in the country. Kin^ John III,
howevor, wbo had manied a FUish jmnoees, was
actually converted (1578) through various missions
by Fatbears Warsiewics and Fossevinusi the latter
accompanied by the English Father William Good;
but the king had not the courage to persevere.

8ueen Christma (q. v.) in 1654 was Drought into the
hurch, largely throi^ tbe ministration of Fathers
Macedo and Casati, having given up her throne for
this purpose. The Anstnan Fathers maintained
a small readeave at Moscow from 1684 to 1718,
which had been opoied by Father Vota. (See
PossEvimjs.)

Poland. — Bl. Peter Canisius, who visited Poland in
the train of the l^ate Mantuato in 1558, succeeded
in animating King Sigismund to energetic d^ence
Catholicism, and Bishop Hosius of Ermland founded
the coll^ of Braunsberg in 1584, which with that
of Vilna (1669) became centres of Catholic activity
in north-eastern Europe. King Stephen Bathory, an
earnest patron of the order, founded a Ruthenian
CoOege at Viba in 1575. From 1588 Father Peter
Skarga (d. 1612) made a great impression by his
preaching. There were violent attacks against the
Society in the revolution of 1607, but after the vic-
tory d Sigismund III the Jesuits more than recovered
the KTOund lost; and in 1608 the province could be
subdivided into Lithuania and Poland. The animus
against the Jesuits however vented itself at Cracow
in 1612, through the scurrilous satire entitled "Mo-
nita secreta" (q. v.). King Casimir, who had once
been a Jesuit, favoured the Society not a little; so too
did Sobieski, and hia campaign to relieve Vienna from
the Turks (1683) was due in part to the exhortations
of Father Vota, his confessor. Among the great
Polish missionaries are numbered Benedict Herbst
(d. 1593} and Bl. Andrew Bobola (q. v.). In 1766

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91

the Polish provincee were readjusted into four; —
Greater Poland; Lesser Poland; Lithuania| Massovia,
counting in all 2350 religious. The Pobah Jesuits,
besides their own missioDs, had otbere in Stodcholm,
Russia, the Crimea, Constantino^ and Ferata.
(See Cbacow, University of.)

Bdgium. — ^The first settlement was at Ijouvain in
1542, whither the students in Paris retired on the
declaration of war between France and Spain. In
1556 Ribadeiieira obtained legal authorisation for the
Society from Philip II, and in 1564 Flanders became
a separate province. Its beginnings, however, were
by no means uniformly proeperous. The Duke of
Alva was cold and suspicious, while the wars of the
revolting provinces told heavily against it. At the
Faoificatimi of Ghent (1576) the Jesuits were offered
an oath against Uie rulers ox the Netheriands, which
tliey firmly refused, and were driven from their houses.
But this at last won for them Philip's favour, and
under Alexander Famese fortune turned completely
in their favour. Father Oliver Manare became a
leader fitted for the occasion, whom Acquiviva him-
self greeted as "Pater Provincis". In a few years
a number of weU-established ooUegee had been
founded, and in 1612 the province had to be sub-
divided. The FJofiiro-Belpjca counted sixteen colleges
and the 6aUo-B«^£oa eighteen. AU but two were day-
schools, with no preparatory classes for small boys.
They were worked with comparatively small skaifTs
of five or six, sometimes only three professors, though
their scholars might count as many hundreds. Teach-
ing was gratuitous, but a sufficient foimdation for the
support of the teachers was a necessary prriiminary.
Though preparatory and elementary education was not
yet in fashion, ihe eare taken in teachii^ catechism
was most ehuiorate. The classes were regular, and
at intervalsenliTOiedwith music, ceremonies, mystery-
plays, and processions. These were often attended
DT the whole magistracy in robes state, while
the bishop himself would attend at the distribution
of honours. A special congreoation was formed at
Antwerp in 1628, to organise ladies and gentlemen,
nobles and bourgeoiB, mto Sunday^chbcu teachers,
and in that year their classes counted in all 3000
duldren. Similar organisations eidsted all over the
country. The first communion classes formed an
extension of the catechisms. In Bruges, Brussels,
and Antwerp between 600 and 1600 attraxled the
communion classes.

Jesuit congregations of the Blessed Virgin were
first instituted at Rome by a Belgiui Jesuit, Jean
LeonH, m 1563. His native country aooa todc than
up with enthusiasm. Each coU^ had ncmnal^
four: — (1) for scholars (more often two, one for older,
me for younger); (2) for young men on leaving; (3)
for grown-up men (more often several) — for working-
men, for tradesmen, professional classes, nobles,
priests, doctors, etc., etc.; (4) for small boys. In days
oefore hospitals, wtH'khousee, and elementary educa-
tion were regularly ot^canized, and supported by the
State; before burial-clubs, trade-unions, and the
lil» mevided speciid help for the working-man, these
aodajitiefl discharged the functions of such institu-
tions, in h<xnely fashion perhaps, but eratuitously,
brining together all ranks for the reCef of inm-
gence. Some of these congr^ations were exceedingly
popular, and their roisters still show the bames m
the first utists and savants of the time (Teniers, Van
Dyck, Rubens, Lipsius, etc.). Archdukes and kings
and even four emperors are found among the sodalists
ot Louvain. Pnwably ^ fint permanoit corps of
army chaplains was that established by Famese in
1587. It consisted of ten to twenty-five chfv>laina,
and was styled the "Missio castrensia," and lasted
as an institution till 1660. The "Missio navalis"
waa a kindred instituticm for the navy. The Flandro-
BelQjan provinoe numbered 5^ in 1749 0132 {jrisatB)

in 30 housea: OaDo-Balgian, 471 (266 imeats) in 25

houses.

England. — Founded at Rome after the English
Schism had commenced, the Society bad great diffi-
culty in finding an entrance into England, thou^
Ignatius and Kibadeneira visited the countiy m
1581 and 1558, and prayen for its conversion have
been recited Umnigbout the order from 15^3 to the
present day (now under the common designation
of "Northern Nations"). Other early Jesuits exerted
themselves on behalf of the English seminary at
Douai and of the refugees at Louvain. The meet
of Elizabeth's expulsion of Catholics from Oxford,
1562-75, was that many took refuge abroad. S<Mne

A PoBLic Catbchibh at Vibnha, 1599
From a oontemporary print

scores of young men entered the Society, several of
these volunteered for foreign missions, and thus it
came about that the forerunner of those legions of
Englishmoi who go into India to carve out careers
waa the English Jesuit missionaiv, Thomas Stephens.
John Yate (oittu Vincent, b. 1550; d. after 1603)
and John Meade (see Auceida) were pioneers of the
mission to Brazil. The most noteworthy of the first
recruits were Thomas Darbishire and William Good,
followed in time by Blessed Edmund Campion (q.v.)
and Robert Persons. ' The latter was the first to con-
ceive and elaborate tUe idea of the English mission,
i^ioh, at Dr. Allen's request, was undertaken in
December, 1578.

B^ore this the Society had undertaken the care of
the English College, Rome (see Engush College),
by the pope's command, 19 March, 1578. But di£G-
culties ensued, owing to the miseries inherent in the
estate of the religious refugees. Many came all the
way to Rome expecting pensions, or scholarships from
the rector, who at first Decame, in spite of himself, the
dispmaer iA Pope Gregco^'s alms. But the alms
soon f uled, and several scholars had to be dismissed
as unworthy. Hence dis^pointments and storms
(rf grumbling, the records of which read sadly by
the side of the consoling accounts of the martyr-
doms of men like Campion, Cottam, Southwell,
Walpole, Page, and others, and the labours of a
Heywood, Weston, or Gerard. Persons and Crichton
too, falling in with the idea, so common abroad, that
a oounter^revolution in favour of Mary Stuart would
not be difficult, made two or three political missions
to Rome aai Madrid (1582-84) before reafizing that
their schemes were not feasible (see Persons).
After the Armada (q. v.), Persons induced Philip to
establish more seminaries, and hence the foundations
at VaUadolid, St-Omer, and Seville (1589, 1592,
1509), all put m charge of the English Jesuits. On the

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other hand tSiciy mffered a setback in the so-called
Appellant controverey (1598-W02), which French
diplomacy in Rome eventually made into an oppor^
tunity for operating against Spain. (See Blackwbll;
Garnet.) The assistance of France and the influence
of Uie French Counter-Reformation were now on the
vriiale hu^y beneficial. But many who took refuge
at Paris became accustomed to a Gallican atmosphere,
and hence pertiaps some of the regalist views about
Uie Oath of Allegianoe and some of the excite-
ment in the debate over the jurisdiction of the Bish-
ops of Chalcedon, of which more below. The feeling
of tension continued until the missions of Fazani,
Conn, and Rosetti, 1636-41. lliough the first of
these was somewhat hostile, be was recalled in 1637,
and his successors broi^t about a peace, too soon
to be interrupted by the Civil War, 1641-«0.

Before 1606 the English Jesuits had founded houses
for others, but neither they nor any other Endish
order had yet erected houses for themselves. But
during the so-called "Foundation Mov^ent", due
to majiy causes but especially perhaps to the stimu-
lus of the Counter-Reformation (q. v.) in France,
a full equipment of institutioos was established in
Flanders. He novitiate, begun at I<ouvain in 1606,
was moved to Lidge in 1614, and in 1922 to Watten.
The house at Li^ was continued as the scholaBticate,
and the house of third probation was at Ghent 1620.
The "mission" was made in 1619 a vice-province,
and on 21 January, 1623, a province, with Fr. Rich-
ard Bloimt as first provincial; and in 1634 it was able
to undertake the foreign mission of Maryland (see
below) in the old Society. The Knglish Jesuits at
this period also reached uieir greatest numbers. In
1621 tbey woe 211, in 1636, 374. In the latter year
their total revenue amounted to 46,086 aeudi (almost
£11,000). After the Civil War both members and
revenue fell ofiF very considerably. In 1649 there were
only 264 members, and 23,055 sctidi revenue (about
£6760) ; in 1645 the revenue was only 17,405 scudi
(about £4360).

Since Elisabeth's time the martyrs had been few —
one only, the Yen. Edmund Anowamith (q. v.),
in the i«ign of Charles I. On 26 October, 1623,
had occurred "the Doleful Even-song". A congre-
gation had gathered for vespers in the garrets <^
the French embassy in Blackfriars, when the floor
gave way. Fathers Drury and Rediate with 61
(perhaps 100) of the congr^tion were killed. On
14 March, 1628, seven Jesuits were seised at St.
John's, Clerkenwell, with a large number of papers.
These troubles, however, were fi^t, compared with
the sufferings during tlw Commoawealth, when Ibe
list of martyrs and confessors weat up to ten. As the
Jesuits depended so much on the country families,
they were sure to suffer severely by the war, and the
college at StrOmer was nearly beggared. The old
trouble about the Oath of All^ianoe was revived
by the Oath of Abjuration, and "the three questions"
proposed by Fairfax, 1 August, 1647 (see Whitb,
Thomas). The representatives oi Uie secular and
regular cl»gy, amw^ than Father Henry More,
were called upon at snort notice to subscribe to th«n.
They did so, More thinking he mi^t, "considering
the reasons of the preamble", which qualified the
words erf the oath considerably. But the provin-
cial, Fr. Silesdon, recalled him from England, and
he was kept out of ofiice for over a year; a punish-
ment which, even if drastic for his offence, cannot be
r^retted, as it providentially led to his writing the
hifrt»ry of the English Jesuits down to the year 1^5
("Hist, misrionis anglicante Soc. Jesu, ab anno aalutis
MDLXXX", SfrOmer^ 1660).

With the Restoration, 1660, came a period of
greats calm, followed by the worst tempest of aU,
Oates's plot (a. v.), when ihfi Jesuits lost eight on
tbe seafloM and thirtera in prison in five yean, 1678-

2 8O0IRT

83. Then the period of greatest prosperity under
King James II (1685-8). He gave them a college,
and a public chapel in Somerset Hoxise, made Father
Fetre nis almoner, and on 11 November, 1687, a
member <rf his Privy Cotmcil. He also chose Father
Warner as his confessor, and encouraged the preadw
ing and emtroverBieB which, were earned on witb no
little fruit. But this spell of prosperity lasted only a
few months; wi^ the Revolution of lw8 the Fathers
r^ained their patrimony of persecuticoi. The last
Jesuits to die m prison were Fathers Foulton and
Aylworth (1690-1692). William Ill's repressive
lepslfttion did not have the intended effect of exter-
minating the Catholics, but it did reduce them to a
proscribed and ostracised body. Tfaenoeforward
tbe annab of tbe English Jesuits dww little that
is new or strikine, though their nurob^ and works
of charity were well maintained. Most of the Fathers
in England were chaplains to gentlemen's families,
of which posts they held nearly a hundred during the
eia^teenth century.

The church law under which the English Jesuits
worked was to some extent special. At first indeed
all was undefined, seculars and regulars living in true
happy-famUy style. As, however, cvguiiBation dev^
oped, friction between parts couunot always be
avoided^ and legislation became necessary. By
the institution of the archpriest (7 March, 169o), and
by the subsequent modifications of that institution
(6 April, 1599; 17 August, 1601 ; and 5 October, 1602),
various occasions for friction were removed, and prin-
ciples of stable government were introduced. As
soon as Queen Henrietta Maria seoned able to pro-
tect a bishop in England, bishcpa of Chaloedon in
pttrtQnta infidelium were sent, m W2S and 1625.
The second of these, Dr. Richara Smith, endeavoured,
without having the necessary faculty from Rome, to
introduce the episcopal approbation of confessors.
This led to the Brief "^Britannia", 9 May, 1631, winch
left the faculties of rtgular missionaries in their pre-
vious immediate dependence on the Holy See. But
after the institution of vicars Apostolic in 1685, by
a Decree <A 0 Octobor, 1695, regulars were obliged
to obtain approbation fr«n the bishop. Hme were
of course many othier matters that needed settlement,
but the difliciutiee of the position in England and the
distance from Rome made I^iislation slow and difiS-
cult. In 1745 and 1748 Decrees were obtained,
against which appeals were lodged; and it was not
tm 31 May, 1753, that the "Regulse missionis" were
laid down by Benedict XIV m the Constitution
"Apostolicum ministerium'j wbidh r^ulated eoole-
siastical administration until the issue of the Cfmsti-
tution "Romanos Pontifices" in 1881. In tbe year
of the Suppression, 1773, the English Jesuits num-
bered 274. (See Coffin, Edward; Crbswbu-; Ench
usa Confessors and Marttrs; Mori:, Hbnrt;
P^NAL Laws; Pbrsons, Robert; Petrb, Sir Ed-
ward; Plowden; Sabran, Louis de; Sodthwbll;
Spenser, John; Stephens, Thomas; Rbdford.)

Ireland. — One of the fint ooniinissious whidi the
popes ^trusted to tbe Society was that of acting as
envoys to Ireland. Fathers Salmer6n and Brouet
mantwed to reach Ulster during the Lent of 1542;
but the immense difficulties of the situation after
Henry VIII's sucoesses of 1541 made it impossible
for them to live there in safety, much less to dischaive
the functions or to commence the reforms which the
pope had entrusted to them. Under Queen Mary the
Jesuits would have returned had there been men ready.
There were indeed abeady a few Irish novices, and oi
these David Woulfe returned to Ireland on 20 Janu-
uary, 1661, with ample Apostoiie faculties. He pro-
cured candidates for the sees emptied by Elizabeth,
kept open a grammar school for some yeais^ and sent
aerwai novices to the order; but he was finally im-
prisoned, and bad to withdraw to the Continent. A

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03

SOCUTT

litUe later tbe " Irish mission" was re^[tUarib^ oreanised
under Irish superiora, begimung with It. Richard
Fleming (d. 1590), professcn- at Clermont College,
and then Chancellor of the University of Pont-jt-
Mousson. In 1609 the miasioo numbered seventy-
two, forty of whom were prieeta, and eighteen were
at work in Ireland. By 1617 this latter number had
incre^ed to thirty-eight; the rest were for the most
part in training among their French and Spanish
confreres. The fotmdation of colleges abroad, at
Salamanca, Santiago, Seville, and Lisbon, for the
education (rf the clergy, was chiefly due to Father
Thomas White (d. 1^2). They were consolidated
and long managed by Fr. James Archer of Kilkenny,
afterwaitls missionary in Ulster and chaplain to
Hugh O'Neill. The Irish Coll^ at Poitiers was also
under Irish Jesuit direction, as was that of Rome
for some time (see Irish CoLLj:aE, in Rome).

The greatest extension in Ireland was naturally
during uie dominance of the Confederation (1642-54),
with which Father Matthew O'Hartigan was in great
favour. Jesuit colleges, schools, and residences then
amounted to thirteen, with a novitiate at Kilkenny.
During the Puritan domination the number of Jesuits
fell again to eighteen; but in 16S5, under James II,
there were twenty-eight with seven residences. After
the Revolution their numbers fell again to six, then
rose to seventeen in 1717, and to twenty-e^t m
1755. The Fathers sprang mostly from the old
Anglo-Norman families, but almost all the mission-
aries spoke Irish, and missionary labour was the chief
occupation of the Irish Jesuits. Fr. Robert Roch-
ford set up a school at Youghal as ^ty as 1576;
university education was given in Dublin in the reign
of Charles I, until the ouiklings were seized and
handed over to Trinity Collee^e; and Father John
Austin kept a flourishing school m Dublin for twenty-
two years before the Suppression.

Some accoimt of the work of Jesuits in Ireland will
be found in the articles on Fathers Christopher
Holywood and Henry Fitssimon; but it was abroad,
from the nature of the case, that Irish genius of that
day found its widest recognition. Stephen White,
Ltike Wadding, cousin of his famous Franciscan name-
sake, at Maond; Ambrose and Peter Wadding at
DiUiiwrai and Grats re^tectively; J. B. Duiggin and
John Lombard at Yprea and Antwerp; Thomas Com-
erford at Compostella; Paul Sherlock at Salamanca;
Richard Lynch (1611-76) at VaUadolid and Sahi-
manca; James Kelly at Poitiers and Paris; Peter
Plunkett at Leghorn. Among the distinguished
writers were WilBam Bathe, whose "Janua linguar
rum" (Salamanca, 1611) was the basis of the worl :of
Commenius. Bernard Routh (b. at Kilkenny, 1695)
was a writer in the "M^moires de Trfivoux" (1734-
43), and assisted Montesquieu on his death-bed. In
the field of foreirai missions O'Fihily was one of the
first f^wstles of Paraguay, and Thomas Lynch was
provincial of Brasil at the time of the Suppression. At
this time also Roger Magloire was workmg in Marti-
niciue, and Philip O'Reilly in Guiana. But it was the
miasioD-field in mland itself of which the Irish Jesuits
thou^ most, to which all else in one way or other led
up. Tlieir Iwours were principal^spent in the walled
atiee of the old English Pale. Here they kept the
faith vigorous, in spite <tf persecutions, which, if
sometimes intermitted, were nevertheless long Mid
severe. The first Irish Jesuit martyr was Edmund
O'Donnell, who suffered at Cork in 1676. Others on
that list of honour are; Dominic Collins, a lay brother,
Youghal, 1602; William Boyton, Caahel, 1647;
Fathers Netterville bud Bathe, at the fall of Dro-
gbeda, 1049. Fr. David GfUway worked among the
■qattered and persecuted Gaels of the Scottish Isles
and Highlands, until his death in 1643. (See also
FhwiuoN; Malons; O'Donnell; Talbot, Pbtbb;
lauB C0NFE88OB8 AND MAsme.)

Obhshal or TBI Soctm or Jnoi,
D. 1686

Sooliand. — ^Father Nicholas de Gouda was not to
visit Mary Queen of Scots in 1562 to invite her to
send bishops to tlie Council Trent. Hie power of
the Protestants made it impossible to achieve this
object, but de Gouda oonfenred with the queen and
brought back with him six young Scots, who were to

grove the founders of the mission. Of these Edmund
[ay soon rose to prominence and was rector of Cler^
mont College, Paris. In 1584 Crichton returned
with Father James Gordon, uncle to the Earl of
Huntly, to Scotland; the former was captured, but
the latter was exlracndinarily successful, and the
Scottish mission proper may be said to have be^m
with him, and Father Edmund Hay and Jolm Drury,
who came in 1585.
The Earl of Huntly
became the Catho-
lic leader, and the
fortunes of his
party passed
throupi many a
strange turn. But
the Catholic vic-
tory of Glenlivet,
in 1594, aroused
the temper of the
Kirk to such a pitch
that James, though
averse to severity,
was forced to ad-
vance against tJie
Catholic lords and
eventually Huntly
was constrained to
leave the country
and, then return-
ing, he submitted
to the Kirk in 1597.
This put a term to
the spread of Catholicinn: Father James Gordon had
to leave in 1595, but Father Abercromby succeeded
in reconciling Anne of Denmark, who, however,
did not prove a very courageous convert. Meantime
the Jesuits had been siven tbe management of the
Soots College founded by Mary Stuart in Paris,
K^uch was successively removed to Font-&-MouB8on
and to Douai. In 1600 another coll^ was founded
at Rome and put under them, and there was also a
small one at Madrid.

After reaching the F"gl''«b throne James was bent
on introducing episcopacy into Scotland, and to
reconcile the Preabytenans to this he allowed them
to peraecute the Catholics to their hearts' content.
By their barbarous "excommunicatifm", the suffer-
ing they inflicted was incredible. Hie soul of the
resistance to this cruelty was Father James Anderson,
who, however, becoming the object of special searches,
had to be withdrawn in 1611. In 1614 Fathers
John Ogilvie (q.v.) and Jamea Moffat were aent in,
the former Buffering martyrdom at Gla^w, 10 March,
1615. In 1620 Father Patrick Anderson (q.v.) was
tried, but eventually banished. After this, a short
period of peace, 1626-7, ensued, followed by another
persecution 1620-30, uid another period of peace
before the riaingof the Covenanters and the civil
wais^ 1638-45. There were about six Fathera in the
mission at this time, some chaplains with the Catho-
lic gentry, some living the then wild life of the
HighhuKMrs, especially during Montrose's campaigns.
But after Phihphauui (1645) the fortunes of the
royalists and the Catholics underwent a sad change.
Among those who fell into the hands of the enemy
was FMher Andrew Ijeslie, who has left a livdy
account of his prolonged aufferinga in various prisons.
After the Restoration (1660) there was a new period
ci peace in which the Jesuit missionaries naped a
ooniddenUe harvest, but during tbe di^turbaneea

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SOCISTT \

caused by the Covenanters (q.v.) the pwaeeutitm <d

Catholics was renewed. James II favoured them as

far as he could, appomtine Fathers James Forbes

and Thomas Patterson chapiams at Holyrood, where

a school was also opened. After the Revolution the

Fathers were scattered, but returned, though with

diminishing numbers.

EhnoBT. — A. OeiuMml. — JlfM. UHonea Sik. Jfru.cd.IlDDTLCQ
iMii^Hd, ISW, in pragresa): ObUMCiiNl IciiatinuHl in tum

BVBuCBlini tlOTfVAVDY, (LQll CuiU)ATU.t^ Hxii. Sac. JtMU, } 5i(t-

(6 vola, fol, llmiit" miJ Antwe^rn, 11116-1750), and Svp-
^Sivtnt (fiomfl, t^^:* , iKnTiiu, /Wf ittoria dflia camp, di

(0 'taU.fu.. ]ti>:ii-i, ii>ihi-T3J; Cn^TiriiEAtT-JaLV, Miu. dt ta
MM^d* JAiut [Sni oiL, 3 vols., Fuia, iSSfl); B. N., Tit Jetuin:
fydr fiftndatim and Ifiataru (UnDdao, lS79) \ [WuLKlj. Abriii d<T
OnAt iar Gt»t^UdiaSl Jeta (MQnBler. IS7G)', Caxhu, .itlas at^
artalaaa Soc- Jum (PutK l^m); Hc:!uFit.K'HiER, Dit Ordmi vn-l
yiUgfrjllllfJntii-n der katli^haffifn Kirrbf, III I furiGrburn, ilH)^!.

tmOw rf* CD"P- Jitv* (1>iT>-cbit. I~4)}. Ncm-CKlholic:—
M*IJl1P'P I IB JUo^tW- /<i>' vroi. Thtot.. 9. V. JtHiOmKfdm:
BZnwrtiBLUEa, ffi»L jetvUin m^tiinia (Prankfon, iS&tt); H»-
mMimav Wuf. jsMituu iZuricb, 1619).

B, Fmlooln Ctoum.riea.— Italy. — TAfrHi-VENxrHi, Storia
diUa. camp, dt 9. in Thlia (Rorae, 1010. in proK''i^-'''N ^'Uifjuu
AMD-fiAKSAOATAi iHorto drSlit r^omp. (7. appartmentt ai repna
tt Kivoti {Naplra. lyoQ-jTf^ Aunam, La SieiUa CPtimim,
ITOS); AaxULfcHjl,, I^rtninnii WicuIxJ Jhu Ttf eoKB \PiltTmo,
1737-Jff>; Cappelletti, / jfituiti * la rririiWini di \'tnt!ia (VeO-
Ifp. 1873.) ; Fav ABO, La Madiu di Padani r la r.amp. df G. I Vvuku,
l-jTT).

gD«tiL — Ai^mjiis-. flid. dt Is aiinp. tie J. m la aiMmda dt
JlMuMa (MMdnd, 3 vata.. in ptaefxa) \ ALCJ«^_GAmit^

kiSoria dt la com p. dp J.enia prticmcin dr Tuitda [MiUH^ iTtO) :
Pm*!, jVuf. A iJibaJmejfra (Farii, 1S02).

PorHUal.'— Tklle«, TlirorriM iV £(1 camp, de X »w propincia dt
ihittM^at (Coi ffl bli I ll5-*E-7j.; Fhasco, iS'^nup. anttoi. Jfsu m

XtoMEM. pun a Aiil. do* tTHMbt W Pori^aal (C-oifiibn^ lt«!>9).

FreiM*.— FoHijw«a*T. uUl. dt H cinlip, t/e J. m f*i^nM (Poria.
IBID); Cabavos, Doeun. in/d. r.-mrrrnunl In rvmp. dr J. f23 voli.,
Pikria. JSfl3-B6); lDUI> Lr^ (j.jFf,;ir,f i^J j rt Jr, j.'^^id.i [Ciiri.*. LHti7);
Phat, Jf^FJi, PflMr*<™r ij i 'lJ-iC ■J'l P. flm-u^j ( J'mj . lS>"j-) : Iuem,
fewWchif htrit. Uif la romp- di J, w» FrtiiicE da frmiw Ji* F. CMoa.

Leyciea, Cbomat, Z.«a jlmi&a eC Iraff enrnrn d jlripiKin

Gtrtaftny, rtc. — AGiiiiL'ai.A (iwatinued by PLomi, KboR'),
ttitl. pros, S<fC. /est! Germfoiia n/iffi-inru US40~te41} [A vdK.|
AuBBbuTK Mil Munich. 1727-54]; H^k?*:-*. Rhan. Akin tur
Gtwth. du JemtUenardm ISit-Si t\im>). ijLl*t9K!l. HiSt. <f ih*
GiTfiioi* PeOfJ', tr. Chuihus (Ijju.Jsju, 1;»0S-10); I)ima, <itscii.
der Jtiuilen in dm l^iulern rteulirhtT 7.\inae iFrtiburjEi l!W7r;
Kbdeu, tier bdAmiichen t^m. da U. J. (VUuorn. lUlUl;

Medebeh. Annal. InnoUtaditntii aeadm. (Ii^olrtadt, 1782);
RKirrmNBEmo, Hi»l. Soe. Jtau ad Rhvntm inftnorfm (Colosne,
17S4) ; Abqknto, D* refru* Soc Jtau in remo Polonia (Cra^iw,
1620) ; PoLLABD, Tht JfuiiM in Pdand (Oxford, 1882) ; Zaixnbki,
HiH. oflht Soe. of Jenu in Poland (in Poliob, 1800-1906): Idem.
Tht Jauiu in WhiU Riutia (in Poliab, 1874; Fr. tr., Paiio, 1886);
FiKBUNO, AntmitPoMenntmitnomowontwa (1883); RosTOwBKi,
Hi^. Soc. Jem LiAuanieamm protincieUium (Wilna, 1765);
Sgbmisu Hitt. Soe. Jetu yrot. Bohtmia, 1MS-166S (Pnsue,
1747-fi9); SocHCB, HiU. prot. Aviria Soe. Jetu, IB^O-tBOO
(Vicnu, 1740); Steinbubeb, Gsieft. dw C«IL Omnoniewm-lfun-
aarienm (Freiburg, 1895).

Bd^um. — Mamabe, De rtbua Boe. Jtmt eammmtaritiM, wL
Dblplacb (Florence, 1836); Waloack, HitL pram. Fbmdro4>tlffi'
ca Soc Jent anni t6S8 CGhent, 1867).

England, Ireland, Scotland. — Folet. Rtcordt of the Bnffiiah
Prtn. of the Soc Jetue — indudea Irish and Sootch Jesuits (London,
1877) ; Sfillmaitn, Die engtitehen Marlyrer unler Blimbelh bit tSSS
(Freibunc. 1888): Fobbbs-Lbith. Nott. of Scettiah Calholiei
^Minbuw, 1885); Idkm, Mem. of Scot. Cath. (London, 1909);
HooAX, iMTnia IgTiatiana (DaUin, 1880); Idbh, Diitinouiehed
Irithmen of the X VI eentun (London, 1894): Mstbb, Bm^nd
und die kath. Kirehe utiter Elitabelh (Rome, 1910) ; Mobk, Hitt.
proa. Anglieana (St^Omer, 1060); Pbbbonb, iteynoirt, ed. Poi^
LBN in Cath. Record Soeietv, II (London, 1800, 1897), iii; Pouan,
Politiet of the Bng. Cath. under BUaabeth in The Month (London,
1902-^); Tadkton, The Jeeuitt in EnoUutd (London, 1801).

Missions. — No epbsre of religious activity is held
in greater esteem among the Jesuits tlian tJiat of
the foreign missions; and from the beginning men of
the highest gifts, like St. Francis Xavier^ have been
devoted to this work. Hence perhaps it is that a
better idea may be formed of the Jesuit missions by
reading the lives of its great missionaries, which wiU
be found under their respective names (see Index
vol.), than from the following notice, in which atten-
tion has to be confined to ^eral topics.

India. — When the Society began, the Brest edon-
ising powers were Portugal and Spain. The cUeer

( SOCBTT

of St. Francis Xavier (q. v.), so far as its geographical
direction and limits were concerned, was Imneely
determined by the Portuguese settlements in the £Ast
and tiie trade routes followed by Portuguese mer-
chants. Arriving at Goa in 1642, he evangelized
first the western coflst and Ceylon, in 1545 he was
in Malacca, in 1549 in Japan. At the same time be
pushed forward his few assistants and catecbists into
other centres; and in 1652 set out for China, but died
at the year's end on an island off the coast. Xavier's
woric was carried an, with Goa as headquarters,
and Father Bansus as Buooeesor. Father Antonio
Criminali, the firat martyr of the Society, had suffered
in 1549, and Father Mendee followed in 1552. In
1579 Blessed Rudolph Acquaviva visited the Court
of Akbar the Great, but without permanwit effect
The great impulse at conversions came after Ven.
Robert de NobiU (q. v.) declared himself a Brahmin
San^Att, and lived the life d the Brahmins (1606J.
At Tanjore and elsewhere he now made immense
numbers of converts, who were allowed to keep the
distinctions of their castes, with many religious cus-
toms; whii±, however, were eventually (after much
controversy) condemned by Benedict XIV in 1744.
tliis condemnation produced a depressing effect on
the mission, though at the very time Fathers Lopex
and Acosta with singular heroism devoted them-
selves for liife to the service of the Pariahs. The Sup-
pression of the Society, which followed soon after,
completed the desolation of a once prolific missionary
field. (See Malabar Rites.) From Goa too were
organized missions on the eaat coast of Africa. The
Abyssinian mission under Fathers Nunhes, Oviedo,
and Paes lasted with varied fortunes for over a cen-
tury, 1555-1690 (see Abyssinia, I, 76). The mis-
sion on the Zambesi under Fathers Silveira, Acosta,
and Femandes was but short-lived; so too was the
work of Father Govea in Angola. In the sevcmteenth
century the missionaries penetrated into Tibet,
Fathers Desideri and Freyre reaching IJiasa. Others
pushed out in the Persian mission from Ormua as
far as Ispahan. About 17(X) the Persian missions
counted 400,000 Catholics. The southern and
eastern coasts of India, with Ceylon, were comprised
after 1610 in the separate province of Malabar, with
an independent French mission at Pondicnary.
Malabar numbered forty-seven missioii^efl (Fm^
tuguese) befwe the Suppression, whBe the French
missions counted 22. (See Hanxleden.)

Japan. — The Japanese mission (see Japan, VIII,
806) gradually developed into & province, but the
seminary and seat of government remained at Macao.
By 1582 the number of Christians was estimated at
200,(X)0 with 250 churches and 69 missionaries, of
whom 23 were priests, and 26 Japanese had beoi ad-
mitted to the Society. But 1687 saw the begimunga
of persecution, and about the same period b^an the
rivalries oi nations and of competing orders. The
Portuguese crown had been assumed by Spam, and
Spani^ merchants introduced Spanish Dominicans
and Franciscans. Gregory XIII at first forbade this
(28 Jan., 1685), but Clement VIII and Paul V (12
Dec^ber, 16(X); 11 June, 1608) relaxed and repealed
the prohibition; and the persecution of Talco-sama
quenched in blood whatever disctmtent mifd^t have
arisen in consequence. The first great slau^ter of
<M missionaries at Nagasaki took place on 5 F^-,
1597. Then came fifteen yefuv of comparative peace,
tod gradually the number of Christians rose to about
1,800,000 and the Jesuit missionaries to 140 (63
priesta). In 1612 the persecution broke out again,
mcreasing in severity till 1622, when over 130 mar-
tyrs suffered. The "great martyrdmn" took place
on 20 September, when Blessed Charies Spmola
(q. V.) suffered with representatives of the Dcmnmcans
and we Fkwtciscans. F<h- the twenty cnsuuig years
the massaere cmtiaued without men^, all Jesuiti

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SOCIETY

95

SO0IIT7

wbo landed being at once executed. In 1644 Father
Gsspar de Amaral was drowned in attempting to
landj and his deaUi broi^t to a close the century of
missHHUiry efforts which the Jesuits had made to
bring the Faith to Japan. The name of the Japan-
ese province was retamed, and it counted 57 subjects
in 1760; but the mission was really ccmfined to Tonkin
and Cochin-China, whence stations were established
in Annam, Siam, etc. (see Indo-Cbina, VII, 774-fi;
Marttbs, Japanese).

China. — A detailed account of this mission from
1552 to 1773 will be found under China (Illf 672-4)
and M ABTTBS in China, and in lives of the missionaries
Bouvet, Bruicati, Cameiro, Cibot, Fridelli, Gaubil,
Gerfoillon, Herdtrich, Hinderer, Mailla, Martini,
Matteo Ricci, Schall von Bell, and Vetbiest (qq.v.).
From 1581, -vihea the mission was organized, it con-
sisted of Portuguese Fathers. They established four
colleges, one seminary, and some forty stations
under a vice-provincial, who resided freauently in
Pekin; at the suppression there were 54 Fathers.
From 1687 there was a special mission of the French
Jesuits to Pekin, under their own superior; at the
Suppression they numbered 23.

Cenlral and South America. — The missions of
Central and Southern America were divided between
Portugal and Spain (see America, I, 414). In 1549
Father Nombrega and five companions, Portuguese,
went to Brazil. Progress was slow at first, but when
the lan^ages had been learnt, and the confidence of
the natives acquired, progress became rapid. Blessed
Ignacio de Asevedo ana his thirty-nine companions
were martvred on their way thither in 1670. The
misnons, however, prospered steadily under such
leaders as Jos^ Ancnieta and John Almeida (qq. v.)
(Meade). In 1630 there were 70,000 converts.
Before the Suppression the whole country had been
divided into missions, served by 445 Jesuits in Brazil,
and 146 in the vice-province of Maranbito.

Paraguay. — Of the Spanish miraions, the most
noteworthy is Paraguay (see GuARANi iNniANs;
Abiponbs; Argentine Republicj Reductions of
Paraquat}. The province contamed 564 members
<of whom 385 were priests) before the Suppression,
with 113,716 Indians under their charge.

Mexico. — Even larger than Paraguay was the
missionary province of Mexico, which included
California, with 572 Jesuits ana 122,000 Indians.
(See also California Missions; Mexico, pp. 258.
266, etc; Af^Azco; Ci.avigero; DIaz; Ddcrue; etc.)
liie conflict as to jurisdiction (1647) with Juan de
Palafox y Mendoza (q.v.). Bishop of La Pudt>la, led
to an appeal to Rome which was decided by Inno-
cent X in 1648, but afterwards became a cause c6l^
bre. The other Spanish missions. New Granada
(Colombia), Chile, Peru, Quito (Ecuador), were
administered by 193, 242, 526, and 209 Jesuits reepeo-
tively (see Albqrb; Araucanians; Abawaks; Bab-
rasa; MoxoB Indians).

Unii«i StaUa. — Father Andrew White (q.v.) and
four oUier Jesuits from the English mission arrived
in territory now comprised in the State of Maryland,
25 Maroh, 1634, with the expedition of Cecil Calvert
(q. V.) For ten years they ministered to the Catholics,
of the colony, converted many of its Protestant pio-
neers, and conducted missions among the Indians
along Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac River, the
Patuxents, Anacostans, and Piscataways, which last
were especially friendly. In 1644 the colony was
invaded by the Puritans from the neighbouring settle-
ment of Virginia, and Father White was sent in
ehuns to En^and, tried for being a Catholic, and on
his release took refuge in Belgium. Although the
Catholic colonists soon r^^ained control, they were
ecmstantly menaced by their Puritan nekUiours and
by malcontents in the colcmy itsdf, ymo ijuSfy in

1682 succeeded in seizing the government, and in
wacting penal laws against the Catholics, and par-
ticularly against their Jesuit priests, which kept
growing more and more intolerable until the colony
became the State of Maiyhmd in November, 1776.
During the 140 years between their arrival in
Maryland and the Suppression of the Society, the
missionaries, averaging four in number the first forty
years and then gradually increasing to twelve and
iinatly to about twenty, continued to work among the
Indians and the settlers in spite of every vexation
and disability, though prevented from increasing in
number apd extending their labours during the dis-

Eute with Cecil Calvert over retaining the tract of
ind, Mattapany, given to them by the Indians, relief
from taxation on
lands devoted to
religious or chari-
table purposes,
and the usual
ecclesiastical im-
munity for them-
selves and their
households. The
con troversy ended
in the cession oi
the Mattapany
tract, the mission-
aries retaining the
land they had ac-

auired by thecon-
itions of planta-
tion. Prior to the
Suppression they
had established
missions in Mary-
la nd , at St.
Thomas. White
Marsh, St. Ini-
goes, Leonard-
town, still (1912)
under the care of Jesuits, and also at Deer Creek,
Frederick, and St. Josefjh s Bohemia -Manor, besides
the many less permanent stations among the Indiana
in Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Conewago, Lancaster,
Goshenhoppen, and' excursion stations as far as New
Yoric where two of their number, Fathers Harvey
and Harrison, assisted for a time by Father Gage,
had, under Governor Dongan, ministered as chaplains
in the forts and among the white settlers, and
attempted unsuccessfully to establish a school, be-
tween 1683-89, when they were forced to retire by an
anti-Cathohc administration.

Hie Suppression of the Society altered but little
the status of the Jesuits in Maryland. As they were
the only priests in the mission, they still remained at
their poets, most of them, the nine English members,
until deaw, all continuing to labour under Father
John Lewis, who after the Suppression had received
the powers of vicar^neral from Bishop Challoner
of the London District. Only two of them survived
until the restoration of the Society — Robert Molyneux
and John Bolton. Many of those who were abroad,
labouring in England or studying in Belgium, returned
to work in the mission. As a corporate body they
still retained the properties from which they derived
support for their religious ministrations. As their
numbers decreased some of the missions were aban-
doned, or served for a time by other priests but main-
tained by the revenues of the Jesuit properties even
^ter the Restoration of the Society. Though these
properties were regarded as reverting to it through
its former members organized as the Corporation of
Roman Catholic Clei^ymen, a yearly allowance from
the revenues made over to Archbishop Carroll became
durii^ Bishop Mar^chal's administration (1817-34)
the baioB of a claim for sudt a payment^n perpetmty

MAnxo Ricci
From a CbiDese portrait preserved in
the College of PropBc&nda

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soomr, (

and the dispute thus occaooned was not settled untQ
1838, under Archbishop Eccleston.

French Missiom. — The French missions bad as
bases the French colonies in Caaadv the Antilles,
Guiana, and India; while French innuenoe in the
Mediterranean led to the missions of the Levant, in
§yria, among the Maromtes (q. v.), etc. CBee also
Guiana; Haiti; MAsnNiQim; China. Ill, 673.)
The Canadian mission is described under Canada,
and Missions, Cathouc Indian, of Canada. (See
also the accounts of the mission given in the articles
on IndifUi tribes like the Abeiuubs, Aj>ache8, Cree,
HuroDs, Iroquois, Ottawas; and in the biographies oi
the missionaries Bailloquet, Br^beuf, Casot, Cha-
band, Chastellain, Cbaumonot, Cholonec, Crepieul,
Dablon, Dniillettes, Gamier, Goupil, Joguea, Lafitau,
Lagrene, Jacques- P. Lidlemant, Lamberville, Lauzon,
Le Moyne, R&le, etc.) In 1611 Fathers Biard ana
Mass6 arrived as missionaries at Port Koyal, Acadia.
Taken prisoners by the English from Virginia, they
were sent back to France in 1614. In 1625 Fathers
Mass£. Br^beuf, and Charles Lalemant came to work
in and about Quebec, until 1629, when they were
forced to return to France after the English captured
Quebec. Back agun iu 1632 they began the most he-
roic missionary period in the annals of America. They
opened a colle^ at Quebec in 1635, with a staff <tf
most accompliahed professors from France. For forty
years men quite as accomplished, labouring under
mcredible hardships, opened missions among the
Indians on the coast, alongthe St. Lawr^ce and the
Saguenay, and on Hudson Bay; among the Iroquois,
Neutral Nation, Petuns, Hurons, Ottawas, and later
among the Miamis, Illmois, and among the trflKs
east m the Mississippi as far south as the Gulf iA
Mexico. When Canada became a BritiEh possession,
in 1763, these missions could no longer be sustained,
though many of them, especially those that formed
«part of parochial settlements, had gradually been
taken over by secular priests. The college at Quebec
was closed in 1768. At the time of the Suppression
there were but twenty-one Jeeuits in Canada, tiie
last of whom. Rev. John J. Casot^ died in 1800. The
mission has become famous for its martyrs, eight of
whom, Br^beuf, Gabriel Lalemant, Darnel, Gamier.
Chabanel, Joguea and his lay companions GoupU ana
Lalande, were declared venerable on 27 Feb., 1912.
It has also become noted for its literary remams, es-
pecially for the works of the mismonariea in the Indian
tongues, for their uplwationa, especially tliat <tf
Marquette, and tat its "Belationa .

Jesuit Relationa. — 'The collections known as the
"Jesuit Relations" consist of letters written from
members of the Society in the foreign mission fields to
their superiors and brethren in Europe, and contain
accounts of the development of the missions, the
labours of the missionaries, and the obstacles which
th^ encountered in their work. In March, 1549,
when St. Francis Xavier confided the misnon <tf Or*
mus to Father Caspar Barzseus, he included among his
mstructions the commission to write from time to time
to the college at Goa, giving aii account of what was
being done in Ormus. His letter to Joam Beira
(Malacca, 20 June, 1549) recommends similar accounts
being sent to St. IgnatiuB at Rome and to Father
Simon Rodriguez at Lisbon and is very explicit con-
cerning both the contents and the .tone of these
accounts. These instructions were the ^ide for the
future "Rations" sent from all the foreign missions
of the order. Hie "Relations" were oi three kinds:
Intimate and personal accounts awi to the father-
general, to a lelative, a friend, or a superior, which
were not meant for publication at that time, if ever.
ThCTC were aUo annual letters, intended only for
members of the order, manuscript copies of which
were sent from house to house. Extracts and analy-
ses <rf these letters wen compiled in a v<dume sntitlea:

} 800IST7

"litterffi annus Societatis Jeeu ad patres et fratres
ejusdem Societatis". The rule forbade the communi-
cation of these letters to persons not members of the
order, as is indicated by the title. The publication of
the annual letters began in 1581, was interrupted from
1614 to 1649, and came to an end in 1654, tbougb the
provinces and missions continued to send such let*
ten to the fathovgeneral. Hie third class of letters,
or "Relations" j)roperly so called, were written for
the public and mt^ded for printu^. Of this class
were the famous "Relations ae la Nouvelle-France",
b^un in 1616 by Father Biard. The series for 1626
was written by Father Charles Lalemant. Forty-one
volumes constitute the series of 1632-72, thirty-nine
of which bear the title '/ Relations", and two (1645-^
and 1658^) "Lettree de hi Nouvelle-France".
The <%88ation of fdieae publicaticms was the indirect
outcome of the controversy conceraing Chiiwse Rites,
as Clement X foH>ade (16 April, 1673) missionaries to
pubUsh books or writings concerning the missions
without the written consent of Propaganda.

Lettan from tbe mimioQB wen iiwUtuted by Saint lanAtiiu.
At first they circulated in MS. and !oontained home aa well M
foreign oeWB; e. g. lAttttae quadrimtstre* (5 vols.), lately printed
in the Monumcnta eeriea, mentioned above. Ilater oa LUttnt
annua, in yearly or triennial volumes (1581 to 1614) at Rome,
Florence, etc, udex with laat vol. Bccond Series (1650-54)
at Dillincen and Prague. The Annual LetUrt were continued,
and still oontinue, in MS., but very irregularly. The tendency
waa to leave home news in MS. for the future historian, and to
publish the more interesting reports from abroad. Hence many
early iasues of Avsiti and Littene, etc, &om India, China, Japan,
and later on the celebrated Rdaliont of the French Canadian
miaaiona (Paris, 1634 — ). From Uieae ever-growing printed
and MB. souroes were drawn up the collections — L^lrea tdi'
JUtiUt* at eurinuM ieritot jmr quaguei miuionairet tU la conp.
d* Jttut (Paris, 1702; frequently reprinted with different matt«r,
in 4 to 34 volumes. The origmal title was Lettret de gu^qwt
mitnonairtt); Der Kaut-WMMtt mil alUrharu! f/a^riehtm deren
MUnonar. Soc Jeau, ed. Stocklbim and others (36 vols.,
Augsburg. Grata, 1728 — ); Hcondsr, DetUteht jetuitm Mia-
monart (Freiburg, 1899). For literature of particular misoioDa
see those titles. ljtcixvc9,PTmiertuMi»*e7nmtdelafo\idan»la
AintMlto-nwwM (Paris, 1619), tr. Sbsa (New York, 1881); Oauf-
BCLL, Piontitr PristU of VortA America (New York, 1908-11);
BouBNS, Spain in Avterica (New York, 1904); Parkman, Tm
Jetuili tn North Amtriea (Boston, 1868); RocBnoNTEix, Ln
^faMtoi<< la 7\^mMU»-nvnMauTni«micI« (Paris, 1896); Chablk-
TOiz, HmI. (fa la NotadU-Pranee ^arta, 1744); Campbku. (B.U.),
Biog. Sketch of Father Antirew While and hie Companion*, the
JSrH Mittimane* of Maryland in the Mttropolitan CatMie Almi^
nae (Baltimore, 1841); IDXU, HiH. Sketch of lha Early Chriatian
Miisiont arnong the I'i^diar^t of Afaruland (Maryland Hist. Soo.,
8 Jan., 1846) ; Jobkbom, The Foundation of Maruland in Marv
land Hitt. See., Fund PuMioationa, do. 18; Kip, Baiij/ Jeauit Mia-
tionain North America (New York, 1882):Idbm, HiaL Seme* from
the OU Jeavit Miaaion* (New York, 1876): The Jeauit Relationa,
«d, Tbwaitbb (73 vols., Cleveland, 189&-1901); Shea, Jeauila,
Beeoileela, and Indiana in Winbob, Narratitt and crUieal Hiat, <4
Ammiea (Boston, 1889); HnoBU, Hiat. of the Soe. of Jee%ta in
North Amarictt. Colonial and Federal (Cleveland, IQOS— ); Shea,
Hiat. of the Cath. Church within the limita of the United Statea
O^ew York, 1886-62); Schall, Rial, relalio da oriu et pragreaiu
jtdai orthod. in remo Chineai 1681-1660 (Ratisbon, 1672); Ricci,
Optra aloridie, eo. VaNnnu (Macerata, IBll).

SuppKESBiON. 1760-73. — ^We now approach the
most . diiEcult part of the history of the Society.
Having enjoyed very high favour among CathoUc
peoplee, longs, prelates, and pc^ws for two and a
naif centuries, it suddenly becomes an object of
frenzied hostility, is overwhelmed with obloquy, and
overthrown with dramatic r^idity. Every work
of the Jesuits — their vast missions, their noble col-
leges, their churches — all is taken from them or de-
stroyed. They are banished, and their order sup-
prosed, with harsh and denunciatory words even from
the pope. What makes the contrast more striking
IB tlut their protectors for the moment are fonner
enemies — ^the Russians and Frederick of Prussia.
Like many intricate problems, its solution is best
found by beginning with what is easy to understand.
We look forward a generation and we see that every
one of the thrones, the pope's not excluded, which
had been active in the Suppression, is overwhelmed.
France, Spain, Portugal, and Italy become, indeed
still are, a prey to the extravagances of the Revolu-
tionaiy movement. Hie Suppreasi(»i <tf the Sooietj

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soomy

«Mdoe to the flWM «IMIM« whith in farther develop-
ment brou^t about the Preneh Revdutkni. These
eauMS Taned somewhat in different countries. In
Franoe niMiy inflaences combined, as we shall see,
from Jansemsm and Free-thou^t to Ijiethenprer-
almt impatmioe with tlw old order of tliingB (see
FttANOB, VI, ITS). Srane have tboi^t that the
Snpprowioii waa inimarily dm to these onrrents of
thought. Others attribute it chiefly to the abeolu-
tisiB ctf the Boorbtms. For.thou^ in Franoe die king
was averse to the Suppression, the destructive foroeeao-
quired their power beoaoise he was too indolent to exer>
eiaectmtroliWhiohatdutttimelieaionepoeMesed. Out-
aide Franoe it is plain that autocrat, acting through
hujMkanded ministers, was the determining cause.

PurtugaL — In 1700 Joseph I of Fwtugal appmited
Sebastian Joseph Carvalho, aftvwards Marquis of
FombiU(q.v.)^ as hie first minister. Carvattn's quairel
with the Jesuits began over an exchange of territ<x7
with S^iin. San Sacramento was exchanged for the
seven Reductions of Paraeuay, which were under
SiM^n. Tht Society's wooaerrul misNcns there were
eoveted by the Portuguese, viho bdieved that ^e
Jesuits wore minmg gold. So the Indians were
ordered to quit their country, and tiie Jeauits ende»^
oiured to lead them quietly to the distant land allotted
to them. But owing to the hairii craiditiuM imposed,
the Indians rose in arms against the transfer, and the
soMjalled war of Paraguay ensued, which, of course,
was disastrous to the Indians. Then etep bystep
the quarrel with the Jeeuita was pushed to extremi-
ties. The weak king was persuaded to remove than
from Ckmrt; a war of pamphlets lu^inst him waa
eoBunnoed; the Fathen were first forbidden to under-
take the tenporal admrnistratiiHi <tf the misaionB, and
then tboy were deported from America.

On 1 April, 17S8, a Brief was obtained from the
aged pope, Benedict XIV (q. v.), (4>pointing Cardinal
Baldsdiha to investigate the uegi^ons against the
Jesuits, whidi bad been raised in the King of Portu-
cal's name. But it does not follow that the pope had
fOTejwked the case against the order. On the con-
trary, H we take into view aU the letters and inatrae-
tkms sent to the cardinal, we see that the pope was
dbtinetly sceptical as to the gpravity of the alleged
abuses. He ordered a minute inquiry, but one con-
ducted so as to safeguard the r^utation of the Soci-
ety. All matters ol serious importance were to be
rnerred back to himself. The pope died five weeks
later on 3 May. On 15 May, Saldanha, having
reoetved the Brief only a fortoi^t before, omitting
the thorough, faouae-to4iouse vnitaticm which had
been entered, and pronouncing on tb» iaroes iriiich
the pope had resoved to himself, declared that the
Jesuits were guilty of having exercised iUidt, public,
aud scandalous conmieroe both in Portugal ana in its
cokmies. Three weeks later, ait Pombal's instiga*
tton, all faoultiee were withdrawn frcon the Jesmts
tliroug^iout the Patriarchate of Lisbon. B^ore Cle-
ment XIII (q v.) had become pope (6 July, 1766) the
wovk (tf the Society had bera dcetnqwd, and in 17M
it was dvilly suppressed. The last step waa takoi
in oonsequence at a i^ainat Hie diamberlain
TeMiras, but Buq>eeted to Iwve been aimed at the
king, fod of this the Jesuits woe supposed to have

a>proTed. But the grounds of su^ia<m were never
early stated, much lees proved. The height al
Pombal's persecution was reached with the burning
<l7dl) of the saintb^ Father Maia^da (q. v.) oatenai-
Uy fair heresy; while the other Fauiers, who had been
erowded into prisms, were left to periui by the score.
InteroooiBe brtween the Qiurdi of Portugal and
Rome was Iwoken off till 1770.

Franoe. — ^The suppression in France was occasioned
bv the injuries inflicted by the En^^ navy on
FWneh cranmerce in 1756. The Jeewt misskmariea
held a **^!^ ^ Martiniqiie. Thay did not

and could not trade, that is, bu^ cheap to sell dear,
anv more than any otho- religious. But they did
seQ the products of their great mission farms, in
which many natives were employed, and this waa
allowed, putly to provide for the current expenses
of the mission, partly in order to protect the simple,
childlike natives frmn the ocmmon pl^ue of difiionest
intermediaries. Ptee Antoine La valette, superior of
the Martinique mission, managed these transactions
with no little succees, and success encouraeed him to
go too far. He began to borrow money m order to
work the lai^ undeveloped resources of the colony,
and a strong letto- from the governor of the island
dated 1763 is extant in praise of his ent^rise. But
on the outbreidc oi war, ships conveying goods of
iJie estimated value of 2,000,000 IwrM were captured
and he suddmly became a bankrupt for a vay large
sum. His cremtors were «Kged on to demand pay-
ment from the procurator oithe Paris province: but
he, relying on what certainly was the letter of the
law, reused responsibility for the debts of an inde-
pendent miseioD, thoufdi offering to nesoti&te for a
setUement, of which he held out assured oopes. The
ereditors went to ttie courts, and an order was made
(17S0) ofal^Dg the Society to pay, and (pving leave
to distrain in case of non^paymoit.

The Fathers, on the advice of their lawyers,
wpealed to the Wand'dutmbre of the Parlemmt of
Paris. This turned out to be an imprudent st^. For
not only did the Parlemeni support the lower oourt^ 8
May, 1761, but, having once got the case into its
hands, the Sod^y's enemies in that assembly deter-
mined to strike a great blow at the order. Enemies
of every sort combined. The Janseniste wae nu>
meroue among Ihe gms-de-robe, and at that moment
were eepecid^ keen to be revenged on the orthodox
partv. The Srabonnists, too, the university rivals
<^ the great teaching order, joined in the attadc.
So did the Gallicans, the Phuoeophes, and Bncyclo-
pidiitet. Louis XV was weak, and the influence
of his Court divided; white bis wife and children were
eameetly in favour of the Jesuits, his able first minis*
ter, the Due deChoiseul (q. vO* played into the hands
of the Parkmmi, and the xoyta mistrees, Madame de
Pompadour, to whom Uie Jesuits had refused absdu-
twra, was a bitter opponent. The determination of
the Parlemmt of Pans in time bore down all oppo-
sition. The attack on the Jesuits, as such, was opened
by the Jansenistic AhM Chauvelin, 17 April, 1762,
who denounced the Constitutions of the Jesuits as
the cause of the allied defalcations of the ordw.
lliis was followed by the compfe-rentfu on the ConstH
tutioBS, 3-7 Jufy, 17^ fun of misconceptions, but
not yet egrtravagant in hostility. Next day Otauve-
lin deeeended to a vulgar but efficacious means of
exciting odium bjr denouncing the Jesuits' teaching
and morals, eepeciaUy on the matter of tyraimicide.

In the ParwnerU the Jesuits' case was now despe-
rate. After a long conflict with the Crown, in which
the mdolent minister-ridden sovereign failed to
assort his wyi to any puipose, the Pmiemml issued
its welMmown "Extrmt* daa oswrfums", a blue4xK)k,
as we mif^t say, containing a oongeriee of passages
fmn Jesuit theologiana and canonists, in which they
were alleged to t^ch every sort of immorality and
error, from tyrannicide, magic, and Arianism to
treason, Socimanism, and Lutheranism. On 6
August, 1762, the final arrtt was issued condemning
thpe Society to extinction, but the king's intervention
brought eidit months' delay. In favour <tf the Jech
aits there had been some striking testimonies, espe-
ohUIy from the French clerg>' in the two convocations
summoned on 30 November, 1701, and 1 May, 1762.
But the series of letters and addressee published
by Clement XIII afford a truly irrefragable attesta-
tion in favour ot the order. Nothing, however,
■vailed to stay the ParltmaU. The kin^s counter-

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ndict delayed indml t,Ue ext;culioii of ite ottAL aud
meaQtime a compromise was Bu^ested by the Court.
If the French Jesuits would stand apart from the
ord^ under a flench vicu, with French customs,
the Crown would still protect Uiem. In ^ite ttf the
dangers of refus^, the Jesuits would not ccMiSHit:
and upon consulting the pope, he (not Ricci) usea
the since famous phrase, SitU ul sunt, vii wm siM
(de Ravignan, "ClfimentXIII ", I, 105, -he not6&^
attributed to Ricci also). Louis s intervention hin-
dered the execution of the anil againat the Jesuits
until 1 April, 1763. The colleges were then cloeed,
and by a further arrSt of 9 March, 1764, the Jesuits
were required to renounce their vows under pain of
banishment. Chilv three priests and a few scholastios
accepted the conditions. At the end of November,
1764, the king unwillingly^ s^pied an edict dissolving
the Society throughout ms dominions, for they were
BtiU protected by some provincial ■parlemerU*. as
Franche-Comt^, Alsace, and Artois. But in the draft
of the edict he cancelled numerous clauses, which
implied that the Society was guilty; and, writing to
ChoiseuL he concluded with the weak but agiufieant
words: "^If I adopt the advice of othen for the pwce
of my realm, you must nulra the changes I pnmose,
or I will do nothing. I say no more, ket I dbould say
too much".

Spain, Naples, and Parma. — ^The Suppression in
Spam and its quasi-dependencies, Naples and Parma,
and in the Spanish colonies was carried through by
autocratic kin^ and ministers. Hieir deUberations
were oonducted in seorecy, and thcQr puipoeely kept
their reasons to themsehm. It is onfy m late yean
that a due has been traced back to Bernardo Tan-
ucci> the anti-K^erical minister of N^les. who acquired
a great influenc« over Charles III before that king
pasBed from the throne of Naples to that of Spain.
In this minister's correspondence are found alt the
ideas which from time to time guided the Spanish
policy. Cliarles, a man of good moral character, had
entrusted lids Govmunent to the Count Aranda and
other followers of Voltaire; and he had brought frran
Italy a finance minister, whose nationality made the
government unpopular, while hk exactions led m
1766 to rioting and to the publication of various
squibs, lampoons, and attacks upon the adminis-
tration. An extraordinary council was sppointed
to investigate the matter, as it was declared that
people so simple as the rioters could never have pro*
duced the political pamphlets. They proceeded to
talro secret informations, the tenor of which is no
longw known; but records remain to show that in
September the council had resolved to incriminate
the Sodety, snd that by 29 January, 1767, its ex-
pulsion was settled. Secret orders, which were to
be opened at midnight between the first and second
of April, 1767, were sent to the magistrates of every
town where a Jesuit resided. The plan worked
smoothly. That morning 6000 Jesuits were march-
ing like convicts to the coast, where they were departed
first to the Papal States, and ultimately to Corsica.

Tanucci pursued a similar poli<^ in Naples. On
3 November the religious, agam without trial,
and this time without even an accusation, were
marched across the frontier into the Papal States,
and threatened with death if they returned. It will
be noticed that in these expulsions the smaller the
state the greater the contempt of the ministers for
any forms (tf law. The Duchy of Parma was the
smallest of the so-called Bourbon Courts, and so
ag^^ssive in its anti-clericalism that Clem^it XIII
addressed to it (30 Januaiy, 1768) a mcnilorium,
or warning, that its excesses were punishable with
ecclesiastic censures. At this all parties to the
Bourbon "Family Compact" turned in fury gainst
the Holy See, and demanded the entire destructiMi
U the Society. As a preliminaiy Panna at (nee

S SOOUTT

drove the Jesuits out of its tenitariai, nonfaBBtiiig

as usual all their possessions;

Clemenl XIV.— From this time till his death (2
February, 17^) Clemoit XIII was harassed with
the utmost mdoiesB and vkdenoe. Portims of his
States were aeiied by fwoe, he was insulted to his
face by the Bourbon represoitatives, and it was made
dear uiat, unless he gave way, a great schism would
ensue, such as Portugal had already oommencod.
The conclave which followed lasted from Id Feb. to
May, 1769. The Bourbon CMirts, through the so-
called "crown caidmals". succeeded in excluding any
of the party, nicknamed ZelemH, who would have
taken a firm position in defence of the ordo-, and fi-
nally elected LorenzoOaoganeUifiriiotooktiienameof
Cl^ieut XIV. It has been stated by Cr£tineau-Joly
(Clement XIV. p. 260) that GanganeUi, before his elec-
tion, engaged himself to the crown cardinals by some
sort of stipulati(m that he would suppress the Society,
which would have involved an infractton of the con-
clave oath. This is now disproved by the statement
of the Spanish acent Azpuru, who was specially
deputed to act with the crown oardinals. B« wrote
on 18 May, just before the eleeticm, "Nme of the
'wwi^"*!" Has gone so far as to propose to anyone that
the Suppression should be secured by a written or
spoken promise"; and just after 25 May he wrote,
''^Qanganelli neither made a promise, nor refused it".
On the other hand it seems he did write words, whii'h
were taken by the crown cardinals as an indication
that the Bourbons would set their way with him
(de Bwnis's letters (rf 28 Ju^^ and 20 Novonber,
1769).

No sooner was Clement on the throne than the
Spanish Court, backed by the other members at-
the "Family Compact", renewed their overpow»-
ing pressure. On 2 August, 1769, Choiseul wrote a
strong letter demanding the Suppression within two
months; and the pope now made his first written
promise that he would grant the measure, but he
dedared that he must have more time. Then began
a series of tmnsaetions, which some have not unnatu-
rally, iuteipreted as devices to escape by delays fron
the terrible act of destruction, towards which Cle-
ment was being pushed. He passed more than two
years in treating with the Courts of Turin, Tuscany,
Milan, Genoa, Bavaria, etc., which would not easily
consent to the Bourbon projects. The same ulterior
object may perhaps be detected in some of the minor
annoyances now inflicted on the Society. From
several collcttcB, as those <rf Fraecati, Ferrara, Bologna,
and tha Irish (Joll^ at Rome, the Jesuits were, after
a prok)n^ exammation, ejected with much show
of hostility. And there were mtnneDts, as for in-
stance after the fall of Choueul,when it really seemed
as though the Society might have escaped; but eventr*
ually the obstinacy of Charles III always prevailed.

In the middle of 1772 Charles sent a new ambassa-
dor to Rome, Don Joseph MoOino, afterwards Count
Florida Blanca, a stnmg, hard man, "full of artifice,
sagacity, and dissimulation, and no one more set on
the suppression (rf the Jesuits". H^tofore the
negotiations had been in the hands of the clever, diplo-
matic (Cardinal de Bemis, Fr^ch ambassador to the
pope. Mofiino now took the lead, de Bemis coming
in afterwards as a friend to urge the acceptance tu
his advice. At last; on 6 Sept., Mofiino gave in a

Eapo' suggesting a hne fat the pope to follow, which
e did in part adopt, in drawing up the Brief of Sup-
pression. By November the end was coming in
sight, and in December Clement put Moflino into
communication with a secretary; and they drafted
the instrument together, the minute being ready by _4
Janufuy, 1773, By 6 February Mofiino had got it
back from the pope in a form to be conveyed to the
Bourbon Courts, and by S Jun<>, their modificatitms
having beoi taken aoooiint of, the minute was throm

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into ita final ftHin and signed. 8tiU the pupe delayed,
until Mo&ino constraint him to get copies printed:
and as these were dated, no delay was possible beyond
that date, which was 16 August, 1773. A second
Brief was issued to determine tUe manner in which the
Suppression was to be carried out. To secure secret^
one regulation was introduced which led, in foreign
countries, to some unexpected results. The Bnef
was not to be published Urtri et Orbi, but only to
each college or place by the local bishop. At Rome,
the father-iEeneral was confined first in the English
Coll^, then in Castel S. Angelo, with his assistants.
The papers of the Society were handed tJver to a
special commission, together with its title deeds and
store of mcmey, 40,000 acudi (about S50,000), which
belonged almost entirely to definite charities. Am
investigation of the papers was begun, but nevra-
brought to any issue.

In the Brief of Suppression the most striking fea-
ture is the long list of all^ations against the Society,
with no mention of what is favourable; the tone
of the Brief is very adverse. On the other hand
the charges are recited categorically; thCT are not
definitely stated to have been proved. The object
is to represent the ordN as having occammed per-
petual strife, contradiction, and trouble. For
the sake of peace the Society must be suppressed.
A full explaiiation of these and other anomalous
features cannot yet be given with certainty. The
chief reason for them no doubt is that the Suppression
was an administrative measure, not a judicial sen-
tence based on judicial inquiry. We see that the
course chosen avoided many difficulties, especially
the open contradiction of preceding popes, who had
Bo often praised or confirmed the Society. Again,
such statements were less liable to be controverted;
and there were different ways of interpreting the Brief,
which commended themselves to Zelanti and Bor-
honici respectively. The last word on the subject
is doubtless that of St. Alphonsus di Liguori — "Poor
Pope! What could he do in the circumstances in
which he was placed, with all the sovereigns conspir-
ing to demand this Suppression? As for ourselves,
we must keep silence, respect the secret judgment of
God, and hold ourselves in peace".

CBvmiKAD-JoLT, CUmmt XlY tt let jituitet (Paris, 1847);
Dantilla t Collado, Reinado de CarloB III (MBdrid, 1893);
DiLPUACB, Ia mpprtuum tUi jiauiUa in EUidM (Pais, 5-20
July, 1908); Ferbkr pjel Rio, HiU. del rnnado de Carloa II f
(Madrid, 1866); di Ravionan, CUmeni XIII el CUmetU XIV
(P»ri», 1854); RosBEAn, Rione de Charlf* III d'Bapaone (Pariii.
1907); SiiiTH, Supprtaaum oflheSoe. ofJeiuain The Mmih (Lon-
doD. 1902-3) ; Theinzb, Geach. det PontificaU CUmmi XI V (Pant.
1853; Prenoh tr., Bnuaels, 1853); Koblbb, Die Aufhebung tier
<j4Ma»ehafi Jfu (Lini, 1873) : Wkld, Supprettion of the Soe. of
j^m* in tA« PwtwtuM Dominioiu (Loodon. 1877): Zalinski,
Th» JmitM in WkiU Butia (in Polish, 1874; Ft. tr., Puia.
1888) ; Caraton, L« ph-e Hied et la luppresnon de la amp. d«
Jtmu (PoiUen, I860): Saint-Phimt, ChtUe daiftuiUt (Paris,
1846}: NiPPOLO, JmiUMrdta wn Miner Wiedmrlur^Muae
(MaanlMim, 1867).

Thb iNTBRDf (1773-1814).— The execution of the
Brief of Suppresakm having been lareely left to the
local bishops, there was room for a good deal of variety
m tlie treatment which the Jesuits m^t receive in
different places. In Austria and Germany they were
generally flowed to teach (but with secular clergy
as superiors); often they became men of mark as
preachers, lUce Beauregard, Muzzar^, and Alexan-
dre Lanfant (b. at Lyons, 6 Sept., 1726, and massacred
in Puis, 3 Sept., 1793) and writers like IVancois-X.
de Feller (q. v.), Zaccharia, Ximenes. The first
to receive open official approbation of their new works
were probably the English Jesuits, who in 1778
obtained a Bnef approvinfc their well-known Academy
of Li^^ (now at Stonyhurst), But in Russia, and
until 1780 in Prussia, the Empress Catherine and
King Frederick II desired to maintain the Society
as a teaching body. They forbade the local bishops
to lOTwniipUetheBrief until their ptocet was obtainw

Bishop Maasalski iu White Russia, 10 September,

1773, therefore ordered the Jesuit superiors to con-
tinue to exercise jiuisdiction till further notice. On
2 February, 1780, with the approbation of Bishop
Siestrzencewicz's Apostolic visitor^ a novitiate was
opened. To obtain higher sanction for what had
been done, the mvoy Benislaski was sent by Cathe-
rine to Rome. But it must be ranembored that the
animus oS Uie Bourbon Courts against the Society
was still unchecked; and in some countries, as in
Austria under Joseph II, the situation was worse than
before. There were many in the Roman Curia who
had worked their way up by their activity against
the order, or held pensions created out of former
Jesuit property. Pius VI declined to meet Cathe-
rine's requests. All he could do was to express an
indefinite assent by word of mouth, without issuing
any written documents, or observing the usual for-
malities; and he ordered that strict secrecy should be
observed about the whole mission. Benislaski
received these messages on 12 March, 1783, and later
ive the Russian Jesuits an attestation of them (24

Ju^, 1785).

tlie other hand, it can cause no wonder that
the enemies <tf the Jesuits should from the first have
watched the survival in White Russia with jealousy,
and have brought pressure to bear upon the pope to
ensure their suppression. He was constramed to
declare that he had not revoked the Brief of Sup-

Sression, and that he regarded as an abuse anything
one against it, but that the Empress Camerine
would not allow him to act freely (29 June, 1783).
These utterances were not in real conflict with the
answer i^ven to Benisla^i, which only amounted to
the assNtion that the escape from the Brief by the
Jesuits in Russia was not scbismatical, and that
the pope approved of their continuing as tiiey were
doing. Their existence therefore was Intimate,
or at least not illegitimate, though positive approval
in legal form did not come till Pius VII's Brief Cath-
olicfe Fidei" (7 March, 1801). Meantime the same
or similar causes to those which brought about the
Suppression of the Society were leading to the dis-
ruption of the whole civil order, llie french Revo-
lution (1789) was overthrowing every throne that
had combined against the Jesuits, and in the anguish
of that trial many were the cries for the re-establish-
ment of the order. But amid the turmoil of the
Napoleonic wars, during the prolonged captivities
of Pius VI (1798-1800) and ofPiusVII (1809-14),
such a consummation was impossible. The En^ieh
Jesuits, howevCT (whose academy at Li^e, driven
over to England by the French invasion of 1794,
had been approved by a Brief in 1706), succeeded
in obtaining oral permission from Pius Vil for their
segregation to the Russian Jesuits, 27 May, 1803.
The permission was to be kept secret, and was not
even communicated by the pope to Propaganda.
Next winta-, its prefect. Cardinal Boi^;ia, wrote a
hostile letter, not indeed cancelling the vows taken,
or blaming what had been done, but forbidding the
bishops "to recoenize the Jesuits , or "to admit their
priviT^es", imtu they obtained permis^on from the
Congregation of Propaganda.

Considering the extreme difficulties of the times,
we cannot wonder at orders being given from Rome
whidi were not always quite consistent. Broadly
roeaking, howevor, we see that Uie popes worked
their way towards a restoration of the order bv
d^rees. First, by approving community life, which
had been specifically forbidden by the Brief of Sup-
pression (this was done for England in 1778). Second,
by permitting vows (for England in 1803). Third, by
restoring the full privileges of a religious order (these
were not recognizied in England until 1829). The Soci-
ety was extended by Brief from Russia to the Kingdom
oTNaj^ SQ July, 1804; but on the invasion Uio

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Frmch in 1806, all housM

those in Sicily. The superior in Italy during these
changes was the Venerable Giuseppe M. FignatelU
(q. v.). In their zeal for the re-establishment of the
Society some of the ex-JesuitB united thenuelvefl into
congregations, which might, while avoiding the now
unpopular name of Jesuits, proacrve some ot its
essential features. Thus arose the Fathers of the
Faith (PireB de la Foi), founded with papal sanction
by Nicolas Paccanari in 1797. A somewhat similar
congregation, called the "Fathers of the Sacred
Heart'j had been commenced in 1794 in Belgium,
under P^re Charles dc Broglie, who was succeeded fcryr
P6re Joseph Varin as superior. By wish of Pius VI,
the two congregations amalgamated, and were gen-
erally known as the Paccanansts. They soon spread
into many lands; Paccanari, howerer, did not prove a
good Bupcarior, and seemed to be working af^iiiist a
reunion with the Jesuits still existing in Russia; this
caused P£re Varin and others to leave him. Some of
them entered the Society in Russia at once; and at
the Restoration the others joined en maase. (See
Sacred Heart op Jescs, Societt of the.)

Tbe Restored Society. — Piua VII had resolved
to restore the Society during his c^itivity in IVance;
aod after his return to Rome did so with little delay,
7 Au^t, 1814, by the Bull "SoUicitudo omnium
ecclesiarum/' imd therewith the general in Russia,
Thaddseus Brzozowski, acquired universal jiuisdic-
tion. After the permisaon to continue nven . by
Pius VI, the first Russian co^^r^ation had elected
as vicar-general Stanislaus Czemiewicz (17 Oct.,
1782-7 July, 1785). who was succeeded by (Sabrid
Lenkiewies (27 Sept., 1785-10 Nov., 1798) and
F^cis Karen (1 Feb., 1799-20 July, 1802). On
the receipt of the Brief "Catholics Fidel", of 7
March, 1801, his title was changed from vtcar-general
to general. Gabriel G ruber succeeded (10 Oct.,
1802-26 March, 1805), snd was followed by Thad-
dffius Brzozowski (2 Sept., 1805). Almost simul-
taneously with the death of the latter, 5 Feb., 1820,
the Russians, who had banished the Jesuits from St.
Petersburg in 1815, expelled thran from the whole
country. It seems a remarkable providence that
Russia, contrary to all precedent, should have pro-
tected the Jesuits {ust at the time when all other
nations turned against them, and reverted to her
normal hostility when the Jesuits began to find toler-
ation elsewhere. Upon the decease of Brzozowski,
Father Petrucci, the vicar, fell under the influence
of the still powerful anti-Jesuit party at Rome, and
imposed to alter some points in tb« Institute. Hie
twentieth general oongr^tion took a severe view
of his proposals, expelled him from the order, and
elected Father Aloysius Fortia (18 Oct., 1820-27
Jan., 1829) (q. v.) ; John Roothaan succeeded (9 July,
1829-^ May, 1853); and was followed by Peter
Beckx (q.v.) (2 Julj;, 1853-4 March, 1887). Anton
Maria Anderledy, vicar-general on 11 May, 1884,
became general on Fr. Beckx's death and died on 18
Jan., ISS; Luis Martin (2 Oct., 1892-18 Ajnr., 1906).
Fftth^ Martin commoiced a new series of histlnieB <^
the Society, to be based on tbe increased materials
now available, and to deal with many problems about
which older annalists, Orlandini and his successors,
were not curious. Volumes by Astrain, Duhr, Fou-
queray, Hughes, Kroces, Tacchi-Venturi have ap-
peared. The present general, Francis Xavier Wemz,
was elected on 8 Sept., 1906.

Though the Jesuits of the nlneteentib century can-
not show a martyPTOlI as brilliant as that of their pre-
decessors, the poBecuting laws passed against them
surpass m numbo-, extent, and oontinuance those
endured by previous generations. The practical
exclunon from university teaching^ the obligation of
military service in many oountnes, the wholesale
oonflsoations of reli^ous propgty, and the diaperaion

of twelve of its oldest and once most flourishing prov-
inces are very serious hindrances to religious voca^
tions. On a teaching order such blows fall very
heavily. The cause of trouble has generally been
due to that propaganda of irreligion which was
developed dunng the Revolution and is still active
throucn fVeemiuomy in those lands in which the
Revomtion took root.

France. — ^This is plainly seen in PVance. In that
country the Society b^an after 1815 with the direc-
tion of some pefite aSminairet and congrt^tions, and
by givinjt missions. They were attacked by the
Liberals, especially by the Comte de Montlosier in
1823 and their schools, one of which, St-Acheul,
aheady contained 800 students, were closed in 1829.
The Revolution of July (1830) brought them no
immediate rdUef; but in the visitation of cholera in
1832 the Fathers pressed to the fore, and so b^an
to recover influence. In 1845 there was another
attack by Thiers, which drew out the answer of de
Ravignan (q. v.). The Revolution of 1848 at first
sent them again into exile, but the hl^eral measures
which succeeded, especially the freedom of teachine,
enabled them to return and to open many schools
(1850). In the later days of the En^re grrater
difficulties were raised, but with the advent of the
Third Republic (1870) these restrictions were removed
and progress continued, until, after threatening meas-
ures in 1878, came tbe decree of 29 March, 1880,
isBued by M. Jules Ferry. This brought about a
new dispersion and the substitution of staffs of
QODH^gious teachers in the Jesuit coUeges. But
the fVench Government did not press their ea&cU
ments, and the Fathos returned by degrees; and
before the end of the century their houses and schools
in France were as prosperous as ever. Then came
the overwhehnmg Associations laws of M. Waldeck-
Rousseau, leading to renewed thoujfh not complete
dispersions and to the reintroduction of non-rcli-
gious staffs in the colleges. The right of the order to
hold property was also violently suppressed; and, by a
refinement of cruelty, any property suspected of being
held by a congregabon may now be confiscated, unless
it is proved not to be so held. Other clauses of this
law penalize any meeting of the members of a con-
gregation. The order is under an iron hand from
which DO escape is, humanly speaking, possible. Fot
the moment nevertheless public opinion disapproves
of its rigid execution, and thus far, in spite of all
sufferings, of the dispersal of all houses, the confisca-
tion of churches, ana the loss of practically aU prop-
erty and school^ the numbers of the order have been
maintained, nay slight^^ increased, and so too have
the opportunities for woric, espeaally in literature
and theology, etc. (See also Cabaton; Drsckaups;
Do Lac; (Jlivaint; Ravionam.)

Spain. — In Spain the course of events has been
similar. Recalled by Fa-dinand VII in 1815, the
Society was attackecf by the Revolution of 1820; and
twenty-five Jesuits were slain at Madrid in 1822.
The Fathers, however, returned after 18!^ and took
ruirt in the management of the military school and the
Coll^ of Nobles at Madrid (1S27). But in 1834
they wero again attacked at Madrid, fourteen were
killed, and the whole order was banished on 4 July,
1835, by a Liberal ministry. After 1848 they began
to return and were re-settled after the Concordat,
26 Nov., 1852. At the Revolution of 1868 they were
again banished (12 Oct.), but after a few years they
were allowed to come back, and have since inade
great prt^^^. At the present time, howeveo-, another
expulsion is threatened (1912). In Portu^ the Jesuits
were recalled in 1829, dispo-sed again m 1834; but
afterwards returned. Though they were not formally
sanctioned by law they had a large college and several
churches, from which, however^ they were driven out
in October, 1910, with great violence and cnidty.

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/<a^.— In Italy they were expelled from Naples

(1820-21); but in 1836 they were admitted to Lom-
bardy. Driven out by the Revolution of 1848 from
almost the whole peninaula, they were able to return
when peace was restored, exe^t to Turin. Tbm
with me gradual growth of United Italy they were
step by step suppressed again by law everywhere,
ana finally at Rome after 1871. But though for-
mally suppressed and unable to keep schools, except
on a very small scale, the law is so worded that it does
not press at every point, nor is it often enforced with
acrimony. Numbers do not fall off, and activities
mcreaae. In Rome they have char^ inter tdia
of the Gregorian University, the "Institutum Bibli-
cum", and the German and Latin-Amenoaa CoiD^B8.

Germanic Provinces. — Of the Germanic ProrhiceB,
that of Austria may be said to have been recom-
menced by the imm^ation of many Polish Fathers
from Russia to Galicia in 1820; and coU^ess were
founded at Tamopol, Lemberg, Linx (1837), and
Innsbruck in 1838, in which they were assigned the
theological faculty in 1856. The Gonuuk province
properly so called couM at first make foimdations
only in Switzerland at Bri» (1814) and Freiburg
(1818). But after the Sonderbund they were obliged
to leave, being then 264 in number (111 prie^).
They were now able to open several houses in the
Rhine provinces, etc., making steady progress till
they were ejected during Bismarck's KviiurkampS
(1872), when they numbered 755 members (361
priests). They now count 1150 (with 574 priests)
and are known throughout the world by their many
excellent publications. (See Antonhswice; Dhhabbs;
Hasslacher; Pbsch; Roh; Spillmann.)

Belgium. — The Belgian Jesuits were unable to
return to their country till Belgium was wparated
from Holland in 1830. Since then they have pros-
pered exceedingly. In 1832, when they became a
separate province, they numbered ICkS; at their
■ereuty-five years' jubilee, in 1907, they numbered
1168. In 1832, two colleges with 167 students: m
1907, 15 colleges with 7465 students. Coi^pMrations
of the Blessed Vir^n, onginally founded by a Bel^n
Jesuit, still flourish. In Belgium 2529 such con-
jugations have been aggregated to the Prima
Primaria at Rome, and of these 156 are under Jesuit
direction. To say nothing of missions and of retreats
to convents, dioceses, etc., the province had tax
houses oi retreats, in which 245 retreats were given
to 9840 persons. Belgium suppties the foreiga
mission of Eastern Ben^ and the Diocese of GaUe
in Ceylon. In the busn-oountry d Chota Nagpur
there o^^an, in 1887, a wonderful movement otthe
aboriginee (Kdlee and Ouraons) towards the Church,
and the Catholics in 1907 numbered 137,120 (i.e.
62,385 baptized and 74,736 catechumens). Over
36,000 conversions had beien made in 1906, owing to
tbe penetration of Christianity into the district
Jashpur. Besides this there are excellent oolleRes
at Ehu-jeeling and at Kurseong; at Kandy in Ceyton
the Jesuits have chaise of the great pontifical sem-
inary for educating native clergy for the.whole of
India. In all they have 442 lurches, chapels, or
stations, 479 schools, 14,467 scholars, with ahoui
167,000 Catholics, and 262 Jesuits, of whom 160 are
{Miests. The Belgian Fathers have'^so a flourishing
mission on the Congo, in the disbicta of Kwango
and Stanley Pool, which was begun in 18(K3; in 1907
the converts already numbered 31,402.

England. — Nowhere did the Jesuits get Uiroiidt the
troubles inevitable to the Interim more easily than in
conservative Ekigland. The colleoe at Li^ con-
tinued to train their students in the old ^^itions,
while the English bishops permitted the ex-Jeeuits
to maintain their missions and a sort of corporate
disaqiline. But there were diflSeuIties in leoogniiins
the restored order, lest this i^ould impede emanei-

pation (see Roman Cathouc Rxuef Bill), which re-
mained in doubt for so many years, fventuslly
Leo XII on I Jan., 1829, declared the BuU of restora-
tion to have force m England. After this the Society
grew, slowly at first, but mwre rapidly afterwards.
It had 73 memba*s in 1816, 729 in 1910. The Princi-
pe colleges are Stonyhurst (St. Oma«, 1692, migrated
to Bruges, 1762, to LiSge, 1773, to Stonj^urst, 1794);
Mount St. Maiy's (1842); Liverpool (1842); Beau-
mont (1861); Glasgow (1870); Wimbledon, Lon-
don (1887); Stamford Hill, London (1894); Leeds
(1905). In 1910 the province had in England and
Sootland. besides the usual novitiate and houses
of study, two
houses for re-
treats, 60 churches
or chapels, at-
tended by 148
priests. The
congregations
amounted to 97,-
641; baptisms,
3746; cdnfessions,
844,079; Easter
confessions, 81,-
066; CommimioDs,
1,303,691; con-
verts, 725 ; extreme
unctions, 1698;
marriages, 782;
childnn in ele-
mentary schools,
18,328. The Gui-
ana mission (19
priests) has charge
about 45,000
souls; the Zam-
besi mission (36
priests), 4679 souls. (See also the articles Morris ;
Pi.owniBN;FoBnnB; SrsviweoN iCoLBRiiMB iHabper.)

f relond. — ^There were 24 ex-Jeeuits in Irdand in
1776, but by 1803 only two. Of these Father O'Cal-
laghan renewed his vows at Stonyhurst in 1803, and
he and Father Betagh, who was eventually the last
survivor, succeeded m finding some excellent postu-
lants who made their novitiate in Stonyhurst, their
studies at Palermo, and returned between 1812 and
1814, FaUier Betagh, who had become Vicar-Gen-
oral of Dublin, having survived to the year 1811.
Father Peter Eeziny (d. 1841) was the first superiw
of the new mission, a man of remarkable eloquence,
who when visitor of the Society in America (1830-
1833) preached by invitation before Congress. From
1812-13 he was vice-president of Maynooth College
under Dr. Murray, then coadjutor Biuiop of Dublin.
The College of Clongowes Wood was bc^un in 1813;
TuUabeg m 1818 (now a house of both mobations);
Dublin (1841); Mungret (Apostolic School, 1883).
In 1883, too, the Irish bishops entrusted to the Society
the University College, Dublin, in connexion with the
late Royal Utiiversity of Ireland. The marked supe-
riority of this college to the richly endowed Queen's
Colleges of Belfast, Cork, and Galway contributed
much to establish the claim of the Irish Catholics to
adequate university education. When this claim
had been met by the present National University, the
hivmity College was returned to the Bifhops. Five

Lms Mabtin
Tweoty-eighth GeoenJ of the Society
of Jeans

Uni _

Fathers now hotel teaching (Kists in the new university,
and a hostel for students is being provided. Under
the Act of Catholic Emancipation (q. v.) 68 Jesuits
were registered in Ireland in 1830. In 1910 thpj«
were 367 in the province, of whom 100 are in Aus-
tralia, where they have 4 colleges at and near Mel-
bourne and Sydney, and missions in South Australia.

Uniied States of America. — Undor the direction of
ffidiop Carroll the members of the CornM*ation of
Roman Oatholte CkvBymea in Mandand wcrsithe

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chief factors in founding and nuuntaioing George-
town Coll^ (q. T.) from 1791 to 1805, when tbey
resumed their relations with the Society still existing
in Russia, and were so strongly reinforced by other
members of the order from Europe that they could
assume full charge of the institution, which they
have since retained. On the Restoration of the
Society in 1814 these nineteen fathers constituted
the mission of the United States. For a time (1808
to 1817) some of them were employed in the Diooeee
of New York just erected, Father Anthony Kohl-
mann (q. T.) administering the diocese temporarily,
the others engaging in school and parish work.
In 1816 Gonzaga Coll^, Washington, D. was
foimded. In 1833 the mission of the United States
became a province under the title of Maryland.
Since then the history of the province is a record of
develojiment proportionate with the growth of Cath-
olioity in the vanous fields specially cultivated by the
Society. The collies oi the Holy Cross, Worcester
(founded in 1843), Loyola College, Baltimcm (1852),
Boston College (1863) have educated great numbers
of youiumen for the ministiy and libo-al professions.
Up to 1879 members of the Society had been labour*
infc in New Ytx'k as part of the New York-Canada
mission. In that year they became affiliated with
the first American province under the title of Mary-
land-New York. This was added to the old provinoe,
besides several reddeuGes and parishes, the odU^ob
of St. Francis Xavier and St. John (now Fordbam
Univfflrsity), New York City, and St. Peter's CoU^e,
Jersey City, New Jersey. St. Joseph's Coll^, Pml-
adelpnia, was chartered in 1852 and the Brooklyn
College opened in 190S. In the same year Canisius
Collie, and two parishes in Buffalo, and one parish
in B^ton for German Catholics, with 88 members
of the German province were affiliated with this prov-
ince, winch has now (1012) 863 members with 12 col-
leges and 13 parishes, 1 house of higher studies for the
members of the Society, 1 novitiate, in the New En|^
land Mid Middle States, and in the Virginias, with
the Mission of Jamaica, Briti^ West Indies.

The Missouri province began as a mission from
Maryland in 1823. Father Charles Van Quicken-
borne, a Belgian, led several young men of hie own
nationality who were eager to work among the
Indians, among ihem De Smet (q. v.), Van Awche,
andVema^en. As a rale the tTflMewwe too nomad-
ic to evangelize, and the Indian schools attracted
only a very small number of pupils. The missions
among the Gsi^ and Pottawatomie were more per-
manent and fruitful. It was wi th experience gathered
in these fields that Father De Smet 8tart«d nis mis-
sion in the Rocky Mountains in 1840. A oollc»e, now
St. Louis University, was opened in 1829. For ten
years, 1838-48, a ooll^ was maintained at Grand
Coteau, Louisiana; in 1840 St. Xaviw's was opened
at Cincinnati. With the aid of seventy^eight Jesuits^
who came from Italy and Switzerland in the ^ears
of revolution 1847-8, two coll^jes were mamtained,
St. Joseph's, Bardstown, 1848 until 1861, another at
Louisville, Kentucky, 1849-67. In this last year a
college was opened at Chicago. The mission became
a province in 1863, and mnoe then colleges have been
opcoied at Detroit, Omaha, Milwaukee, St. Ma^s
(Kansas). By tltt accession of part of the BulTido
misnon when it was separated from the Qerman
province in 1907, the Missouri province acquired an
addition^ ISO members, and colleges at Cleveland,
Toledo, and Prairie du Chien, besides several resi-
dences and missions. Its members work in the terri-
tory west of the AUe^dunieB as far as Kansas and
Omaha, and from the Lakes to the northern line of
Tennessee and Oklahoma, and also in the Mission of
British Himduras (q. v.).

New Orleans.— For five years, 1566-1671. mmibtn
of the Peravian ivovince laboured among the bidiana

SOCIXTT

along the coast of Fl^irida, where Father Marttaen
was massacred ne^ St. Augustine in 1666. They
penetrated into Virginia, where eight of their numb^
were massacred by Indians at a station named Axaca,
supposed to be on the Rappahannock River. Later,
Jesuits from d^nada, taking as their share of the
Louisiana territory the Illinois countiy and afterwards
from the Ohio River to the gulf east of the Mississippi,
worked among the Choctaw, Chickasaw, Nalchez.
and Yazoo. Two of their number were murderea
by the Natches and one by the Chickasaw. Their
expulsion in 1763 is the subject of a monograph by
Carayon, "Documents inraits", XIV. Original^
evangelized by Jesuits from we Lyons province,
the New Orleans mission became a province in 1907,
having 7 collies and four residences. It has now
255 members working in the territory north of the
Gulf of Mexico to Missouri as far east as Virginia.

CahfOTnia. — In 1907 a province was formed in
California oomprising the missions of California, the
Rocky Mountains, and Alaska (United States).
The nistory of these missions is narrated under
Calitobhia Missions; Missions, CAmouc Indian,
OF THE Untied States; Alaska; Idaho; Sionx
Indians.

New Mexico. — ^In the mission of New Mexico
ninety-three Jesuits are occupied in the coll^ at
Denver, CV>lorado. and in various misntms in that
state, Arizona, ana New Mexico; the mission d^wnda
on the Italian province of Naples.

In all the provinces in the United States there are
6 profes-sional schools, with 4363 students; 26 collies
with full courses, with 2417^ and 34 preparatory ^d
high schools with 8735 pupils.

Canada. — Jesuits returned to Canada from St.
Mary's College, Kentucky, which had been tak&i
over, in 1834, by members of the province of France.
When St. Mary^swasnvenupin 1846 the staff came
to take chane of St. John's Colltxe, Fordham, New
Y<n'k, thus forming with their fellows in Montret^
the New York-Canada mission. His mission lasted
until 1870, the C^adian division having by that year
1 college, 2 residencee, 1 novitiate, 3 Indian missions
with 131 members. In 1888 the mission received
$160,000 as its part of the sum paid by the Province
of Quebec in compensation for the Jesuit estates
appropriated under George III by imperial auUiority,
and transferred to the auUiorities of the former Prov-
ince of Canada, all parties agreeing that the full
amount, $400,000^ thus allowed was fax short of the
value of the estates, estimated at (2,000,000. The
settlement was ratified by the pope and the Legisla^
ture of the Province of Quebec, and the balance waa
divided amoi^ the archdioceses of Quebec^ Montreal,
and other dioceses, the Laval University besides
Teeeiring^ in Mtmtirad, $40,000 and, in Quwec, $100,-
000. '

In 1907 the mission was constituted a province.
It has now 2 colleges in Montreal, one at St. Boniface
with 263 students in the collegiate and 722 in the
preparatory classes, 2 residences and churches in
Quebec, one at Ouelph, Indiw missions, and missiona
in Alaska, and 309 members.

Mexico. — In Mexico (New Spain) Jesuit mission-
aries began Uieir^woric in 1671 and prior to their
expulsion, in 1767, they numbered 678 members, <^
whom 468 were natives. They had over 40 colleges
or seminaries, 6 residences, ana 6 missionary districts,
with 99 missions. The mission included Cuba, Lower
California, and as far south as Nicaragua. Three
members of the suppressed society who were in Mexico
at the time of the Restoration formed a nucleus for
ihi re-establishment diere in 1816. In 1820 there were
32, of ^om 16 were priests and 3 scholastias, in care
ctf 4 colleges and 3 seminaries. They were dispersed
in 1821. Althou^ invited back in 1843, they could
not agree to the hmitations put on their activitiefl by

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80CZIT7

103

SOOIBIY

GwicraJ Santa Anna, nor was tlie prospect favourable
in the revolutionary condition of the country. Four
of their number returning in 18&4, the mission pros-
pered, and in spite of two dispersions, 1850 and 1873,
It has continued to increase m number and activity.
In August, 1907, it was Teoonstituted a province. It
has now 326 manbers with 4 colleges, 12 resideneee,
0 mission stationB unrag Uie Turahumara, and a
novitiate (see abo Hxxioo; Pious Fund or ram
Cautobnias).

OnUKB, StonyAml CetUtnary Reojrd (Belfast, 1804); Coa>
COUK. Chmgnm CtmUnani R*cord (DubUn. 1912); Wotdtloek
LttUri (Woodstock CoUmb, MHyhnd, 1872—); Otoroetom
Uniotnitv (Waahiniton, 1891); T\t First Half CnUwy o/ SL
Iffnatiut Church amd CoOto* (Sma Fnneisoo, 10D&); Ddrb, AkUn.
Mr OMdL dw JMmHntMMMm w DeuOcMand, l84»-7» (1003);
BoCko, latmia della wila-dtt B. P. PignattUi (Rome, 1657);
PoMCELCT, La eomp. dt Jlnu en Bdgi^ie (BnuMU, 1007); Zaka,-
soNA, Hut. dt la txtineidn y ruiiMaamUnto d« la comp. dt Jfuu
(Madrid, 1800); Nippout, JetuiUMrdM rm aaiiur WUdtHtm^
aUUwnt (MannJaim. 1867).

OatmL SiiTunci of thi Botutt or Jww fos tn BrntonKo or IfilS.

Pritfta

Mtka

Coad-
iuton

TVital

Rome

IM

103

U

2S7

NxplM

SielF

IH
113

109
01

80
71

349
346

Toriii

160

02

48

200

VeuM

215

69

07

371 _

ToUI

833

m

390

IBU

Anatiu

310

m

ISO

001

BdEnim

S86

393

• 321

1800

231

1S3

150

SIO

US

347

344

1180

fionguy

70

SI

00

IM

280

135

131

540

Total

3071

1087

1107

4345

377

221

133

731

Fnnce

614

130

171

834

VMoA (diwaned)

44»

417

108
107

176
139

79S
733

1757

005

010

3071

Angon

537

364

43^

1236

603

361

410

1334

Portu^ (dii-

ISO

01

100

see

Modoo

123

lis

87

333

T(Mo

rs

123

196

507

TobJ

1005

067

1337

3850

Englaiid

391
161

201
135

124
107

710

m

Cainda

163

120

100

871

Inlud

190

110

S5

a«7

Yoric

354

853

ISO

808

MiMDuri

350

272

163

790

Nmr OriouH

133

82

41

265

Total

1733

1280

746

3769

16,548

ApoiXHamc. — ^The accusations brought against
the Sodety have been exceptional for thmr frequency
and fiaroenesB. Muiy indeed would be too abeurd
to deserve mention, were they not credited even by cul-
tured and literuy people. Such for instance are the
charges that the Society was responsible for the
Franco- Pruasian war, the affttin Dreyfu^ the Panama
scandal, the aaBBSsinaticMi of popes, kings, piincefl.
t^. — Btatementa found in boolcB and periodicab «
some pretence. Such likewise is the so-called Jfsuit
Oath, the eliunsy fabrication of the forger Robert Waie,
exposed by Bndgett in "Blunders and Foi^eries".
The fallacy of sucn accusations may often be detected
by general principles. A. JentiU are faUible, and
may have given some occasion to the accuser. The
ehugcs laid against tbem would never have been
brmij^t against angeku. but th^ are not in the least
inomristent with the Society being a body of good

but ft^ble men. Bwee^i» denifds here and an
injured tone would be misplaced and Uable to mie-
conception. As an instance of Jesuit fallibility,
one may mention that writings of nearly one hundred
Jesuits have been placed on the Roman "Index".
Since this involves a reflection upon the Jeauit book-
censors as well, it might appear tp be an instance of
failure in an important matt^. But when we
remember that the number of Jesuit writers exceeds
120,000, the proportion of those who have missed

Umaam or m Socnrr or Jncs n 1012.

blinion

PntTian

PrMa

BAoL

Cnulj.

Bvrope

Vnioe

6

—

4

9

Croatia

Auatria

41

11

30

83

0«rmaiiy

29

12

32

78»

Smdeo

5

4
S

8rn and Tiaoa (Gimm). .

Bieily

8

_

7

15

Afiiea

tovt

jjyoiH

DO

lit

111

Ba(& Ongo

17

7

14

38

BnSud

47

33

80

Portosal

17

1

18

W>

Mtdtfairar Pimm

Tooknue

60

5

18

83

BMko (tbdwew)....

39

—

12

51

Ana

30

1

IS

5S

85

10

64

149

Sfl
oO

ID

1

IM '

VMiee

43

0

11

00

Bdghim

130

88

32

250

Oalle (CEylon ....

Belgitm

10

0

3

35

Champagne

14

1

3

18

M«ilLltm llndia)

Touloun

105

69

24

Portueal

20

—

V

»

Fnaoe

148

12

28

188

Chanpasne

64

—

IS

70

4

—

—

4>

Aragon

00

4

02

168

VVim, Java, and Sum^.

NetManda

01

0

10

77

& and B. Aiwtnlia

Maud

08

17

17

103

North America

Indian Miniona ((^anad^

(Canada

11

3

10

10

North Alada (0. S. A.)

Canada

IS

2

9

30

Soath Ahika (11. S. A.).

Califwnia

0

0

N«w Iteioo, Colondo, ud

NaidM

62

6

20

M

Meiioo

11

13

CHtik

49

13

37

08

HatylMd-

KnrYotk

18

2

80

South Am«riea

CMtOe

S3

SI

58

3031

^ghnd

31

1

39

N. and Cent. Braul

Rome

70

20

SI

163

S. Bnail

111

27

60

2041

B. Bnia

60

2

30

• 91

Bouador

Toledo

S3

10

27

00

Pot

T(4edo

SO

26

70

AacM

ITS

23

137

m

Total

mi

1 Mota-^-nm far IOH-Omm fcr 1911 not mikble.

the mark cannot be considered extraordinary; the
censure inflicted moreover has never been of the
graver kind. Many critics of the order, who do not
consider the Index censures discreditable, cannot
pardon so readily the exaggerated esprit de corps in
which Jesuits of limited experience occasionally
indulge, especially in oontroversieB or while eukwising
tiiear own oonfrdtes; nor can they overlook the
narrowness or bias with which some Jesvut writen
have criticised men of other lands, institutions, educ»<
tion, though it is unfair to hold up the faults of a
few as characteristia of the entire body.

B. The Aeetaera. — (1) In an oft-recited passage
about the martyrs St. Ambrose tells us: "Vero
fnistra impugnatur qui apud impios et infidos im-
pietntis arcesaitur cum fidei sit magister" (He in
truth, is imi>ugned in vain who is accused of impiety
by the impious and the faitUesR, Unn^ be if a
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teacher o( the ftith). The penonal equation of the
aeouser is a oorreotioii of great moment; newtbaleeB
it is to be i^ptied with eaual^ great caution; on no
otiwr point is an accusea person bo liable to make
mistakes. Undoubtedly, however, when we find
a learned man like Harnaok declaring roundly (but
without proofs) that Jeauits are uot historiaos, we
may place this statement of his beside aoo titer of
his professorial dicta, that the Bible is not histwy.
If the same principles underlie both ^poataoiu,
the accusation against the order will cany Uttie
weight. When an infidel government, about to
assful the liberties of the Church, begms dt BxpwTling
the Jesuits, on the all^tion that they destroy the
love of freedom in tlieir scholars, we can only say
that no words of theirs can eounterbalance the logic
of their acts. Early in this century the French
Government urged as one of th^r reasons for sup-
pressing all the religious ordors in France, among
them the Society, that the regulars were crow^dmg
the secular clergy out of their proper spheres of activi^
and influence. No sooner were the relidous suppressed
than the law sepan^ing Church and State was passed
to cripple and enslave the bishops and secular der^.

(2) Again it is perhaps little wonder that booties
in general, and those in particular vho impugn
church liberties and the authority of the Holy See,
should be ever ready to assail the Jesuits, who are
especially bound to the defence at that see. It
seems stranger that the opponrats the Soeie^
should sometimes be within the Church. Yet it u
almost inevitable that such opposition should at
times occur. No matter how adequately the canon
law reeulating the relations of regulars with the
hierarcHy and clei^ generally may provide for their
peaceful co-operation in missionary, educational, and
charitable enterprises, there will necessarily be
occasion for dinoences (rf oninion, dilutes over
jurisdiction, methods, and similar vital pomte, which
m the heat of controversy often embitter and even
estrange the parties at variance. Such unfortunate
controversies arise between other religious orders and
the hierarchy and secular clergy; tJiey are neither
common nor permanent, not the rule but the excep-
tioD, BO that they do not warrant the sinister judg-
ment that is sometimes formed of the Society m
particular as unable or unwiUing to woi^ with others,
jealous of its own influence. Sometimes, especially
when troubles of this kind have affected broad questions
of doctrine tead difreipline, the agitation has readied
immense proportions and bitt^ess has remdned
for years. The controversies De auxUiit led to
violent explosions of temper, to intense, and to furious
language which was simply astonishing; and there
were others, in England for instance about the
faculties of the archpriest, in France about Galli-
eanism, which were almost equally memorable for
fire and fury. Odium Uuologieum is sure at all times
to call forth excitement of unusual keenness; but we
may make allowance for the early dispntaDtSjbeeanse
of the pugnacious character of the times. When the
age quite approved of gentlemen kilUng each other
in duels on very slight provocation, there can be
little wonder that clerics, when aroused, should
fcffget [vopriety and self-restraint, shupen their
pens like aa^gera, and, dipping them in gall, strike
at any sensitive point of thdr adversaries which they
oould injure. Charges put about by such excited
advocate must be received with the greatest caution.

(3) The most embittered and the most untrust-
worthy enemies of the Society (they are fortunatdly
not very numerous) have ever been deserters from ite
own ranks. We know with what malice and venom
some unfaithful priests are wont to assail the Churdi,
which they onoe believed to be Divine, and not dis-
nmilar has bem the hatred of some Jesuits vbo have
I — , untrue to tbor calling.

kL soonrr

C. What ia to be ezpectadt The Sooie^ baa oer-
taioly had some share in the beatitude ol sufftting
for persecution's sake; tbou^ it is not true, bow-
ever, to say that the &>eiety is tiw obiect of vnwertal
detettaUon. Prominent poUtieiana, whose acts affect
the interests of millions, are much more hotly and
violsitiy criticised, more fredy denounced, carica-
tured, and condemned in the course of a month than
the Jesuits singly or collectively in a year. Wben
once the politician is overthrown, the world turns
its fin upcm the new holder of power, and it ffw^ts
tiie man ^at is fallen. But the li^t attaakB aoamst
die Society never cease for iaog, awl their Cumulative
effect amwars mora serious wn it should, because
people overlook the long spans of years which in
Its case intervene between the different signal assaults;
Another principle to remember is that the enemies
of the Church would never assail the Society at all,
were it not that it is conspicuously popular with large
fllassBS of the Catholic oommimity. Keithor uuiver-
ml odium tbarefora nor freedom from all assault
riiould be expected^ but charges which, by exaggerft-
tion, inversion, satire, or irony, somehow correspond
with the jdace of the Society in the Qmrdi.

Not bemg ocmtemplatives like the monks of old,
Jesuits are not decried as lasy and useless. Not being
called to fin posts of hi^ autbority or to rule, like
popea and bishops, Jesuits are not seriously denounced
as tynnts, or maligned fat a^Mitism and similar
misdeeds. Ignatius deecrflbed his order as a flying
aouadron. ready for service anywhere, especially as
educators and missionaries. Tne principal charges
agwnst the Society are misrejH^sentations ck tliese
qualities. If they are ready for service in any part
of the world, they are called busybodies, misc hief-
makers, politicians with no attachment to country.
If tbe^ do not rule, at least they must be grasping,
■nd>itH)Ufi, schoning, and wont to lowv Btanoards
ol morality, in order to gain eontrcd of eonseieDoeB.
If they are good disciplinarians, it will be said it is
by espionage and suppression of individuality and
independence. If thtsy are popular schoofanasters, the
adversary will say they are good for children, good
perhaps as crammers, but bad educators, without
tnfiuraoe. If tbar are favourite oraifeestMs, their
success is ascribed to their lax moraJ doctrines, to
their easuistty, and ^bove all to th^ use of the maxim
which is supposed to justify any and every evfl act:
"the end justifies the means". Tliis perhaps is the
most sali^t instance of tiie ignorance or ill-will of
their accusers. Their books are optai to all the world.
Time and again those who impute to them as a body,
or to any of their publications, the use of this maxim
to justify evil of any sort have been asked to cite
one instance of such usage, but all to no purpose.
The siraal f aflure ot Hoensbroech to establish before
the orm courts of IMer and Colcsue (30 July, 1905)
any such example of Jesuit teaching should silence
this and similar accusations forever.

D. The Jemii LeQend.~~lt is curious that at the
preset day even literary men have next to no
mterest in the objective facta concerning the Society,
not even in those supposed to be to its disadvantage.
All attenti(m is fixed on the Jesuit l^end; encyclope-
dia articles and general histories hardly concern
themselves with anything else. Hie l^nd, tliough
it reached its present form in the middle of the nine-
teenth century, began at a much earlier period. The
early persecutions of the Society (wnidi counted
scmie 100 martyrs in Europe during its first century)
wcxe backed up by fiery, loud, unscrupulous writers
audi as HasenmOOer and Hospinian, who diligently
collected and d^ended all the cnargee brought against
the Jesuits. The rude, criminous ideal whidi these
writers set forth received subtler traits <rf deceitful-
nees and double-dealmg thrmuii Zahorowski's " Mon-
itft seoreta Societatis Jem" (Cracowv 1614), aisatire

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80CBTT

miarepreaMitmg the rules of the cfdet, irtuch h
(ledy believed to be geuuine by eredulow adTinariH
(see MoNiTA Sbcbbta). Tke cumat venion ti Ibb
legend is late French, erolred durug the kMU nvo-

hitiouary ferment wlueh preceded the Third ^apire.
It began with the draunciatkms of Mantweier
(1824-27), and stroog (1833-46) in the Univer^
Btty of Paris, which affected to oonsider itaetf as the
repreaentAtive of the Gallican S<»bomie, of Port-
H^al, and of the Encydcpidie. The occasion for
Ihmi^ hostilities was offered by atteti^>ts at univer-
sity r^orm, which, so the Libmfa affeeted to believe,
were insti^ted by Jesuits. Heret^xn the "Pro*
vinciales" were given a place in the univravity ctir-
ricolum, and Vulemain, Thiers, Cousin, Michelet,
Quinet. Libri, Mignet, and other respectable sciiolars
succeeded by their writings and denunciations in
giving to anti-Jesuitism a sort of literary vogue,
not always with scrupulous observance ot accuracy
or fairness. More harmful still to the order were the
^ys, the songs, the pcmdar novds sgahist than.
Of these Uie most celebrated was i^gtoe Sue's
"Juif errant" (Wandering Jew) (1844), which soon
became the most popular anti-Jesuit book ever
printed, and has done more than any thhig dse to
give final form to the Jesuit l^end.

The special character (tf this fable is that it has-
hudly anything to do with the csrder at all, its traits
bein^ simply copied from maaonry. The previous
Jesmi bogey was at least one which haunted churdies
and colleges, and worked through the confessional
and the piilpit. But this creation of modem fiction
has lost all oonnexion with reality. He (or even she)
is a poson, not necessuily a pneet, under the com-
mand of a black pope, who lives in an imagina^
world of back stairs, ebaets, and dark passages. He
is busy with plotting and scheming, mesmeniing the
weak and corrupting the honest, occupations diversi-
fied by secret criinfiB or melodramatic attempts at
crime of every sort. This ideal we see is taken over
bodilv from the real^ or rather the supposed, meUiod
of Ufe (tf the Continental mason. Yet this is the
sort of nonsense about which special correspondents
send telegrams to their papers, about i^ch revolu-
tionary agitators and orafty politicians make long
inflammatory speeches, wmoh standard woifa n
refermoe discuss quite gravely, which none <rf our
popular writers dares to expose as an imposture (see
Rdu, op. dt. infra, II, 199-247).

E. Some Modem Olijeetiona.—il) Without having
given up the old historical Objections (for the study
of which the historical sections of this article may be
consulted), the anti-Jesuits of to-day arraign the
Society^ as out of toudt with the modem ZeUgeial,
as hostile to Hbert;|r and eulture, and as being a fauuxe.
Ubexty, next to mtdligence (and some people put
it before), is the noblest of man's endowments. Its
oiemies are the enemies oS tke human race. Yet it is
said that Ignatius's system, by aiming at "blind"
obedience, paralyses the judgment and by conse-
quence scoops out the will, inserting the will of the su-
perior in its place, as a watchmaker mi^t rmlace one
mainqiring by another (ef. Eugro. Brit., 1911, XV,
942); ptrmde ae eadager, "fike a corpse", again "aimi-
hr to an cM aoan's stair' — therefore dead and listlen,
mere machines, inc^iable of individual distinction
(BGhm»-Monod, op. cit. infra, p. bcxvi).

The cleverness of tiiis objection lies in its bold
inversion ot oertain pkun truths. In reality no one
loved 19>ert^ better or provided for it more carefully
than Ignatius. But he ujdield the deeper principle
tlwt true freedom Ues in obeying reason, all other
choice being lieenee. IlKwe who hold themselves
free to disoDQy even the laws of God, who declare
aD rule in the Church a tyranny, and who aim at so-
called free'love, free divorce, and free thoiu^t— they,
of oooM, niect his theory. In practke hia ouatom

Qabbisl Qrubbr
Twaaty wcottd Oe&eral of the Society
ot Jems

was to train the will so thoroughly that hie men
might after a diort time be able to "levd up" othns
(a moot dlffienlt thii^ from laxity to thonmirfmeBB,
without themsdves bcmg drawn down (a most easy
thmg), even though they lived outskle cloisters,
with no external support for their discipline. The
wonderful achievement of staying and rolling back
the tide of the Reformation, in so far as it was
due to the Jesuits, was the result <rf tibe increeaed
will-powOT given to previously irreaidate Catholiea
by toe Iniatian methods.

As to^'blind" obedience, ve diould note that all
obedienoe unist be blind to some extent— "Tb^ not
to resaon irtiy, Theirs but to do and die." Ignatius
borrowed from
earlier ascetic wri-
ters the strong
metaphors of the
"bUndman", "the
corpse", "the old
man's staff", to
illustrate the na-
ture oi obedience
ina vivid way; but
he does not want
those metiqjhors to
be run to death.
Not only does he
want the subject
to fating both head
and hurt to the
execution of the
command, but,
knowing human
nature and its
foibles, he recog-
nizes that cases will
arise when the su-
perior's order may appear impracticable, unreasonable,
or unrighteous to a free subject and may possibly really
be so. In such cases it is the acknowledged duty of
the subject to ^>peal, and his judgment as well as his
eonscienoe, even when it may happen to be ill-formed,
is to be respected; provision is made in the Ckinstitu-
tions for the clearing up of such troubles by discus-
sion and arbitration, a provision which would be inoon-
eeivaUe, unless a mind and a free will, independent
of and possibly opposed to that of the superior, were
recognised and respected. Ignatius wishes his sub-
jects to be "dead" or "blind" only in respect of sloth,
<rf passion, of self-interest, and self-indukence, which
would impede the ready execution of orders. So far
is he from desiring a mechanical performance that he
explicitly disparages "obedience, which executes in
wwk only ", as " unwOTtl^ of the name of virtue" and
warmly urges that "brading to, with all forces of head
and heart, we should carry out the commands
quickly and oomidetely'' (Letter on Obedience,
Is, 14).

Further illustrations of Ignatian love of liberty
may be found in the Spiritual Exercises and in the
character of certain theological doctrines, as Proba-
bilism and Molinism (with its subseciuent modified^
tions) which are commonly taudit in the Society's
Bchools. Thus, Molinism "is above all detennined
to throw a wall of security round free will" (see
Gbace, CoNTEOVUBsms on), and Probabilism (q. v.)
teaches that liberty may not be restrained unless the
restraining force rests on a basis of certainty. The
characteristic of both theories ia to emphasize the
sacredness of free will somewhat more than is done
in other systems. The Spiritual Exercises, the secret
of Ignatius's suooeas, are a series of considerationfl
arranged, as he tells the exOTdtant from the first, to
enable him to make a choice or election on the highest
principles and without fear of consequences. Again
the priest, who e^qilains the meditations, is wanted

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socnr l<

to be most careful not to incline the exeroitaut more
to one object of choice than to another (Annot. IS).

It is notorioualy impoedble to expect that anti^
Jesuit writers of our day shoidd face their subject in
a oommon'SeQse or scientific maimer. If they did,
one would point out< that the only rational manner
of inquiring into the subject would be to approach the
persons under discussion (who are after all very,
approachable) and to see whether they are character-
less, as they are reported to be. Another easy test
would be to turn to the lives of their great missionaries
Br^Muf, Marquette, SUyeira, etc. Any men more
unlike ' mere machines" it would be impossSilB to
oonoeive. The Society's sueceeses in education con-
firm the same conclusion. It is true that lately,
as a preparatory measure to closing its schools by
violence, the Irench anti-Jesuits asserted both in

Sriut and in the Chamber that Jesuit education pro<
uoed mere pawns, spiritless, unenterpriaiiig nonm-
tities. But ttw real reason was notoriously tliat the
pupils of the Jesuit schools were exceptionally suc-
ce^ul at the examinations for entrance as officers
into the army, and proved themselves the bravest
and most vigorous men of the nation. In a oontro-
verted matto* like this, the most obvious proof that
the Society'^s e<tucnf ion fitR its pujiih for the battle of
life is found in tht- c<iiut:iikt rc-adiitess of parents to
entrutft their children to the Jesuits oven wbtsi, from
a merely worldly point of view, ihein seemed to be
many reasons kht holding back. TA discussion (rf
this matt-En'r from a french dtimdpoint, will be
found in Brou, op. cit. infra, II, 409: Tampe in
"Etudcs'\ Paris, 1900, pp. 77, 7i^.) It is hanily
nDce-^Jtry u> mid that methods uf iichool discipline
will natiirnlly riilTer ^atly in diff^^rent countries.
The Suciety would cprtaiiily prefer to obaerve miUoHt
mnica^ ita weU-tried "Bf^ Btudiorum"; but it
is far from thinking that local customs (as tor instance
those which r^^d surveiUance) and external dis-
cipline should everywhere be uniform.

(2) Another objection akin to the supposed hostility
to freedom is the atl^d KvlturfeindluMteit, hostility
to what L9 cultured and intellectual. This cry has
been chiefiy raised by those who scornfully reject
Catholic theology as dogmatism, who sco£f at Catho-
lic philoBophy as 8ch(»astic, and at the Clnirch's
insistence on Biblical inq>iration as retrograde and
unscholarly. Such men make little account of work
for the i^nfwant and the poor, whether at home or on
the miSBions, they speak of evaiigelical poverty, of
practices of penance and of mortification, as if thc^
were debasing and retrograde. They compare their
numerous and richly endowed universities with the
few and relatively poor seminaries of the Catholic
and the Jesuit, wd their advances in a multitude of
physieal sciences with the intellectual (jmidity (as
they think it) of those whose highest ambition it is
not to go beyond the limits of theological orthodoxy.
The Jesuits, they say, are the leaders of the Kidlur-
feindliche; their great object is to bolster up anti-
quated traditions. They have produced no geniuses,
while men whom they trained, and who broke loose
from their teaching, Pascal, Descartes, Voltaire, have
powerfully affected the philosophical and religious
belidFs of large masses of mankind: but respecUUiIe
mediocrity is the brand on the long lists of the Jesuit
names in the catalogues of Alegambe and de Badc^.
Under Bismarck ana M.Waldeck-RouBseau arguments
of this sort were accompanied by decrees of banish-
ment and confiscation of goods.

This objection springs chiefly from prejudiofr—
religious, worldly, or national. The Catht^o will
thinJc rather better than worse of men who are decried
and persecuted on grounds which apply to the whole
Church. It is true the modem Jesuit's school is
often smaller and poorer than the estabhshment of
his rival, who at times is ensconced in the academy

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wfaiefa the Jesuits of previous times succeeded in
founding and endowing. It is not to be questicmed
that the sum total (rf learned institutiOTs in the hands
at non-Catholics is now greater than those in the
hands of our co^digionists, but the love of culture
surely is not extinguished in the exiled French,
Gennan, or Fc^uguese Jesuit, who, robbed perhaps
<rf all he poeseasee, at once settles down a^in to his
task of study, « writing, or of educaticm. Very
rare are the cases where Jesuits, living among ent^
prising people, have acquiesced in educational
mferiority. For superiority to others, even in sacred
learning, the Societv does not and should not contwd.
In their own line, tdat is in Catholic theology, philos-
ophy, and exegesis, they would hope that they are not
inferior to the level of their generation, and that, far
from acquiescing in intellectual inferiority, they aim
at making their schools as good as circumstances
allow them. They may also claim to have trained
majoy e^kkI scholars in almost every scimce.

The objection that Jesuit teachers do not influence
masses of mankind, while men like Descartes and
Voltaire, after breaking with Jesuit education, have
done BO, derives its force from passing over the main
work of the Jesuits, which is the salvation of souls,
and any lawful means that helps to this end, as, for
instance, the maintenance of orthodo:^. It is easy
to overlook this, and those who object will perii^
despise it, even u they recc^nize it. The work is not
ahovnr, whereas that of the satirist, the iconoclast,
and free-lance compels attention. Avoiding compari-
sons, it is safe to say that tbe Jesuits have done much
to maintain the teaching of orthodoxy, and that the
orthodox far outnumber the followers of men like
Voltaire and Descartes.

It would be impossible, from the nature of the case,
to devise any satisfactory test to show what love of
culture, especially of intellectual culture, thore wm
in a bod^ so diversified and scattered as the Society.
Many might be applied, and one of the most telling
is the regularity witb which every test reveals refine-
ment and stuoiousness somewhere in its ranks, even
in poor and distant foreign missions. To some it
will seem significant that the pope, when searching
for theolc^iians and consultors tor various Roman
colleges and oongr^tkHis, should eo frequently
select Jesuits, a relativdy small body, smue thirty
or forty per cent of whose members are employed in
foreign missions or among tbe poor of our great towns.
The periodicals edited by the Jesuits, of which a list
is given below, afford another indication of culture,
and a favourable one, though it is to be rememberea
that these publications are written chiefly with a
view of popularizing knowledge. The more serious
and learned books must be studied separately. The
most striking test ctf all is that offered by the great
Jesuit biblic^raphy of Father Sommovogel, showinc
over 120,000 writers, and an almost endless list en
books, pamphlets, and editions. There is no other
body in the world which can point to such a monu-
ment. Cavillers may say that the brand-mark is
"respectable mediocrity"; even so, the value of the
whole will be very remarkable, and we may be sure
that leas prejudiced and therefore better judges will
form a higher appreciation. Masterpieces, too, in
eveiy field of ecclesiastical l<^ming and in several
secular branches are not rare.

The statemoit that the Society has produced few
geniuses is not impressive in the mouths of those who
have not studied, or are unable to study or to judge,
the writers under disciusion. Again the objection,
whatevCT its worth, confuses two raeals. Educational
bodies must necessarily train by classes and schools
and produce men formed on definite lines. Genius
on the other hand is independent of training and does
not conform to type. It is unreasonable to reproach
a missionary or educational ^atem iot not posssHing

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advantages wliioh uo Hystem cau offer, 'llien il
is well to bear in mind that eenius is not reetrieted to
writers or scholars alone. There is a genius d organ-
iiation, exploration, enterprise, diplomacy, evangeli-
sation^ and instanccH of it, in one or other of thefte
directions^ are oommon enough in the Society.

Men will vary of coune in their estimates as to
whether the amount of Jesuit genius is great or not
aeoording to the esteem they make of those studies
in whidi the Society is strongest. But whether the
amount is great or little, it is not stunted by Ignatius's
striving? for uniformity. The objection taken to
the words of the rule *.'Let all say the same thing as
much as possible" is not convincing. This is a
clipped quotation, for Ignatius goes on to add "juxta
Apostolum", an evident r^erenoe to St. Paul to the
Pnilippians, iii, 15, 16, beyond whom he does not go.
In trutl^ Ignatius's <n>ject is the practical one of
mevoiting lealous professors from wasting their
lecture time in disputing small points on which they
may differ from their colleagues. The Society's
writers and teachers are surely never compelled to
the same rigid acceptation of the views of another
as is often the case elsewhere, e. g. in politics, diplo-
macy, or journalism. Members (rf a staff (tf leader-
writers have constantly to personate convictkms not
really^ their own, at the bidaiojg of the editw; whereas
Jesmt writers and teachera write and epeak almost in-
variably in their own names, and with a variety of
treatment and a freedom of mind which compare not
unfavourably with other exponents of the same sub-
jects.

(3) Failure. — Hie Society never became "relaxed"
or needed a "reform" in the technical sense in which
tlwee terms are applied to religious orders. The
constant intercourse which is maintained between all
parts enables the general to find out very soon when
anything goes wrong, and his laive power of appoint-
ing new officials has alwa/s sufficed to maintain a
high standard both of discipline and of religious
virtue. Of course there have arism critics, who nave
invoted this generally acknowledged fact. It has
beoi said that: (a) failure has become a note of
Jesuit enterprises. Other religious and learned
institutions endure for century ftfter century. The
Society has hardly a house that is a hundred years
old, very few that are not quite modem. Its great
missionary glories, Japan, Paraguay, China, etc.,
passed like smoke and even now, in countries predomi-
nantly Catholic, it is banished and its worics ruined,
white other Catholics escape and endure. Again,
that (b), after Acquaviva's time, a poiod at decay
ensued; (c) disputes about Probwilism, tyrannicide,
equivocation, etc., caused a stroi^ and steady decline
in the order; (d) the Society after Acquaviva's time
began to acquire enormous wealth, and the professed
lived in luxmy; (e) religious energy was enervated by
p^tieal scheming and by internal dissenaicns.

(a) The word "failure" is here taken in two differ-
ent ways — faihire from internal decay and fiulure
from external violence. The former is discreditable,
tiie latter may he glorious, if the cause is good.
Whether the failures of the Society, at its Suppree-
sion and in the violent ejections from various lands
even in our own time, were discreditable failures is a
historical question treated elsewhere. If they were,
then we must say that such failures tend to ^e credit
<i Uie order, that they are rather apparent than real,
uid Ck>d'B Providence will, in His own vmy, make
good the loss. In effect we see the Society frequent
suffering, but as frequent^ recovering and renewing
her youtn. It would be inexact to say that the perse-
cutions which the Society has suffered have been so
great and continuous as to be irreconcilable with the
usual course of Providence, which is wont to temper
trial with relief, to make endurance posrable (1 Cor.,
X, tS). Tlius, iriiile it may be truly said that many

Jesuit communitiss have been forced to break up
within the last thirty years, others have had a cor-

g orate existence of two or three centuries. Stony-
urst College, for instance, has been only 116 years
in its present site, but its cor|Mirate life is 202 years
older still; yet the meet glorious pages of its his-
tory are those of its persecutions, when it lost,
three times over, everything it possessed and, bardy
escaping by ffight, renewed a lite even more bonouiv
able and distinguished than that which preceded, a
fortune probably without its equal in the history of
pedagogy. Agun the BoUandists (q. v.) and the
Collegio Romano may be cited as well-known exam-
ples of institutions which, though once smitten to
the ground, have afterwards revived and flourished
as much as before if not more. One might instance,
too, the German province, which, though driven
into exile by Bismarck, has thoe more than doubled
its previous numbers. Tba Christianity which the
Jesuits planted in Paraguay survived in a wonderful
way, after they were gone, and the rediscovery of liie
Church in Japan affords a glorious testimony to the
thoroughness of the old missionary methods.

(b) Turning to the point m demdence after
Aoquavira's time, we freely oonoede that no sub-
Be(]uait generation oontuiwd so many great person-
alities as the first. The first fifty years saw nearly all
the Society's saints and a lai^e proportion of its
great writers and missionaries. But the same phe-
nomenon ia to be observed in almost all orders, indeed
in most other human institutions whether sacred or
profane. As for internal dissensions after Acqua-
viva's death, the truth is that the severe troubles
occurred before, not after, it. The reason for t^is is
easily understood. Intenial troubles came ehi^y
with that oonflict of views which was ineviti^le while
the Constitutions, the rules, and general traditions
of the body were being moulded. This took tUl
near the end of Acquaviva's generalate. The worst
troubles oame first, under Ignatius himself in r^ard
to Portugal, as has been explained elsewhere (see
Iqnatids Lotola). The troubles of Acquaviva with
Spain come next in seriousness.

(c) After Acquaviva's time we find indeed some
w»rm theol<wical disputations on Probabilism and
other points; out in truth this trouble and the debates
oil tyrannicide and equivocation bad much more to do
with outside controversies than with intonal division.
After th^ had been fully argued and resolved by
papal authority, the settlement was accepted through-
out the Society without any trouble.

(d) The aUegation that the Jesuits were ever im-
mensely rich is demonstrably a fitble. It would seem
to have arism from the vulgar prepossession that all
those who live in great houses or churches must be
very rich. The allegation was exploited as early as
1694 by Antoine Arnauld, who declared that the
French Jesuits had a revenue of 200,000 Unres
(£60,000, which might be multiplied 1^ six to ^t.
the relative buying power of that day). The Jesuits
answored that their twenty-five churches and col-
leges, having a staff of 500 to 600 persons, had in all
only 60,000 lwre$ (£15,000). The exact annual
revenues of the KngHsh raovince for some 120 years
are published by Foley {Records S. J., VII, Introd.,
139). Duhr (Jesuitenfabek, 1904, 606, etc.) oves
many figures of the same kind. We can, ther^ore,
tell now that the M^lege revenues were, for their pur-
poses, very moderate. The rumours tji immoise
wealtJi aocptired still further vogue through two occur*
renijes, the RMtiiutiomedikt of 1629 and the Ucenoe,
sometimes given by papal authmtv, for the procura-
tors of t^e foreipi missions to include in the sale d the
produce of their own mission farms the produce of
tlieir native ccmvorts, who were generally still too
rude and childish to make bargains for themselves.
The AssMKfwnastttM, as has been already explained

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(see above: Germany), led to no permanent remiltB,
but the Bale of the mission produce came conspicu-
ously before the notice of the public at the time m the
Suppression, by the failure Father La Valette (see,
in article above, Suppbbssion, .Prance). In neither
case did the money transactions, such as they were,
affect the standard of living in the Society itself,
which always remained that of the honetti aaeer-
dotes of their time (see Duhr, op. oit. infra, pp.
582-662).

During the closing months o£ 1761 many other
prelates wrote to the king, to the dianoeUtn', M. de
Lajnoignon, protesting against the arrk <rf the
ParUment of 6 August, 1761, and testifying to their
sense of the injustice of the accusations made against
the Jesuits and of the loss which their dioceses would
sustain by their suppression. De Ravignan gives
the names of twenty-seven such bishops. Of the
minority five out of the six rendered a collective
answer, approving of the conduct and teaching of
the Jesuits. These five bidiops, the CudinaT de
Choiseul, brother the statesman, Mgr de La Roche-
foucauld, Archbishop of Rouen, and Quiseau
of Nevers, Choiseul-Beaupr^ of ChAlons, and Cham-
pion de Cice of Auxerre, declared that " the confidence
r^Kwed in the Jesuits by the bishops of the kingdom,
all of whom approve them in their diocese, is evidence
that they are found useful in France", and that in
consequence thev, the writers, "supplicate the king
to mat his royal iwoteetitm, and keep for the Qiurch
of France a society commendable for the service it
renders to the Church and State and which the vigi-
lance of the bishops may be trusted to preserve free
from the evils which it is feared might come to affect
it ". To the second and third of the kii»'s questions
tiiey answer tiiat occasionally individual Jesuits
have taught blameworthy doctrines or invaded the
jurisdiction of the bisht^ but that neith^ fault
has been general enough to affect the body as a whole.
To the fmirth question th^ answer tiiat "the authoi^
ity of the g/eaenl, as it is wont to be and should be
cAot^sed in France, ai>pears to need no modification;
nor do tJiey see anythmg objectionable in the Jesuit
vows". In fact, the on& point on which they differ
from the majority is in tne suggestion that "to take
away all difficulties for the future it would be well to
solicit the Holy See to issue a Brief fixing precisely
those limits to the enrdse of the ge&nal's authority
in France which the maxima of the kingdom require " .

TesUmonies like these might be multiplied indef-
initely. Among them one of the most significant
is that of Clement XIII, dated 7 January, 1765, which
specially mentions the cordial relations of the Society
with bishops throughout the worid, precisely when
enemies were plotting for the supinression of the order.
In his books on Clement XIII and Clement XIV de
Ravignan records the acts and letters of numy bishops
in favour <^ tJie Jesuits, enumerating the names of
nearly 200 biriiops in ev&ry part of the world. From
a secular source the most noteworthy testimony is
that of the IVench bishops when hostility to the
Society was rampant in high places. On 15 Novem-
ber, 1761, the Comte de Florentin, t^e minister of the
royal household, bade Cardinal de Luynee, the Arch-
bishop of Sens, convoke the bishops ibm at Paris
to investigate the foDowingpinnts: (1) The use which
die Jesuits can be in Fhuice, and uie advantages or
evils whicji may be expected to attend their dis-
charge <rf the different functions committed to tbem.
(2) 'Hie manner in which in their teaching and
practice tlie Jesuits conduct themselves in rnpud to
opinions dan^rous to the personal safety oi sover*
eigns, to the doctrine oi the French clergy contained
in the Dedaration of 1782, and in re^rd to the Ultra-
montane opinions generally. (3) The conduct of
the Jesuits in regard to the subordination due to
bidiope and ecckwastinal superius, and as to whstbw

18 ■ocnmr

they do not inbinge on t^ rights and functions of
the parish priests. (4) What restriction can be
placed on the authority of the General <rf the Jesuits,
80 for as it is exNoised in Prance. For eh'citing the
judjsment fif the ecdedasUcs of the kingdom on the
action of the ParUment, no questions could be more
suitable, and the bishops convoked (three cardinals,
nine archbishops, and thirty-nine bishops, that is
fifty-one in all) met t<^ether to consider them on 30
November. They appointed a commission consistina
of twelve <^ their number, who were given a mont£
fur t^eir task and reprated duly on 30 December.
Of these fifty^me bisows, f<^y-four addressed a
letter to the king, dated 30 Deoember, 1761, answer-
ing all the four questions in a sense favourable to the
Society and giving under each head a clear statement
of their reasons.

To the first question the bishops reply ^at the
"Institute of tne Jesuits ... is conspicuously
consecrated to the good of religion and the pto&t m
the State". Tbey oapn by noting how a succession
of popes, St. Chanes Borromeo, and the ambassadors
of pnnces, who with him were jnresent at the Coundl
of Trent, together with the Fathers of that Coundl
in their collective capacity, had pronounced in favour
of the Society after an exi>erience of the services it
could render: how, thoug^ in the first instance there
was a prejudice a^Eamst it in France, on account
certain novelties in its constitutions, the soverei^
bidiops, dBtgy, and jmo|^ had, on oonung to know it,
become fiimw attached to it, as was witnessed by the
demand of the States-General in 1614 and 1615 and
of the Assembly of the Clergy in 1617, both of which
bodies wished for Jesuit rolleges in Paris and the
provinces as "the beet means ad^ted to ^a&t
religion and faith in the hearts of the pe<9le". They
refer also to the language of many letters-patent by
which the kings U Fmnce had authorized the various
Jesuit coll^e^ in particular that of Qermont, at
Paris, which u>uis XIV had wished shoiUd bear his
own nam& and which had come to be known as the
CtJlege of Louia-le-Grand. Then, coming to iheir
own personal experience, they bear witness that "the
Jesuits are very useful for our dioceses, for preaching,
for the guidance of soul^ for implanting, preserving,
and renewing faith and piety, by their missions,
congregations, retreats, which they carry on with our
uiprobaticm, and under our authtmty". Whence
they oonohide that "it would be difilcult to replace
them without a loss, especialljr in the provmdal
towns, where there is no university".

To the second question the bishops reply that,
if there were any reality in the accusation that the
Jesuit teaching was a menace to the hvee of sovereigns,
the bishops would long since have taken measures
to restrain it, instead of entrusting the Society with
the most important functions of the sacred ministry.
They also indicate the source frmn whidi this and
similar accusations ajgainst the Society had their
origin. "The Calvinists", they say, "tried tiieir
utmost to destroy in its cradle a Society whose
principal object was to combat their errors . . .
and disseminated many publications in which ther
singled out the Jesuits as professinK a doctrine which
menaced the_ lives of sovereigns, because to accuse
them of a crime so capital was the surest means to
destroy them; and the prejudices against ikem thus
aroused had ever since been seized upon greedily
by all who had had any interested motives for object-
ing to the Society's existence (in the count^)."
The bishops add that the charges a^;ainst the Jesuits
idiicb were being made at that time in so many
wriUi^ wiUi which the oountry was flooded were but
rdiadMB of what had been appken and written against
them throu^out the preceding century and a naif.

To the turd question they reply that the Jesuita
hftn no doubt received numerous privileges from Uw

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Holy See, many ot wfaioh, howevw, and Uraae the
most ext«ifflA'e, nm^ accrued to Uwm by eonunupica^
tkm with the other orders to whicli ta«y had been
primarily granted: but that the Societv has been
accnistomed to uae its privikgea with mooEvatioo and
prudence.

The fourth and last of the queetiona is not per-
tinent here, and we omit the answer. The Arch-
bishop of Paris, who was one of the assembled
biahope, bat on some groupd of precedtoit preferred
not to ogn the majori^ statement, endorsed it in a
aq;Mrate lettOT whtch bk addreawd to the king.

(e) It is not to be denied that, as the Society
acquired reputation and influence eren in the Courts
of powerful kines, certain domestic troubles arose,
which had not oeen heard of before. Some jeal-
ousies were inevitable, and some losses of friend-
ship; there was danf^ too of the faults of the Court
conunuziicating themselves to lliose who frequented
it. But it is equally clear that the Socie^ was keenly
on its guard in this matter, and it would seem that
its precautions were succeBsftd. Religious observ-
ance did not suifer to any appreciable extent. But
few people of the seventeenth century, if any,
noticed the grave danRers which wore coming from
abeolute government, the decay of energy, tl:^ dim-
inished desire for progress. The Society like the rest
of Europe suffered under these influences, but they
were ^>bunly external, not internal. In France the
injunous izmuence of Gaflicanism must also be admit-
ted (see above^ France). But evrai jn this dull period
we find the Fmich Jesuits in the new mission-field oi
Canada showing a fervour worthy of the highest tra-
ditions of the o^er. The final and most oonvincir^
proof that there was nothing seriously wrong in the
poverty or in the discipline of the Societsr up to the
time 01 its Suppression is offered by the inability of
its enemies to substantiate their charges, whea, aSUg
the Suppression, all the accounts and the p^>ers oi
the Society passed bodily into tiie adversaries' posses-
sion. What an unrivi^ed opportunity for proving
to the world those allegaticos which were hitherto
unsupported! Yet, after a carefid scrutiny of the
papers, no such attempt was made. The conclusion
IS evident. No serious fauH could be proved.

Neither at the middle of the eighteenth century
not at any previous time was there any internal decline
(tf the Society; there was no loss of numbers, but on
the contrary a steady growth; there was no falling off
in kaniing, morality, or seal. From 1000 memb^
in 12 provmees in 1556, it had grown to 13,U2 in 27
provinces in 1615; to 17,605 in 1680, 7890 of whom
were priests, in 36 prormcee with 48 novitiates, 28
professed housee, 8s seminartee, 678 colleges, 160
residences, and 106 foreign missions; and, in spite of
every obstacle, poaeoution, «roulwm, and suppres-
sicm during the seventeenth ana eigjiteenth centuries,
in 1749 it numbered 22,580 members, of whom 11,203
wm priests, in 41 provinces, with 61 novitiates, 24
profe^ed bouses, 1/6 seminari^j, 660 colleges, 335
residences, 1542 churches, and 273 foreign missions.
Ukat there was no falUi^ oO in learning, morality,
or seal historians generally, whethor hoetUe or friend-
ly to the Society, attest (see Maynard, "The Jesuits,
their Studies and Uieir Teachinfr')-

On this pmnt the testimoi^ oC Benedict XIV will
surely be accepted as inoontrovert&le. In a letter
dated 24 April) 1748, he says that the Society is one
"whose religious are everywhere reputed to be in the
good odour Christ, chiefly because, in order to
advance the young men who frequent Uieir churches
and schools in the pursuit <A Vbeni knowled^, leam-
ioz, and culture, as well as in deeds and habits of the
CSristian religion and piety, tlwy seakmsfy exert
every effort greatlv to the advantHB of the young".

la another beanng tbasuoa date he nya: *'It is a
unirerBal c<mTiction aamnned pootEfical dealaxa-

tion [Urban VUI. 6 August, 1623] that as AlmighW
Qod xaiaed vp otbw holy men for other times: so He
has raiaad up St. Ignatius and die Society estwlished
by him to <^pase LuUier and the heretics of his day:
and the reli^ous stms of tliis Society, following the
luminous way of so great a parent, continue to give
an unfailing example of the religious virtues and a di»-
tinguished proficiency in every Icind of learning, more
especially in sacred, so that, as their co-operation is a
great service in the successful conduct of the most
mportant affairs of the Cathcdic Churdi, in Uie ree-
tontion of morality, and in the liboal culture of young
men, they merit new proofs of Apostolic favour.'' In
tJie paragraph followmg he speaks of the Society as
"most des^ving of the orthodox religion", and
further on he says; "It abounds in men skilled in
every branch of learning." On 27 September, 1748,
he commended the General of the »>ciety and its
membos for their "strenuous and faithful L^urs in
sowing and pHqiamtjng throughout the itliole world
Catholic faith and umty, as well as Christian doc-
trine and piety, in all tJieir int^ty and sanctity".
On 15 July. 1740, he speaks of the members of the
Society as ' men who by their assiduous labour strive
to instruct and form all the faithful of both sexes in
every virtue, and in seal for Christian piety and doo-
trine". "The Society of Jesus", he wrote on 29
March, 1753, "adheriiw closely to the splendid lewons
and examples aet than by their founder, St. Ignatius,
devote themsdves to this pious work (spiritual exier-
eisesl with so much aidour, seal, chanty, attention,
visdlanoe, labour . . .", etc.

For the eaitv oontiOTmiM s«e the •rtiolea Annai, CtmUi,
Forwr, OreUar, Orou, aaA Beiftnberg in SOHHKBvoarL uad the
fait Ikt Of Jemh qMlofiei, ibid., X, ISOl.

B6KMK>-MoiroD, Im jintiin (Xtaa. 1010); -Gioaam, JI
getuUa modemo (Lmuuuu, 1846) : Quxmnobb, Hit. oftht JmuiU
(Loadon. 1873) ; Hoemsbhokgh, Viaruhn Jahrt Jemit (Leipsic,
1910); HnmB, Dar JentiUn-Ordm (Berlin, I87S}; MienLB*-
Qmtm. Dm Jiwitn (Puia, 1843); Mclux, Lu ortfnim dt fa
•mnii. d» Jtwa (Pwis, 1898); Rxubch, B«itrag* war Qttek. dw
Jttuiten (Munich, 1894): Tacnton. HM. of Iht JuuiU in
Mngland (London, 1901); Tmim. Hiit. du tniMutum* ehriL
d'tdtieoHm eedfa. (Fr. tr.. Cohan, Puia. 184(n. DiaouMiona of
the than wd of other boatile writera will be fouDd in the Jesuit
pariodicala dted above; see kIbo Pilatdi (Vixtob NAUiuifii).
Car Jatvitiwmtf (Ratiabon, 1006), 302-669, ft fine eritidnn, by m
ProtoMeot writer, of snti-Jeeuitieal literature; BufeBB, Vapoto-
Ifttiqu* d» Pa»aU et la ntori d* Pateat (Paris, 1911), Bboo. Let jfnt-
UeidiJa Uoendt (Paris, 1006) ; Conc«rntH0 Jetviu (London. 1902) ;
Ddhk, JMuifan-PoMn (Freibort. 1904) ; Du Lac, Jfntitf (Porio,
1901): Matnabd, TAe atudisM and Teaehing aftht SoeMy <J Jtiu
(London, 1855); Lm ProtimM— ttlatrrffuiaiwn (Pane, 1861-2);
nz Rationan, d« Ftxitlmc* ei d« Finttiitd d*aiituiUM (Puia, lSi4o,
tr. Sbaoxb (London, 1844) ; Wnae, Antonio at Baecbar y Mtndom,
(Freiburg. 1911); Redscb, £er Ind*x d»r verhottnm BOehtr; D6l-
UMQEB AMB RxoBCH, GmcA. d«r MorolitrnticktiUK: Daukl, A
Vindication of St, Ignatius from Pfianatieiam, and of lAe Jetvittt
from At CalumniM laid to thtir eharg* (London, 1688); Hdoru,
Z-oiwfo and tht EdueaL Si/tttm of tht Jtmtitt (New York, 1802);
Pachtleb-Ddbs, Ratio Stuitiontm in Mm, Otm, jaadaoogita
(Berlin, 1887); Bwickckath, Jotuit Sdveation, lU Bittcry and
Prineiplf in IKt Light of Modtn SdvetOional PrMtmt (Bt. Lomo,

loqn.

DianNouisHBD MmcsEBS. — Saints: Ignatius Loy-
ola; Francis Xavier; Francis Borgia; Stanislaus
Kostka; Aloyaus Gonsaga; Alphonsus Rodrigues;
John Berohmans; John Crands Kecis; Fetor Claver;
Francis de Genaiimo, and Paul Miki, Jchn Goto,
James Kisai, Japanese martyrs (1597).

Blessed.— The blessed number 91; amo^ them are
Peter Faber; Peter Canisiua: Anthony Baldinucci;
the martyrs Andrew Bobola; John de Britto (qq. v.):
Bernardino Reahni; Ignatiua de Aievedo (q. v.) and
Munpanions (known as the Forty Martyrs of Brasil),
vis. Didaeus de Andrada (priest); Antonio Suares;
Benediotus a Castro; I^Vancisco Magalhfies; Jofto Fer-
nandes: Luii Correa; Msnoel Rodriguee; Simon Lopes;
Manoa Femandee; Alvaro Mendes; Pedro Nunhee;
Andreas OonQatves; Juan a S. Martino (scholastics);
(jonsatvo Henriquee; Didaoo Pires; Ferdinand San-
ciee; Franoisoo P^rez (3odoi; Antonio Correa; Manod
Padieoo; NieolasDini*; AUodusDelgado; Marco Cat
deira: Sanjoannes (scholastic novioee); Manoel AKi^
res; FranoiMO Alnna; Dnmingna Feniandes; Gupw

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SOOIKTT 1

Alvares; Amarus Vaz; Juan de MajoiKa; Alfonao de
Vaena; Antonio Femandes; Stefano Zuriare: Pedro
Fontoura; Gr^rorio Scrivano; Juan de Zafra; Juan de
Baeza; Blasio Ribeiro; Jofio Femandes; Simon Acosta
(lay brothers); the Japanese martjrs: John Baptist
Machado, 1617; Sebastian Chimura, 1622; Camillo
Costanzo, 1622; Charles Spinola, 1622; Paul Navarro,
1622; Jerome de Aneelis, 1623; Didacus Carvalho.
1624; Michael Carvalno, 1624; Francisco Pacheco ana
his companions Baltasar de Torres and Giovanni
Battbta Zola, 1626; Thomas Tzugi, 1627; Anthony
Ixida^ 1632 (priests); Augustine Ota, 1622; Gonxalvus
Fusai and hia companions, Anthony Chiuni, Peter
Samp6, Michael Xumpd, Louis Cavara, John Chin-
gocu, Thomas Acafoxi, 1622; Denis Fugixima and
Peter Onizuchi (companions of Bl. Paul Navarro),
1622; Simon Jempo (companion of Bl. Jerome de
Angdis)^ 1623; Vincent (>,un and his companions:
Peter Rinxei, Paul Chinsuche, John Chinsacoj Mich-
ael Toe6, 1626; Michael Nacaxima, 1028 (scholastics);
Leonard Chimura, 1619; Ambrosio Fdmandes, 1620;
Caspar Sandamatzu (companion of Bl. Francis
Pacheco, 1626). lay brothers; the English martyrs:
Thomas Woodnouse, 1573; and John Nelson, Ed-
mund Campion, Alexander Briant (qq. v.); Thomas
Cottam, 1582(priest3); themartyrsofCuncolim(q. v.):
Rudolph Acquaviva: Alfonso Pacheco; Pietro Elemo;
Antonio Francisco (priests); and Francisco Aranha,
1583 (lay brother); the Hungarian martyrs: Melchior
Giodeei and Stephen Pongracz, 7 Sept., 1619.

Vcnerables. — fhe venerables number fifty and
include, besides those whose biographies have been
given separately (see Index vol.), Claude de La Col-
ombifere (1641-S2), Apostle of the devotion to the
Sacred Heart; Nicholas Lancicius (1574^1653), author
of "Gloria Ignatiana" and many spiritual works, and,
with Orlandmi, of "Historia Societatis Jesu"; Julien
Maunoir (1606-83), Aijostle of Brittan^r.

Thou^ the Jesuits, in accordance with their rules,
do not accept ecclesiastical dirties, the popes
at times have raised some of their numbers to the
rank of cardinal, as Cardinals Bellarmine, Franze-
lin, de Lugo, Mai, Mazzella, Odescalchi. Pailavicino,
Pdzmdny, Tarquiifl^ Toledo, Tolomei (qq. v.); also
Cardinals Casimir V, King of Poland, created 1647;
Alvaro Cienfuegos (1657-1739), created 1720; Johann
Ebcrhard Nidhard (1607-81), created 1675; Giam-
battiata Salerno (1670-1729), created 1709; Andreas
Stcinhuber (1825-1907), created 1893; and Louis
Billot (b. 1846), created 27 Nov., 1911.

Aa reference is made in most of the articles on
members of the Society to Sommervogers monu-
mental "Biblioth^ue de la Compi^nie de J^sus" a
brief account of its author is jgiven here. Carlos,
fourth son of Marie-Maximihen-Joseph Sommer-
vogcl and Hortense Blanchard, was bom on, 8
Jan., 1834, at Strasburg, Alsace, and died in Paris
on 4 May, 1902. After studying at the l^cSe of
Strasburg, Carlos entered the Jesuit novitiate at
Issenhcim, Alsace, 2 Feb., 1853, and was sent later
to Saint-Acheul, Amiens, to complete his Uterary
studies. In 1856 he was appointed aasistant prefect
of discipline and sub-Ubranan m tbf. College of the
Immaculate Conception, Rue Vaugirard, Paris.
Here he discovered his Uterary vocation. The
"BibliothMue" of PP. Augustin and Aln^ de Batiker
was then in course of publication, and Sommervogel,
noting in it occasional errors and omissions, made a
systematic examination of the whole work. Four
years later P. Aug. de Backer, seeing his list of adden-
da and errata, a MS. of 800 pages containing over
10,000 entries, obtained leave to make use (rf it. Som-
mervogel continued at Rue Vaugirard till 1865, re-
viewing his course of philosophy meanwhile.- Be then
studied theol(^ at Amiens, where he was ordained in
Sept., 1866. fVom 1867 till 1879 he was on the staff
of the "Etudes", bang managing editor horn 1871 ti)l

0 socnTT

1879. During the Franco-German War he served
as chaplain in Faidhobe's army, and was decorated
in 1871 with a bronze medal for his self-sacrifice.

P. de Backer in the revised edition of his "BiUio-
thMue" (1860-76) gave Sommervogdl's name as
co-author, and deservedly, for the vast improvement
in the work was in no small measure due to the
tatter's contributions. From 1880 till 1882 P.
Sommervogel was assistant to his father provincial.
Before 1882 he had never had any special opportunity
of puisuinK his favourite study ; all his bibliographical
woHc had been done in his spare moments, la 1884
he published his "Dictionnaire des ouvrages ano-
nymes et pseudonymes public par des religieux de
la Compagnie de J^sus". In 1885 be was appointed
successor to the PP. de Backer and went to Louvain.
He determined to recast and enlarge their work and
after five years issued the first volume of the first
part (Brussels and P^, 1890); by 1900 the nmth
volume had appeared; the t^th. an index of tho
first nine, which comprised the bibliographical part
of the "Bibliothfeque" was unfinished at the time of
his death but has since been completed by P. Bliard,
with a bio^phical notice by P. Brucker, from which
these details had been drawn. P. Sommervogel had
intended to compile a second, or historical, part of
his work, which was to be a revision of Carayon's
"Bibliographie faistorique". He was a man of
exemsiaxy virtue, giving freely to all tiie fruit <tf his
devoted labours and content to lead for yearn a busy
obscure life to awhich duty called him, until his
superiors directed him to devote himself to his favoiuv
ite study during the last fifteen years of his life.
He re-emted a number of works by old writers of the
Society and, in addition to his articles in the "Etudes",
wrote: " Table m^thodique des M^moires de Tr^voux"
(3 vols., Paris, 1864-5); "Bibliotheca Mariana de la
Comp. de J^aus" (Paris, 1885): "Moniteur biblio-
graphique de la Cnnp. de J^sus (Paris, 1894-1901).

Mkkolooiss, BioouPBm. — ^AuoAiiSB, MorUt iUtutrei tt

lifilrs i-'iruin iff ,?0C. Jesu fiti M-ifiAiwiUH nrcoft' tunt (Rome,
li 'iT}; j[>i:M, Hfr■^Jt^ TuA'nuB dbdtfHJ^t (iLaiiie. OjtfcnH.

.■<;i. Jeau (BraunBbi^iK, I73S)i ChandUKIct. PiuH brcnorsi
Sm-. .li'sii tl.oQriaa, ISJLD); UciLEBBiir, SifnrAoge de la eamp, dm
J : Vnnatjal I.Pari-i, lSB7):FrflnM (Paris. 1892)? /iDfte(PariB, IBM};
r 11-1.1 11.1 <' (.PurU, \ k^) ; \iA^■\.l:ot>,^fe>^aLJ■OTlht^rlBUAA*»i|>9fKU

'inii/'iie S<ic. Jtiru iHaliahm, ISM): N'lEHEMBEDa, rfoTi}* nrgnsr

iSt fit rJiFn Ji-

lisiisi 'lfll-1 rii [i. ^V^.'^i^c■, 1730) ; Tansbr, Soc^ Jfsu ^jtaato'

fi.fiij-j-f •'tll|l^•f:"i-^ (PrajTUt-, ]l.'ifllj; iDliif. .s'o.". JfSb uiii}iie aii wyojXtn

iifmii lRfj<-rm<.n\'i, I9D1). liililicieruijliic?- nf jmiti^ulBr pehaana,
oil a WegvT ttDaie Ihbiii rjm hvi i^i^-tii htrt:. u ill be touad undcc tb«
-->'l<uru.tn^ jirtii'les ilsvo'Led. to them. [Set; oIki Indet volume.)
Till' bMl-urrangiici hiatorii^ biblinprDphy w Ehat of CABAros>
lfi'"!it>vraphit dt la wm^ami <fe J^tui (I'ltriis, ISCHJ. S« also
ric'! TifWELL, Bibt. acrifdontm Six. Jtena (Kurut.lflilj) ;. i-G ^.tr^iiii.
ilihttf^hiqiHi del lerit. df In cirmp. df JCtur Sow-
tEtiTEVfmt^Li BifA, dta to^n. da to. anap. de Jtsue i ID vfjIh,, Brusscta,
1^0i)-iniU); Hdrtbb^ NiMtndalorliieraniM {bmabTwk. ISG'i-^i;
iJEUewe, Afta .3. Siditinmnta^ Jwu. fFlqjtnw. ISS.7-95J:
dfl Jtnt {FnriL lS7d); luzu,

\RTt:, CnlrU. rojutiado de o^-r'iJf , ^t^'^' 9i,iwl<irn W^^MK
de JegiU (Madrid, 1004).

Jesuit PESiODlC^f. — Siimoirm de TrHoux nVevoux and
Paris, 1701-67, 289 vols.), TabU mflhodimu. by SoitHZBTOOEL
(8 vols., Paris, 1864-65); CiviUi eaWAita (Rome, 1800); Bttdu
niti.,liU..elrdio.iPuia, 1864);— bwaa asffwdw IliM.. inttr-
miUent, 1880-8: IViUa giniraU, 188^1000 <PariB, 1901); /Wcia
MttoriQuea (Bniasels, IS52), TbUss, lW«-7£ (Bnusds, 18U).
in 1899 it beoaoH the lit— ion* Mfst; Tlu Month (LondoB,
18641, ItuUx (,lS34-tB08); SHmmm an* Maria-lMeh (Freibors.
1871), began as Die Bncydika (1864). Id coniMxion with thisH
issued a series of Brgibituna^udit- Also Rtf/itler 1, 1871-80; Rt^
iuer IT, ISM-aB; Studim (Vtneht, 1868); Km. des qutatiotu hU-
torigute (Bnussls, 1877) ; Pnuflad pmetetdtntf (Genml Kevi«w,
Cracow) ; ZtiUdi. /Or katk, Tluel. (Innsbrui^. 1^76) ; RatiSn u Fe
(Madrid, 1901). BeaideB tiis nbovo, which deal wiUi tmtios of all
sorts, tbsrs an & boat of minor periodicals devoted to i^edel
aubjeots; soieoti&a, lituraio^l, sodal, ooUege, mfaaioii, and paro'
eUal louaainea are more numerous still. The JTssMRtftr ef On
Saend Heart has editions for many oountiies and In numerans
lantoajea. It is the ornn of the AposlleaMp of Prayer; mortot
these editiona are edited members of the Sodety; AmMriea

iN«w York, 1909). (See abo BouAMDim; Ratio Snnuonni;
tsraaATs; BnarnuL Bxiacisn orSiJif* lawATiua: Theatbk.)
• J;4}. POZXBH.

Digitized by VjOOglC

.80CIIT7 1

Sociatr of the Blessed Sacrament, Thb, a con-
gre^tion of priests founded by Venerable Pierre-
Julien E>-mard v.) in Paris, 1 Jxine.. 1856. Hia
• aim was to croate n society whose members should
devote themselves exclusively to the worship of the
Hoi}' tlucharist. Pius IX approved the society by
Briefs of 1850 and 1858 and by a Decree of 3 June,
1863, approved the rule ad decennium. On 8 May,
1895, Leo XIII approved it in perpeluum. Ilie first
to join the founder was P^ de CuerS( whose example
was soon followed by Pfere Champion. The com-
munity prospered, and in 1862 P6re Eymard opened
a novitiate, which was to consist of priests and lay
brothers. The former recite the Divine Office in choir
and perform all the other duties of the clet^; the
latter share in the principal end of the society —
perpetual adoration, and attend to the various house-
nola employments peculiar to their state. TTie
Blessed Sacrament is always exposed for adoration,
and the sanctuary never without adorers in surplice,
and if a priest, the stole. Every hour at the sound of
the signal bell, all the religious kneel and recite a
prayer in honour of the Blessed Sacrament and of
Our Lady. Since 1856, the following houses have been
established: France— Paris (1856), Marseillefl (1869),
Angers, (1861), Saint Maurice (1866), Trevoux (1895),
Sarcellee (1898); Belgium— Brussels (1866), Or-
meignies (1898), Oostduinkerke (1902), Baasenee
(1902), Baronvine(1910), Baelen Post Eupenon the
Belgian frontier for Gomans (1909); Italy — Rome
(1882) Turin (1901), Castel-Vecchio (1905); Aus-
tria— Botzen (1896); Holland- — Baarle-Nassau, now
Nijmegen (1902); Spain— Totesa (1907); Aiventina—
BuenoB-Ayres (1003); Chile— Santiago (190B): Can-
ada—Montreal (1800), TOTcbonne (1902); United
States— New York (1900); SufTem, N. Y. (1907),
AH tJie houses in France were closed by the Govern-
ment in 1900, but Perpetual Adoration is still
hold in their chapel in Paris, which is m chai^
of the secular clers^, by the members of "The
People's Eucharistic League". The first foundation
in the IJnited States took place in 1900, under the
leadership of Pire Estevenon, the present superior-
general, m New York City, where the Fathers were
received in the Canadian pari^ of Saint-Jean-
Baptiste, 185 East 76th Street. A new church is
under construction. In September, 1904, the Fathers
of the Blessed Sacrament <^>ened a preparatory sem-
inary at Suffem, Rockland Co., N. Y. Here young
boys who give crvidence of a vocation are tnuned to
the rcligiotis life, while pursuing a course of secular
study. From the seminary the youths pass to the
novitiate, where, after two years, uiey make the three
vows of religion, and then enter upon their first
theological course preparatory to ordination.

FYom every house of the Fathers of the Blessed
Sacrament emanates a series of Eucharistio works,
all instituted by their foundn. They are: "The
£kicharistio Weefcs, or, Lt^ts and Flowerfl a society
whose monbers devote themselves to t^e proper
adornment of the altar; "The People's Euaharis-
tic League", which numbers over 500,000; "The
Priests' Eucharistic League", with a membership of
100,000^ "The Priests' Communion League", an
association of priests tmder the title of "Sacerdotal
Eucharistic L^gue", established at Rome in the
church <^ San Claudio, July, 1906, and &t once raised
by PiuB X to the dignity of an arduxmfratemity.
Its object is to spread the practice of frequent and
daily Communion, in conformity wit^ the Decree <tf
the Sacred CongrMatitm of the Council, "De quo-
tifliana 8S. Eucnarutis sumptioDe" (20 December,
1905). The means there Wgn'y recommended refer
to the following {wints: (1) To instruct, refute ofa^eo-
tions, spread writings favouring daily Cmnmunion;
(2) To eneounn asidstanee at Holy Mass; (3) To
pnnnote Euehanstic triduums; (4) To induce children

LI socim

especially to aimrosch the Holy TiUiIe frequently.
"The Society of Nocturnal Adoration", the monbers
of which f^r an entire night keep watch before the
Host, reciting the Office of the Blessed Sacrament,
and offering various acts of reparative homue; "The
Work of Fmt Cmnmunion for iklults". The apoe-
tolate of the press is a prominrait feature in Uie
labours of these religious. In the United States, they
publish "Emmanuel", the otkux of "The Priests'
Eucharistic League", and "The Sentinel of iJie
Blessed Sacrament".
For biblioit^ihy Me EiMUW, PianWiTUKir, YmHWMAMis.

A. Ijotkuudbu.

BoeletT of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, Thi,

an institution of religious women, taking perpetual
vows and devoted to the work of education, founded
21 Nov., 1800, by Madeleine-Sophie Barat (q. v.).
One of the signs of returning vigour in the Cnunut
in liVance aftOT 1792 was the revival of the religious
life. Religious orders had been suppressed by the
laws oi 18 August, 1702, but witJiin a few years a
TeacUon setio; therflstwationof some orders and the
foundations of new congregations ushered in "tlie
second spring". One of the first was the Socie^ <tf
Jesus. Under the provisional title of " Fathers of'^the
Sacred Heart" and "Fathers of the Faith", some
devoted priests banded themselves together and in
due time returned from their exile or emigration to
devote themselves to the ntiritual welfare of their
country. Father L6onor De Toumdy was among
the founders of the Fathers of the Sacrad Heart, ana
tiie first to whom it occurred that an institute ol
women bearing the same name and devoting them-
selves to the education of ^Is, would be one of the
most efficacious means of restoring the practice of
religioa in France. Though many di.liculties io-
tokened, two attempts were made. Princess Louise
de Bourbon Cond^, before the Revolution a Beuo*
dictine fJbbesB, and the Archduchess Mary Anne of
Austria both tried to form an institute according to
his idea; but neither succeeded, and he died before
anytlung oould be accomplished. He had confided
his views to Father Varm who succ^dod him as
superior the Fathers of the Sacred Heart. A
short time afterwands Father Varin found in Made-
leine-Sophie Barat, sister of Father Louis Barat, the
instrument to execute his plans. The first membem
of t^ new society began their community life ia
Paris, under the guidance of Father Varm. The
first convent was opened at Amiens in 1801, under
Mademoiselle Loquet. A sctbool ^ich had already
ensted there was made over to the new institute^
and some who had worked in it offered themselves
as postxdants for the "Dames de la Foi" or "De
L'Inatruotion Chr6tienne", the name which the new
society had assumed, as that of the "Society (tf
the Sacred Heart" might be supposed to mdioate
a connexion with the royalist party of La Vmd<ie. As
Mile. Loquet, who had been acting as supbrior,
lacked the retjuisite qualities, bf tba advice of Father
Varin and with the assent of tne commimity Sophie
Barat was named superior By education and tern-
ptxament, the new superior was especially fitted (ox
the work of foundation. In 1804 a second house
was opened and a new member, Fhilijmine Duchesne,
received, who was destined to cany tne work of the
society beyond the limits <rffVance. Fumwly anorioe
of the Visitation convent at Ste. Mane d en Haut,
near Grenoble, Mile. Duchesne found it impossible to
rwKHistruct Gie religious life of the Visitation in the
oonvoit which she purchased after the Revolution.
Father Varin made her acquaintance and reported to
Mother Barat that the house was offerea to her,
and that she oould find there mmie who widied to
join her.

Hie first plan of the institute w^Y^iramujo In

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BOCIBTr

112

socutt

Fathers Roger and Varin, and with a memorial oom-
posed by Mothers Barat and Duchesne waa presented
to the Bishop of Grenoble and approved by him.
This plan and memorial set forth tne end oS the aa-
Booiatum, which was the perfection of its members
and the salvation of souls; the spirit aimed at de-
tachment from the world, purity of intention for the
elory of the Sacred Heart, gentleness, aeal, and obe-
dience; the means, for the religious^ the training of
tJie novitiate, and spiritual exeroisee, for others,
boarding schools for the upper olaasea, free schools
for the poor, and spiritufd rebeata. The rule in tJiis
preliminary stage waa simple; the houses were to be
, under one superior-general, everytiung yraa to be in
common, the office of the Blessed Vii^ waa to be
recited, the time appointed tm mental prayer was
specified. The manner of life was to be simple
without the prescribed austerities of the older oxden,
which would be incompatible wiUi the work of educa-
tion. On Mother Barat's return to Amiens in 1806
the first general con^r^atioD was assembled for tibte
election of the superior-general, and she was ohoaen
for the office. Father Varin then withdrew from the
position he had held as superior of the new institute
which was now regularly constituted, but he con-
tinued for years to help the young superiof-general
with his advice and supptnt. The first aerioua
trouble which arose nearly wrecked the whole under-
taking. At the end of 1806 tjie "Dames de la Foi"
had BIX houses; Amiens, Qrendbi& Foitiws, Niort,
Ghrat, and Cuigniers. The first nouae at Amiens
was Kovemed at this time by Mother Baudonont,
who tmder the influenoe of a priest of the Didcese
of Amiens, Ahb6 de St-Eetdve, who took that house
under his control and even drew up a set of rules
drawn from those of the monastic orders and entirely
foreign to the spirit of Father Varin and the foundress.
The derotiim to the Sacred Heart whidi was to be
its very life scarcely appeared in the new rules and
they were in consequence not aoceptable to taxy ot
Uie houses outside Amiens. Abb6 de St-Estdve was
determined to force the matter. He went to Rome
and from thence sent orders, ostensiUy from Uie Holy
See. The name of the Society oi the Sacred Heart
was to be abandoned for that of "Apostolines",
and he wrote T^«nent letters condemning^ Father
Varin and the supoiorfeneral and her wmc Tba
most important letter m the ease inoved -to be a
forgery. The nistitute recovered its balance, bat
the house at Ghent had been ainaiiy lost to Uie
society.

The second general coiw^ation (1815) examined
the constitutions which liaH been elabmated by
Father Varin and Mother Barat (they were an ex-
pansion of the first plan presented to the Bishop of
Grenoble) ftnd th^ were aooepted by all the hmises
of the sooiety. It was deoiited to bave a general
novitiate in Paris. The third general omigregation
(1820) drew up the first uniform plan of studies
which has been developed and modified from time
to time to bring it into harmony with present needs,
without losing the features whioh have oharaoterised
it from the beginning. In 1826 the society obtained
^e formal approbation of Leo XIZ and the fint
cardinal protector was appomted, in plaoe of an
eedeeiastical superior ^ose authority touM have
depended too muoh upon local conditions. The
MJrthjgeneral oot^rM»tion was anxious to bring the
constitutions into closer conformity with those of
the Society of Jesus. Mother Barat foresaw that
the^ proposed changes were unsuitable for a congre-
gation of women, but permitted an experimental
trial of them for three years. Finally the whole
affair was submitted to Gregory XVI, who decided
that the society should return in all pomte to the
ocmstitution approved by Leo XII. The last dumges
io the oonetttutKms were made in 1851 with the sanc-

tion of the Holy See. Superiors-vioar were named
to help the superior-generai in the government of the
society by takuu the immediate supervision of a cer-
tain number oT houses forming a vicariate. The
superiors-vicar assembled with the mother general
and the assistants gmeral, fwm the fasaerai oongre-
Kati(m of the society. In 1818 Mother Fhilipptne
jJuchesne introduced the society into the Imited
States and the first houses were founded in Missouri
and Loiusiana. The society under the guidance of
Mother Mary Aloysia Hardey (q. v.) spread rapidly,
and in 1010 counted twenty-seven houses and more
than eleven hundred members The extension in
Europe was confined to France imtil 1827 wh^ a
school was opened at the Trinity dei Monti, Rome.
Houses were founded in Belgium (Jette), 1836;
England (Berrymead, now Roobampton) and Ire-
land (Roecrea), both in 1841; Canada (Montreal),
1842; Austria (Lemberg). IMS; Spain (Sairia, near
Baroekma), 1846. Mother du Bousier was the

Sioneer in South America (Santti^ de Chile in 1854).
>ther foimdations were made m Ihe West Indies
(1858); New Zealand (1880); Australia (1882):
E&pt (1903): Japan (1008). The Revolution of
1830 disturbed the house in Paris but did not destroy
it; the novitiate was removed elsewhere. In 1848
the house in Swltserland had to be abandoned; the
reliciom wero expelled from Genoa, Turin, Saluzso,
anaPignerol while the houses in Rome were searched
and pillaged. In 1860 Loreto, St. Elpidio, and
Perugia were suwressed. The German houses were
closed^ the May Laws of 1873. Between 1903
and 1909 fortv-eeven houses in France were closed
aad many of them confiscated by the French Govern-
ment. The mother-house was transferred to Brus-
sels in 1909. This wholesale destruction increased the
extension in foreign countries; for almost every house
that has been dosed another has been tmened elso-
where. At present the society counts 130 houses
and about 6500 religious.

The society aims at a twofold spirit — contemplative
and active. It is composed of choir religious and lay
sisters. Enclosure is observed in a manner adapted
to the woricsj the Office of the Blessed Virgin is
recited in choir. The choice of subjects is guided by
the qualifica^tts lud down in the con^itutions.
In aiulition to the indication of a true religious voca-
tion there is requited respectable parentage, unblem-
ished reputation, a good or at least sufficient education
with some aptitude for completing it, a sound judg-
meai, and above all a generous determination to make
an entire surrender ^ self to the service of God
throufl^ the hands of superiors. The candidate is
not allowed to make any conditions as to place of
re«dence or employment, but must be ready to be
sent by obedience to any part of the world, even the
privil^ of going on foreign misdons is not defimtdy

?romised in the Dinning to those who a^ire to it.
oetulante are adnutted to a preliminary probation
of three months, at the end of which they may take
the rdigious haoit and begin their novitiate of two
years, which aro spent in studying the ^irit and the
rules of the society, exercising themselves in its manner
of Uving, and in the virtues whioh they will be called
upon to praotioe; Uie aeoond year is devoted to a
course (rf study whioh is to prepare than for tbor
educational work. To each novitiate there is at-
tached a teaching and training department where the
first oDurse of studies may be taken, and when it is
pomble the young religious pass a year in this, after
tiieir vows, before they are eeot to teach in the schools.
The first vows, simple perpetual vows of poverty,
chastity and obedience, are taken at the end of two
years of novioediip, after which follow five years
nent in study, teaching, or other duties. At the end
of this period foUows for those who have q>ecial
aptitude for the woik of teachingr^Aoothpr short

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SOOIllIAlflBH

113

ootine of ebadyf and for all a period <rf seeond nori-
tiate or probation lasting rix months, at the end (rf
which, that is to say, seven years after their ad-
misaon to the socaety, the aqmants take thor final
vows and are received as professed religious. The
TOW of atabUi^t l^t is, of penewanee In the
■oeiefy, is tiwn added, and for the choir reH^ons
a vow to consecrate themselves to education of youth;
IMOvision is made, however, that this vow may be
accomplished even if obedience should prescribe other
duties than those of direct teaching, and may be
fulfilled Iw concurrence in any way in the work of the
society. The vow of stabilitv binds the society to the
profeued until death, as well as the professed to the
mxMSby: tiue bond can only be broken by the Holy
See. The sodety is governed by a supenor general,
elected for life by the aanstants general and superiors
viear. The asustants Keneral arc elected for tix ^ears,
the superiors vicar aaa local superiors are nommsted
1^ Uie mother general, and may be changed at her
diseretion; thor usual period of government is three
years, but it may beprolonged or shortened according
to droumstances. The superior general assemU^ the
superiors vicar in a leneral oongraga^n every lux
youB, and with the nelp of the aeriatants pmeral
transacts with them all bunness connected with the
general government of tiie society. These periodical
aasembhes, the occasional visits tA the superior
general to the houses In different countries, the rejpilar
reports and accounts sent in from every vicanate,
the free access of all to the mother general by writing,
and in particular the organization « the house of lost
probation, whieh as far as poeribk bringa the yawag
religious iw Ax motttte into toudi with tile fint
superiors of the society — all tend to unity. Its union
is what is most valued, and if it had been possible to
define it sufiieiently it is said that a fourth vow of
charity would have been added to the obligations <rf
the members.

Four principal works ^ve scope to the activities of
the Bocie^. (1) Education of the upper classes in
the boardmg schools and of late yean in da^ schools.
Ori^nally uae plan of studies was more or less uni-
form in all the houses, but it has become necessary
to modify it according to the needs and educational
ideals of ^ermt countries and the kind of life for
which the pupils have to be prepared. The eharaoter
of the education of the Sacred Heart, however, re-
mains the same, based on the stu^ of religion and of
Christian philosc^hy and layiim particular stress on
hktory, literature, eesay-wnting, modnn luguages,
and such knowledge of housdtold management as
can be taught at school. (2) Fna or puodiial
schools. In some countries, as in England, these are
aided by the State, and follow the r^^ulatitms laid
down for other public elementary schools; in otiiers
^ey are voluntary and ad^t their teadiing to tiie
needs and circunatancee of the children. Between
these two classes of schools have arisen in England
secondary schools, aided by the State, whidi are
principally feeding sehooto for tiie two trunfa^
colleges in London and Newcastle, where Catholic
teachers are |)repared for the oernficates entitlit^
them to teach in elementary state-supported schools.
This work is of wider importanoe than the teaching
of single elementary schools, and is valued as a means
of readiing indirectly a far greater numbw of children
than thoee with whom t^e relimous themselves can
oome into contact. It likewise leavens tiie teadiii^;
profeaaion with minds trained In Catholie doctrine
and practice. This work for Catholic teachers also
exists at Uma in a flourishii^ condition. (3) A woi^
which is takii^ ra^Md development ia that of spiritual
retreats for all classes of persons. The spiritual exer^
dses are nven to conEdderable numbers of ladies who
nend a few days within the convents of the Sacred
Ceart; in other cases the exercises are adapted for
XIV.— 8.

poer ^rii and Maaant women. Retreats for First

Communion in Rome, and retreats for Indian women
in Merico are n>eeial varieties of this work. (4) The
congregations of Children of Mary living in the world
which nave their own rules and organisation (see
Chudbbn or Mabt op thb Saobbd Hubt, Thb).

See bIbHogrmhiM to Buut, MADBumnt^oma, Bun»:
HAannr, Mabt Aumu; DuouHn, Paiumira-Rosa.

JanxT' Stoast.

toeinlanian, ibe body ot doctrine held by one of
the numerous Antitrinitarian sects to which the Ref-
ormation gam birth. The Sooinians derive their
name from two natives ot Siena, Lelio Sossini (1525-
^) and hia nephew FauBtoSo2sini(153»-1604). The
surname is vulously given, but its Latin form, 8o-
cinns, is that currently used. It is to Fausto. or
Faust UB Sooinua, that the sect owes its individuality,
but it arose before he come into contact with it. In
1646 a secret society held meetings at Vicenza in the
Diocese of Venice to discuss, among other points, the
doctrine of the Trinity. Among the members of this
society were Blandrata, a well^own physician, Alci»>
tus, Gisntilis, and Ldio, or Lelius Soianua. The last-
named, a priest erf Sleniu was die intimate friend of
BuUingcr, Cahrin, and Melanchthon. The object of
the society was the advocacy not precisely of what
were alterwuds known as Socinian principles, but of
Antltrlnitarianism. The Nominalists, represented
by Abelard, were the real progenitors of the Anti-
trinitarians aS the Reformation period, but while
many of the Nominalists ultimateoly berame Trithe*
iste, the tmn ilntffriRAarian me«ifl expreadly one iriw
denne die distinction of pmons in the Godhead.
The Antitrinitarians are thus the later r^resMitativea
of tJie Sabellians, Macedonians, and Arians of an
earlier pwiod. The secret society which met at
Vieensa was broken up, and most of its members fled
to Poland. Leelius, indeed, seems to have Uved most
at Zurich, but he was the mainspring of the society,
wUeh continued to hold me«^ingB at Cracow for the
disonaaion of religious questiou. He died in 16^
and a stormy period b^an for Uie memben of the
party.

The inevitable effect of the principles ot the Ref<n^
mation was soon feh, and schism made its appearance
in the ranks the Antitrinitarians — for so we must
call them all indiscriminately at this time. In 1570
the Sodnians separated, and, through the influence
of the Antitrinitarian John Sigismund, established ■
themselves at Raeow. Meanwhile Faustus Socinus
had obtained poescBMon of his uncle's papers and in
1979 oame to Poland. He foimd the various bodies of
the sect divided, and he was at first refused admiaaion
because he refused to submit to a second baptism. *
In 1574 the Socinians had issued a "Catechism of the
Unitarians", in which, white much was said about the
nature and perfections oS the Godhead, silence was
observed re^ptrdii^ those Divine attributes which are
mysterious. C^nst was the Promised Man; He was
the Mediator <A Creation, i. e. of R^eneration. It
was shortly after the appearance of this catechism,
that Faustua arrived on the aoene and, in spite of
initial opposition, he succeeded in attaching all parties
to himself and thus securing for them a degree of
xmity which they bad not hitherto enjoyed. Once in

Eossession of power, his action was high-handed. He
ad bem invited to Siebentur^ in order to counter-
act the influence of the Antitrimtarian bishop Frutda
David (1510-79). David, having refused to acc^t
the peculiarly Socinian tenet that Christ, though not
God, is to be adored, was thrown into prison, irtiere be
died. Budnms, who adhered to David's views, was
degraded and excommunicated in 1584. The old
catechism was now suppressed and a new one pub-
ll«hed under the title of the "Catodiism of Raoow".
Thou|^ drawn up by Socinus,
Digitized

SOOIMIANISK

114

SOCINIANISM

until 1605, a year aft^ his death; it first appeared in
Polish, then in Latin in 1609.

Meanwhile the Socinians had flourished; they had
eatablifihed collegea, they held synods, and they nad a
printing press whence they issued an immense amount
of relimoua literature in support of their views; this
was collected, under the title " Bibliotheca Antitrini-
tarianorum", by Sandius. In 1638 the Catholics in
Poland insisted on the banishment of the Socinians,
who were in consequence dispersed. It is evident
from the pages of Bayle that the sect was dreaded
in Europe; many of the princes were said to favour
it secretly, and it was predicted that Socmiai^
ism would overrun Europe. Bayle, however, en-
deavours to dispel these fears by dwelling upon the
vigorous measures token to prevent its spread in Hol-
land. Thus, in 1639, at the su^estion of the British
Ambassador, all the states of Holland were advised
of the probable arrival of the Socinians after their ex-
pulsion from Poland; while in 1653 very stringent de-
crees were passed against them. The sect never had a
great vogue in England; it waa distaateful to Prot-
estants WQo, lees logical, perhaps, but more conserva-
tive in their views, were not prepared to go to the
leneths oi die Continental Reformers. In 1612 we
find the names of Leggatt and Wightman mentioned
aa condemned to death for denying the Divinity of
Christ. Under the Comraonwelath, John Biddle was
prominent as an upholder of Socinian prinoiplee;
Cromwell banished him to the SciUy Isles, out he re-
turned under a writ of hidwas cmpus tad became
minister of an Independent church in London. After
the Restoration, however, Biddle was cast a^iin into
prison, where he died in 1662, The Unitarians aire
frequently identified with the Socinians, but there are
fundamental differences between tlieir doctrines (tor
which see next section).

Fundamental Doctrines. — Theee may be ^th-
ered from the "Catechism of Raeow", mentioned
above and from the writines of Socinus himself, which
are collected in the "Bibliotheca Frateum Polon-
onmi". The basis was, of course, private judgment;
the Socinians rejected authority and inusted on the
free use of reason, but they did not reject revelation.
Socinus, in his work "De Auctoritate Scripturse
Sacne", went so far as to reject all purely natural re-
ligion. Thus for him the Bible waa everything, but
it had to be interpreted by the light <rf reason. Hence
he sad Ids foUowers thrust aside all mysteries; as the
Socinian John Crell (d. 1633) says in his "De Deo et
ejus Attributis", "Mysteries are indeed exalted
above reason, but they do not overturn it; they by no
means extinguish its bght, but only perfect it". This
would be quite true for a Catholic, but in the mouth
of Socinian it meant that only those mysteries which
reason can grasp are to be accepted. Thus both in
the Racovian Catechism and in Socinus's "Institu-
tiones Religionis Christians", onl^ the unity, eter-
nity, omnipotence, justice, and wisdom o[ Qod are
insisted on, unce we could be convinced of these; His
immensity, infinity, and omnipresence are re^uded as
beyond human comprehension, and therefore unneces-
sary for salvation. Original justice meant for So-
cinus merely that Adam was free from sin aa a fact,
not that he was endowed with peculiar ^ts; hence
Socinus dented the doctrine of original sin entirely.
Since, too, faith waa for him but tn^t in God, he was
obliged to den;^ the doctrine <rf juBtifioatim in the
Catfiolic sense; it was nothing but a judicial act on the
part of Grod. There were ovly two sacraments, and,
as these were held to be mere mcentives to faith, they
had no intrinsic efficacy. Infant baptism was of
course rejected. Th^ was no h^; tm wicked were
annihilated.

- . CHKi8TOL0OT.-r-ThiB point was particularly inta^-
es^ag, as on it the wlAde of Socinianism tunu. God,
the Socinians maintained, and ri^it^, is thmimdy

eimpls; but disthiction of persons is destructive of
such smiplidty, thmfore, they ccmduded, the doc-
trine of the Tnnity is unsound. Further, there can
be no propcntion b^ween the finite and uie infinite,
hence thwe can be no incarnation of the Deity, ainee
Uiat would demand some such proportion. But tf,
by an impossibility, there were (ustmction of persons
in Uie D&.ty, no Divine person could be united to a
human person, since there can be no unity between
two individualities. These arguments are of course
puerile and nothing but ignorance of Catholic teacfa-
mg can explain the hold which such views obtained
in tiw sixteenth and seventeoiUi ooituries. As
against the first ai^jument, see St. Thomas, Summa,
I, Q. xii, a. 1, ad 4*ni; for the solution ol the others
see Petavius. But the Sociniuis did not become
Arians, as did Campanus and Gentilis. Hie latter
was one of the ordinal society which held its meet-
ings at Vicenza; he was beheaded at Berne in 1566.
T^ey did not become Tritheista, aa Gentilis himself
was auppoeed by some to be (cf . " A Short History of
Valentius Gmtilu the Tritheist", London, 1696).
Nwldid they become Unitsrians, as might have beoi
expected. Socinus had indeed many Unities with
Paul of Samosata and Sabelliue; with them he re-
garded the Holy Spirit aa merely an operation of God,
a power for sanctification. But his teaching conoem-
ing the person of Christ differed in some respects from
theirs. For Socinus, Christ was the Lc^os, but he
denied His pre-exist^ce; He was the Word cn God aa
being Hia Intopreter {interpret dwina volumkdu).
The paasages from St. John which present the Wmd
as the medium of creation were explamed by Socinus
ot regeneration only. At the same time Ghrist was
miraculously batten: He was a perfect man, He
was the appointed mediator; but He was not God,
only deified man. In this sense He was to be adored;
and it is here precisely that we have the dividing line
between Socinianism and Unitarianism, for the lattCT
qrstem denied the miraculous birth of Christ and re-
fused Him adoration. It must be confessed that, on
their principles, the Unitarians were much more

>EifpnoN AND Saceauents. — Socinus's views
regarding the person of Christ necessarily affected
his teachuut on the office of Christ as Redeemer, and
consequently on the effica^ of the sacram^ts.
Being purely man, Christ did not work out our re-
demption in the sense of satisfying for our sins; and
consequently we cannot regard the sacrammts as
instruments whereby the fruits of that redemption
are applied to man. Hwce Socinus taught that the
Passion of Christ was ma«ly an example to us and a
pledge of our forgiveness. All this teaching is syn-
cretixed in the Socinian doctrine regarding the Last
Supper; it waa not even commemorative of Christ's
Passion, it waa rather an act of thanksgiving for it.

The Church and Socinianism. — Needless to say,
the tenets of the Socinians have been repeatedly con-
demned by the Church. As Antitrinitarianists, they
are opposed to the express teaching of the first six
couttcib; their view of the person of Christ is in con-
tradiction to the same councils, especially that
Chalcedon and the famous "Tome'' (Ep. xxviii) <rf
St. Leo the Great (of. Densinger, no. 143). For its
peculiar views r^ardii^; the adoraticm ot Christ, cf.
can. ix. of the fifth (Ecumenical Synod (Dens., SSI).
It is opposed, too, to the various creeds, more eepe-
cially to that ot St. Athanasius. It has also many
affinities with the Adoptionist heresy condemned in
the Plenary Council of Frankfort, in 794, and in the
second letter of Pope Hadrian I to the bishops of
Spain (cf. Dene, 300-314). Its denial of the Atone-
m&it is in oppoqtiott to the decrees against Gottes-
chalk promulgated in 849 (cf. Dens., 319), and also tr
the d^nition of Uw Fourui Lateran Council anains?
the Albigensiana (Pens., 428; i^rstfao Cono. Trid..

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S00I0I.OOT

116

BOCIOLOQT

Sees, xxii., cap. i. de Sacrificio Missse, in Dens., 938).
The condemned propositions of Abelard (1140) might
equally well stand for those of the Socinians (cf . Denz.,
363 sqq.)> The same must be said of the Waldensian
heresy: the Profession of Faith drawn up against
them by Innocent III mi^t be taken as a summary
of Socinian errors. The formal condenmaticni of So-
emianism appeared first in the Constitution ai
Paul IV, "Cum quorundam" 1555 (Den»„ 993): this
was conBrmed in 1603 by Clement VIII, or '^'Do-
minici gregis", but it is to be noted that both of these
condemnations appeared before the publication of the
"Catechism of Racow" in 1605, hence they do not
adequately reflect the formal doctrines of oocinlan-
ism. At the same time it is to be remarked, that ac-
cording to many, this catechism itself doee not reflect
the doctrines reaUy held by the leaders of the party;
it was intended for the laity alone. From the decree
it would appear that in 1555 and t^in in 1603 the
Socinians held (a) that there was no Trinity, (b) that
C^uist was not consubstantial with the Father and
the Holy Spirit, (c) that He was not conceived of the
Holy Spirit, but begotten by St. Joseph, (d) that His
Death and Passion were not undergone to bring
about our redemption, (e) that finally Uie Blessed
Virgin was not the Mother of God, neither did she
retain her virginity. It would seem from the Cate-
chism that the Socmians of 1605 held that Christ was
at least miraculously conceived, though in what sense
they held this is not clear.

BtbliaUieoa Fratrum Polonorum (Amatcidftm, 16W); Bock,
Hit, AlU^iTv%i^arioruw^, Maxim» SoeManiami (KdnigBberc
1774-M); DoKNEB, Lthrt >. Ptraon ChrUti, il, 751; Fock, D«r
SoeinianUmua in der OeaammtentiBicklwng dat Chrut. (Kiel, 1845) ;
BoMKT-MAtntT, Barlv Source* of fA« fti^lMA t/n*(arian CAurcA
aSSi), iz; MorauM, UiaL Cmi., XVI. lect. lii, pt. ii, 4, 7; Crau.
(SociDiKn. d. 1633), i)« Dm «( <9iu aUrib«lu; OxciPOvros (or
Pmipcoviob), Fita fawrti Soeini (1M3, 1638); Toolmin, Mem-
oinof tht Lift, Character and Writinot of F. Soeintu (London,
1777): LscuR, F. Sodn (Geneva, 1884); Batli, Dittionm%r«
Siatoriqu4ttCritivu(Ut.ed.,16W:2d«d., 1701-11); Nkandbk,
HiUvry of Chritian Dogma*. II, 626-700 (ft very good eocount of
the Socimsn t<»iflU) ; BLTWr, Oiationarv e/ Suit, Herwiti, Ec-
eUnalieal Partiet and SduxiU of Tkm^ AaIhtmua Tham^
(1881); Pr-avios, J>t AMlogida dogmatHnu, Lib. XVI. L
nrherc a full treatment of the Soeiuan domu will bo foond);
KiBBCB-HKBOKKKfiTHn, Aondhuft dw aitowninw Kirdui^
geadmiUt. fll, 333-38.

Hugh Popv.

Sociology. — The claims of sociology (sociu«, com-
panion; XAyoj, science) to a |>lace in the hierarchy of
sdeaoea are aubieetedf to varied coabroverqr. It has
been held ^at were is no distinct problem for a sci-
ence of sociolt^, no feature of human society not
already provided for in the accepted social sciences.
Again it has been claimed that while the future may
hold out prospects for a science such as sociolt^, its
present condition leaves much to be desired. Fur-
thermore, among sociologists themselves discussion
and disMTBement abound concerning aims, problems,
and methods of the science. Beyond this oonfunon
in scientific circles, mlsanderBtan<ung results from the
popular habit of confounding sociology with phil-
anthropy, ethics, diarity, and retiefj social reform,
statistics, municipal problems, socialism, sanitation,
criminology, «nd politics. It is hardly to be expected
that differences of opmion would not occur when
-scholars endeavour to describe in simple terms the
complex sodal processes; to pack a vast array of his-
tori«d and eontemponuieoua facts in rigid logical
classes, and to matk off for research purposes seo-
tions of reality which in fact overlap at a hundred
pomta. N^ertbelesB, efforts to create a science of
sociolo^ have led to notable results. Minds of a
very high order have been attracted to the work;
abundvat literature of great excellence has been pro-
duced; nwfdibouring sciences have beoi deeply
affected by Uie new point of view which Sociolo^ niis
fostered ; and ttie teaching of theseienoe has attained to
undMimted recognition hi the universities of the worid.

It is the aim of economic science to investigate the
forms, relations, and procesties thut occur amoi^
men in their associated efforts to make immediate or
mediate provision for their physical wants. The
science deals with the phenomena resulting from the
raoduction, distribution^ and consumption of wealth
The science of politics is concerned with the stable
social relations resulting; from the efforts of soverei^
social units to maintain themselves in integrity in
their internal and external relations and to promote
human pro^ceea. The state is the institution in which
these activities centre. Hence, the forms in which
sovereignty is clothed, the processes of change which
occur among them, and the varying functions of gov-
ernment are central problems in tms field of investi-
gation. The science of reli^ona aims at describing
the stable social relations which occur when men col-
lectively endeavoiu* to understand the law of their
relation to a Supreme Being and to adjust their wor-
ship and conduct to His supreme will. The science of
law is concerned with those principles, relations, and
institutions through which tne more important rela-
tions between the one and the many are defined, di-
rected, and sanctioned by the sovereign state. The
science of ethics aims at expounding the principles and
sanctions by which alt human conduct, both indi-
vidual and social, is adjusted to the supreme end of
man; or, in the Christian smse of the tenn, to the will
of God. The science of history, which assumes the
law of continuity in human society, endeavours to
look out over its whole surface, to discover and de-
scribe in a lai^ way the processes of chai^ that have
occurred in social relations of whatsoever kind. Each
of these social sciences is analytical or descriptive, but
in its complete development it should have a norma-
tive or directive side. To use the technical phrase, it
is teleological. The complete function of each of
them should include the setting forth of a purpose for
human conduct and should offer direction towards it,
which is modified by the relations in whidi each
stands to the others.

Some sociologists endeavour to locate their science
as l<^calty antecedent to all of these. According to
this view sociology should occupy itself with general
phases of the processes of human association and
should furnish an introduction to the special social
sciences. Others endeavour to locate sociology as the
phikMophical s};nthesis of the results of the special
social sdences, in which view it resembles 8(Hnewhat
the philosophy of history. Giddii^ includes both
functions in his description of the science. He says
in his "Principles of sociology": "While Sociology in
the broadest sense of the word is the comprehensive
science of society, coextensive with the entire field of
the special social sciences, in a narrower sense and
for the purposes of univeruty study and of general
exposition it may be defined as the science of social
elements and first principles. ... Its far-reaohii^E
principles are the postulates of special sciences and as
such they co-ordinate the whole body of social general-
izations and bind them together in a large scientific
whole" (p. 33).

There is a general tendency towards the establish-
ment of a single dominant interest in social groups.
Periods of unstable equilibrium tend to be followed
by constructive epochs in which some one social
interest tends to dominate. This is the case when
social groups are primitive and isolated as well as
when they are highly ot^anized and progressive. It
may be the food interest, the maintenance of the
group againsV invasion, the thirst for conquest incar-
nate in a leader, or the establishment of the Kingdom
of God on earth that serves as the basis of social
unity. In any case, the tendency of social groups
towards' unitv b practically universal. In eariier
stages of oiviusatioi the process is relatively simple,
but to-day, wfaen differences of climate, raeeteavinw
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meat, tjrpe, and plaoe are overoume by progress in
transportation, travel, oommunication, and industry,
the process is highly coniplex. Political institutions,
languages, and race traditions no longer bound the
horizon of the thinker. To-day all states are sub-
mereed in the larger view of humanity. All cultures,
civiUzations, centuries, all wars, and tumamenta, all
nations and customs are before the social student.
Origins heretofore hidden are exposed to his con-
fus^ gaze. Interpretations, venerabte with age and
powerful from heretofore unquestioning acceptance,
are swept away and those that are newer are substi-
tuted. Dozens of social sciences flow with torrential
impatience, hurting their discoveries at the feet of the
student. Thousands of minds are busy day and
night gathering facts, offering interpretations, and
seScing relations. The social sciences have become
BO overburdened with facts and so confused_ by vary-
ing interpretations that they tend to split into sepa-
rate subsidiary seiences in the hope that the mind
may thus escape its own limitations and find help in
its power of generalization. Economic factors and

Erocessea are studied more industriously than ever
efore,' but they are found to have in themselvw vital
bearings other than economic. Political, religious,
educational, and social facts are found saturated with
heretofore unsuspected meaniogs, which in each par-
ticular case the science itself is unable to handle.

In this situation three general Unes of work present
themselves. (1) There is the need of cartful study
of commonplace social facts from a point of view
wido* than that fostered in each p^icular social
science. (2) The results obtained within the differ-
ent social sciences and among them should be brought
together in general interpretations. (3) A social
philosophy is needed which will endeavour to take the
established results <rf these sciences and put them to-
gether throu^ the cohesive power of metaf^yslcfl and
philoeophy into an attonpted interpretation of the
whole course of human society itself. Professor Small
thus dewiribes the situation: "We need a genetic,
static, and teleological account of associated numan
life; a statement which can be relied upon as the basis
of a philosophy of conduct. In order to derive such
a statement it would be necessary to complete a pro-
gramme of analysing and e^thesizing the social pro-
eeas in all of its phases."

On the Tdiole the sociolofpcal treatment of soeid
facts is much wider than that found in the other social
sciences and its interpretations are consequently
broader. An endeavour is made in following out the
social point of view to study social facts in the full
complement of their organic relations. Thus, for in-
stance, if the sociologist studies the question of woman
suffrage, it appears as a phase in a world-movement.
He goes ba^ through the available history of all
times and oivilizations endeavouring to tnee the
changing place of woman in industry, in the home,
education, and before the law. Bv looking outward
to the horizon and backwards to the vanishing point
of the perspective of history, the sociologist enaeav<
ours to discover all of the relations of the suffrage
movement which confronts us to-day and tries to in-
ret its relation to the progress of the race. He
discover that the marriage rate, the birth rate, tiie
movonent for hi^CT education, the demand for politi-
oal and sodal equality are not unrelated facts but are
VfsuxioaSfy conneetect in tiie processes that centra on
woman in human society. The student of econom-
ics, politics, ethics, or law will be directly interested
ia particular phases of the process. Bi^t the sociolo-
Bst will aim at reaching an all-inclumve view in order
to interpret the entire movement in ita oi^anic relar-
ttons to histfuneal and aotual social processes. Like-
viM, whethor tiie {woblem be that of democracy, lib-
erttjr, equality, war, armaments and arbitration,
tanm or inventions, the orgamEation of labour, revo-

16 soGiOLoay

lution, political parties, centralization of wealth, cozh
flicts among social classes, the sociologist will ta-
deavour to discover their wider bearings and thor
place in the social processes of which they are part.

The method employed in sociokoy is primarily in*
ductive. At times ethoologioaP ana biological
methods have predominated but their sway has been
diminished in recent years. Sociology suffers greatly
from its failure to eiitablish as yet a satisfactory baAis
of classification for social phenomena. Although
much attention has been given to this problem the
results achieved stiU leave much to be desired. The
general point of view held in sociology, as distinct
from the particular point of view helcTin tiie spedal
social sciences, renders this problem of classification

fiarticularly difficult and causes the science to suffer
rom the very mass of indiscriminate materia] which
its scliolorahip has brought to view. Hence, the
process of otwervation and interpretation has been
somewhat uncertain and results have been subjected
to vehement distmssion. The fundamental problem
for sociology is to discover and to interpret coexist-
ences and seq^uencee among social phenomena. In its
study of origins and of historical development of go-
cial forms, sociology necessarily makes use of ethno-
logical methods. It resorts extOTsively to comparative
methods in its endeavour to correlate phenomena re-
lated to the same sociiU process as tney appear in
different^ times and places. The statistical method is
of the highest importance in determining quantities
funong social phenomena, while tiie prevailmg tendency
to look upon society from a pEnrchological point of
view has led to the general method of psychological
analysis. The efforts to develop a eystematic soci-
o\of^ deductively have not yet led to any undisputed
results althou^ the evolutionary hypothesis prevails
widely. The range of methods to be found among
soctok^sta might be fairly well illustrated among
American writers by a comparison <tf the works ttf
Morgan, Ward, Giddings, Baldwin, Cooley, Ross,
Sumner, Mayo-Smith, and Small.

In as far as modem sociology has been developed
on the philosophical aide it has naturally been un^le
to remain free of metaphysics. It shows a maiked
tendency towards Agnosticism, Materialism, and
DetoTntnism. "Hewould be a bold man", says Fro-
fesBor GiddinoB, addiessiag the Amer. Eoonamio Asso-
ciation in 19(3, "who to-day after a thorough tm^yng
in the beet historical schmaiship should venture to
put forth a philosoplQr of histoiy in terms of the
divine ideas or to trace the plan of an Almi^ty in the
sequence of human evoits. On the other hand, those
interpretations that are characterized as materialistic
. . . are daily winning serious respect. " Even what
the science has been omfined to the humbler r61e of
obsorvation and intcvpretation of particidar social
facts and processes, its devotees have been unable to
refrain from assumptions which are offensive to the
Christian outlook on life. Theoretically, social facts
may be observed as such, regardless of philosophy.
But social observation which ignores the moral and
social interpretation of social facts and processes is
necessarily incomplete. One must have some prin-
ciple of interpretation when am interprets, ana one
alwiqTB tends towards interpretatiia. llius it is that,
even descriiitivQ sociology tends to beeome directivs
or to offer interpretations, and in so dcnng it often
takes on a tone with whi<& the Christian cannot
agree.

If^ for instance, tiie sociokmst proposes a standard
family of a limited number orchildren in the name of
human prom-eas, by implication he assumes an atti-
tude towaras natural and Divine law which ii
quite repugnant to CatiioUo theology. Again, when
he inteiprets divorce m its rdation to supposed social

Ccrees alone and finds little if may fault with it, he
aside for the moment the law of marmge

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800I0L0OT 117 800I0I.0«T

Christ. When, too, the socrologdtst studiee the re- aoeial raluatknu hy iriiioh sodal oondoet dmiM

lation of the State to the family ana the individual or be BOTeroed.

the relaticms of the Church and the State he comes Economies aa it developed under Christiati influ-
into direct contact with the fundameatal principles encee related largdy to the search for justice in prop-
of Catholic social philosophy. When he studies the erty relations amonemen rather than to the evolution
reUflouB phenomena of history, he cannot avoid of property itself. Whatever attonpts were made to
takmg an attitude toward the distinctive daims of correlate and interpret economic phenomena, they
Christianity in his interpretation of the facts of its were inspired tai^ly by the search for justice and by
history. Thus it is that sociolog^r iiot only on its the hope of holdi^ mdustrial relatknu true to the law
i^ukMophical side but also on the side of obs^vation, of justice as it was understood. FoHtical science as it
int^'pretationB, and social direction, tends to take on developed under Christian influence never lost sight
a -tone that is often foreign to and as often antagon- of the Divine sanction of civil authority. The study
istic to CathoUc philosophy. Professor Ward would of the forms and changes of government, little as the
forijid pure sociology to have anything to do with the underlying processes were then imderstood, never de-
direction of human conduct. He says, for instance, parted far from the thought of the state as a natural
in hb "Pure Sociology": "AH ethical oonsiderations and Christian phenomenon and the exercise of its
in however wide a sense that expresmon may be under* auUiority as a delegated power from on ht^. Urns,
stood must be ignored for the time being and atten- whatever there was of social science, rudimentary be-
tion concentrated upon the effort to determine what cause of the static view of society which obtained, it
actually is. Pure Sociology has no concern with what grew out of the stud;^ and application erf the moral and
Sociology ought to be or with any social ideals. It social principles derived from the Revelation of God
confines itself strictly with the present and the past, and presented to the believer throu^ the instrum^
allowing the future to take care of itself. " But he tality of the Cbim;h. The ^reat emphasis placed in
would give to what he terms Applied Sociology the our da;^ of wonderful social investigation and of
function of directing society toward its immetUate world-views of social processes causes those earlier
idetds. He says: "The subject matter of Pure So- attempts at social science to i^pear crude, yet they
ciok)gy is achievement, that of Applied Sociology is developed organically out of their historical surround-
improvemeat. The former relates to the past and in^, retaining, for aJl time, titles to no mean oonsider-
tiie present, the latter to the future. " Sociology can ation. Scattwed here and there throu^out theo-
ecaK^ avoid interpretation and direction of human logical and moral treatises in Christian literature there
conduct and hence it can hardly be expected to avoid is a vast amount of sociolMncal matmal, which has its
taking very definite attitudes towards the CSuistian value in our own time. The present-day endeavours
outlook on life. of sociology to classify human desires and fundamental
Modem 8ociol<^ hopes to arrive at a metaphysics interests i^>pear to luve been anticipated in a modest
throu^ tiie systematic obeovation and intert^a- way in the work of the medieval Scholastics. Hieo-
tion ci present and past social facts and processes, k^cal treatises on human acts and their mwality re-
in tiie Christian view of life, however, the social veaJ a very practical understandii^ of the influence
eeioicee are guided by a sanctioned metaphysics and of objective and subjective environmoit on character.
pbiloBophy. This philosophy is derived not from in- Treatises on sin, on the virtues, on good and bad
duction but from Revelation. This view of life ac- example toudi constantly on social facts and proc-
cepts at the outset as Divinely warranted the moral esses as then understood. The mainspring of all of
and socitd precepts taught or re-enforced by Christ, this work, however, was not to show fwth social
Thus, it looks out upon the reid largely nom the processes as auoh. not to look fw theretofore unknown
atanapdnt of the ideal and ju(^es the former hy tiie law, but to enable the individual to disco w himself
iatter. It does not, of course, for a moment foraet in the social process and to hold hu conduct true to
that the i^ystematic observation of life and imowledge his ideals.

of its processes are essential to the imderstanding and To some extent there is confusion in speaking of

application of the Divine precepts and to the ^tab- sociolf^ in this way since reference appears to be

lishment fk the sanctioned spiritual ideals which it made rather to moral direction than to social inveeti-

f»rofessea. But Christian social philosophy did not, gation. llie relations between all of the social sci-

or eicample, derive its doctrine of human brother- ences are intimate. The results established in the

hood by induction: it received it direct^ from the ^pe Itelds of the social sciences will always have the great*

of Christ. And the consequences of tiiat Christian est importance for Obristian ethics. It must take up

principle in human history are beyond all calculation, the undisputed results of sociolo^cal investigation ana

The Christian view of life does not confound the abso- widen its definitions at times. It must restate ri^te

lute with the conventional in morality, although in and obtigationo in the terms of newer social relations

the literature of Christianity too much emphasis may and adjust its own system to much that it can wel-

at times be placed upon what is relative. A Chris- come from the hands of the splendid scholarship now

tian sociology, therefore, would be one that carries devoted to social study. Bouquillon (q. v.), who was a

with it always the philosophy of Christ. It could not distinguished theologjan, complained that we had not

kK^ with indifference on the varied and complicated pudsuflieieutattention to the results of modem social

aocwX processes amid which we Uve and move. In all resMrch. Illustration ma;^ be found in the problnn

of its study and intopretation of what is going on in of private property, which is a storm centre in modon

Ufe— which is largely the function of sociology — it life and is the object of most acute study from ^

never surrenders concern for what ou^t to be/how- standpoint of the social sciences. Sunm cuique may

ever cle^l^r or dimly this "ought" is seen. While be called the law of justice that is back of alt social

modem sociology is seeking descriptive laws of human changes and is sanctioned for all time. But the

desires and is endeavouring to classify human inter- social processes which change from time to time the
este and to account for social functrons, it is seeking ' content of mum may not be neglected. Changes in

mefely (or chaneea, uniformities, and interoretatione the forms of propoty. varied consequencee from the

imcoQcemed with ai^ rdation of these to the Divine failure to have tt at aft and from the havii^ of it m

law. Christian sociology, on the contrary, is actu- excess, are seen about us every day. It is undeniably

ated mainly by concern about the relations of social the business of ethics to teach the sanctions of private

^ianges to the law and Revelation of God. It classi- property and defend them, but it must willii^;^ leara

fies processes, institutions, and relations as right or the sociological meaning of property, the significance

wrong, eood or bad, and off^ to men directive of changes in its forms, and the laws tfiat govem these

km CH human desire and distinetiva itandards of ehanges. This is larse^ tibe work of other social

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8000BBO 1

■cieaocfl. Ethics tiiuet procl&iiii the inviolable natu-
ral righte of the individual to private property in cer-
tain fotios. it must proclaim the permcious moral
consequences that mu^ flow from certain property
oonditiond, but it will fail of its hie^ nuasion unleaa in
its indi^>^i8able ethical work it take account of the
established results of social invesUgation. Eco-
nomics, ethics, Bociolt^, politics are drawn together
by the complex problems of property and each has
much to learn from the others. And so, whether the
problem be that of the Christian family, the relations
^ social classes, altruism, the modification of the
forms of government, the changing status of woman,
the iqiresentative « the Chnstiaa outlook on life
may not for a moment ignore the results <tf these par-
ticular social sciuices.

Closer relations have been established between
Christian ethics and sociology in modem days.
Modem social conditions with their rapid changes,
accompanied by ethical and philo80i>hical unrest,
have set up a challenge which the Christian Church
must meet without hesitation. The Catholic Church
has not fuled to Bptak out definitely in the circum-
stances, llie School of Catholic Social Reform, which
has reached such splendid development on the Euro-
pean continent, represents the closer sympathy be-
tween the old Chnstian ethics and the later socio-
logical investigation. Problems of poverty seen in its
organic relations to social oi%anization as a whole,
problems and challenges raised by the modern indus-
trial labouring class, demand for a widening of the
definitions of individual and social responsibility to
meet the facts of modem social power of whatsoever
kind, reaffirmations of the rights of individuals have
been taken account of in this whole ChrL'Jtian modem
movement with the happiest result. There has been
produced an abundant literature in which traditional
Christian ethics take ample account of modem social
investigations and the theories thus formulated have
createda movement for social amelioration which is
playii« a notalsle part in the present-d^r history of
£^m>pe.

Since all of the sociiU sciences are concerned with
the same complex fact of human association, it is but
to be expected that the older sciences would have con-
tained in their literature much that in the long mn is
turned over to the newer ones. Sociok^cal material
is found, tiierefore, throughout the history of the
otha social scioioes. The word "sociolt^" comes
from Aiwuste Comte, who used it in his course of posi-
tive phuraophy, to indicate one of the sections in his
sdieme of sciences. Spencer sanctioned the use of
the word and gave it a place in permanent Uterature
by using it unreservedly in his own system of phil-
osophy. He undertook to explain all social changes
as phases in the great inclusive process of evolution.
Society was conceiv^ of as an organism. Research
and exposition were directed largely by the biological
analogT. Scbaeffle, Lilienfeld, and Ren6 Worms
were iater exponents of this same view. Later
schools in sociology have emancipated themselves
from the sway of the biological analogy and have
turned toward ethnological, anthropological, and psy-
chological aspects of the great problems involved.
Repeated attempts have been made to discover the
fundamental unifying principle by which all social
proceeses may be clasnned and explained, but none of
them have met general acceptance. The drift to-day
is lar^l^' toward the psychological aspects of human
association. Professors Giddings and Baldwin may be
looked upon as its representatives in the United States.
Aside from these attempts at systematic or philo-
sophical sociolf^cy there is scarcely an aspect of human
association which is not now under investigation fn»n
the sociological standpoint. That this activity in a
field of such great intnest to the welfare of the
Ittuiuui raoe promisoo much for human ptofffctM ia

8 BOOKATBS

beyond question. Even now statesmen, religious

teachers, educators, and leaders in movenaenta for

social amelioration do not fail to take advaatage of the

results of sociological research.

See Ethics; Phtcholoqt; Cbukch; Kod artiolM on Um otbn
locial soieDoen.

The folJoning tcxt-bookx suromariie the field of sooiolocy from
various Btandpoiau: Ward, Ouliitiet of Soeimlotn (New Ym^
1898) ; DcALT, Sociolan (Now York, 1909) ; aoiipu>wics, OvOaut
of Soe. (tr. Moore), pub. by Amtr. Acad, of Soe. and Pot. St,
(1899); GiuDi.van. BUm. of Soc. (New Yoi^ ISW: Bascoh,
Socxatoov ; BLACKHfAR, BUm. of Soe. (New Yoik, 190IQ; Sirro^
BMBEBO. SoeMoou (NVw York, 1903).

The followmg genural treatisea aim to present the new aod>
logical point of vii-w: Koan, Social Conirol (New Yoii, 1901);
Idui, Soc P^ocholoo-i (New York, 1908) ; CooLxr, Soc OvaniM-
lion (New York, 1!I09); Small, GentnU Soe. (ChioMo, 1905);
Idem, Meoning of Hocinl Sciente (Chieafo, 1910) ; McDociUU
Soe. Pfuehotogy (London); Baldwin, Social oka Bthteal InttT'
prdo/tona (New York. 1W2); Kidd. Soc BvohUiim (New York.
1894).

Systematic Trcatisca: Spencer, PrirttipU* of Soe.; ScBAmu,
Bau find Lrhen dft mirialen Korper»: LiuENniLO, QtdarAen tiba
die SaiialwiastTuichaft drr Zukunft {b vola., Mitau, 1873); Le-
TOUSNBAU. Ija aocinlooie, tr. Trallopx (Paru, 1884) ; TAnni, 7^
Lauu of Imiiation, tr. Parhonb (New York, 1903); Suusl, So-
ziotogie (Leipiig, 1908); Ward. Pnre Soe. (New York, 1903);
Idku, Applied Soe. (Npv York, 1906); GiDDiNoa, JViaciala «/
Soc. (New York. 1S99) : lomu. ImbietiM Soc (New York. IMl),

Periodicals: .innnle* de Virut. intmia. dt toe; Rn. inUrn. it
toe.; American Jour, of Soc.

DisciunoDS of the nature and relationa of Boctolocy will b<
fouoH in Reports of meeting of economic, bistwioBl, snd political
sciences auociatioDs and in tesl-booka on the various woial sd-
ences. For diwunon of the acienoe fimn a CatboUe standpoint,
see Slateb, Modem Soeiolon In the IriA Thao. Quart., VI, nos.
31, 22.

WnuAH J. Kbkbt.

SoMRO, DioCTSB OF (de Sdocubsu), established
in 1895 as a suffragan see of the Archdiocese of
Bogota, in the Rqniblic of Colombia, South America.
The Catholic popubtwn ui 1910 numbered 230,000.
The city of Socorro arose at Chiancon, the settlement
of an Indian chief of the same name, in 1540 d^eat«]
and captured by the discoverer Martin Galeano. In
1681 the village moved to its present site under the
auspices of Our Lady of Succour (Socorro), with
which name the rank of parish was ^vea it in 1683,
and it was definitivelv constructed eight years lata.
In 1771 it was raised to the rank of a town. This
city was one of the first in starting the Colombian
movement for independence, for as late as 1781 there
was a revolt against the Spanish authorities. Socorro
is the capital of the province of the same name, in
the Department of Santander. The present bishop
is the Kt. Rev. Evaristo Blanco. (See CoIiOIIBU,
Repubuc op.)

JmjAN Mobsno-Lacallb.

SooratM, a historian of the Early Churoh, b. at
Constantinople towards the end of the fourth century.
Nothing is known of his parentage and his early years
with the exception of a few details found in his own
works. He tells us himself (Hist, eccl., V, xxivj that
he studied under the grammarians Helladius and Am-
monius, and from the title of acbolaslicus which ia
given to him it has been concluded that he belonged
to the legal profession. The greater part of his ue
was spent in Constantinople, for which reason, as he
admits, the affairs of that city occupy sudi a larce
part in his works. From the manner in which he
speaks of other cities and from his references as an
^ewitnees to events which ha|^»ened outudeConrtao-
tmopte, he is credited with havmg visited other coun-
tries m the East. Though a layman he was excel-
lently qualified to recount the history ecclesiastical
affairs. Love of history, especially the history of his
own time, and a warm admiration for EuaUHUs of
Csesarea impelled him to undertiUce the task in which
he was sustained by the urgent solicitation of a cer-
tain Theodorus to whom his work is dedicated. Bis
puHMse was to continue the work of Euaebiiis down
to his own time; but in order to round out his nam-
tm aod to supplement and revise some ttatfrn*"** ol

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119

SOCRATU

Eusebiua, lie bcgati at the year 'iOG, when CoDstantiue
was declajed emperor. His work ends with the seven-
teenth consulate of Theodosius the Younger, 439.
The division of his histoiy into seven books was baaed
on the imperial succession in the Eastern Empire.
The firat book embraces events in the reign of Con-
stantine (306-37): the second those in the reign of
Constontiufl (337-60): the third includes the reigns
of Julian and Jovian (360-4) : the fourth deals with
the reign of Valens (364-78): the fifth with that of
Theodosius the Great (379-05) : the sixth with that of
Arcadius (393-408) : the seventh with the first thirty-
one years of the reign of Theodosius the Younger

The general oharaoter of the work of Socrates can
be judged from his attitude on doctrinal questions,
living as he did in an age of bitter polemics, he strove
to avoid the animosities and hatred engendered by
theological differences. He was in entire accord with
Uie Catholic party in opposing the Arians, Eunomians,
Ma(»doniiui8, and other heretics. The moderate tone,
however, which he used in speaking of the Novatians,
and the favourable idermoeB which he makes to them,
iuTe led some authors into the belief tiiat he belonged
to this sect, but it is now genmnjly admitted that the
expressions which he used were based on his desire for
impartiality and his wish to give even his enemies
credit for whatever good he could find in them. His
attitude towards the Church was one oS unvarying
reepeet and submission. He honoured clerics because
of tiimr sacred calling, and entertained the pr<tfound-
est TenoBition for monks and the monastio sfaxii.
His ardoit advocacy and defence of Christianity did
not, nevertheless, prevent him from usin^ the wntings
of pagan authors, nor from urging Christtans to study
than. Though he entitled Lis work 'EucXi^toffTu^
'IffTopta, Socrates did not confine himself merely to
recounting events in the history of the Church. Ho
pud attention to the military history of the period,
because be conndered it necessary to relate these facts,
but tHindpally "in order that the minds of the readers
noi^t not become satiated with the repetition of the
contentious disputes of bishops, and their insidious
des^ns against one another; but more especially that
it might be made apparent that, whenever the afTairs
of the State were disturbed, those of the Church, as if
by some vital sympat^, became disordered also"
(Introd. to Book V). Though thus recognizing the
intimate relation of civil and ecclesiastical affairs, Soc-
rates had no well-defined theory of Oiurdi and State.

Socrates had a restricted idea of the scope and func-
tion of faistyiy. To his mind the task of the historian
consisted in recording the troubles of mankind, for
as lon^ as peace continues, those who desire to write
histories will find no materials for their purpose (VII,
xlyiii). As an example of historical composition the
work of Socrates ranks very high. The simplicity of
style which he cultivated, and for which he was re-
proached by PhotiuB, is entirely in keeling with his
metlwd ana ^irit. Not the least among his merits
is tbB sedulousnees he exhibited in the coUection of
evid^oe. He had a truly scientific instinct for pri-
mary sources, and the number of authors he has drawn
on proves the extent of his reading and the thorou^-
ness of his investigations. In addition to using the
works of such men as Athanasius, Evagrius, Talla-
dius, Nestcaius, he drew freely on public and official
docnmeatfl^ oonoUiar Acts, encyclical letters, etc. As
might be e^qiected when writing of events so close to
bis own timej he had to depend frequently on the re-
ports of eyewitnesses, but even then he used their
evidence with prudence and caution. Notwithstand-
ing his industry and impartiality, however, his work
is not without serious defects. Though restricting
himself so largely to the affairs of the Eastern Church,
he is guilty of many serious omissions in regard to
otikv parts of Quistemdom. Tluu, whm he speaks

of the Cliurrb in iho W ost, he is frequently guilty of
mistakes and omissions. Nothing for instance ia said
in his history about St. Augustine. In questions of
cluY>iu>logy, too, he is frequently at fault, out he is by
no means a peruatent sinner in this respect. The ob-
jection most frequently made in respect to Socrates
as a historian is that he was too credulous and that he
lent too ready an ear to stories of miracles and portents.
This, however, is a fault of the time rather than of the
man, and was shared by pagan as well as Christian
authors. His most notable characteristic, however,
is his obvious effort to be thoroughly impartial, as far
as impartiality was consistent with conviction. He
held the scake equitably, and even when be differed
widely from men on matters-of doctrine, he did not al-
low his dissent from their views to find expression in
denunciation or abuse. His "Church Histonr" was
published by Stmjhen (Paris, 1544) and by Valesiua
(Paris 1668, reprmted at Oxford by Parker, 1844, and
in P. G., LXVu). A good translation is given in the
Post-Nioene Fathers, II (New York, 1890), wiHi an
excellent memoir on Socrates by Zenos.

StXudun, Getehiehle und lAltralur der Kirchenoaehichtt
(Hanover, 1827): Gbppbrt. Dm Quelien d«j Kireh«nhitt«rikT»
Soenttt SehfOtattieiu (Leipsig, 1898); Miluoam in Diel, ChritL
Biog., a. T. SocraUa (2).

Paibice J. Hbalt.

Socrates, Greek philosopher and educational re-
former of the fifth century B.c.,b.atAthen8, 469 B.C.:
d. there, 399 b. c. After having received the usual
Athenian education in music (which included litera-
ture), geometry,
and gymnastics,
he practised for a
time the craft of
sculptor, working,
we are told, in his
father's work-
shop. Admon-
ished, as he tells
us, by a divine
call, he gave up
liis occupation in
order to devote
himself to the
moral and intel-
lectual reform of
his fellow-citizens.
He believed him-
self destined to
become "a sort
of gadfiy" to the
Athenian State.
He devoted himr
self to this mi^
sion with extraor^
dinary seal and
singleness of pui^
pose. He never left the City of Athens except
on two occasions, one of miich was the cam-
paigu of Potidea and Delium, and ^e other a
puUic raligious festival. In his work as reformer
he encountered, indeed he may be said to have pro-
voked, the opposition of the Sophists and their infiu-
ential friends. He was the most imconventional of
teachers and the least tactful. He delighted in as-
suming all sorts of rough and even vulgar manner-
isms, and purposely shocked the more refined sensi-
bilities of his fellow-citizenB. The opposition to him
culminated in formal accusations of impiety and sub-
version of the existing moral traditions. He met
these accusations in a spirit of defiance and, instead
of defending himself, provoked his opponents by a
speech in presence of his judges in whicn he affirmed
his innocence of all wrongdoing, and refused to re-
tract or apologize for anything that he liad said or
done. He was condemned to drink the hemlock

Socuxv
Antlqw Fncmant, Uffia QKlkiT

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and, when the time came, met his fate with a calm-
ness and dignity which ha.ve earned for him a hi^
place among those who suffered unjustly for con-
science sake. He was a man of great moral earnest-
ness, and exemplified in his own me some of the no-
blest moral virtues. At the same time, he did not rise
above the moral level of his contemporariefl in every '
ref^iect, and Christiui apologiste have no difficulty in
refuting the contention that he was the equal of the
Christian saints. His frequent references to a "di-
vine voice" that inspired hun at critical moments in
his career are, perhaps, best explained saying that
they are simply his peculiar way of speakmg about the
promptings of his own oonsoiaice. ThOT do not
necesKuily imply a patholi^oal condition of his mind,
nor a superatitious belief in the existence of a "fa-
miliar demon".

Socrates was, above all things^ a reformer. He was
alarmed at the condition of affairs in Athens, a condi-
tion which he was, perhaps, right in ascribing to tlie
Sophists. They taught that there is no objective
standard of the true and the false, that that is true
which seems to be true, and that that » false which
seems to be false. Socrates omsidered that this tiieo-
retical scepticism led inevitably to moral anarchy.
If that IB true which seems to be true, then that is
^>od, he said, which seems to be good. Up to this
time morality was taught not by principles scientifi-
cally detemuned, but by instances, proveihs, and
aiwth^mfl. He undertook, therefore, first to deter-
mine the conditions of universally valid knowledge,
and, secondly, to found ca uolTemlly valid moral
prtfidplea a BCt«w» of human nmduet. Self-knovi-
edge IS the starting-point, becaimer lie believed, the
greatest flource of the pfW^etit tHrm fusion was the
Failiire to rmlixe how lit.tle we kno\v :i.bout anything,
in the true uenae of tbo word know. The statesman,
the orator, the pott, think they kmir much about
oourage^ ioi Uvy talk about it bp being noble, and
pnisewoniiy, and beautiful, etc. But they are really
iBOrtiBt of li until they know what it is. in oth«"
wonk^ wtO they know its d^mtion. The definite
meaning, tbenfw^ l9-%jitM^ to ^ maxim
"Know tibVMlf" i^'^isiSritS^xte of thine own
ignoranfie."

Cousettumtljr, tJiftSocralir mntlind of teachiug in-
'wii .'tftfTPs, thenoc;i,[irf iLii-1 thepositive. In
! lit ii'.'^Lajvt.'i*tagP, tjcMjratcs, approa«liing his intended
pupil m an attitude of assumed ignorance, would be-
nn to ask a question, ajqivently for his own inf orma-
taon. He would follow this by other questions, until
his interlocutor would at last be obl^ed to confess
ignorance of ^e subject discussed. Because of the
pretended deference which Socrates ^yed to the su-
perior intelligence of his pupil, this stage of the
method was called "Socratic Irony". In the positive
stage of the method, once the pupil had acknowledged
his ignorance. Socrates would proceed to another
series of questions, each of which would bring out some
phase or aqjeet of the subject, so that when, at the
end, the answers were all summed up in a general
statement, that statement expressed the concept of
the subject, or the definition. Knowledge through
concepts, or knowledge by definition, is the aim, there-
fore, of the Socratic method. The entire process was
called " Heuristic", because it was a method of finding,
and opposed to Eristic", which is the method of
strife^ or eontoition. Knowlec^ through concepts is
c«tain, Socrates taught, and oners a firm foundation
for the structure not omy of theoretical knowledge,
but also of moral principles, and the science of human
omduct. Carriea away by his enthuaiasm for con-
ceptional knowledge as a basis of conduct, Socrates
went so far as to maintain that all right conduct de-
pends on clear knowledge, that not only does a defi-
nition of a virtue aid us in acquiring that virtue, but
tlutt the definition <d the virtue is the virtue. A man

0 80DALITT

who can define justice is just, and, in ceneral, theo-
reticid insight into the principles of conduct is identi-
cal with moral racellence in conduct; knowledge is
virtue. Contrariwise, ignorance is vice, and no one
can knowingly do wrong. These prnuripleB are, of
course, only partly true. Their formulation, how-
ever, at this tune was of tremendous importance, bt^
cause it marks the bc^pmiii:^ of an attempt to build up
on general principles a science of human oonduot.

Socrates devoted little attention to questicms of
physics and cosmogony. Indeed, he did not conceal
his contempt for these questions when comparing
thmn with questj(>ns affecting man, his nature and his
destiny. He was, however, intesMted in the queft-
tiaa m the existenoe of God and formulated an argu-
ment fnMn design which was afterwards known as the
"Tdeolc^oid Argument" for the existence of God.
"Whatever exists for a useful pu^xwe must be the
work' of an intelligence" is the major pmnise of Soc-
rates' argument, and may be said to be the major
premise, explicit or implicit, of every teleologies^ ar-
gument formulated since his time. Socrates was pro-
foundly convinced of the immortidity of the wul,
although m his address to his judges he ai^uee agahist
the fear of death in such a way as apparently to offer
two alternatives: "Either death ends all things. «* it
is the beginning of a happy life." His real conviction
was that the soul survives the body, imless, indeed, we
are misled by our authorities, Plato and Xenophon.
In the absence of primary Bources — Socratee, appar-
ently, never wrote anythmg — we are obliged to rely
on these writers and on a few refoenoes m Ar^totle
for our knowledge of what Socratee taught. I^to's
portrayal of Socrates is idealistic; when, however, we
correct it by reference to Xenophon's more practical
view of Socrates' teaching, the randt cannot be far
from historic truth.

For Souroes, Hitter and Pbullbb, HUt. PkilotopkuM Oraca
(Ootha, 1888). 192 aq. ; Basbvell, Sourca Book tn Ancimt Phi-
lotophv (New York, 1907), 8Q sa. Consult Zellxb, 3oeral«> and
Uu Soeratie Schools, tr. Reicbel (London. 1885); Piat, SoenU
(pEria, 1000); Tobneb, HUL of PkitMo£tt (Boston, 1903), 77 aq.

WiLUUI TUBMR.

Sodalttj;.— I. The sodalities of Uie Church are
pious associations (see Associations, ^oub) and are
included among the confraternities and archoon-
fratemities (q. v.). It would not be possible to give
a definition making a clear distinction between the
sodalities and other confraternities; consequ^tly
the devek}pment and history of the sodalities are the
same as tnose of the religious confraternities. A
general sketch of these latter has been already given
in the account of the medieval confraternities of
prayer (see Purgatorial-Societies). They are a\ao
mentioned in the article Scapular. Confraternities
and sodalitira, in the present meaning of the word,
the only ones which will be here mentioned, had their
beginnings after the rise of the confraternities of
prayw in the earW Middle Ages, and developed
rapidly from the end of the twelfth century, ie. from
the rise of the great ecclesiastical orders. Firoofs of
this are to be found in the Bullaria and annals <^ tfiese
orders, as those of the Dominicans, the Cajrmdites.
and the Servites. (Clf . Armellini, "LechiesediRoma"
(2nd ed., Rome, 1891), 20 sqq.; "Historisch-poh-
tische Blatter", oxlviii (Munich, 1911), 7B9 sqtK, 823
sqq.; Ebner, "Die acht Brttdo^aften des hi. Wolf-

?anginRegensbu^" in Mahler, "Derhl. W<rifgang"
Ratisbon, 1894), 182 sq.; Villanueva, " Viage Hterario
a las Igleaias de Espafla", VIII (Valencia. 1821), 258
sqq., Ap6ndioe XXIII: ibid., XI (Madrid, 1850),
186 sq., Ap6ndice IV; Gallia (Jbrist., XI, instr. 253
sq., n. XXVII; ibid., VI, instr. 366, n. XXXIV;
Mabillon, "Annales Ordinis Benedicti", VI, Lucca,
1 745, 361 sqq. . ad an. 1 1 45 ; Marttoe, " Thesaurus novus
anecdotorum", IV (Paris, 1717)( 165 sqq. "Confrater-
rntas MassilienslBan. 1212in8tituta";''Monuinaita

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SCXDALITY

121

0ODAUTV

O.Seranim B.M.V.", I, lOT, ad aa. 1304; QMoku,
"AiinaleeO.Senr.B.M.V.",I (aiided..Lueoa, 1719),
384, ad an. 1412 ; " Libro dedi ordinaiwti de la Ooa-
pae^iia di Suita Maria dd Cannine soritto nel 1380"
(ElologDa, 1867)]. Pioiu asBooiatioiis of thii kind,
howevra-, aoon appeared, wfakb were solely under the
bishop and bad ao close eoooexion an order.
An interesting examiile of mioh an asBoeiaUtm of
the year 1183 is desoribed in the "Histoire gte^rale
du Languedoc" (VI, ToulotHe. 1£79, 108 aqq.), as
■n "association ftniSM at Le Piur £or tiie reatovstion
of peaoe". A carpwter named Piem (Durant) is
given as the founder of this socie^. In regard to a
''Confratonity of the Mother of God" which existed
at NaupaotoB in Greece about 1050, see "La Con-
&atermt4 di S. Maria di Naupactos 1048", in the
"BuUettino deU' Istatuto atoneo itatiano", no. 31
(Rome, 1910, 73 aqq.).

From the era ot toe Middle Agee rery many of
these tnous aaaoeiationa pkund thauselves under the
special protection of the Blessed Viigia, and choae
her for patron under the title of some saored mygtery
with i^ch she was aesoeiated. The main obj«et and
duty of these soeietiea were^ above all, the praotioe of
piety and works of chanty. The dechne of eo-
elesiastioal life at the close of the Middle A^ee was
natundly aocompanied by a decline of religtous as-
•ooiational life, the two b^ng related as cause and
effect. However, as soon as the Chureh rose to re-
newed prosperity in thB ooutm of dxteeoth
eentuiy, by the aid of tiw CountovRef tntnation and
tiie appeanuiee ol the new idigious oongregations
and associations, oooe more there sprans up numerous
oonfratemities and sodalities which laboured with
great success and, in many oases, are still effeetiTe.

Of the sodalities which came into existence just at
this period, particular mention should be made of
those called the Sodalitiea of the Blsflsed Virgin
Mary (omffregaiitmM seu KtdaHbUea B. Maria Vtp-
trtRu), because the name sodalUy was in a special
manner peculiar to these, also because their labours
for the renewal of the life of the Church 'were
more permanent and have lasted until the pres-
ent time, 9o that these sodalities aft^ fully three
hundred years still prosper and flourish. Even the
oiKxmrats of the Cathobo Church seem to recognise
ttm. The article "fouderschaften, kirohHche^' in
Henog-Hauck, ' ' Realeneyklop&dte f Qr protestui-
tiache Theolone", discusses almost exclusively the
Sodalities of the Blessed Virgin Mary as the pattern
of Catholic sodalities. It cannot, indeed, be denied
^at these sodalities are, by their spirit and entire ca-
ganisation, better equipped than other confraterni-
ties to make their members not only loyal Catholics
but also true ^y apoetlee for the salvation and bless-
ing (rf an around tnem. 'In the eoune of time othm*
pious Church societies sprang from the Sodalities of
the Blessed Vi^n Mary, or were quickened by these
to new zeal and fruitful labours, e. g. the work of
foreign missions, the " Society of St. Vincent de Paul
the ''Society of St. Francis R^is", and man;^ others.
While aJl other eonfratemities and sodaUties have
as their chief end a single pious devotion or exerobe, a
single work of love of God or of one's neighbour^ the
peculiar fum of the Sodalities of - the Blessed Virgin
Mary ia, by means of the tme veneratHm <A the Blessed
Virgin, to build up and renew the whole inner man in
order to render him capable (tf and lealous for all
works of spiritual love and charity. Conseouently
these sodalities tats described bebw in detail wepa,-
rate^ from the others.

II. All sodalities, pious associations, and confra-
temitiee may be divi<Kd into three classes, although
these classes are not absolutely distinct from one
anc^ber. Hie fint class, A, includes the oonfrater*
uties whi<Ai Bed: mainly to attain piety, devotion,
and tin iiunease of lore of God by qwcial TOwrat^

of Qod, of tfae Blesaed Virgin, the ainels, and the
saints. The second olass^ B, consists of those sodali-
ties which are founded chiefly to promote the spiritual
and cnrpor^ works of mercy. The third clus, C,
may be considered to inchiae those aseoeiaticHU a
the Church the main object of which is the wett*bMng
and iiuTOovement of a definite class of persons.

A.— The first class includes: (1) The "ConfrateP'
nity of the Most Holy Trinity with the White Scap-
ular" (seeScAPDLAs). (2) The Confratomitiesof the
Holy Gboet. In 1882 such a oonfratemity was estab-
licdbed for AuBtriap-Hungary in the ohundi of the Lazarists
at Vienna, and in 1887 it received the ri^t of ag^^
gation for the whole Germany. Special mention
should here be made of the " Archoonfratemity iji the
Servantsof the H<dy Ghost". Itwasfirst established
in 1877attheChiuchofSt. Mu^of the Angels, Bays-
water, London. In 1878 it received the pap^ ooimr-
mation and ipecial indulgeaces, in the foUowmg year it
was raised to aa arohooafraternity with unlimited
power of aggregation for the«diolemrid. Thedirectm
of the ardioomratemity, to whom ai^licatioB for act-
mission can be made personally or Inr letter, is su-
perior oi tfae Oblates of St. Charles Botromeo, at the
Church of St. Mary of the Angels, Bayswater^ London,
W. A third oonfratemity for the glorification of tlie
Holy Ghost, especially among the heathen, was estab-
lished in the ftmner collegiate Church of Our Lady at
Kneehtafteden, Gomany. It is diieoted by tiie
Fathers of the Holy Ghost and of tfae Immaculate
Heart of Ma^. Its organ is the missionary month^.
"Eeho aus luieohtsteden". (3) There is no njecUd
confraternity in honour of the Heavenly Father.
There is, bowever, an "Archoonfratemity of the
Most Holy Name of God and of the Most Holy
Name of Jesus". OriginaUy this formed two di»-
tinct oonfratemities, which owed their origin to
tiie Dominicans. At a later date th^ omnbiiwd and
were united into one society, the establislmient of
iriiich is under the control of the general of the Do-
minicans. Paul V cancelled tfae indulgences pre-
viously granted to the confraternity and granted
new ones. It is probable that the Brief of 21 Sept.,
1274, of Gregory IX, addressed to the general of the
Dominicans, gave the first impulse to the founding of
the above-mentioned confraternities. In this Brief
the poi>e called upon the f atho-general to promote, by
preaching, the veneration of the Holy Name of Jesus
among t& people. In America especialhr this sooie^
has qjread wioi^ and borne wonderful fruit. It has
a periodical, '"Hie Holy Name Journal," and has
been granted new indulgences tar those of its mem-
bers who take part in its public processions [Anatecta
Ord.Fratr.Prwdic., XVII (1909), 325 sq. See Holt
Naub, Sociitt or the]. There are other oonfrater-
nities and sodalities, especially in France, and also in
Rinne and Bdgium, for the prevention oif blasphemy
against the name of God and of tfae deseoratimi «
Sundays and feast days (Beringer, "Les indiUgenees",
II, 115 sqq.; ef. Act. S. Sed., I, 321).

(4) A triple smes of confraternities has been
formed about tfae Person of the Divine Saviour for the
veneration of the Most Holy Sacrament, of the Saored
Heart, and of th'e Passion.

The confraternities of the Most Holy Sacn^
toimt were founded and developed, strictly speaking,
in Italy from tfae end of the fifteenth century by the
^MMtolic zeal of tfae Franciscans, eepeci^ly by the
leal of Cfaenibino of Spoleto and the Dieted Ber-
nardine of Feltre ("Acta SS.", Sept., VII, 837, 868).
Yet as early as 1462 a confraternity of the Most
Holy Sacrament existed in tfae Ducfay of JOlicfa,
in the Archdiocese of Col^ne; other Confraternities
<rf the Most Holy Sacrament were also founded in the
Archdiocese of Cologne in the course of the fifteenth
century (cf. "Kdhi. Pastoralblatt", 1900, 90). At
Romo the CaoSnUxnity of the Moit, Holy Sa^

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SODALITY 1

ment waa founded (1601) in Um Chureh of Saa Lo-
renzo tn Damaso bsr the devotion and seal of a poor
priflBt and four plain citizens. Julius II oonfinned
this sodality by a Brief of 21 Aug., 1508, and wished
to be entered himself as a member in the register of
the confraternity. U is not, however, this sodality
but another Roman confraternity that has been the
fruitful parent of the countless confraternities of the
Most Holy Sacrament which exist to-day everywhere
in the Catholic world ^cf. Qu^tif-Echard, I, 197 sq.).
This second oonfratenuty, due to the seal of the Do-
minican Father, Thomas StelU, was erected by Paul
III on 30 Nov., 1539, in the Dominican Church of Santa
Maria sopra Minerva. This confraternity alone is
understood when mention is simply made of the Con-
fraternity of the Sacrament. Alon^ with the hono-
rary title of archconfratemity it received numerous in-
dul fgences and privileges by the B\ill of 30 Nov., 1539.
The indulgences were renewed by Paul V. It was
made known at its inceptimi that this oonfratemity
oould be established t n parish churches, and that suen
ecmfratemities should share in the indulgences (tf the
ardiocHifratemity without formid connexion with the
Roman confraternity. This privil^e was recon-
firmed at various times by the popes, who expressed
the wish that the bishops would establish the confra-
ternity everywhere in all parish churches (cf . Tacchi-
Venturi, "Ia vita religiosa in Italia durante la prima
eUkdellaCompagniadiGesi^'Mtome, 1910, 191 aq<^.}.

In the nineteenth oentuiy, however, confratermties
for the adoration of the Most Hdy Sacrammt were
also established in other countries, and these now ex-
tend ail over the Catholic world. Mention is made in
the article Purqatorial Societies of the " Archcon-
fratemity of the Perpetual Adoration of the Blessed
Saoi^ment under the Protection of St. Benedict."
This association, that was founded in 1877 under Pius
IX in Austria, was transferred to North Ammca in
1893 during the pontificate of Leo XIII, and in 1910
reoeived from Pius X the right of extension through-
out the entire world.

In 1848 a pious woman, Anne de MeeOs, estab-
lished at Brussels in Belgium a religious society which
had as its object to unite the adcuration <rf the Most
Hohr Sacrament with woric for poor churches. In
1853 this society was raised to an archconfratemity
for Bdgium; soon after this separate archoonfrater-
nities of the same kind were erected for Bavaria, Aus-
tria, and Holland. At the same time there sprang
from the original society a female religious congrega-
tion which, aiter receiving papal confirmation, estab-
lished itself at Rome, and since 1879 has conducted the
archconfratemity from Rome. It has authoriW to
aasociate everywhere with itself confratermties of the
same name andpurpoee, and to share with these all its
indulgenoes. The archoonfratemity has received
large indu^nccs and privileges, snd labours with
much success in nearly all p^is of the world. En-
trance into this confraternity is especially to be recom-
mended to all altar societies. The full title of the con-
fraternity is "The Archoonfratemity of the Perpetual
Ad(n«tton of the Blessed Sacrament and Wo^ of
Poor Churches". Any information dedred as to
the working of the confraternity and the oondi-
tions of its establishment may be obtained from its
headquarters, Caaa delle Adoratrici perdue, 4 Via
Nomentana, Rome. Since 1900 the religious associa-
tion (tf the Sisters of the Perpetual Adoration has had
a house with a cluq>el at Washington, V. S. A., from
which they extend and otHiduct the oonfratenuty in
America.

The "Society <of the Most Hoty Sacnunent",
founded by the Venerable PirareJulien Eymard (d.
1868) ^bo sought, by means of a new confraternity es-
tablished by it, to incite the faithful to adoration and
leal for the dorifieation of Jesus Christ in the Ho^
■oehaiiit. In 1897 this society was rused to an

2 soDAurr

archeoBAmtflniity with the rigbt of agjpegilioii

tliroui^bout the world. In 1898 its summaiy of in-
dulgmces was ocmfirmed by the Congregation of In-
dulgences. The main condition of membership is a
continuous hour of adoration <rf the Most Holy Sacra-
ment once a month. The headquarters of the oon-
fratemity are at Rome, in the church of the Fathem
o! the Most Holy Sacrament, whence the society has
the name of "The Archconfratemity d the Most
Holy Sacrament in the Church of Sts. Andrew and
Oaudius at Rome" (Saa Claudio, 160 Via del Po»-
setto, Rome).

"The Perpetual Adcration of Catholic Naticms"
was founded at Rome in 1883, its purpose being the
\mion of the nations and peoples of the world for per-
petual solemn expiatory prayer in order to avert
God's just wrath and to implore His aid in the
grievous troubles of the Chiurcn. The association is
conducted by the Redemptorist Fathers in the
Church of St. Joachim at Rome, lat^y built in mem-
ory of the jubilee of Leo XUI as pneet and bishop.
Special countries are assigned to each one the different
days (rf the week fen* the adoration <A rwnration, e. g.
Thursday, North and Central America; Friday, South
America. The rector of the Church of St. Joachim
(Prati di Castello, Rome) is the director-general of the
association, which has the rie^t to appoint diocesan
directors in all oonntnes, incluung niesionary ones. In
order to enter the association, application should be
made to one of these directora or to the director
general. Two other associations were founded in
France for the purpose of expiation and atonement;
these have already extended over the world. One is
the "Association of the Communion of Reparation",
the other the "Archconfratemity of the Holy Maes of
Reparation". The "Association of the Ccmimunion of
Reparation", established in 1854 1^ Father Drevtm,
S.J.,wascanoiiically erected in 1865 at Paray-le-Monial,
in the monastery where the Divine Saviour bad com-
manded Blessed Margaret Mary Alacoque to make
reparation by Holy Commimion for the in^titude of
men. This is also the purpose of the entire associa-
tion, which caa be canonically erected anywhere. The
' ' Archocmf ratemity erf the Holy Mass of Reparation ' '
owes its origin to a poor widow of Paiis, in June, 1862.
Each member makes it his duty to attend a second
Mass on Simdays and feastrdio^ as expiation for those
who sinfully fail to attend Mass on these days. In
1886 the confraternity was erected into an archcon-
fratemity with the right of aggregation for France.
At a later date other cotmtries received in like manner
a similar archoonfratemity. Even in parts of the
world where no such archconfratemity exists it is easy
to be received into the confraternity. By a Decree
c[ 7 Sept., 1911, of the Holy Office, all S<xmer indtd-
genoes were cancelled, and^rioher ones, to be diared
equally by all the archconfratemities and confrater-
mties of the Holy Mass of Reparation, were granted
(Ad. Apost. Sed., Ill, 476 sq.). In this class bdon^
also the "Ingotstadt Mass Association". (See Pdb-
OAToaiAL Societies.)

(5) As early as 1666 confraternities <A the Blessed
Jean Ekides for the united venOTatim of the Heart of
Jesus and the Heart of Mary wore established. It
was not until after the death of Blessed Margaret
Mary Alacoque that there arose confraternities for the
promotion of the adoration of the Sacred Heart of Jesus
m the manner desired by her. During the years 1697-
1764 more than a thousand such coiUratermtiee were
erected by papal Briefs and granted indulgences. At
Rome the first "Confraternity of the Sacred Heart
of Jeeus" was established in 1729 by the efforts
of Father Joseph Gallifet, S. J. This eonfratmuty
still exbts at the Church of St. Theodore, at the foot
of the Palatine. The membership of this " Confra-
ternity of the Sacconi" has included cdtebrated and
holy mm. Only men, however, mi^ belong to it-
Digitized by VjOOglC

SODAUTT 1

Consequenthf it was given to another confraternity of
the Sacred Heart to spread from Rome over the entire
world. This is the sodality established in 1797 by
Father Fdid, S.J., in the little Church (tf Our Lady
ad Pineam, called in Cappella. The sodality was
raised in 1803 to an archcorLfratemity, and was after-
ward transferred by Leo XII to the Church of Santa
Maria della Pace. Application to join this oonfra-
temity is made at the church. More than 10.000 con-
fraternities have already united with it. The con-
fraternities of the Sacred Heart erected in Belgium
can unite with the archoonfratemity of Para;^-le-M(>*
Dial, those eetablshed in fVanoe can either join this
ardtoooAratemity or that at Moulins. In addition a
new confraternity of the Sacred Heart of Jesua was
established in 1876 at Montmartre, Paris. In 1894
this society received the ri(^t to incorporate into itself
other oonfratemitiee of the same name and object in
any part of the world and to share its indulgences with
these. The object of this oonfratemit^, like that of
the great church at Montmartre, is expiatory, and the
society is to pray for the freedom o( the pope and the
salvation of nmnan society.

The "Archconfratemity of Prayer and Penance in
hcmour of the Heart of Jesus", founded at Dijon in
1879 with the right of aggregation for the entire worid,
has, since 1894. been established at the church of
Montmartre. A wish expressed by the Divine Sa-
viour long before to Blessed Margaret Mary Alacoque
was fulfiUed on 14 March, 1863. On this day the
"Guard <^ Honour of the Most Sacred Heart oi
Jesus" ma founded in the monasteryof the T^ta-
tion at Boui^-en-Bresse, France. The name ex-
presses the object of this sodality, which is to collect
faithful hearts around the Saviour for constant ad-
oration and love and to make reparation to him for the
ingratitude of men. In 1864 the association at Bourp-
en-Bresse was confirmed as a confraternity, and in
1878 was made an archconfratemity for France and
Belshun. la 1879 the confraternity was established
at Rome in the CHiurch of Sts. Vmcent and Anas-
tasius, and defined as an archoonfratemity for Italy
and ul countries which have no archconfratemity of
their own. In 1883 the confraternity of Brooklyn,
New York, conducted by the Sisters of the Visitation,
was confirmfMl by Leo XIII as an archconfratemity,
with the right of aggregation for the United States.
For the "Apostleship of Prayer" see The Catholic
Enctclopbdia, vol. I, 633; Hilgers, "Das Goldene
BOchlein", Ratisbon, 1911. In 1903 Leo XIII es-
tablished at the Church of St. Joachim at Rome a
special "Archoonfratemity of the Eucharistic Heart
of Jeeus", granting it the right to unite sodalities
bearing the same name as itself. The confraternity
is intended to offer in a fecial manner adoration,
gratitude, and love to the Heart of Jesua for the in-
stitution of the Holy Eucharist. Mention should also
be madeof the "Archoonfratemity of the Holy Agony
of Our Lord Jesus Christ", conducted by theLasarist
Fathers in Paris, which was established m 1862 in the
Diocese of Lyons and was d^ed in 1865 as an
archoonfratemity for this diocese. In 1873 the con-
fraternity at Paris was declared an archconfratCT-
nity for all France, and in 1894 it received the right
of ai^r^tion for the whole world. The "Aroh-
oonfratemity of the Holy Hour" is B3ao connected
with a wish expressed by the Saviour and a reve-
lation of Hunself given m 1673. At that time the
Saviour demuided of Blessed Mai^aret Mary Ala-
coque an hour of union with Himself m prayer at mid-
nknt on Thursdays in memory of His Agony on the
Mount of Olives. In 1829 this sodality was founded
at Paray-Ie-Monial, and finally in 1911 it received the
right of aggregation for the entire world (Acta Apost.
Sed., Ill, 157). The members can observe the noly
hour of prayer from Thursday afternoon onwards. A
*Bm3ar aooety was founded af Toulouse in 1886 and

80DAUT7

oa&onioaQy ereeted in 1907, under the title of *'Tbe
Holy Perpetual Hour of Gethsemam ". In 1909 it re-
ceived indulgenoes from Pius X (Acta. Ap. Sed., I,
483), and in 1913 new indul^ces with the rig^t of
i^gregatioo fw the irriiole ofFranoe.

(6) The oonfratemities mentioned above are also
in part sodalities of the Passion, particularly those
which especially venerate Christ s Agony. Besides
these should be mentioned particular^ ''The Arob-
oonfratOTiity of the Most Precious Blood". This
society was founded on 8 Deo., 1808, in the Church
of S. Nioota in Caroere at Rome by the saintly Fran-
ecBOO Albertini, who died in 1819 as BidK^ of Tem^
tapA. The members pledge thonselves to a special
veneration of Christ's Passion, and in partioular to
offer the Precious Blood to the Heavenly Father fw
the expiation of sins, for the conversion of sinners, fw
the needs of the Church, and for the consolation of
the poor souls. In 1809 the confraternity was canoni-
cally erected; in 1815 it was richly endowed with in-
dulgences, and in the same year was raised to an arch-
oomratemity. AppUoations for meinlmdlup can be
made to the director the an^ioonfratenu^ at S.
Nicola in Carcere, or to the Missioners of the Preeioui
Blood, 1 Via Poll Crooiferi, Rome, for sinoe 1861 the
general of these missioners has had all necessary
powers. Blessed Caspar of Buffalo, founds* of the
mission houses of the Precious Blood, did much to
promote this confraternity. He was beatified in 1894.
A rescript of 3 Aug., 1896, of the Ctrngrc^atlon of In-
dulMnocB namtea in perpetuity that the bishops of
the United States <iS North Amerioa and Canada pro
nto arlntrio et praderUia mi^t erect the CcHifrater-
nity of the Precious Blood in all pariah diurches
without r^;ard to their location, that these then could
unite with the society at Rome, the "Unio Prima-
Primaria", in the church of the Missioners of the
Precious Blood, and could share in its indulgences and
privil^es (cf. "Amerikan Pastoralblatt", 1897,104).
See Pimcious Blood, ABCHcoNrR&TBBNiTT of thb
Moot.

Rd^ous associations have also been formed to en-
coura^ the practice of the Holy Way of the Croaa.
specially the " Pious Association of the Perpetual
Wayof the Cross", and the "Association of the Liv-
ing Way of the Cross". Both societies are under the
care of tite Franciscans (of. Mocch^iani, "Collectio
Indulg.", no. 1264, sqq.). In 1884 the "Archcon-
fratemity of the Holy Face" ■waa fcffmed at Tours
as a work of npiation. It was jnovided with in-
dulgences and in 1885 was erected into an arch-
oonfratemity for the i^ole world. The inswnia of
the brotherhood is the Face of the Suffering Saviour
on the veil of St. Veronica. The members wear
this picture on a scapular, a cross, or a medal.
Lastly, there was founded m 1904 at the coi^ress
in honour of the Blessed Vii^in at Rome the "Pious
Union of the Crucifix of Pardon". This asso-
ciatiott has for its object the reconciliation with God
of nations, families, and individuals. The head-

n-ters of the association are in the Church of the
unciation at Lyons. The badge of the members
is a specially-oonsecrated cmcifix (cf. Beringer, op.
cit., Appendioe by Hilg^, Paris, 1911).

(7) The Confraternities of tlie Mote of God,
which have been confirmed (or the entire Church, ex-
ist in such large numbere that all cannot be given here.
Especially numerous are the sodalities and associa-
tions erected in honour of the Blessed Virgin in indi-
vidual cities, dioceses, districts, or coimtries. The
most important, most widely extended, and beet-
known of the confraternities of the Blessed Vii^in
are: (a) the "Confraternity of the Holy Rosary"
(q. v.); in the article conoeming it the "F0f-
petual Roswry" and the "Living Rosary" are also
mmtioned; (b) the "Cmifnitemi^ erf the 8oi4)ularof
Our Lady of Mount Carmel" (aee aeAPuun); M

Digitized by VjOOQIC

lODAUTT 1

Sodirfitiw of tb» BlsMed ^^qpa ISaxy (tea
beknr).

In addition, mention has already been made of: the
"Confraternity of the Blaok Scapular of the Seven
Doloura of Our Lady" (see Scapui^); the "Arch-
oonfratemit^ of the Immaculate Cono^tion of the
Blessed Virgin Mary", which is now combined with
the Bhie Scapular (see Scapulab); the "Pious Union
of Our Lady of Good Counsel and the Scapular of Our
Lady of Good Counsel" (see Our Ladt of Good
CouMSBi^ FaAffp op; Scapui^); the "Archcou'
fraternity of Our Lady of the German Campo Santo at
Rome" (see PurqatoiualSocixtibs); the "Archcon-
fratemity for the relief of the Souls in Pur^tory, es-
tablished under the title of the Assumption of the
Bleased Vii^in, in the Churoh of Santa Maria in
Monterone, at Heme" (see Purgatorial Societies).

Furthermore, mention should be made of the ' ' Arch-
oonf ratCTiity oi Oai Lady of the Sacred Heart.' ' This
■ociety wae established in ISM at Issoudun, Fxaxma,
by tiie MissionerBctf the SaeredHeurt of Jesus. Since
1S72 its headquart^ as an archconfratemity have
been at Rome, and in 1807 they were transferred to the
newly-built Churoh of Our La^ of the Heart of
Jesus, in the Piazza Navona. (mly this confrater-
nity at Rome has the right to inoorporate in itself con-
fraternities ci the same title erected in any part of the
world and to share with these its indulgences. The
object of the confraternity is the veneration of the
Blessed Virgin tn her intimate relatitm to the Heart of
Jesus. The "Confraternity of the Immaculate Con-
ception of the Blessed Virgin Mary", established at
Lourdes in 1872, in 1873 was raised to an archconfra-
temity, and in 1878 was made an archcoofratemity
for the entire world by Leo XIII. The head of the
archcoufratemity is the Bishop of Tarbes.

The "Association of the Children of Mary", under
the protection of the Immaculate Virgin and St. Ar-
nes, was establidied fw girls aJone. It was canonical^
oreoted in 1864^ in the Church of S. Asnese fuori le
mura, Rome: m 1866 it received its indulgences and
privil^ies with the right of aggr^ation for aU nmilar
societies. Since 1870 this power of aggregation has
belonged to the abbot-general of the Relormed Augua-
tinian Cancms of Uie Laterao, near San Pietro in
VinooU. Rome. The intoition of the society is to
keep Christian yoaaa women imder the standard <^
theBlessed Virgm, and to promote the loyal fulfilment
by its members of their duties. (See Children of
Maby; Childbbn of Mary of the Sacred Heart.)
For the "Archconfratemity of Our Lady of Com-
passion for the Return of England to the Catholic
Faith", see UmoNB of Prater. The miraculous
picture of Our Lady of Perpetual Succour, venerated
at Rome in the Church of St. Aljihonsus, is known
everywhere. In 1871 a confraternity was erected in
this church, and in 1876 was made an archconfratei^
nity under the title of the "Archconfratemity of Our
Lady of Perpetual Succour and of St. Alphonsus
Liguori". Tnegeneral of the Redemptorists has the
power to incorporate everywhere confraternities of
the same name m the archcmifratemity imd to grant
these the same, indulgenoes. Time an also various
oonftwtmiities of the Cord, whose members wear a
cord as insignia just as members of other confrater-
nities wear a scapular. The oldest and most cele-
brated of these Confrat^nities of the Cord is probably
the "Archconfratemity of the Black Leatb^ Belt
of St. Monica, St. Augustine and St. Nicholas of
Tolentino", also called the "Archconfratemity of
Our Lady of Consolatu>n". This society has par-
ticularly extensive indulgenoes (of. "Rescr. authent.
S. Congr. Indulg.", II, no. 40, and especially the
iately-^asued summary of indulgences in the "Acta S.
Sedis", XXXV, 630). The headquarters (rf the society
are at TSUtma, in the Churoh of St. Axigustiue where
tiie body of St. Mtmioa lies.

4 SODAUTT

(8) Tbare are abo numerous 0(HiA«.teniitie8 in hon-
our of ao^ela and sunts whieh are dedicated to the
patron sunts of individual districts, countries, cities,
and localities; these are consequently more local in
their character, e. g. the "Bomface Association" in
Germany and Austria (see Boniface Association).
However, there are also such for the whole world, e. a.
the "Confraternity of St. Benedict" (see Scapitlae),
the "Archconfratemity of the Girdle of St. Francis of
Asstsi", and the "Pious Union in honour of St.
Anthony ot Padua", as abo the "Young Men's
Sodality of St. Anthtmy of Padua", which, throi^ a
Brief (10 March, 1911) of Pius X (Act. Apost. Sedis,
III, 128 sq.), was granted indulgences and recom-
mended to the faithful [cf. Acta Ord. Fratr. Miu.,
XXX (1911) 177 soq.]. Only a few more of these
confraternities can be noticed here. In I860 the
"Ck)nfratermty of St. Michael" was founded at Vi-
enna to implore the protection of the archangel for
the pope and the CSiurch, &ad to collect gifts as
Pet^spence for the oppressed pope. Tbien is another
"Conmitemi^ of St. Michael", mth a scapular (see
Scapular). In 1860 the "Confraternity in honoured
St. Joseph " was established at Rome in the Church of
St. Roon. In 1872 it received indulgences and was
raised to an archconfratemity with the right of incor-
poration for the whole world. The memb^ also
wear a consecrated cord in honour of St. Joseph.
Special indulgeneee are connected with tb» wearing of
this cord. There is abo another Archconfratemity of
the Cord of St. Joa^h, which was erected in 186Q at
Verona and to irtiich Pius IX granted indulgences.
There are besides many confraternities of St. Joseph
for individual countries. Several were founded espe-
cially for France (cf. Berioger, op. cit.). In 1892 an
"Archconfratemity of St. Joseph" was erected in the
Church of St. Joseph, West de P^, Wisconsin,
U. S. A., that is already widely m>read over America.
Connected with it is a children s league under the

gatronage of St. Joseph [cf. Seeberger, "Key to Uie
piritual Treasures" (2nd ed., 1897), 20 sqq.l.
In 1866 the "Confraternity of St. Peter's Chains''
was canonically erected at Rome in the Basilica of
San Pietro m Vincoli. In 1866 and 1867 the con-
fratemitjr was granted indulgences and at the same
time received as an archcon£ratemity the right of ag-
gr^ation for the entire world. The purpose of the
society is to promote loyalty to the pope, and to pray
and work for the real freedom of the papacy, by the
veneration of the Holy Chains of St. Peter. The
"Militia Angdioa", or the "Confratemitjr of the
Cord of St. Thomas Aquinas", has been in exist-
ence a long time. It possesses indulgences granted it
in 1586 by Sixtus V. Its purpose is the protection
of purity by the intercession and aid of the Angelic
Doctor who, according to tradition, was ^irt in his
youth with a cord by angds after an heroic and suc-
cessful struggle for purity. The father-f;eneral of the
Dominicanshas ohat^ of the administration and
erection of the "Militia Angelica". The members
receive a consecrated cord which they wear constantly.

B. — In this second class, which contains those con-
fratemitiea that have been established to promote the
work of seal for souls and Christian charity, there are
a number of societies that are named aStet an angel or
saint, and thus could also be included in the previous
class. On the other hand a number of oonfratmii-
tiea, such as the "Confraternity of St. Michael" and
the "Confraternity of St. Petw's Chains", and even
all confraternities of expiation that have already been
described in the first class, could also quite properly
be included here in the seoond class. Besides these,
special mention should be made of the following: —
(1) All confraternities or sodaUties for the rehef of
the poor souls (see Porgatorial Socibtibs). (2)
The "Bona Mors Confraternity", i. e. the Omfrater*
nityof the V^onyof Christ. Tneo(>iect of tJusoon-

Digitized by VjOOglC

135

sonAurr

eregatkm Is Uw prepantkm of the fftHhfuI for a holy
death. It was estabU^ed in 1648 by the Jesuit general
Caraffa in the Church of the GesO, under the title of
"The Congregation of the Bona Mors in honoturof Jesus
Dying on the Cross and Hia Sorrowing Mother". The
oontemplation of the Passion is one ofthe chief means
of attaining the object of the sodality. In 1729 this
oongre^tion was raised to the rank of an arohoon-
gr^tMii, with power to erect similar sodalities every-
where in Jesuit churches and to share its indukenees
with these. In 1821 this privilege was reconfirmed,
and in 1827 the geoeral of the Jesuits received au-
tiwrity for the erection and am^atton of such sodali-
ties in other churches also. In ord^ to share in the
uuluIfNices of the Roman chief congregation, these
aodahties must be incorporated with thm congrega<
tion the general of the Jesuits. Phis X inravased
the indulgences and priril^es of the emigr^tiott,
and confirmed anew its entire summary of indul-
eenees on 20 March, 1911. The "Archioonfr^e du
Coeur agonisant de Jesus et du Coeur compatissant de
Marie pour le salut des mourants" (Archoonfrater-
nity of the Ag(mizing Heart of Jesus and the Compas-
sionate Heart of Mary for the heip of the Dyins),
elected in 1864 at the place which was tiko scene of the
Agony in tiie Qard^ has the same object as die
above-mentitmed oonfratemity. In 1867 it was
nissd to an arcbconfratemity and received the right
to incorporate other societies with itself throughout
the world. Since this date it has grown and spread
■teadily. In 1897, 1901, and 1907 it received new
indulgences.

(3) The " Archconfratemity of tha Most Holy and
InuDoaculate Heart of Mary for the Conversion of
Sinners" founded in 1836 by the parish priest of
the Church of Our Lady of Victories, Paris. In 1838
it was raised to an archconfratemity with the ri^t pf
a^gr^ation throughout the world. Hie confrater-
nity includes many millions of members, and has had
ranarkable success in the conversion of sinners. The
qieeial veneration of the Inunacidate Hesrt of Ma^,
whidb is the first aim of the confraternity, is also the
cfai^ means of attaining the second aim^ the convert
sion of sinners. In this class may be mcluded the
Confraternity of Our Lady of Compassion aheady
noticed, which has as its aim the return of England and
all E!nglish-flpeakin^ peoples to the Cathohc Church.
For the " Pious Union of Prayer to Our Lady (rf Com-
passion for the Conversion o[ Heretics" and the
''Ardioonfratonity ol Prajers and Good WoAb tor
the Reunion of the Eastern Sehismatioa wiUi the
Oiurch, under the patronage of Our Lady of the As-
■umptionj founded at the Church of the AnastasiB at
Constantmople", see Unions of Pratbb.

(4) The '^Pious Work of St. Francis of Sales for
the Defence and Preservation of the Faith", estab-
lished first at Nemours and then in 1857 at Paris.
Tlie association soon spread through other countries
and other peoples, and especi^ty in America. It aids
the ekn^ in all possible ways m home missions. It
was praised, blessed, and_gruited indu^sences by
Vim DC and Leo XIII. The society has abeadv
Bpcmt more than thirty million francs for its noble
aims. The "Association of St. Francis Xavier",
founded at Brussels, Belgium, in 1854, for the
training of lay apostles to aid the priests in home
missions. The members at first were only men and
youths, but women can also enter it and give apostolic
aid by their prayers, eepecialhr for the oonversion (k
nnners. In 1665 and 1856 the association recdved
inddlg»eeeand wasmadeim archconfratemity for Bel-
gium, and in 1878 was raised to the same for the
emtire woiid. It is now widespread and exerts an
^Mistolic influence in the spirit of its great patron.
Applications for memb^^p are made to the director
of the archconfratemity at Brussels (CoUdge Stunt-
Uiebd). (6) The "Sooiefy of St. Ftaads Begb for

the Revalidation of Pagan Marria^", founded at
Paris in 1826. It has laboured with great success
in many cities, provinces, and countries for the in-
crease of peace, morality, and sanctity in family life.
At Paris tne society settles nine hundred and more of
such matrimonial cases annually; at the Paris Ex-
hibition of 1900 it received a gold medal.

(6) Tlie "Confratanity at Christian Doctrine, or
Association <^ Jesus, Mary, and Joseph for the pro-
motion of Instruction in the principal truths of the
Faith". This is a long-established society, having
been founded in the sixteenth centup' by the Fathers
of Christian Doctrine (the Doctrinaires). In 1607 it
was erected by Paul V into an archconfratemity for
theentire worul, with its seat at St. Peter's, and granted
large indulgences. Its duty is to give religious instruc-
tion to the children of the Chureh, and to encourage
the reception of the saeramrats. Smce 1610 this con-
fratanity can be erected in all parish churches. In
1686 Innocent XI in an Eacyclica] ui^ntly exhorted all
bishops to establish this society as far as possible.
Pius X in an Encyclical in 1905 directed that the con-
fraternity should be established everywhere in the
parish cnurches. To obtain the indulgences for all
ihe omfrateniities of a diocese it suffices if a single
cancoiicallr erected confraternity of this diocese
unites with the Roman archconfratemity that is now
established in the Church of Suita Maria del Pianto.
New societies of Christian doctrines were formed in
ih6 second half of the nineteenth century and were
panted indulgences. In particular such associa-
tions were founded after the year 1861 by the Ladiee
of the Perpetu^ Adoration of Brussels, who estab-
lished there the Confraternity^ of the Adoration men-
tioned above. In these societies of Christian doctrine
ladies, students, and men have tai^t many thousands
of boys and girls, and, in particular, have prepared
many for First Communion. In 1894 the "Pious
Union of Christian Doctrine" of Brussels was made
an archconfratemity for Belgium and in 1900 for
Holland abo. ir7) Tlie Soeietyof St. Teresa, which
was founded at Salamanca in 1^, as a funeral society
of prayer, and is already widespread m Spain, Ger-
many, and Austria. (8) The General Association
of St. Cecilia for the Promotion of Religious Music",
established in 1887 in Germany for the encourage-
ment of Catholic Church music. It flourishes chiefly
in the dioceses of Germany, Austria, Switso'land, and
Ita^. (9) Temperance societies, for encouraging ab-
stinence from alcoholic drinlu, are treated efie where
(see Lbaouii or thb Cross; Temperance; Temper-
ance MovEBdENTs). In Germany the confraternity
that has existed since 1851, in the parish of Deutsch-
Fickar belon^ng to the Diocese of Breslau, was raised
to an archoonfratemitv in 1901 under the name of
the "Purification of Maiy", and given a general right
of aggr^stion. (10) The St. Vincent de Paul Socie-
ties; these are fully described under Vincent de
Paitl, SAnrr. See also Eusabbtb Associationb.
(11) The confraternities founded for the aid and
defence of the pope and the Church have been no-
ticed above. Another society haviiw the same pur-
pose is the "Leo Association", foun<fod at St. Louis,
U. S. A. It was ^proved by Leo XIII and in 1891
was granted indulgences.

(12) Finally, some accoimt should be given here of
the many missionary societies, and especially of: (a)
"The Society tor the Propagation of the Faith",
also called the "Miasionaiy Society of Lyons", or the
"Society of St. Frwicis Xavier". Twelve laymen,
led by a priest, formed the plan of establishing a so*
ciety for all the nations of the earth, and for the bene-
fit m tdl the missions in the world. The society was
formed at Lyons 3 May, 1822. Mademoiselle Jari-
cot may be called the real founder, because she or-
ganized the system of contributions. The society was
formal^ ooimnoed in 1840 fay Gregory XVI; each

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sodalijlY i:

succeeding pope has distinguished it by pruiac and re-
newed approval. Finally in 1904 Pius X made St.
Fraacis Xavier its patron, and rused the feast of the
saint to a greater ^mble for the entire Church. Hie
society has received many indulgences and privileges.
It is directed by two general councils composed
of ecclesiastics and laymen, the one council havi
log its seat at Lyons (12 Rue Sala), the other at Paris
(20 Hue Cassette). These directorates and their

firesidents settle together the apportionment of the
unds to the various missions. In the diocems there
are diocesan or administrative councils, and in the
parishee or cities directors who are at the head of each
10, 100, or 1000 members, in order to collect and re-
mit the contributions of the reflective divisions. The
conditions for reception and membership are very
siuiple, tlte main ones being the daily repetition of an
Our Father and a Hail Mary with the addition "St.
Francis Xavier, pray for us", and amonthly contribu-
tion of at least five cents paid to the director. More
than 300,000 copies of the bi-monthly issued by the
80Giet.v are published in twelve languages. It gives reg-
ularly'the most interesting and edifying news from the
misstoQS of the entire world. The annual income of
the society is more than «1,200,000; in 1890 for the
first time it was over $1,400,000. In 1904 the in-
come was $1,362,017, of which sum more than half
was collected in France. These figures give rlear
evidence of the beneficial labours of the society, (b)
Tlie "Association of the Holy Childhood", in
oonnexion wiUi the Guardian Angel societies. This
society was established in 1843 at Paris by the Bishop
of Nancy, Charles de Forbin-Janson. Its aim is to
teach Christian children from earliest childhood to
exercise Christian charity for the temporal and eter-
nal salvation of poor heathen children and for the joy
thereby ^ven to the Divine Child Jesua. In 1858 the
society was canonlcally erected fay Pins IX ; he, as well
as Leo XIII and Pius X, praised the great services of
the society and recommended it to all the faithful. In
order to l>e a member of the society a monthly contri-
bution of one cent for the heathen children must be
paid and a Hail Mary must be said daily, with the ad-
dition "Holy Virgin Maiy, pray for us, and the
poor little pagan children . The constitution and
(HTsaidiation « the society is very simple and practi-
oal. Tlie society is widely spread over the Catholic
world, and has accomplished a great work. The first
year (1843) the income of the society was S4,580;
the annual amount now is about S712,.500. In 1900
and 1901 the income was nearly $950,000, of which
amount Germany alone gave nearly one-third. In
1904 the society aided 223 missions, with 1112
orphanages, 7207 schools, 2805 industrial schools:
altogether 11.134 institutions. There were 401,059
heauien children baptized, and 359,053 children
were taught and cared for. In Germany since 1895
It has become customary to unite the Societies of
the Holy Childhood with the Societies of the Guard-
ian Angel^ for the benefit of poor CathoUc children
in the mission districts of Germany. The mem-
bers pay id>out one cent more monthly^ and collect
money at their own First Communion m order that
the many poor diildrea in the missifms may also have
the blessing <^ the Fint Communion and receive good
religious instruction. About $19,000 were collected
in wis way in 1896. and in 1004 more than $23,750.
The seat of the central committee of the Association
of the Holy Childhood is at 146, Rue de Bac, Paris;
there are mftf^wpng committees for the different coun-
tries, each diocese having its own diocesan committee,
with which the parish committees are connected,
(o) The "MissionaryUnionof Catholic Women and
Girls". ThiH sodality was first founded in 1893
for the African missions; then in 1902 it was reor-
ganize! I for the support of all missions. It has changed
Its headquartexB uom Fulda to Coblws, in the uo-

6 S0IUUT7

cose of Trier. In 1910 it received a new suniman
of indulgences from Pius X, oontainixijg large indul-
gences and priviteges espeoialb^for pnests oon-
duct or promote the socie^. The wiu^ body ot so-
dalities of different countries, as those of Austiia.
Switserland, and Rumania, have united with the main
society, and this action is oontenmlated for the United
States also, (d) In 1894, at Salsburg. Austria, the
"St. Peter Claver Sodality" was founded by Countess
M. Thereeia Led6chowaka to aid the African missions
and to foster the pious work of freeing davee. Leo
XIII favoured the organisation by granting iudul-
gences and privil^es the very same year. The
sodality includes: (1) the members of a female re-
ligious institute who devote themselves totaUy as
helpers of the work of the African missions. These
lead a commimity life in civilised countries and have
their headquart^s at Rome (via dell' Olmate 16);
(2) laymen and women, who devote themselves, as
far as their state in life permits, to the work of the
sodality, especially by managing the succursals; (3)
common helpers of eitheo- sex, who foster the wwk
by contributions and other means. Prom the outset
the work of the sodality was earned on irith great
seal and has b<Biie much fruit.

C. — The third class mcludes those sodalities which
have for their chief aim the promotion of the pros-
perity of certain classes of society.

(1) There are sodalities for the benefit of the Chris-
tian family. In 1861 Father Francos, SJ., founded
such a society at Lyons. As the l^xnurs of this so-
ciety proved very Beneficial Leo XIII in 1892 en-
larged it, with some changes, to embrace the whole
world. The pope personally confirmed the new stat-
utes, and granted new indulgences and privileges.
The title of the sodality is: " The General Pious Asso-
ciation of Christiaa Families in Honour of the Holy
Family of Nasareth". Another similar sodalitVi
which existed before the founding of this one, and still
exists, is the "Arcfaoonfrateraity of the Holy Family
of Jesus, Maiy. and Joseph (see Holt Familt,
Akchconfratebnity of tbb).

(2) The "Archconfratemity of Christian Mothers,
under the patronage of Our Lady of the Seven Dolours,
established at Notre-Damede Sion, Paris", having for
its object the development of truly Christian mothers,
who will bring up tbeir childrem according to the will <»
God and under the direction of the Church. A so-
dality of this kind was first formed at Lille in 1850;
in 1856 this was raised to an archoonfrateroity. This
society has now unlunited power of a^regation, and
has its seat at Paris in the chapel of the Sisters of Our
Lady of Sion (Notre^Dame des Champs). The So-
dality of Christian Mothers, founded in 1863 a4 Rome
in the Church of St. Augustine, has also a general
power of aggregation. In 1865 this sodality was
raised to the rank of a sodeiaa primaria Simuar aB>
sociatiouB have appeared m Germany also since 1860,
especially one in 1868 at Ratisbon. I^ 1871 this so-
ciety was raised to an archconfratermty, and since
1883 it has had the right in all places where German
is the most commonly-spcdcen language to incorporate
with itself confraternities having tne same name.
The title of the sodality is: "The Society of Christian
Mothers under the PatronaKe and Intercession of the
Sorrowing Vi^in Mary " . Since 1878 there has been a
confraternity of Christian mothers tor the United
States at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. In 1881 it was
made an archconfratemity for the whole of North
America. Its headauartere are at the Church of St.
Augustine at Ptttsouig. A monthly periodical is
published at New Yortc, under the title "The Chris-
tian Mother".

(3) To bring the great blessing of the True Faith
to poor heathen chudren, "The Association of the
HolyChtldhood" was established for Catholic children,
and has riebfy Uessed both (»ee above). A Con&a-

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SODAUTT 1!

teniity of the Child J«8us wag also Mtsblished at
Bethlehem somewhat later than 1905 by the Chriatian
Brothers. In 1908 the society received ita indul-
gences and in 1909 Pins X made it an archconfrater-
nity with the right of aggregation for the whole world.
Since 1910 not only children but also their parents,
and in graeral all who are interested in the braunii^ of
cihUdrm, can become men^>erB. The noble aim of the
.modality is to implore the Divine Child to protect and
bless uJ children, especially those in schools where re-
ligion is not taueht. Applications for membership
are made to the director <n the Archconfratemity of
the Child Jesus, Bethlehem, Palestine ("Acta Ap.
Sed.", I, 757 sq.; Hikers, "Appendioe" in Bering,
op. nt.). In 1889 the Capuchin Father Cypnan
founded at Ehrenbreitstein the "Serai^c Chanty"
for endangered youth. Its object is the rescue of re-
ligiously and morally endangered children, and their
protectusn also in later years after the periods of school
and apprenticeship are over. The members pay two
and one- half cents monthly. In twenty-two years
more than 10,000 poor children have been aided, and
seven new institutions have been founded, at a total
eqienditurc of $1,118,000. In Germany tJie society
has 350.000 members; it is also established in Austria,
Switserland, Italy, and the United States, and has a
total membership of over 500,000. The money is
ooUeoted by 12,000 patrons and patronesses, who aid
in the housing and supervision of the children. The
society received its indulgences in 1902 from Leo XIII,
who blessed and recommended it (of. " Analecta Ord.
Miu.Cu).". 1902, 171).

(4) There are a number of sodalities very beneficial
in their results for the sanctification and perfection of
priests. Not only have Congregations of the Blessed
Virgin Mary been formed especially for priests^ but
tiiere are also other ^>eoial associations of pnests.
Mention has already been made in the article PuB-
OATOBiAL 80CIETIB8 of the "Priests' Association under
the Protection of St. Boaedict for the Relief of the Poor
Soula in Purgatory". SeeabDpBiasn'EuoHABiaTic
LaaauH: PBdBars' CoMMmaov Luom. For the
"Pious Union ctf St. Paul the Apostle", see Fbosto,
CoNrRATBRNiTiBsor. See ^so Apostouo Union op
Sbcular Pkissts. For "Assooiatio perseverantis
Baoerdotalis" see Pribbtb, CoNrRATBSNrriEs or. III.
There are also the "Asaociatio sacerdotalis repara-
tionis" and the "League for Sacerdotal Holiness",
for priests who strive after h^er perfection. Of.
"ActaS. Sedis", XLI, 170 sqq.; "ActaApoet.Sedis",
I. 739; II, 474 sqq.: ^so the pamphlet "Ligue de
Siuntet^ sacerdotale'', 4th ed., 1909: and Hilgers,
"Ai^)endtce" in Bcrmger, "Les Inaulgenoes", 72
sqq. After the deaUi of the founder of the lea«ue,
P. Fcycrstem, P. Reimsbach (28 me Werby, Bar-
le-Duc, France) became its direetCH'. Communica-
tions may be addressed to the sub-director of the
League, Abb6 Lachamhre (101 rue du Pont k la Faulx,
Peniwels, Hainaut, Belgitmi). Those desirine fmv
tber knonkdge as to the origin and history 01 such
eonfratemities of priests are referred to the article
Purgatorial Societiks, and for the history of the
"Fratemitas Romana" in particular to Armellini,
"Le chiese di Roma" (2nd ed., Rome, 1891), 20 sqq.
(fi) The "Pious Association of Mass-servers and Sac-
ristans, under the protection of St. John Berohmana
ci the Society of Jesus", an association for acolytes
and sacristans. This society was oonfirmed in 1865
by Pius IX, and, with the permiasion of the bishop, can
be introduced anywhere without further formalities.
Pins X also granted indulgences to the society (cf.
"AetaS.Sed.^I,689Bq.,699sqq.). (6) TheQitho-
lie Jomneymen's Societies, established by Adolph
fioliring, the father of these associations, are well
known (see Gebellenvxrninb). (7) The "Society
of St. Rairiiad", for the protection of emigrants,
twfaMff***^ in 1871, oiiginnlqr for Qmom on^piiiti.

17 &ODAUTT

In 1883 the ' ' American Raphael Society ' ' was founded :
other oountries also have their special associations of
this name, as Austria, Belgium, and Italy. Since ita
establishment the society oaa [m>ved a great blessing
to many thousands of poor emigrants (see Euiorant
Aid SociEmBe). (8) Book societies have been
founded, especially in Austria and Germany, for the
spread of good books (cf. Beringer, op. cit.). Con-
cerning the "Society of St. Charles Borromeo", see
BoRBOMKO, The Sociktt of St. Charles. Various
other church societies of similar nature have been
founded, especially in France, as societies for the sick,
for labourers and mechanics, for young workii^
women, for country people, and even for traveUers
(Beringer, op. cit.).

(9) The ' 'Confraternity of the Worthy First Com-
mtmion and of Perseverance "^established at Prouille,
France, in 1891. In 1893 the Dominicans took charge
of its direction. In 1896 the society was confirmed
by Leo XIII; in 1910 Pius X transferred its heiid-
quarters to Rome, where the general of the Domini-
cans is entrusted with the entire guidance of this
association. The obiect ot this confraternity is to
obtain for children the grace oi a ^ood First Com-
munion and further perseverance m goodness. It
can be established anywhere, and all, without excep*
tion, who desire to work for the aims of the confrater-
ntty can become members of the same and share In
the indulgences and privil^es. Applications for the
estabUahment of auch oonfratemities or for the per-
sonal right to take members into the society should
be made to the general d iha Dominioana at Rome
(Collegio Angelioo, IS Via San Vitale). A similar
confraternity was erected at Rome in the Church of
San Claudio, and by Brief of Pius X (4 Jan., 1912)
was raised to the Unio Primaria with the right of
lUKregation for the whole world (Act. Apost. Sed.,
IV, 49 aq.) . Little requires to be said as to the value
and advantf^es of the sodalities. Their aims are un-
doubtedly the highest; the means used to attain these
aims are the noblest. Consequent^ the results are
always the best, and oftm astonish both friends uid
foes; therefore the moat competent judges, the popes
and the saints, have repeatedly recommended these as-
sociations to Catholics. The history of the sodalities
and the results of their labours, as publicly exhibited
and known to all the world, loudly proclaim the useful-
ness of these associations for all eras. As new times
bring new demands, fresh and noble branches full of
strength and renewed vitality grow on the fruitful
tree m the assoeiational life (» the Gath(^o Church.
Without exaggeration it may be said that ordinu'ily
the most zealous and active CathoUcs are brought to-
gether in the sodalities in order to pursue the noblest
aims. It is true that the influence of the sodalitie s,
especially of the first group, cannot be estimated by
measure and weight. However, the Christian and
Catholic who knows why man is upon earth, knows
aboUiat asinf^aotof love trf God is of inestimable
vahie. He knows also what a power thwe is in united
prayer, what miracles it can work. As proof need
only be mentioned the "Apostleship of Prayer" and
the "Messengers of the Heart ot Jesus". Moreover,
these societies of piety and prayer labour ordinarily
in the most unselfish, self-sacrificing manner, and are
filled with a most noble-minded snl for souls. This
is shown by the innumerable hosts of poor souls who
owetheirreleasefromPuigatmytotheConfrateanities
(or Poor Souls, and by the hundreds of thousands of
poor sinners who owe their eternal salvation to the
sodalities. The salvation of innumerable souk of poor
heathens is attributable to the single Society of St.
Francis Xavier and the single Association of the Holy
Childhood. The society mentioned fU>ove for the
Propagation of the Faith alone has collected
since its foundation S90,000,000 for heathen iiu»>
sioos. (Boinger, op. «it.; SedtM^er, "K^ to the

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BOfiAUTT 1

&]iritual Tnaaum"' Mlgne, "DtoUomiaira des

Coofrdries".)

UL— The Sodality of the Bleased Vbgin Mary
was founded in 1563 at Rome in the Roman College
of the Sodely of Jesus. The actual founder was Jc^n
Leunis (Lat. Lsoititit or L$amu), b. at Li^e, Belpum;
reoeived into the Society of Jesus by St. Ignatius on
13 Jan., 1556: and died at Turin, 19 Nov., 15S4, the
year in which nis Roman Sodality was erected into an
archsodality by the BuUj "Omnipotmtis Dei", of
Gregory XIII. Leunis distinguished himself in the
last years of hia life by heroic charity towards the siok.
In the afternoon, when school wasovor, and especially
on Sundays and feast days, Leunis gathered together,
while teacher of grammar at the Roman College, the
most sealous of his pupils for pr^rer and pious exec-
cises, eeiwoially for deTOtitms in honour of the Blessed
Vii^. Pupils of other classes soon joined the com-
pany and in this way a foundation was laid for a
school of devotion and virtue, the Marian Sodali-
ties. As in the following year the members num-
bered aiready seventy, the first rules were drawn up.
Tba sodality was plaoed under tin special proteetkm
of the Blessed Virgin, and the object was declared to
be personal praf ection in virtue and sti^, as well as
woriES of charity and zeal for souls. The members
gencx^y met on Sundays and feast days, and the
meetings were conducted by a Jesuit Father, who de-
livo^ an address. The oounoil was chosen from the
members, and aided the direotw in the administration
by counsel and other help.

In 1669 a division of the sodality in the Rxnnan
College became neoessarv on account <^ the large
numlwr of members. Tob older pupils, those over
dghteen years of age, formed a sodality tor them-
selves, while the younger were formed into another.
Soon there were three sodalities in the Roman Colleee.
The meetings of the sodality oompoeed of the older
pupils wa« held regularly in the OQUogedkurch, wbicb
bore the title of the Annunciation. From this church
the sodality received the title of Primary Sodality
(jPrima-Primaria) of the Annunciation. This title was
given in the Bull, "Omnipoteotis Dei", of 5 Dec., 1584,
issued by Gregfxry XIII. At the same time the pope
gave the general of the order in this Bull the power
to receive as members of the the I^mary Sodality
{Prima-Prinutria} not only pupils of the college, but
also other persons, and ano the powOT to erect simi-
lar sodalities in the ooUc^ee and churehee of the
society, which were to be connected with the Primary
Sodahty and to share in its indulgences and privileges.
Before this sodalities had also been formed m France,
GeAmany, Uie Netherlands, Spain, and elsewhere.
These societies did much good among students and
the laity, were a protection against the new erroneous
teaching, and strengthened loyal Catholics in their
fahh.

The permissiott to ereet nxae than one sodality in
each college was graatt^l by Sixtus V and powers for
Jesuit residences were added by Clement VIII and
Gregory XV. The latter, moreover, declared explicitly
that the sodalities of the Blessed Vimn were not to be
plaoed under the control of the rwilations for confra-
ternities oontuned in the Bull of Clement VIII, "Qiue-
ounque". Lastly, Benedict XIV confirmed sil earUer
indulgences aad privil^^, and added to these in the
Golden Bull (27 Sept.. 1748), ^ch i^ in a certain
sense, the crowning gkny of the sodafitiea. "It is
ahnost incredible'', says Benedict XIV, "i^at re-
sults have sprung from this pious and praiseworthy
institution (or the faithful of all classes". Finally,
by a Brief of 8 Sept., 1751, he granted the Jesuit
general authoritv to unito with the Roman main so-
dality other sodalities of either sex that had been
canonioal^ erected in the Jesuit churches. These
sodalitiflB were to share in all the hidulgnuws and
privileges of the PrimorPrimaria. Alter the sup-

16 8O0AUTV

preestim of the Jesuits in 1773 the sodalities were
kept in existence by the solicitude of the pcwe and
the efforts of sealous priests. The Society <h Jeeue
was ro ostwbliohed in 1814, and Leo XII restored to
the Jesuit general his old rii^ts and [nivileges as re-
gards the Sodalities of the Bbsaed Vngin by a Brief of
17 May, 1824. In additimt, by a Besoript of March,
1^, addressed to the Jesuit general, the same pope
granted the right to unite all sodaUties to the
Roman archsodality, even if th^ existed outside of
Jesuit houses, and to share with these subsidianr
sodalities all its indulgences and privileges. Leo XlII
further granted to the general of tiie Jesuits the au-
thority even to erect oantudoally muh sodalities every-
whm, with the pennisBion or euisent of the diooesan
bishops. He also declared all sodalities of every kind
independent and exempted from the regulations of the
Constitution, "Quacunque", of Clement VIII.

Leo XIII also granted other favours to the sodali-
ties of the Blessed Virgin, ^eh he called "exoeUoit
schools of Christian piety and the surest protection of
youthful innocence' . Final^, Pius X not only gave
the sodalities the highest praise, but also granted umn
new privileges and indulgenees, and oon&med fiie
new summary of indulgences on 21 July, 1910. On 8
Dec. of the same year tiie general of the Society of
Jesus approved new general rules for the sodalities
under Jesuit direction. These rules were intended to
serve as a model for all other Sodalities of the Blessed
Virgin; they give the clearest statement as to the
nature and purpose, oiganixation and working lA all
such bodies. These sodalities aim at making gamine
Christians of tiieir members by a profound devotion
to, and childlike love of, the BMSsed Virgin: the mem-
bers are not merely to strive to perfect themsdves,
but are also, as far as their social position permits, to
seek the salvation and perfection of others and to de-
fend the Church of Jesus Christ uainst the attacks
of godless men (cf. tit. I, reg. 1). Toe emtm t«id«iey
of the sodalities and the councils (which are selected
from the sodality), the regular meetings and lectiues,
the careful control and supervision of all membcn, in
addition to all the various exercises and works pre-
scribed or advised, and the constant oloee persomd
intercourse <tf the members with the director, serve
to make the members noble, moral hunum beings, who,
with the aid of the Blessed Vinin, lead others to
Christ. In general the qiirit ancToceiqiation of tJie
members is not to be a vaguely enthusiastic piety
and asoetioism, but a sober, genuinely CathoUo devo-
tion and a joyous, sealous affeotiveness for good In
the sphere m which each member moves. Conse-
quently, in separate sections the members should
have all possible opportunity to develop all the capa-
bilities of mind and heart, m order to attain as com-
^etely as possible the high aim of the society (of.
Reg., 12-14). The history of the sodalities of the
Btossed Virgin gives dear proof of their great and
beneficial influence in all epochs of their existmoe.
These beneficial results have been recognized by both
State and Church. The enemies of Christianity and
of the Church have also shown their recognition of
these results by their particular hatred and persecu-
tion of sodalities.

The sodalities developed rapidly even at the very
beginninc. After thirteen yeus m existenoe tb^ in-
oliKled 30,000 members. Wberevw the Sooety of
Jesus went to eetabUsh colleges or mismons, a sodality
of the Blessed Virgpn was soon erected in that place.
In all the larger cities of Europe where the Jesuits
eetablisbed themselves firmly, they founded not merely
one, but as many as seven or even twenty dififerent so-'
dalities. During the period that the sodahties were
connected with the houses and churdies of the Jesuito
the membership rose to many hundred thousands.
The munber inoreaaed when, from 1751, raanied
women and girls were admitted. After the rastom-

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BOSOMA

1^

8<moiu

tion of the Bociety of Jesus the aodalitiea grew eoor-
mou^. In the fifty years after the deountkm of
the d(^ma of the Immaculate Conception nearty
35,000 new sodalities were united with the Roman
main sodality. In the year 1910, 1132 new sodalities
were establiMed, of which 178 were in North America.
At various times and in variouB countries emperors

mttraitioed for seven years to a dMs-paiiitw itam
Guale, named Spanxotti, and with him the young
Sodoma went to Milan, where he came under the

inQuence of Leonardo da Vinci, althon^ it is exceed-
ii^y doubtful whether he ever entered his studio.
He executed his first important deeorattve work in
1503 for a small Ohvetaa oonvent near I^eua, and,

kings, and princes have been zealous members of two years after, he passed on to the mother-convent

Bodahtics, and have encouraged the growth of thes^
bodies, in the seventeenth century uoue eighty car-
dinals and seven popes came from them. In all
Catholic countries the Sodalities of the Blessed Virgia
include among their most faithful memb^, the
greatest and noblest mon of every positioo in ike,
generaJa and scholars of the highest laok. St. Stani»-
laus Kostka, St. John Berchmans, St. Fmuaa de Sales,
St. Fidelis of Sigmarinpen, St.
Leonard of Port Maunce, St.
Peter Fourier, St. John Baptist
de Rossi, the Venerable Jean
Eudes, and many other saints,
blesseds, and venerables, were
proud to belong to the sodali-
ties of the Blessed Virgin. For
six years St. Francis de Sales
worked, during his student
life, in the sodality of the Col-
lege of Clermont at Paris as
member, assistant, and prefect.
Others, like St. Alphonsus
li^ori and St. Charles Bor-
romeo, praised and recom-
mended the Sodalities of the
Blessed Virgin as nxuseries for

Suth and for growth in per-
:tion. Above all it has
always been the teachers and
shepherds of the entire Catholic
Church, the popes, who have,
in their wonis and actions,
highly honoured these sodali-
ties, and who have earnestly
recommended them to all the
faithful, e. g. Gregory XIIJ,
Sixtus V, Gregory XV, Bene-
dict XIV, Leo XIII, Pius X.

Undoubtedly a well-conducted Sodality of the
Blessed Virgin is in itself the best metiiod of s]Hritual
development for the members and also the best aid to
the pnest in his anxiety for the well-being of his en-
tire flock. In addition these sodalities are the most
universally extended of all pious associations 'md eon-
fraternities, for they can be and are erected separately
for each sex, for every &ge, and every station in life.

QiovANm Amtohio Bair, Calud Sownu
fielf-poitnut, Uffisi GHlleiy

of the same order, known as Monte Oliveto Maggiore,
to continue the work commenced by Sigoorelli.
There he not only painted twenty-five large ireaooa^
but many other smaller ones; these constitute his
most notable and perhaps his greatest works. Two
years later he was at R^Mi Wji^ oi, v ws^jtK^of
artists raiployed by Julius nto cfecotftt^ Ihc VatiffVn.
He then went to Siena, and^ mturiLing to l!i >i[^i , i'xi>
cutcd ioiportiint cncsniLi-^ionB
for A);oslinih Cfiipi in tht? ViHa
F:\rni»enu. iia\nng completed
tlstitworkbe returiied topienl^i
whore he spent a nonsidcrabw
time, pamtjnp sORie wt oderful

f. lur<!5i, i^c■t1n^i!^E "ChTiat
H.iinil to flic Cfilntnn''. We
di> FK't klnl^v rt-lji i !■ III.' iroij be-
tween l.'il;; iLli'J 1 ".L'.'.ljilt iJl the
latter year he was at work at
fresco decoration, painting a
worid-renowned panel, now m
the TJffiffll Gallery at Florence,
with its almost unapproachable
figure of San Sebastian; and
various smaller pictures. In
1526 he was back at Siena,
painting his famous frescoes in
the Chapel of St. Catherine and
St. Domenico, following them
by other fresco works in the
Palaszo Pubblico, and then by
his decorations in the Chape)
of San Spirito. It was these
latter works which obtained
honours for him from the Em-
peror Charles V, who created
him a count palatine. He then
wandered to Volterra, Pisa,
Ixicca, and various other places, leaving behind him
traces of fine artistic work, and finufy ntumed
to ^ena in his old age. He was an erratic and ex-
traordinary man. Vasari g^ves various malieioaB
reports about him, many which are palpably
untrue, and othere probably exaggerated. There is
little doubt, however, that his moral character was
not above reproach, and at the very least coarse

lur t;iH;u OCA, lui cvrujr ot^c, ouu oyiiij duauiuu ivnji uuu auuTv ^opivtKii, auu atl Ilia: it^aoii wjmhp

80 that they include in themselves the advantages of and lascivious. He drew perfectly, and with great

all unions for different positions in life. Mtmover, as eaae^ his e<rfouring is ddi^tful, sumptuous, and

has been already clearly shown, they seek to attain at tunes sensuous; he was greatly influenced by

as fully as possible in their members the twofold object Leonardo, and to a certain extent by Rax^tad, and

which all other confraternities, in a ora-tain sense, only there is a remarkable charm and poecie feeling

strive for partially, namely, to attain to true love of running through all his works, while at times the

God by the exercises of the Divine service, prayer and beauty of 1"

reception of Hoiy Communion, and to attain to true
chanty by exeroudng the most universal possible seal
for souls.

BrauNQBB, DU AbiOMM; Fr. tr. (Padertxm. 1911): Txmt, Dt
CmgritoaiionOnu Marianit Doeummtta «t L4M« (Viuuw, 1909);
Mdl,UK. Th» Sodality of Our Lady Stvdita in lha DoeumenU
(Naw York, 1912); Dclpuck, Hiitoire da ConffrfgtUiona de la
SainU Tierg* (Bruges, 1834); Uftlkr, Die marianiaehm Con-
mooljown <3rd ad., Fnibtug): SHmwun am M«ri»-Laach,
ljSviI1.467i4q.

Joseph HiL(mtB.

Sodoma (Giovanni Antonio Bazei, or De'Bazzi,
often misodled Razzi, more usually known by his
mekname, Soix»<a)^ Fiedmontese and Florentine
painter Jb. at Veroelu In Piedmont, 1477; d. at Siena,
1549. Wa father, Giaoono da Baisi, was a shoemaker
who had settled in Vereelli. The son ws« in 1400

the faces of bia women and ciiildrra is al-
most irresistible. His works are scattered aU over
Italy, perhaps the greatest bdng those which are
at or near Siena, the painting already alluded to in
Florence, and examples of his woik at Mflan, Mnmeh,
Loiidim, and Rome. Every posmble scrap of informa-
tion reqjectong him has beengathered b^etho- in a
memoir issued in 1906 by R. H. H. Oust. This is the
standard book on Sodoma, and contains the very
latest information oonoeming him. It is more im^
portant than his originaJ etatonents, to form a proper
judgment concerning the artist, because it eontams
all that Vasui states, together with many important
documents and new pieces of iitformation, dealing
with the life of the painter, and refuting many <h
the statements wfaidh have been mada conomiing idm.
Ha muiil: Iw.nKardtid as

e

lODOH

130

80IS80HS

bflcause at times he reached the vetr lushest of bis
ideals, and then at times completely fuled. He roust
also be regarded as a man against whom many writers,
have thrown mud, and who now can be safely con-
sidered as a far greater man than his contemporaries
ze^nied him, and not so evil in lUsposition as many
ware prepared to bdieve him to be.

BMsnw AMO BA.IICIH, Nuori DocummH MT Arte Senw
mBDM, 188S); Bbuxxa. Prim Siudi dd Sodoma (Turin, 1862);
DUtU Vaiu. LdUn Soneti (Rome, 1786) ; MiLjUfEAi, Doctt-
mmiti dOe Art* 3m— t (SeiiB, 18S6); Obuhdi, Ab4ctdano
ftttoiea (Bolonia, 1704); Vaubi, U Vit* d«' PiUari (Milan,
1811): Guar, The Art nf Bam (LondoD. 1006).

Gbobob Charles Wiixuiibom.

Sodom and OoziuartuL— Sodom, acity of Pentim-

oHs (Wisd., X, 6; Gen., xfv, 2) : Sodom, Gomorrha, Ad-
ama, Sebomi, and Bal« — t:il'>"' called Segor (Gen.,xix,
22). They were situatt^ii in "therountry aboul: thp Jor-
dan" (Gen.,3dii,10);thpir'L'xaet. lootttionieuiikiKiwii fcf.
Gen.,xiv,3, 8, 10, 17; k\s,20-2'2, -iO, 37; D*^i:t,. xxxiv.
3). Joaephufl identifies HcRor with "Zi.n\r,i of AnU-in'^
atthesouthendof the Dead Sf^ii ('' Bel, Jjd.", IV, vili^
4: cf. "Ant. Jud.", I, li. 4: XlU, Jw. 4; XIV, i. 4).
Conder identifies it witli Tell e^~Sha^^, seven mi|»
north of the Dead Sea; Burkhard, Wetstein, and others
with Chirbet ee-Safteb, thrw mileg ioa^U ot the
Sea; E. Robinson puts it on Li.mn, etc. For thr? un-
natural sins of their iiih,itiit:ints So<icMn, CIoniorHin.
Ad&ma, and Seboin wrn- iti>!i1ri4yf<l by "brifiLstour
and fire from the Lord out of hoawn (( Jen., 1-1 ;
yviii, 20; xix, 24, 29; Osoe, xi, S), Sinue Lhen, their
uunee are Bynonymoua with impentteiit At%and their
fall with a proverbicd mamfestation of Qod's just
wrath (Deut., xidx, 23; xxxii, 32; Is., i, 10
Ezech., xvi, 49; Matt., xi, 23 sq, ; II Peter, ii, fi; Jude,
7). The Septuf^int rendfering of "^n'l by Kariffrptft
(Gen., xix. 25) probably lal to the erroncfuK M|)iriLnii
that the aestruction of Sodom was accompani'ad by
great upheavals of the /;;irth, unci even to tne fomu-
tion of tJie Dead Sea l^-i' >.m

HuifUELAUBit, ConwnWff I'l ■ ■ I 11''

■q.; hxmL, Otog. dM AU. J'':i. i ; i - ■■ jFi ."i !;. i.:-.

PaUttint B^tplor. Fund (1879), 15, 99, 144 (1881), 277 (1834),
128 (1888), 19-22: BL«j<CBENHoaN in Zritaehr. dei dmitch. PaL
VMiu (1896); COKDCB, Bania>ook to Ihe BibU (London, 1873).
8S: iDiu, HMH and Moab (Jjoadon, 1880), IM tti.

Nicholas Rsaoan.

Sodor and BCan, Ancibnt Diocbsd of (Sodobbn-
sib). — The early history of this see is extremely ob-
scure. The ScandinaviaD diocese, which included Man
and the western isles of Scotland (the Southern Heb-
rides), was called Sodor iSu'Sr-ej/jar) in contradis-
tinction to Nordr iNor^-^ar) — the Orkneys and
Sietland. It is not known when Man was united mth
Sodor, but it may hare been in ttie time ti Magnus
Barefoot (1098). Before that Man seems to have
been a distinct see de^iendent on Dublin. When
Man became the head of a separate kingdom, under
the suzerainty of Norway, the Joint Diocese of Sodor
and Man was placed mider the Archi^iscopate of
Nidaros (Tronohjem) in Norway by Eugemus III
(llfi2), an arrangement which was confirmed by
AuastaBius IV (1154). Ftxtm then tiU 1468 Man re-
mained under Drontheim, when CaKxtus III trans-
ferred it to York.

The political connexion of Man with N(nway had
been severed in 1266, after which it depended on Scot-
luid till 1334 and finally on England. In the reign
of Henry IV the kmg gave the island to the Stanleys,
thus acquired the patronage of the bishoprics,
but the 1»sIh^ never attained the status of spiritual
lords of BarliBment. Hie last Catholic bishop was
Thomas Stanley, who was mpointed during the reign
of Mary and was recognised as a bisht^ till his death
in 1568. It is uncertain whether he accepted Eliza^
beth's changes or enjoyed immunity under the pro-
teetion of the StanlQ3«. The cathedral, dedicated to

St. Germain, was situated on St. I^friok's Isle and
was built in 1245 on the site <rf an earlier building. It
is now in a ruined state. There were only seventeen
parishes in the island, all comprised in one arch-
deaconry. The arms of the see were: upon three
ascents, the Virgin Mary standing with her arms dis-
tended between two pillars, on the dexter whereof a
church, in base the ancient arms of Man.

Chromam Mannitg, ed. Munch (ChristianU, I860]; Train,
Hiataneal aeeotmt of Hu ItU of Afan (2 vola., Douglas, 1846);
CuiuoHO, J*U of Man, lU hialary, phvtioal, teaUtiatlieal, eiril,
and Ugandan (London, 1848); Moobb, .Sodor and Man (London,
1898).

Edwin Burton.

Sofia and PhllippopoUs, Vicabiatb Akwtduo

OP. See BuLQAniA; Sardica.

Solsaoni, Diocese of (Susssionensis), includes,
with the tsxMsption of two hamlets, the entire Depart*
I n cut of Alane. It was re-established by the Concordat
of 1802 us BuUracan of Paris, but in 1821 it became
rjuffragan of
Reims. It con-
BiBtB of (1) all
the uncient Dio-
cese of Roiasons,
exeopt the civil
fUstnct of Com-
pi^gne, which
weut to the Dio-
cv&c oi Beauvaia;
(3) all the Dio-
cpse of Laon, ex-
cept two pariehes,
mob went to
IteSras; (3) that
portioD <rf Ver-
mandoia which
formerly be-
longed to the
Dio(!ese of Noyrm
-iL'e Beauvais.) ;

a few par-
ishes which for-
merly belonged
to Cambrai,
Meaux, Troyes,
R^ms. After a vam attempt made by the unexecuted
Concordat of 1817 to re-establish the See of Laon, the
bishops of Soissons were authorized by Leo XII (13
June, 1828) to join the title of I^n to tliat of their
own see; byLeoXIII(llJune, 1901 )the^ were further
authorized to use the title of St-Quentin, which was
formerly the residence of the bishops of Noyon. The
territorv of Soissons and Laon played an important
political part under the Merovingians. After the
death of Clovis (511), Soissons was the capital of one
of the four kingdoms into which his states were
divided. The kingdom of Soissons, which cposed to
exist in 568, when Clotaire I reunited all the Prankish
states, came into b^ng again in 561 when the death
of Clotfure led to the reoiviaon of the territory. It
finally disappeared in 613 when the Prankish lauds
were once more reuuitcHi under Clotaire II.

I. The She of Soissons. — Concerning the tradi-
tions that make St. Sixtus and St. Sinicius the earliest
apostles of Soissons as envoys of Bt. Peter, see Reims.
Sts. Crepinus and Crepinianus martyrs (c. 288) are
patrons of the diocese. According to Mgr Duchesne,
the establishment of a see at ^issons dates from
about 300. Among its bishops are: St. Divitianus
(c. 310-20); St. Onesimus (c. 360-61): St. Edibius
(c. 431-62); St. Principius (462-505), brother of St.
Remi of Reims; St. Lupus (505-35): St. Baudarinus
(Baudry) (535-45), whom Clotaire I exiled for seven
years to England, where he served as gardener in a
monastery; St. Ansericus or Anscher (623-62); St.
Drauainua (657-76), founder of Uie_monaBtery of

Digitized by

WbST FnOHT OF THB CATaXIOUL,

SoieeoNS

Notre Dame de Soisaons and of the Abbey of Re-
■ thondes; St. Adolbertus (677-86); St. Gaudinua
(685-707), assassinated by usurers; Rothadiua (832-
869), famous for his quarrel with Hincmar (q. v.);
lUculfus (884-002), whoee pastoral issued in 889 is
one of the greatest extant treasures of the ecclesiastical
lita&ture m the period; St. Arnoul de Piundle (1081-
IDS!), elected through the efforts of Hugues de Die,
legato from Greeory VU, and who was disturbed in
the possession of his see by two bishops nominated
Bucceesively by Philip I; Jocelyn de Vierzy (1126-52),
who aided m the victory of Innocent II over the anti-
pope AnikcletuB, and wrote an explanation of the
Apostles' Creed and the Lord's Prayer; Hu^es de
Cnampdeury (1159-75), ehanoellor of Louis VII:
Gui de ChAteau Forcien (1245-50), who accompanied
St. Louis on the Crusade and was killed in Pales-
tine; Languet de Gergy (1715-30), who wrote the
life of Maty Alacoque. In 1685 Louis XIV nomi-
nated the famous liit^ateur Huet Bishop of Soissons,
but the strsined relations existing then between
France and Rome prevented him from receiving his
Bri^s, and he exchanged that see for Avranches in
1689.

II. The See or L&on. — ^The Diocese of Laon was
evangelized at an uncertain date by St. Beatusj the
see was foimded in 497 b^ St. Remi who cut it off
from Reims and made his nephew St. Genebaldua
bishop. Among the bishops of Laon are : St.
Chagnoaldus (c. 620-3), brother of St. Faro, Bishop
of Meaux, and of St. Fara; Hincmar (857-76);
Adalbero Ascelin (977-1030), driven from his see
(981) by the Carlovii^ian Louis V who accused him
of undue intimacy with Emma, widow of Lothair^,
and who was afterwards very loyal to the interests of
Hugh Capet, to whom he handed over the Carlo-
vingian Ctiarles of Lorraine and Amout^ Archbishop
of Reims. He was the author of a satirical poem ad<
dressed to King Robert; Gaudri (1106-12), who held
out.a^^ainst the commune movement, and who was
shun m a brawl at Laon; Barth6Iemy de Jura, de
Vir, or de Viry (1113-51), who attracted St. Nwbert
to the diocese; Gautier de Mortagne (1155-74),
author of six small theological treatises; Robert Le
Cocq (1352-8), who in October, 1356, and Marah,
1357, after the imprisonment of John II by the Eng-
lish held an importajit position in ti^e States Genei^
toolE the side of Stephen Marcel, conspired with him
and Charles the Bad, King oi Navarre, against the
dauphin, the future Charles V and t^en fled to
Aragon, where he became Bishop of Calahorra;
Pierre de Montaigut (1371-86), cardinal in 1383;
the historian Jean Juvenel des UrEins (1444-9), after-
wards Archbishop of Reims; Louis de Bourbon
Venddme (1510-52), cardinal in 1517; Cdsar d'
Estr^es (1663-81), cardinal in 1672, was elected to
Uie French Academy, and in Rome was involved in
the difficulties between Louis XIV and Innocent XI,
Alexander Vm, and Innocent XII; Jean de Roche-
ohouart de Faudoas (1741-77), cardinal in 1761.
Louis S^ier, nominated by Henry IV, Bishcq) of
Laon in 1598, refused the nomination to make room
for his young nephew Peter de Bfirulle, afterwards
cardinal, and founder of the Oratorians; de B^rulle
refused the see.

The Bishop of Soissons as senior suffragan of
Beims had privilege duringa vacancy of the metro-
poUtan see to replace the archbishop at the ceremony
of anmnUng a King of France. Ine Bishop of Laon
ranked as duke and peer from liie twelfth century.
As second ecclesiastical peer he had the_ privilege
of holding , the ampulla during the anointing of the
king. The chapter of Laon was one' of ine most
iUu^xious of the kingdom. From the twelfth cen-
tury its members numbered eighty-four; it had to
engage in bitter struules witifi the communal regime;
tline popet. Urban Iv, Nioholaa III, and Oement

ll s6t8ft6llS

VI, sixteen cardinals, and more than fifty arch-
bishops and bishops belonged to it. Jacques Fan-
talton who became pope as Urban IV was a choir
boy, then canon of the cathedral of Laon. He ar-
ranged the cartidarium of the church of Laon, and was
commissioned by Gregory IX to settle the dispute
between the chapter and Enguerrand de Coucy.
As archdeacon of Laon he assisted, in 1245, at the
Council of Lyons. Under the direction of St. Anselm
of Laon (q. v.) ^ appointed by Eugene III to restore
theological studies m France, the school in connexion
with the LaoD cathedral drew young men from all
parts of Europe.

Hie Abbejr of St-M£dard at Soisson^ founded in
657 by Clotaire I to receive tha body of St. MSdard,

ThS CaTHBDKAI., liAOJf

was looked upon as the chief Benedictine Abbey in
France: it held more than two hundred and twenty
fiefs. Hilduin, abbot (822-30), in 826 obtained from
Eugene II relics of St. Sebastian and St. Gregory
the Great; he caused the relics of St. Godard and St.
Remi to be transferred to the abbey; he rebuilt the
church which was consecrated 27 Aug., 841, in the
presence of Charles the Bald and seventy-two prel-
ates. The king bore the body of St. M6dard into
the new basilica. Tie church was pulled down but
rebuilt and reconsecrated in 1131 by Innocent II, who
granted those visiting the church mdulgences known
as "St. M^lard's pardons". In this abbey Louis
the Pious was imprisoned in 833, and there he under-
went a pubhc penance. Among the abbots of St.
M6iard are: St. Amoul, who in 1081 became Bishop
of Soissons; St. Gerard (close of the eleventh cen-
tury); Cardinal de Bemia, made cammendatoty
abbot of St. MMard m 1756. The Benedictine
Abbey of Notre Dame de Soissons was founded in
660 by Ebroin and his wife Leutrude. The Cis-
tercian Abbey of Longpont, founded in 1131, counted
among its monks the theologian Pierre Cantor (q. v.),
who died in 1197, and Blessed John de Montmirail
(1165-1217), who abandoned the court of Philippe-
Auguste in order to become a monk. The abbey of
St. Vincent at Laon was founded in 580 by Queen
Brunehaut. Among its earlier msnkawae: i St.

Digitized by VjOOQ It

, 80LAU 1!

Gobain, who, throu^ love of solitude, retired to a
deeort place near the Oiae and was slun therej St.
Chasnoaldus, afterwards Bishop of Laon, who wished
to die in his monastery; St. Humbert, first abbot
of Maroilles in Hainaut. The abbey adopted the
Rule of St. Benedict. It was reformed in 961 by
Blessed Malcaleine, a Scotchman, abbot of St.
Michael at Hiieradie, and in 1643 by the Bene-
dictines <rf St. Maur. Among tlie abboto of St.
Vhiocait were: St. Gerard (close of the eleventh
century), who wrote the history of St. Adelard, abbot
of Cotbie; Jean de Nouelles (d. 1396), who wrote
a history of the world, and began the cutulary of his
monastery. The Abbey of St. John at Laon was
founded about 650 by St. Salaberga, who built
seven churches there; she was its first abbess; St.
Austruda (d. 688) succeeded her. In 1128 the
abb^ became a Benedictine mimastery. The Abbey
of Nogent sous Coucy was founded in 1076 by
Alb^ric, lord of Coucy. Among its ^bots were St.
Geoffroy (end of eleventh century) and the historian
Guibert de Nogent, who died m 1124 and whose
autobiography "De Vita Sua" is one of the most
interesting documents of the century. Under the
title "Gesta Dei per Francos" he wrote an accoimt

the First Ouaaoe. The Abbey of Cuissy in the Dio-
oese of Laon was founded in 1116 by Blessed Lucas de
Boucy, dam of Laon, and followed the rule of Premoo-
itratensians. In the Diocese of Soissons the Premon-
Stratensians had the abbeys: Chartreuve, Valsery, St.
Yved de Braine, Villers Cotterets, Val Secret, Vau-
chr^tien, Lieurestaur6. (See PiiEWONiit^, Abbbt of.)

The portion of the ancient Diocese of Noyon
within the jurisdiction of the present Dioceee of
Soissons includes Hie town, St^uentin (Augusta Ver-
manduorum). whoe St-^wntin was martyred under
Diocletian. It was the chief town of a diocese until
532, when St. M^dard, the titular, removed the see
to Noyon. Abbot Fiurade built the Church of St-
Quentm in the eighth century, and Pope Stephen II
blessed it (816). From the time of Charles Martel
until 771, and again from 844 the abbots of St-
Quentin were laymen and counts of Vermandois.
During the Middle Ages a distinct type of religious
architecture sprang up in the r^ion of Soissons;
E^iglne heihvn Pontalis has recratly brought out
a work deali^ with its artistic affiliations. After
investigation Canon Bouxin concludes that the cathe-
dral of Laon, as it exists, is not the one consecrated
in 1114 and visited by Innocent II in 1132; that was
the restored ancient Romanesque building; the
present one was built 1150-1225. Louis d'Outremer
(936), Robert the Pious (996), Philip I (1059) were
anointed in Notre Dame de Laon; in the twelfth
century Hermann, Abbot of St. Martin's of Toumai,
wrote a volume on the miracles of Notre Dame of
Laon. The HAtel-Dieu of Laon, once known as
Hdtellerie Notre Dame, was founded in 1019 by the
Laon chapter. The Hotcl-Dieu of Ch&teau Thierry
was founded in 1304 by Jeanne, wife of Philip the
Fair.

Besides the samts already mentioned, the foBowing
are specially honoured as connected viih the re-
ligious history of the diocese: St. Montanus, hermit,
who foretold the birth of St. Remi (fifth century);
St. Marculfus, Abbot of Nanteuil (sixth century) in
the Diocese of Coutances, whose relics, transferred to
Corbeny in the Diocese of Laon, were visited by the
kings of France who, after ^eir anointing at Reims,
wore wont to go to the tomb St. Marculfus to cure
the king's evu (see Reims, Abchdiocbsb otU St.
Sigrada, mother of St. Leodagarius, exiled by Ebroln
to the monastery of Notre Dame at Soissons (seventh
century); St. Hunegundis, a nun from the monas-
tery of Homblidres (d. c. 690); St. Grimonia, an
Iridiwoman martyred at La duraelle (date uncer-
tain); St. BoetiaouB (Bonn), huaband of St. Sala-

2 80LABX

berga» and St. Balduinua, martyr, his son (aevcnth

century): St. Vo6l, or Vodoalus, hermit (d. c. 720).
Among the natives of the diocese may be mentioned: '
Pierre Ramus (1515-72), Racine (1639-^), La
Fontaine (1621-96), Dom Luc d'Ach^ry (1609-85),
Charlevoix (1683-1761)j Camille Desmoulins (1760-
1794). The chief pilgrunagee we: Notre Dame de
Liesse, a shrine founded in the thirteenth century,
and replaced at the end of the fourteenth century by
the present church; Notre Dame de Paix at Fieutaine,
which dates back to 1660. Before the application j
of the Congregations Law (1901), there were in the
Diocese of Soissons Jesuits, Trinitarians, and several j
teaching congr^ations of brothers. Sonte congre-
gations of women had t^eir origin in the diocese: i
the Nursing and Teaching Sisters of the Child Jesus,
with mother-house at Soissons, founded in 1714 by
Madame Bnilard de Genlis; the Sisters of Notre
Dame de Bon Secours, a nursing and teaching order,
founded in 1806, with mother-house at Charly;
Sisters of Notre Dame, nursing and teaching order,
with mother-house at St-Erme, founded in 1820 by
the Abb6 Chretien; the Franciscan nuns of the
Sacred Heart, a nursing order founded in 1867, with
mother-house at St-Quentin; the servants of the
Heart of Jesus, of whom there are two branches,
the "Marys" who lead a conteniplative life and the
"Marthas" who nurse the sick; they were founded at
Strasbui^ in 1867 and brought to St^^uentin after
the war of 1870-1.
At the close of the nineteenth century the re-
ouB congregations in the diocese had charge of
nurseries, 2 deaf and dumb schools, 1 orphanage
for boys, 14 for girls, 6 work bureaus, 1 home for the
poor, 29 hospitals. 10 district nursing homes, 1 re-
treat house, and 1 lunatic asylum. In 1905. when the
Concmdat was broken, there were in the Diocese of
Soissons: 535.583 inhabitants, 39 pari^es. 538
auxiliary parishes, and 15 curacies rec(^;nised by the
State.

Oaaia ChritHana, now, IX (1761). 333-88, 506-693. 978-1036;
fotfrum., 98-146, 187-202, 389-M] Fiaoumr. France PonlifieaU:
Soimotu tt Laon (Fuis, 1866); pBCBOtnt, AwuUf du dioeiu d§
Soiston* (10 vola., Soiaaoos, 1863-91); Lbdodbul Etal rMg.
onom tt modenu du pays qui forment aujow^Kvi I* dio^tt at
SoiMmt (SoiaMnu, 1880); Mahtik and Lacroix, HisMrt «*
Soifon* ^ Tola.. Mmum, 1887-8} ; Malixvillk, Hutoir* dl Is
nOi d§ Lam Hdtta •niMMfma (2 vola., Laon. 1846) ; BBOcn
£m rapport* dca Mnw awe la commune de Laon in NouveUt rem
Mitor&iu ds droU fnmoi* tt ttranoer, XXV (1901); DbhaMT,
jtrimrialdatMoiM«4l«Z.a4M(Puia,186&>; Poqun. ^ITofrt CoaM
d» Soiuom. »on hiiL, m* Miae§. aat tambmni^ aat abb4$tm, m
retiqutt (2nd «d., Pwia, 1S5(Q ; Lmwkvmm Fomtaub, L'arehiUeUn
rdigimm dmu ronejen dfaelM d» Sotnoiu m Jf I* <( au XII* mOeU
(3 vote.. Paris, 189^7); Booxw. La CaMdrJa de Laon (Im,
1892): LMOcq, Ititt. d» la YiOa i» Sawt-Q%uniin (St^uaatim
1875).

Geoboxs Gotau. I

Bolari (Solahio) , a family of Milanese artistSjCloeely j
connected with the cathedral and with the Certosa
nearPavia. (1) Guiniforte Solari, b. 1429; d. 1481.
He was the son of Giovanni (b. c. 1400; d. 1480),
superintendent of the building of the cathedral and <A
the Certosa. Gmniforte was one of the architects of j
the Certoea (1465), was employed on the Ospedue
Ma^ore, and was also one of the architects of the
fMilfied castle of the Sforza family and of several of
the churches of Milan. His son Pietro Antonio ■
(d. 1493) worked also for a time on the cathedral; j
there is proof that in 1476 he was still there. Later i
he was called to Moscow where he was employed on j
the rebuilding of the Kremlin. (2) Andrea SoLAto.
painter, b. at Milan about 1465: d. 1515. ftem iw)
he was a pupil of Giovanni Bellini at Venice and w \
early worlos recall this painter, as for example 8
Madonna with Saints, painted in 1495 for the Cnurob
of San Pietro at Murano and now in the Brera »
Milan. After his return to Milan be copied the s^
of Leonardo da Vinci so olosety that he was considered
latter's bwfc piqUL Ho k voy like Uoucdo,

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especially in the treatment of the heads, plastic model-
ling, and ookiuring. A beautiful Descent tram the
OroM. painted in 1503, is still m existeace. About
ttiia date he also painted nxny pcfftraits aad in <ttui
way came into oonnenm with Cardnud C^ariei
d'Amboise, for whom he painted a numb«r of pietuni
during the years 1507-4 at Gaillon in Konoaady.
These wcMrlts are now in galleries in England. During
the Beeond half oi his woridng period lie changed his
style to a brighter tone and his works are easily recog-
nised by the clear, luminous colours and the manner
in which they flow into and blend wiUi one anoth«'.
The School of Leonardo, however, is always per-
oeptible. Among other paintingB belonging to this
time is a Madonna with a Child lying on a cushion to
whom she offers the breast; the figures fu« surrounded
by a beautiful landscape. This picture is in the
LouvreAnd the same gfUlery has another of his workfk
a Salome receiving from the executioner the head oi
John the Baptist, with the delicate face turned away
from the ob/eot. The Poldi-PeszoU Gallery of MOan
contains a uaeo number of his works; among these
are: "Repoee on the Flight to Kgypt" (1515), one of
the best pictures of Leonardo's scmx^; "St. Cathe-
rine"; "St. Anthony"; "The Crowning with Thorns".
His last and most important work is the "Assiunp-
tion of the Blessed Virgin ", at the Certoea near Pavia,
which, howevw, he was not able to complete.

(3) Andrea's brother Cristofobo Solari, called
IlGobbo, sculptor and architect, b. at Milan before
1475; d. in 1527. In 1400 he wait with Andrea to
Venice vrhioK some sculptures executed by him are
still in existence. In 1498 he returned to Milan and
eotered the serrioe of Ludovioo Sfcffza at whose order
he executed his chief work, the tomb of Ludovico's
wife. The figures of Beatrice d'Este and Ludovico
upon the tomb belong in their massive severity, in-
dividuality <rf tzeatment, and technical excellenciee
to tiie best w<n1cB of the early RenMssance in Lorn-
bardy. The monument was erected in the Church of
Mana d^le Orasie, but was unfortunately destroyed
at a later era; in 1821 the two statues were taken to
the Certosa near Pavia. Besides these, a numb^ of
statues in the cathedral of Milan are ascribed to him:
four doctors of the Church, Adam and Eve, Sebastian,
Christ bound to the ^lar. They are marked by a
less vigMDUB naturauon, the influence of a stay at
Bimie, whither he went after the ov«throw of the
SToraa family. From 1503 he was again in Milan,
where he took charge the construction of the
eathedral. Hte also designed the n«at cupola of Santa
Maria della Passione at Milan. (4) Antonio Solari,
b. in 1382; d. 1445. He is called II Zingaro (the
gypsy), a nickname probably given him either because
DJB father was apparently a Bohemian blackonith who
had eanigrated to Venice, or from the wandMing life
he faimsw led until he settled pmnanently in N^Ies.
He is said to have worked at his father's trade until
his love ftx the beautiful daughter itf an artist led him
to turn to art. As at Nafdes he was very soon able
to win the favour of Queen Joanna, it was not long
before he became the most important painter of the
capital. He founded a school which produced a num-
bo* of masters of moderate ability. His most im-
portant work, whiAi is also the best jHoductim of
NeaqwUtan painting at that period, is a series of
twenty fresooee in the court of a monastery near San
Severmo which show traces of the influence of the
schook of Venice and Ferrara. They represent the
life of St. Benedict and contain a large number
of lifelike figures in dimified and graceful positions.
His "Carrving of the Cross" in the Chur«fa of San
Domenieo Maggiore and a " Madonna" in the museum
■t Naples Aam nobilitjr of coneeptwn combined with
a vignrous realiim. (6) Sahtiho Souu, ardiiteot
■ad sottlptor, b. at Cnno, Upper Italy; d. 1646. Bam
bost known by his shim in the oonsbnetiao of the

cathedral at Salsbarg: he ornamented the palace and
the gardens of the Bisbop of SaUburg with statues.

rnn. Andna Solan tUurtrol* m tn opera in Iftiorw reemt^mmiU
f^mrt< to AfM. -Of . am. IV (R^ 1891) ; VEJiZSXS

Mmr. ffatdk., V (luubnidc, 18S4), 295-302. '"^

Beda KunHBOHicnn'.

Sotomni^ (fn»n Lat. tdA and <mnu«), a yearly
oelduation, is used to denote the amount of intrinsw
or extrinsic pomp with which a feast is celebrated.
Intrinsic solemnity arises from the fact that the feast
is primarium for the ratire Church, or for a special
place, because in it a saint was bom, lived, or died; or
because his relics are honoured there. Extrinsio
solemnity is added hyferiaiio, by the number of sacred
ministers, decoration of the church or sdjoining streets,
the ringing of bdls. the number of candles, costly
vestments, etc. In the" Roman Martjrrolo^" Easter
Sunday is announced ss the "solemnity of solemni-
ties"; the 6nt Sunday of October, as the solemnity of
the Rosary of the Most Blessed Virgin Mary. The
term "solemnity" is also used in contracts, espoeially
matrimonjr, in votive Masses, in vows, and in eeclo-
staatieal trials.

Francis Mbbsbuam.

BoleraCMt, Abbey op, a Benedictine monastuy
in Department of Sarthe, near Sabl^, France. It ma
founded in 1010 by Geoffrey, seigneur of Sabl6, aaa
priory dependent on the Abbey of St-Pimv de k
Couture at Le Mans. During the Himdr^ Yeai^
War it was twice pillaged and once almost entirely dt-
stroyed by fire. Apart from these disasters its histoij
was uneventful for several cmturies. Towards tu
end of the fiftemth century the rebuUding of the
drarch was commenced, Prior Fhilibert de la Ctm
cban^ng it from bastUca form to that of a Latin
cross. His successor, Jean Bougler (1605-1556), eom-
pleted the restoration o( the church, added the towe^ih^'
and rebuilt the doisters, sacristy, and library. Undo'
his direction two famous groups of statuary, known
as the "Saints of Soleemee", were set up in the
church. It is not known for certain who the sculpttm
were, bnt the groups wne prcrfwbly the vnik of
several hands. They are placed in the two transeptal
ch^>el8 and form one of the chief atteactions of the
place. One represents the entombment of Our Lord
and the other various episodes of the Dolours of Our
Lady. The groups contain ei^t and fifteen life-ose
figures respectively, beddes various subsidiary figures,
and are adorned with bas-reliefs and other sculptural
ornamentation. Some of faces, notably that ui
Mary Magdidm, are wonderfully expresdve; that <ii
Joseph of Aiimathea is supposed to be a portaut of
Kii^ Ren^ (d. 1480). In the uxteenth century these
masterpieces were in dai^er of being destroyed by tixe
Huguenots and other Iconoclasts, but the monks saved
them by erecting barricades. Jean Bougler was the
last Regular Prior of Solesmes, a succesmon of com-
mendatory priors being appointed after his death.
In 1664 the monastery was wsorbed by the Congrega-
tion of St. Maur, and m 17^ H was, with tiie exem-
fion of the church, entirehr rrtniilt <hi a larger scab.
In 1791 it was suppressed and the buildings passed
into private hands, so renuuning for forty years. In
1831 the property was put up for sale, and Dom
Prosper Gu^raneer, then a young priest of twenty-
seven, who had been bom in the neighbourhood and
had long lamented its state of des^ration, was in-
^red to acquire it and restore it to God and the
Cfameh ae a home erf monastic life. He aelt thoat
nimng die neeoosary funds, bot^t the entire prap-
flrty, and, mth five other like-nunded lealous pnestSi
took poBiMrioo in 1888. lluee yean^bto^ irttti ti^
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80U0ETATI0N

full approval of the Bithop of Le Mans, iher oom-
moioed the Benedictine life. In 1837 Dom Gueraoger
was professed at Rome and a few months later Pope
Gregory XVI raised Solesmes to the rank of an abbey,

^ . /~i--jC_Anm««* fiwit anrutf on/I Tni*¥nallir

abbot as superior-ceneral. In course of time dau^ter*
houses have beai Riunded from Solesmes, viz: Ligugfi
(1853), Silos in Sp^Q (1880), Glanteuil (1892), and
Fontanelle (1893).— these four bemg old monastenes
restored; also new foundations at Marseilles (1865),
Famborough in En^and and Wiaque (1896), Paris
(1893) and Kergonan (1897). Since its restoration
Solesmes bAs been dissolved by the French Govern-
ment no Itea than four times. In 1880, 1882, and 1883
the montB were ejected by force but, receiving hos-
pitality in the neighbourhood, succeeded each time
m re-entering their abbey. At the final expulsion in
1903 they were, like all the other reUgious of France,
obliged to leave the country. Between the years 1890
and entirely new and imposing monastery

had be«n added to the existing buildings, which had
become too small for the growing commxmitY-
HardftS however, had the monks got settled in it
whtf they were driven forth. Th^ then established
the^lves in the Isle of Wight, where, after a few
y^ls' sojourn in a rented house at Appuldurcombe,
tiier have now nearly completed the building of a new
abfey at Quair, on what was forraerfy nKHiastic
p^erty.

Ale community of Solesmes has achieved a world-
^ reputation for its erudition and its devotion to
ipastiG and litutmciU studies, the foundation for
was hud by Dom Gu6ranger himself. Amongst
•ee who have thus brou^t fame to the abbey may
I mentioned Dom Pitra, afterwards cardinal and
(irarian at the Vatican, Dom Pothier, Dom Cabrol,
•m F^rotin, Dom Mocquereau, Dom Besse, Dom
■entin, tuad Dom Leclerco. But the greatest w<H:k,
>iiaps, done by the monks of Solesmes, and that
IT which they are heat known, has been the restora-
ttoa of the true Greoorian chant oi the Chundi. Dom
Ou^ranaer set himself the task of resuscitating sound
Bturgicu traditions in France at a time when such
were at th^r lowest ebb. He revived the accent and
rhythm of plainsong, which had been lost, and in
restoring the true text of the chant he lad down the
I»teciple, which has since been always strictly adhered
to, that when various manuscripts of different periods
and places agreed on a version, there existed the most
oatrect t^. He entrusted the work to Dom Janoona
and Dom Pothio*, tlie latter producing his "Lea
Melodies Gi^rieunes" in 1880 and the "Liber
Gradualis" in 1883. These, as well as many other
publications, were all printed at the Solesmes Im-
primerie, which for many years was an important

rtnage of the abbey. Unfortmiately the entire
% was confiscated by the French government at
the suppresnon and since then the Solesmes books
halve been printed W DeselSe of Toumu. Dom
Fbthi^ followed the Rrams-Cambrai edition as far as
posnble, bo as to shelter himself under the authority
it still possessed, though the still higher authority m
Ra^iisbon proved an obstacle in his way. Through this
derire to be conciliatory, and also the insufficiency of
manuBcriptfk the absence of any competent chedc, and
tiie want of practical preparatory trial, the earlier
Solesmes editions were bound to be defective. But
they served thdr purpose in the return to antiqui^
and have Sonaad the baas for further reseaAsh. Dom
Fothier's mcmeer labours have been followed by those
of Dom MocG^ereau, whose great work has bem the
personal traimi^ of the Solesmes Sc/iola, which has
mdirectly influenced manv otho?, and the publication
of the "FaKograplue Muncale". By means of
Tghxfboffafiac reproductions oS bookb of maDuaraipts

from all the principal lU>rarie8 of Europe, a far greater
denee of exactness has been secured than was post^^
w^ mere transcripts which might oontain copyist^
errors. These reproductions have been brought to-
gether and studied at Solesmes and the variants of
uie different melodies classified aooordin^ to thor
0cho<dordiurohofotifiin,date,eto. Intrinsic qua]iti«
also have been oar^ufly ecnwaered in deddii^ oa ths
most correct and universal version, but when these
criteria have proved insufficient preference has
been given to the Roman va«on, when there has
happened to be one. This method of selection is
described in detail, with examples, in the little bro-
chure of Dom Cagin and Dom Mocquereau referred
to in the bibliography. The labours of the Solesmes
fathoB rec^ved the bluest possible rect^nition in
1904. when Pope Pius X (Motu Prc^rio, 25 April,
1904) entrusted "particularly to the monks of the
French Congregation and to the monastery <rf
Solesmes" the work of preparing an official Vatican
edition of the Church's Chant, and appointed a Com-
mission for the purpoee witn Dom Pothier as its
president. The Gradual has ah-eadv appeared and
the Antiphonal is in pr^aration. (See Gc^oangbb,

Pbobpbb Louis Pascal.)

Pmu., SpiciUoium SoUmmte (Paris, 1S52-8); Gcauraxi,
Bg*ai hUUirique sw I'ab&aya lU Sf^etm** (Le Muu. 1848);
HoTTTiN, Dom Cmiturier (Angeni, 1890); David, Im BnmJt
abbat/e* de I'lxxidtnl (Lillo, 1907); Caqih um MooQuiHUit,
Plainchant and So^emMi (tt., London. 1904).

G. Cyprian Alston.

8oU, a titular see in Cyprus, suffra^m of Salamis.
Soli was an important port on the Clarius, on the
southern side oi the western portion of Cyprus. It
was an Athenian colony founded by Demophon, son
of Theseus, or. according to another tradition, by
PhaleniB and Acamas. At first called (Epea, it was
transferred to a better ate by Philocyprus, King (tf
(Epea, on the sug^tion of Solon, from whom it ^
its new name, beooming the capital of one of the nine
Idngdoms in the island. It possessed temples of
Aphrodite and Isis. The rest of its history is un-
known, though it is mentioned by many ancient
geographers. Its ruins, called Palaea Chora, or old
town, are near the villue of Karavostasi, about two
miles nortii-west ci Leflca. Its first Inshop was St
Auxibius, iriiose name occurs in the "Ronum Martyr-
ology" on 19 February; he la sud to have been
baptized by John Mark, the companion of St. Bama-
bus, and to have had for successors another Auxibhis,
his disciple, and his brother Themistagoras. The
feasts of two other bishops of Soli, St. Marcellus and
St. Eutychius, we celebrated in the Greek Church.
Another, Peter, probably a legendary character, is
mmtioned in tne calendar of the Abyssinifm Church
on 2 January. We find bter: Evagrius, 431; Epi-
phaniuB, 451; Stratonieus, 680; Euatatbius, 787; Leon-
tius, 1222; Nibo, 1260; Neophytus, died in 1301:
Leo, his successor; Theophsnes, towards the close of
the Venetian occupation . During this occupation Soli
waa.tbe reffldence of the Bishop of Leucoraa. We hear
aJso of a Baijamin, Bishop of Soli in 1660, owing
doubtless to a temporary restoration of the see by the
Greeks.

SuiTH, Diet, of Greek and Roman Oeog- (London, 1870),
Lb QniKH, Orieiu chritlianxis, II (PariL 1740). 1071; EvMU

Sierardiia eathoUta nudii an, I, 481; BUckeit, A uUtom v
■ OrOiodox ChvrA of Cyprv* (toadon, 1901), 240 sq., 323 w).

S. P^TRmltS.

SoUolt*tlon (Lat. »(^IAeilare), technically in canon
law the crime ol making use of the Sacrament of
Penuioe, directly or indirectly, for the purpose of
drawing others into sins fA. Iwt. The Churcn legis-
lation on this point is very severe, snd numerous
popes have denounced this crime vehemently wid
decreed punishments for its commiswon. The prin-
oipal document on the subject is that of Gregory XV,
"Uohvni Qr^" (30 Aus-, 1622). confinned tin

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SOLOMON

ConstitutiiKi of Benedict XIV, "Sacrammtum poeni-
tentis" (1 June, 1721). There are, in addibw, a
numbw of odier pouti&sal Constitutions and Deereea
of the Bohr Office on the same Bubjeot, notabb' those
of 37 Sept.. 1724, 20 Feb., 1867, and 20 Julv, 1800.
The crime of aoUidtoHo ad turpia is defined as the
soUciting any person to carnal sin, to be committed
with himself or another, by any priest secular or
regular, immediately before, during, or immediately
after sacramental confesfflon, or on the occasioD «
or under pretext of confession, or in the oonfeauonal
itsdf or in any other place eeneral^ used for bearing
eonfessions, or in a place chosen by the penitent to
make a eonfesoon, and this whether a sacramental
oonfesmon be actually made or not. Moreover, the
crime of solicitation may be committed not merely by
wor^s, but also by ngna or other expressive actions,
or by a letter to be r^d then or afterwards. If any
penitent has been thus solicited to sin, he or she cannot
be absolved by any confessor until the penitent
aetaaily doiounoee the delinquent priest to tlw pnp&t.
eoeteoastical authority or promises to make such
dramunatioa as soon as posnble. Even thoueh the
wicked confessor has since am«ided his life, or though
the crime of solicitation took place many years aco,
the obligation of denouncing him still remains, be-
cause tM law is made, not merely to procure amend-
ment, but also to inflict punishment. If the penitent,
without Buffi<nent cause, does not make tiie oenuncia-
tion within a month from the time he or she has
learned tiie obligation to do so, excommunication is
incurred ipso /octo. When the negligence has been
repaired, any approved priest may absc^ve from the
excommunication. If the penitmt has reasonable
ground for fearing serious damage to s^ or family
from a formal dc«aunciation, some other method <M
informing on the delinquent priest may be sought for.
The denunciation is to be made to the bishop of the
place where the penitent lives. If the soliciting
priest be of another diocese, the ordinary of the person
solicited will forward the denunciation to the bishop
of the accused confessor. The denunciation must be
sworn to and be made personallv and by_ word of
mouth if possible. It may also i>e done, in special
cases, by writing or by a third party. When the
denunciation is made by letter, it must be signed
with full name and address, and must be a circum-
stantial account of the alleged crime. Whether the
penitent has consented to the solicitation or not need
not be expressed. Bishops are directed to pay no
attention whatever to anonymous letters of denunoiar-
tion. On the receipt of the accusation, the ecclesias-
tical authority makes inquiry as to the reputation
and reliabihty of the accuser. If the ctmfessorbe
found guilty^ he is subject to suspension from the
exercise of his orders, privation of his benefices, (^g-
nities, and offices with perpetual inability to receive
such again. R^^lars, m addition, lose the right of
voting or being voted for in the chapter of thcnr
religious order. Benedict XIV added perpetual
excludon from eeld>rating Mass. While the Qiurch
is thus severe on delinquent confessors, die is equally
careful to protect innocent priests from oahimnious
charges. U any one fa^y dendunee a confessor on
the ehiu^ of sofiratation, the caluminator can obtain
absolution for the perjured falsehood only fnun the
pope himself, except at the point of death.

&ATn'MASTTif, mnwil of Moral Thtolon, II (New York.
190B); FaWBAau, BibUetlttca eonrnwa, II (Rome, IS&l), i.
Conj09»aT\u9, wt. v; ibid., VII. a. v. SoUie^oHo. wbere the pon-
tlflesl dooumenta Are jpven In full. Consult alao woib od moral
tbeolocy in miwraf, e. g.: BABnn-BAiavrT, Ctmvmititm
auaoSm moralU (New York, 1902) ; Ta.unton, Th* Laio of (JU
ChurA (London, 1008), a. Soticilation.

William H. W. Fanning.

SoUmftM Snporton.— A prefecture Apostotic in
the State Of Amaionas, ^nt, erected ^ a decree of
the Sured Omgregatitm td OmaiMory, Vt May, lOlO.

The temtory of this prefecture forms a part of the ex-
tensive Diocese of Manaos or of Amawinas, from which

'*,TS?"JWr^*?^.** t™e with the territory

of roB6, which last fonns another prefecture Anoi'
tohc. Sohmdes is situated between the left brak of
the Amaion and the River Jaoura, a tributary of the
former; the territory is traversed by a great number
of watercourses ana natural canals, l^e region has
as yet been little explored, and httle has been done in
tiie way of preaching the Gospel, as is the'oase with aU
the regions along the tributaries of the Amaaon In
recent years the Holy See has devoted its attention
to tiie problem of evi^elizing these vast but aianely
populated regions. Tho mission of Solimdesis ii^
trusted to the Cmuohin Fathers. (See "Acta 8.
Sedis", Rwne, 1 JiayTwiO.) ^

U. Besniohi.

Solomon. — Our sources for the itudy of the Ufe,
rdgii, and character of Solomon are III kIom i-xii;
and 11 Par. i-ix. Solomon (H^.nn^ "peaceful"),
also called Jedidiah, i. e., "beloved of Yanireh", was
the second son of David by his wife, Bathsheba, and
the acknowledged favourite of his father. This may
have been due partly to the fact that he, as a late off-
spring, considerably younaer than David's other sons,
was bom in his father's old age, and partly to the in-
tense love of David for Bathsheba and the beautiful
qualities of Solomon himself. Solomon was not the
l<^oal heir to the throne, but David conferred it t^a
him instead of his other brothers, and in doing s«he
committed no wrong according to Israehtiah idms.
Solomon was eighteen years old when he ascended fte
throne, or at least no older than this, and his succesabl
reign of forty years sp^ks well for his intelligenc,
ability, and statesmanship. His reign offers a str^ig
contrast to that of his fattier. It was almost entire^
devoid of incident, and was mariced by none trf tb
vioisntudee of fortune which were so notable a featas
in the career of David. Enjoying for the most pait
peaceful relations with foreign powers, and set fret
from the troubles that menaced him at home, Solo^
mon was enabled to devote himself fully to the in^
temal org^anisation of his kingdom and the embellish-
ment of his Court. In particular he gave much atten-
tion to the defence of the oountry (including the eon-
stniotion of fortresses), the admmistration of iustiee,
the development of trade, and the erection of a na-'
tional temple to the Ahnighty.

The temtory over which sovereignty is claimed for
Solomon by the historian of III Kings extended from
the Euphrates to theRivercrf E^ypt (e^ Arish), or, to
name the cities at the limits of his realms, from Tiph-
sah (Thapsaeus) to Gasa (III Kings, iv, 24). The
aoeount of his r«gn shows that even nb father's do-
minions were not retained by him unimpaired. But
if some of the outlying portions of David's empire,
suoh as Damascus and Edom, were lost by Solomon,
the integrity of the actual soil of Israel was seeured
alike by the erection of fortresses in etrong positions
(inclndmg Haxor, Megiddo, one or both of the Beth-
horons, and Baalath) and by the maintenance of a
Ures force of warKihariots. Of the cities selected for
fortification Hazor guarded the northern frontier, Me-

g*ddo protected the plain of Esdrselon, whilst the
eth-horons, with Baalath, commanded the Valley of
Aijalon, thus defending the capital against an attack
from the maritime plain. Additional security in this
direction was obiained by the acquisition of Geser.
Thia city had hithfn-to been left in the hand of the
Canaanites, and came into Solomon's power by amar-
nafsfi alliance with Egypt. Under DavicL wad had
become a factor to be reckoned with in Eastom poU>
tics, and the Pharaoh found it prudent to secure its
friendship. The Pharaoh was probably PsieukhaiH
nit (IWikhan) II, the last king oi the 21st dynast/f
iriM had hlaoasiteLalt Zehul 0?anii4>-4nd.culed4>nr

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the Delta. Solomon wedded his daughter; and the
Egyptian sovereign, having attacked and burnt Gezer
and destroyed the Canaamte inhabitants, bestowed it
as a dowry upon the prinoees. It was now rebuilt and
made a fortified city of Solomon. In Jerusalem itself
additional defences were constructed, and the capital
was further adorned by the erection of the temple and
the royal pahwes described below. In view of the
trade route to the Red Sea, which the posaeasion of the
ports of Edom gave to Israel, Tamar (perhaps Hase-
lon Tamar) was Jikewiae fortified. Cities had also to
be built for the reception and support of the force of
chariots and c«valry which the king maintained, and
which he seoos to have been the first to introduce
into the armies of Israel. This force is stated to have
consisted of 1400 chariots and 12,000 horsemen (III
Kings X, 26). The numbers of the foot-aoldiay are
not given, perhaps because, being a miUtia and not a
Btanding army, it was only must^^ when there was
oecaaiMi for its services; but the levies available were,
probably, not inferior to those which the nation ooula
raise at toe close of David's reign.

Soloison's foreign poUcy was one of international
friendaPP and peace. His relation with the Pharaoh
fA Kg#t has already been alluded to, and the same
Tpayl[said of his relation with his othra- great nei^-
bousBiram, King of Tyre, and lord of the Phcenioian'
Ri^^ which lies between Lebanon and the aea. To
hi^Monged the famous cedar forests, and the no less
lettiai artisans of Gabal were his subjects. Solomon
forfsd with him a commercial treaty, surrendering
oe^n towns on the northern frontier (III Kings, ik,
IK exchange for floats of timber conveyed to Joppa
a^ciUed workmen lent him for wood-car vin«, stone-
f#oning, and bnnue-^asting. What SokMuon

rd by the alliance was knowledge of the Phoenl-
manner of trading. As ruler of Edom he had
^eeaion of the port of Eloth, at the head of the Gulf
jUcaba. H«*e he buUt ships and sent his own ser-
#t8, undo- Phcenician masters, to trade with Arabia.
1p profits went into the king's coffers. As Arabia
ft a gold-producing country, we need not suppose
'^^fcJT South Africa was reached by these fleets.
Whether the eommeroe of India reached him by thia
route ia not certain. The list of products imp(vtedhaa
scnnetimes been interpreted in this sense. But one or
two obscure words in a comparatively late text can
hardly establish the conclusion. The money value of
the importations, four hundred and twenty talents in a
single voyage, must be viewed with suspicion.

S(>lomoD'e internal pohoy was one of justice and
oonoentratton of power and authority. In the ad-
ministration of justice David's policy and rewn of re-
raissnesB and inooherence was improved uponW Solo-
mon's stem administration and equanimity. He also
took steps to make the royal authority strongo', more
efficient, and more far-reaching, chiefly, as far as our
records go, with a view to the collection of revenue and
^e maintenance of an army, which latter, apparently,
he did not know how to use. We have a longer list of
ministers. David's govermnent inoluded a oom-
iiuoder<ia-idiief , a captain of the mttwmury guanL a
nperintoident of forced labour, a recorder, a bcfum
and priests, and a "king's friend". In addition to
theee, Solomon had a superintendent of prefects and a
master of the household. A more striking innovation
was the division of the country into twelve districta,
eodi under a royal representative <h- prefect, charged
with the duty of provisioning the Court month by
monti). This division largely ignored the ancient
tribes, and seems to show that the tribal syston was
pasung awa^. Like most powerful ral^ Solomon
ngnalized his reign by numerous splendid buildio^
and fOT this purpose made extensive use at the oorvee
or forced labour. This again led to increased exertion
of authority by the central government; and, inci-
dentally, the complete aubiugation of the Oanajmitee

was riiown by the fact that they had to bear the main

Eortion of this burden. According to our present bib-
cal data, Solomon wmt beyond any ancient monarch
in the luxury of the harem. The enormous number of
wives (700) and oonoubinea (300) attritjuted to him
must be made up by counting all the female slaves of
the palace among the concubines. Even then the fig-
urea must be groosly ocagg^ted. Klostermann hu
wisely remarked that the two items are not in the
ri^ht prcwortion, and he is ioolined, and we think
with Kooa reason, to suspect that 70 wives and 300
ooncubines was the original statement of the sacred
narrator.

The building operations of Solomon were on a large
scale and of a remarkable magnitude and splendour.
Besides the erection of a magnifioent temple he auo-
oeeded in emulating the great kin^ of Western Asia
and E^ypt by building for himself in the city of Jem-
salem, pidacws, houses, and gardens. (See Tbhplb
ow Jbrusalbh.) In the erection of these, thirteen
years wore spent as well as a large sum of money, while
thousands of labourers and raftsmen were employed.
' The royal residence embraced several distinct struc-
tures: (1) The house of the forest of Lebanon (so
named from the quantity of cedar-wood used in it),
which measured 100x50x30 cubits, and rested upon three
rows (so Sept.) of pillars (each row being composed of
fifteen columns) in addition to the extenial walls: (2)
the porch of pillars, dOxSO^cubits; (3) the porch of the
tiirone (to which the last-mentioned may nave served
as an ante-chamber), forming a ju<^ment hall where
the kill's throne of ivory and gold (III Kings, x,
18-20) was placed when he dispensed justice; (4) the
lung's luivate palace, surrowded by a court: (5) the
palace of Pharaoh's daughter, probably mduded
within the court just named. All these were built of
costly hewn stone, the wood employed being cedar.
Of Solomon's closing years nothing further is recorded.
His reign is stated to have lasted forty yeara; but it is
probable that this is merely a round number employed
to indicate a considerable period (perhaps a full gen-
eration) and the actual duration of his rule is un-
known. The year of his death may be approximately
fixed between 938 and 916 b. c, a date arrived at from
a consideration of the number of years assigned by the
Bible to hra successors, corrected by the chronology
certain Assyrian inscriptions.

In the view of the Hebrew historian, Solomon was
unsurpassed iot sf^acity and knowledge. On his ao-
cessioB to the throne, it is related that Jehovah ap-
peared to him at Gibeon in a dream, and bade him
choose a boon; and the young kiiic instead of asking
for long life or ridies at success in wu-, insyed to be
endowed with an understanding heart that he might
judge the people committed to him. His request was
granted; and riches and honour were added thereto,
with a promise of length of daye if he kept Jehovah's
commandments. In consequence of this endowment,
he was reputed to be wiser than all men; people flockea
from all quarters to hear his wisdom; and the Queen
of Sheba, in particular, came to prove him with hard
queations. He was at once a philospher and a poet.
He qutke 3(X)0 proverbs: his songs were lOOS; and hia
utt^noes embraced references alike to the vegetable
and the animal kingdoms. So great, indeed, was his
reputation for iH^tical insight that in later times the
bulk of the Hebrew Gnomic literature was ascribed to
him. In the light of after-events, it is impossible fully
to endorse the nistortan's estimate of his sagacity, or
even to clear his memory from imputations of criming
folly. To his oppressive exactions, in furtherance of
his schemes of luxury and magnificence, was due the
discontent which in the reign of his son broke hia
kingdom in two, and ultimately led to the destruction
in detail of the Hebrew nation by the power of Assiyria
and Babvlon. It is clear likewise that, besides being
fond of wi|>lay, he wm TOluptu^ua and sensual, and

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^Chatlie wasledl^lus vives and conoubineB to wonihip
strange goda.

The fact that Solomon'a reign was passed in tran-
quillity, exoept for the attempts of Edom and Damas-
cus to r^ain their independence^ testifies to the care
he display^ for the defence of the reabn. That he
showed no ambition to undertake fcweign conquests
redounds to his credit; after the exhausting wars of
David the nation needed repose. And if he spent his
people's wealth lavishly, his commercial policy may
nave helped to produce that wealth, and perhaps
even givm to the Jewish people that impulse towards
trade which has been for centuries bo marked a trait
in their character. Nor can the indirect effects of the
commerce he fostered be overlooked, inasmuch as it
brought the people into closer contact with the out-
side world and so enlarged their intdlectual horison.
And in two other respite he profoundly influenced
bis nation's after-history, and ther^y mankind in
general. In the first place, whatever the burdens
which the construction of the temple entailed upon
the generation that saw it erected, it eventually
Jiecame the chief glory of the Jewish race. To it,
its rituaL and its associations, was lately due the
stronger nold whioh, after the disruptioii, the leligitm
of J^kovab had upon Judah as contrasted with North-
ern Israel; and when Judah ceased to be a nation, the
reconstructed temple became in a still higher degree
-the guardian of tne Hebrew faith and hope. And
secondly, the Book of Proverbs, though [>art8 are ex-
pressly ascribed to other authors than Solomon, and
even those sections which are attributed to turn may
be complex of origin, is nevertheless the product cMf
Solomon's spirit and example, and much that it con-
tains may actually have prooeedMl from him. And as
ProvtsbB served aa a model for many works of a similar
charactv in later times, some of which, as has been
said, were popularly ascribed to him (Ecclesiastes,
Wisdom), the debt which the world of literature indi-
rectly owes to the Hebrew king is consider^le. The
works named do not exhaust the list of productions
with which Solomon's name is connected. The Song
of Songs is attributed to him: two of the Canonical
psalms are oititled his; and a book of Psalms of quite
late date also goes by his name.

Besides the Hxatoriea of the HebreiDi and of the CHd Tealamtnt
by MiufAN (1866); Stawlit (1868); Ewald (1869); Stadk
(1884): KfiHUB (1884) : KlOstsbmamh (1806); Wbliudsbh
(1807); KimL (ISSfi); RENArr (18S2): Wadb (1910); etc., see:
MacCukdt, History, Prophecy and the Motvwmenlt (3 vota., New
YoriE, 1894-1901), H206 sqq.; Bacon, Sojomm in tradition andin
/ael in Nud World. June, 1898; WnL, Th» Bible, Hu Koran, and
IhM Talmvd (London, 1849), 200-48; Convat, Solomon oJtd Soto-
monie Lilvralwe (CtucaEO, 1899); Caiidinal Mkiqnan, Solomon,
MM ritpu. so ieHU (P&na, 1S90) ; ViaouBotnc, La BibU et lea dS-
tmtMTUtmod^nut, III (Psris. 18g6),2S3-406: Kmht. Studtnf a Old
Tnlavuni. IT ^Naw York, 1905). 14-16, 105-199; Bub, Saul.
David, Sciamva (TQbingen, 1906). See ftlso the articles on Solo-
moo m Krrro'fl, Smith's, HAamfOS's, Chbths'b, and Vioom-
oux'a dfartfouvle* of the Kbte.

Oabbibl OuaaAHi.

Solomon, Psalms of, eighteen fl{x)cryphalp6alms,
extant in Greek, probably translated from a Hebrew,
or an Aramaic original, common^ assigned to the
first century b. c. They contain uttle of originality
and are, for the most part, no more than cerUoa drawn
from the Psalms of David. In them Messianic hope
is not bright; a ^oom enshrouds that hope — the
eloom caused by Pompey's siege of Jerusalem [see
Apocrtpba, I, (3)].

floLOUON, Odbs of, forty-two lyric poena, an
apocryphal work, recently discovered and published
(1909) by J. Rendel Hams, fftstory.— The existence
of these apocryphal odes was known bjr various
references. The pseudo-Athuiasian Synopds Sanctsa
Scripturs (sixth century) lists^ the "Antdegomena"

and adds tn^i' iKetvoit Si xal raOra ■^initprai

^aXjuol vat ifSij ZoXo^KTOf. The " Stichometiy " of
Nicephorus, Patriarch of Constantinople (begmning
of nmth emitury), in like manner includes among tbe

"Antflfisomma", "the Ptahns and Odes of Soknw^
contammg2100^fx«" It may be that thSe^
are the new psahn-book written for Mansion and^
eluded from the Muratonan Canon (end of second
century) The ^a)^i M«ir«oi, prohibited arnSa-
canomcal by the Council of Laodioea (c. a. d. 360)
If taken as ''psalms of perscmal experience", might
m^^- b.^^r ^^ °^ Salomon". Ls^tS^
(thv. mstit IV, xu) wntps: "Solomon ita dicit:
Infirmatus est utous VHgmis et accepit fcetum et
gravata est, et faj^ est in multa taiseratione mater
Virgo". IiitheMSS.ofLa«tantm8\heglossi8add^
tn Ode undevigmnw, or tnPsalrno ur^ Ode
XIXj verse 6, of the Synac translation Kovered by
Harris) reads: "(The Spirit) opened the vomb of the
Vii^tn, and she conceived and brought fonh and the
Vii^n became a Mother with many mercies '" Lao.
tantius is clearly citing a Latin translation of fh_
Odes of Solomon, done by the bajinaing of the fourth
centuiy a. d. The Sahidic "Pi«tia Soplua" a
Gnostic work of the Copts of ^the latter pan of 'the
third century, uses the "^Odes of Solomon" as canon-
ical Scripture. Han-fa 'jk SIl ffiiiiks hf; hie Tayjni
traces of the Odes in Saints Irena^us and Cletient uf
Alexandria, lliese important apocryphal %-itjrjg3
had been lost for ci^oturies till theywere dii^ivered
and published (1909) by J. Kendal Harris, afteithey
had lain on his shelves two years in a. heap of
MSS. brought from Ihr nr^iRhbourhood of the l^fiti.
The Syriac MS. of thv oHi-s is of p^ipci' probably ir,-^
or four hundred yeiirit ol'i. font:iti-ip lhc "Psalu oF
Solomon", the odes iidcoitjijli'tt^ in ilu- ln-pifirimgnij
the end), coarsely written, pointpd hore and theui
the Kestorian inajm(r>4m'itktiffiBtfiillt& Ito Aih^
vowels. ^

Original Text. — (a) The larLgwa.^ oF the odes nr
have been Hebrew or Aramaic. Our SjTiac vcrsi
is probably from a C3reek text, wliirli in turn wai
truislation of an original Hebriiw or Ar-unsiic ta
This opinion is warranted by Uii- .finl inunl groupb
of the odea with the "Psalms >.■{ >"i!MLioii", iJie i-a^
stant reference of Uiem to Suloiuon an author, ef^
the Semitic spuit which equally permeates both ao_
of lyrics, (b) The time of composition would
to have been not later than the middle of the second
century, nor earlier than the beginning therettf. The
termimu ad quern is set by the fact that there is
some doubt as to the canonicity of the odes. Such
doubt is scarcely intelligible, especially in the third-
century author of "Pistis Sophia", unless the odes
were composed before the middle of the second cen-.
tury. The termimu a ipio is set by the content of
Ode XIX. The painlasness of the Vii^n birth (verse
7), though a logical corollary to the dogma of tiie
supernatural character of the Divine birth of Jesus,
is an idea which we find no trace of even so late as the
Johannine writings. Whereas the absence of a mid-
wife from the Virgin birth (verse 8) is a detail which
clearly parallels these odes with the f4K>cryphal
Gowels of the Infancy and prohibits us from assign-
ing Ode XIX to a period earUrar than tibe be^immu[ of
the seccmd century. (c)The author is considerea by
Harris and Hausleiter (Theol. Litbl, XXXL no. 12).
to have been agentile in a Palestine Judeo<)hri8tianj
ooqimunity. Hamack thinks that the Grurtd9chrifi
is Jewish and all Christian sentiments are the super*
added work of a Christian interpolator. Cheyae
(Hibbert Journal, Oct., 1910) agrees with Hamack.

Importance. — This latest find of Mr. Harris is one-
of the most important contributkmB ever made tO':
extant apocryphal Biblical literature. The impo>
tanee has been g/seaHy ezaggerated by Hanuok.-
With his usual keen sense of sources, the Berlin pro-
fessor scents here a tmique source of the Johannine
tradition; in the "Odes of Solomon", he trfls us, we
have the very "quarry vrtierefrom the Jcdiannine
blocks have been hemi''. (p. 111). We have alraidy ■

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138

^ wnf JeBUfl —'* because I love Him, the Son, I
Sail a B^?Mbde UL 9). OdeBlV aad Vl^^ve

much of Christian thott?*^. An hyp^eeu, hitherto
unauggeeted, yet far ^diw than Harnack s wild
ouaCTv-dream, is tkat the odes are a new hnk, long
S«r of theJ«iatu«iB'e tradition; that they draw thdr
aSs^i^sentii-ent from St John's qpspel The
traditional vieir in regard to the Apostohc authonty
of the GoBpe) is strengtheaed by a new witness, — a
Judeo-Christin genius, who oerhaps works over some

k^^.^unr«diS^J^ pubti^ied by Haxkack in Taxti und
^A£SSm, XXXV (lieipHg, iflicS. 4.

WaLTBB DKtTU.

Bi^oOon Islands, Prefecture Apostolic of the
]^o,(X^RN, established on 23 May, 1898, by separa-
tion Vicariate Apostolic of New Pomerania
fq. Yi includes the Islands of Ysabel, Choisexd, Bou-
MMUe, and all the islets under German protector-
^^Iplpe Solomon Islands, Prefecture Afostoug
or fern Southern). In 1897 the islands were
pu^der tiie jurisdiction of Mgr Broyer, Vicar
olic of Samoa, and in 1898 formed into a new
p] ture under Mgr Joseph Forestier, who re-
ei at Kieta, on Bougainville Island. In 1911 the
n >n contained: 3 churches; 3 stationsj 10 Marist
I rs ; 5 lay brothers ; 7 Sisters of the Third Order of
1 ; 2 Samoan cateciusts; 5 Catholic schools, with
jpils: 2 orphan^es; and a few hundred Catho-
The Marist missionaries belong to the Province
Muiia, the superior of which resdes at Sydney,
South Wales. Fever is very prevalent at the
>n, and most of the fathers who went to the
in 1898 have been carried off by disease.
FioucT, Ln miMjoM franeoitM. TV (Fuu, 1902). 8iS-6B;
AtufralfMiiin CailuHe Dinelarv (Syduy. Wll), 16B.

--is

Solomon Islands, Prefecture Apostolic of thb
Southern (Insularum Solomoniarum). — The Solo-
mon Islands are in the Pacific Ocean, lying between
154^ 4(K and 162° 30' East lopg., and 5° and 11° South
lat. liie Spanish navigator AlvaroMendafiadeNevra
disooverod the blands of Ysabel, Goadaleanar, and San
Christoval in 1567. Impressed by the natural riches
Ot the islands, he called that ^up after King Solomon.
Mass was celebrated by the Franciscan cbaplahi of the
expedition, but the soldiers and sailors were not in
sufficient number to organize a permanent settlement.
Mendafia and his expedition returned to Peru. 26
July, 1569. On 5 April, 1595^ Mwdafia, with three
hundred and sixty-dght emigrants, men, yronoBa,
and children, started for the Solomon Islands, and
landed at Santa Cruz, a small archipelago between
the S(rfomon Islands and the New Hebrides. He died
two months after; his widow Dona Ysabel, and Quiros.
tiie chief pilot, took command of the expedition, ana
returned to Spain with the remainder of the colony.
Thereafter for two centiiries, the existence of the
Solomon Isluids came to be doubted, although sea-
men ^ke <tf them as a rich and marvellous country.
la 1781 M. Buach6, a Flinch geographer, presented
a paper to the Academic dee Sciences, showing that
tiie Solomon Islands discovered by the Spaniards
should be sourfit about 12° 30' South latitude, be-
tween Santa Cruz and New Guinea, and that those
islands discovered by Carteret in 1767, Bougainville
in 1768, and by Surville in 1769 were the same.
IVEntfeoasteaux found later that the surmises of the
Ftanoh geograpbsr vwe owrect, and maiqr of the

names bestowed by the Spaniards were restored.
The group, which is the most important of the Pacific,
hes about five hundred miles east of New Guinea ana
covers an area of 17,000 square miles. The names of
the prindpid islands, proceeding from the south-east
in a norUi-weateily direction, are San Christoval,
Malaita, Guadalcanar, Florida, New Georgia, Vella
Lavella., Y8^>el, Choiaeul, and Bougainville.

A Brief dated 19 July^ 1844, and signed by Gregory
XVI, raitrusted the Society of Mary with the evan-
s«lization of the cotmtry which extends from New
Guinea to the Gilbert group. Towards the end of
October, 1845, EpaUe, S.M., sailed from Sydney
with eighteen missionaries. The ship sighted San
Christoval on 1 December at the aoutnem extremity
of the Solomon group. Thanks to the kindness of
the captain, the bishop was able to survey the coast
for a few days, but on discovering that the position
was not a central one, the party decided to steer for
Ysabel. On 12 December they were lying at anchor
in the Bay of Astrolabe. The vicar Apostolic, threi
priests, and a handful of sailors went ashore, to be
met by the aborigines, who, at a signal from their
chief, mortally struck Bishop Epalle and dangerously
woimded a Marist Fatho: and a seaman. The rest
of the party escaped and interred the remains of
Bi^op Epalle in a lonely islet, where fifty-six years
after Fawer Rouillac, S.M. was fortunate enough
to recover and identify them. Mgr Collomb, S,M.,
embarked on the "Arche d'AlUance", a barque which
had beem specifdly fitted out for CathoUc propaganda
work by a French naval officer, Commander Marceau,
and joined the missionaries at San Cristoval. Three
Fathers had been killed and eaten by the cannibals,
another succumbed to malarial fever. Determined not
to uselessly court massacre any longer on that spot,
they set out for Woodlark and Rook Islands, where the
new bishop and some of his followers died. Of the
eighteen who had left Port Jackson, ten years before,
five only now survived. On the representations of
Propaganda, the Society of Mary gave up the Sol-
omons temporarily. In 1852 Propaganda committed
the care of theoe unhappy islands to the Fathers of the
Foreign Missions of Milan; but they also were obliged
to leave. In 1897 Rome asked the Marist authontes
to make a new effort towards the civilization of the
Solomon tribes. Mgr Vidal, S.M. (Vicar Apostolic
of Fiji), on 21 May, 1898, landed with three Fathers at
Ruo-Sura, near Guadalcanar. On 22 Au^t, 1903, the
mission was made a prefecture Apostohc, comprising
the Lduids of New Geoma, Florida, Guadalcanar,
Mahuta, San Christov^ the Santa Ciuz archipelago,
and all the islets imder British protectorate. Rev. E.
M. Bertreux, S.M . , was appointed prefect Apostolic, and
at the present time (1912) seventeen priests, ten sisters,
and a lay brother labour with him in that portion oi
the Solomon group. They attend to nine principal
churches, forty-ei^t chapds, nine schools, numbering
each from twenty to seventy pupils. Several hun-
dred natives have been baptized, and a fair proportion
are suflSciently prepared to be admitted to the sacm-
ments every month. The nuns teach eighty girls in
three schools. About three hundred women are
regular catechumens, and assemble every Sunday for
instruction in Christian doctrine. There are aoout
three thousand neophytes.

GuppT, The Sohnum Mindi and lhar JiMtea (LoDdon. 1887);
WooDFcoD, A UatwraUtt amonj thd HaaMnaUm (MeJbouma
aad Sydney, 1890); Mohtat, Dix anni— m MUanttv (Lyons,
1891); Tk» Diteoten of th» Solomon Iibmdt. tr. Amhebst xm
THomoM, from oiional Spsniah mftnuseripU (London, 1901);
La MiuioM CaOoKcuM FraiHaiMt au XIX* nieU (Puia, 1900).

E. M. Bertbbux.

Solsona, Diocese of (Celbonensis). in Lerida,
Spain, suffragan of Tarr^ona, erected by Clement
\1H, 19 July, 1593, from the iMoceses of Urgel and
Vich, suppressed in 1851, by virtue of t^e Concordat,
after a vacancy of eSeren yeaxs (the last bidiop beinc

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SOMAULAND

139

SOBUIJLAND

Mn. de Tesaada). It waa to have beea joined to
Viral, but the onion was not effeoted, and it tuu been
BOTcnied sinee by an administrator ApostoUe. It is
bounded on the north and west by the See oi Vrgel,
on the south by those of L^rida and Tarragona, and
on the east by the Diocese of Vich. It contains
152 parishes, 330 priests and clericB, 259 churches, 16
chapels, and about 120,000 inhabitants. There are
many religious communities — ^men: Religious of the
Immaculate Heart of Mary (Solsona); Misioneros
Paoles (Bellpuig, Cervera); Cistercians of Senanque
(CasBerrai, Tarr^) ; M^vedarians (Portell) ; Bene-
dictines (Riner) ; Piarieta (Tfirrega)— -nuns: Carmel-
ites of Charity, 11 hoiisee; Discalocid Carmelite Ter-
tiaries, 2 houses: Dominican Tertiaries, 6 houses;
Sist^ of the Holy Family of Urgel, Hermanitas de
Ancianos desamparados. Sisters of the Holy Family,
1 house each. The oaniedral of Solsona is dedicated
to the Assumption of the Blessed VirKin; the apse, la
Roman style, dates probably from we twelfth oen-
tray, the facade is Baroque, and the nare and tran-
sept Gothic; the church contains the highly vene-
n^ed Vii^^ de Solsona, an excellent specunen of
Byiantine work. The pnmat ordinary, Mgr.
Amigo y Ferrer, titular Bishop of Thagaste, succeeded
Mgr. B^dlodi y Viv6. transferred on 6 Dec., 1906,
to tb» See of Uigel. Soteona, the Xeba of liie Lao^
tani, Setelsis of the RcMuaos, aad lata Selsona, lies
idbout fifty miles from L^rida and Barcelona on the
Rio Negro and Rio Cardoner. It was a military post
of stra^pic importance and was frequently besieged.
In 819 It was captured by the Moors; m 1520, a
university, transferred later to Cervera, was estab-
lished there. On 80 July, 1590, Solsona was made a
city by Philip II. In the following century it re-
belled against the Madrid Government and was
captured, 7 Dec., 1655. In the War of Succession
it sided with the archduke. The Carlists attacked
it unsuceearfutly in 1835 and 1837. Solsona has
important manufactures of thread, lace, gloves, and
hardware.
Battakmbb, Anavain vonHfl^ cotikoltgw.

A. A. MacEblban.

BomnllUnd, a triangulap^h^wd territory in the
north-eastern extronity of Afnca, projectmg into
tiie ocean towards the Island of Socotra; its apex
is Cape Guudafui. It is bounded on the north
by the Gulf of Aden, on the east by the Indian Ocean,
on the west by the hills of Harrar and Shoa. It has
an area of about 356,000 square miles, and a popu-
lation of 1,000,000. The Greek navigators called it
the "Country of aromatic gums"; at the present
time it is caJted SomaHland from the name of the
people ^ibo inhabit it. Its exploration was be-
gun in the sixteenth cmtury by Port^uese em-
idoyed in the service of Ethiopia, was interrupted
for a long tim6, and was recommenced in the nine-
teenth century by Burton, von der Decken, Brenner,
Mengee, Geoives R^voil, etc. Our knowledge of
it is^still impermst: the severity of the climate, aridity
at the soU, bck ci means of transportation, and above
lUl tlu fenaticaj, teeaeheroiu, and thievnu character
of ^bB natives nave always made StMnaliland one of
the most uihomitable places of residence in the world.
The country nas more or less the appearance of a
desert. The lower section bordering on the sea is
natiually dry and barren and barely supports a poor
and scanty flora. The mountain slopes have a fine
v^etatioD, which includes the coffee-tree. The cen-
tra re«on, c^ed Ogaden, has an average elevation
of 3000 feet and is a large plateau covered witii
■Ccjipes and afiFording pasturage. The chief rivera
are ttK Daror, which empties into the Indian Ocean
between Cape Guardafui and Ras Haf un, W^i, whioh,
desocnding in»n the Harrar district, flows along the
ooMl and loses itself in the ground, and Juba, whioh

ciiiired Obok in 1882, then took the entire Bay
jurrah, and finished by taking Jibuti as the

was explored in 1873 by the American ChailM-Lontt
who waa m the service of the Khedive of Egypt

The people called SomaU, who have remained un-
touched by extenor influences, are rmiarkably homo-
geneous. Ethnographers connect them mth the
Ethiopic, Cushitic, or Hamilic group represented
by the Ethiopians, or Abyssmiam, Bedias or Nubians
the Danakil, the Oromo or Gallaa. Taken generallv
the Somali type is very interesting: alight m fiimre
with limbs well-proportioned, regulai and remarkablv
delicate features, wavy hair, a fine blv;k skin. Thev
dress el^antly in the claasie nuumer; the poorest
know how to carry themselves with & naturalness
ease, and pride that are not lacking in digtuty. They
are inteUigent, but fickle, and tneir industries are
rudimentary; they disdain tilling the soil. Ibey work
chiefly as herdsmen, ilshers, boatmen, traders- above
all theyprrfer travel, adventure, and robbing' stran-
gers. They are, moreover, divided into a great num-
ber of clans formii^ three or four main groups which
unite and separate accordii^ to the vicssituoes of the
alliance and of war and have no national cohesion.
Their language, which has been made known by the
Capuchin missionaries, is related to that of the llallaa *
it has incorporated a iM-ge number of Ar^ic iSoms!

However, European influence has made itsel fdt
in Somaliland since 1829 when the Red Sea vas
first used as a route to India; but it is only of jtte
years that France, England, and Italy have t&en
actual possession of the SomEdi coast. Franceic.

then took the entire Bay of fe-
le cef

town of the "Protectorate of the French Coast of>-
mali", which contains an area of about 80 sque
miles. Jibuti has been united by a railway withe
ftftile districts of the Harrar and of Abyssinia. Ifr
land is established to the east on the entire coast h
mg Arabia as far as Cape Guardafui; its prinol
towns are Zeila and Berfoera. Lastly, Italy, callcxf
England to these latitudes in 1894, occupies the .
cipal towns of the eastern coast known under
name of Benadir (Arabic Al Banader, the gatew;
where the Sultan of Zanzibar formerly maintain
small garrisons: Obbia, Waraheik, Mof^dishu, Merka,
Barawa, Kisimarjru (the last name is of Swahilic
origin, Kitima meaning wells, yu meaning upper).
The Somali are all Mohammedans. Those of the
north and of the towns on the coast are rigorous and
fanatical observers of the principles of Islam and de-
spise "the infidels" whether white or black. The So-
mali of the interior unite some of the beliefs and prac-
tices of ancient fetishism with their Mohammedan
faith. There are, however, few populations of the
world that are more difficult to bring to the Gos-
p^ Properly speaking there is no Christianity
in Somaliiand. The few Christians, perhaps one
or two himdred, that can actually be counted, have
come from the schools and orphanages of the
Catholic missions of Aden, Jibuti, and of Berbera,
As Somaliland Is divided into tnree zones of in-
fluence, French, English, and Itahon, there are three
distinct mission centres: the French Somali coast is
under the care of the Vicariate Apostolic of the Galla^
which is entrusted to the French Capuchins of the
Province of L^ons; English Somaliland is under the
care of the Vicariate Apostolic of Arabia, also con>
fided to the Capuchins; Italian Somaliland was de-
tached in 1904 from the Vicariate Apostolic of Zanzi-
bar, erected into the Prefecture Apc«tolic of Benadir,
and confided to the ancient Order of ^e Hofy Trini^
or Trinitarians.

RAvoiL, La VaUte de Darror (Parla, 1882) ; Idem, Dix moii A Ja
ettv orientaU d'A/riqu4 (Parn, 1888): Siutb, Tfirovffh Unkjiavn
AJriean CouniriM (Londoa, 1897); Pibl, Somidiland CLoBdaa,
1899>; SwATNE, SnenUen Trip* through SomaHbmd (London,

1900) ; HBintBBEKT, Au payt de» SonuUtt tt tUa Cimorima (Fftri«,

1901) : Fbbmand, Let 9«in4iu (Pari*. 1903).

ainea

A^ Lb Rot.

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aoxo

Somuohi, name of a charitable relinous congre*
isation of regular clerics, founded m ihe aurteenth
c^tury by St Jerome Emiliani with the mother-
house at Somasca (Venice), whence the name. For
all particulars on development and hwtory of the
ordM see Jkeomb Eboliani, Saint. Followmg are
the latest statistics, obtamed from F. Gius. Landmi
of the Soi^Bchi at the Curia Generautia at Rome.
The order counts in three provinces (Rome, Lom-
bardy and UguiA) 16 houses, all but one (in Bellin-
Eonai Switzerlapd) in Italy, and about ISO members,
of whom 100 are pnesta, 50 clerics, and 30 lay
brothers. At Rome they have three houses: San
Girolamo d)da Oaiit^ resldenoe <^ the general ood
one of the three Dovitiates (the other two being in
Genoa ^ Somasca) ; Santa Maria in Aquiro with a
parish afld orphanase; San Aleesio on the Aventine
Iot blind boys. The congregation manages three
colleges with classic^ and technical studies at SpwUo,
Como, Nervi, and finally, including those already
inentioiwl, three orphaua^ uid five parishes.

LrvABius OuasB.

Sonnet, Thouab, confeesor, b. about 1530; d.
in tb Tower of London, 27 May, 1687: second son
of Unry, second Earl <h Worcester. He was com-
injt«d to the Fleet, 10 June, 1562, "for translating

Jratyon out of Frenche, made by the Gardi-
of Lorraine", Charles de Guise, Archbishop of
3, "and putting the same without authority in
pi|te". On 27 Jime, 1562, he was summoi^ b^ore
tl <ord8 of the Council at Qreenwich, who expected
" humble subnuasion, for wante irtiereof, and fOT
t' he seamed to go about to justifye his cause, he
■s etumed to the Flete, there to remaine xmtill he"
& d "have better conffldered of himself". After
8 priflonment of close on twenty years he was re-
l [ on bail, S8 Feb., 1581-82, to attend to legal
\ 288 in Monmouthshire. On 2 May, 15S2, he was
1 to travel, uid was permitted to remain at liberty
i fcAould zecovo-. By 22 October, 1685, he was
fr^^^Tower on a charge of high treason. Bdng pos-
xi'bf propertiesin Gloucefitershire and Monmouth-
s, he paid the costs of his imprisonment, and his
le tii^efore is not to be found in the Tow^ Bills.

CathoUe Record Socielu'i Ptiblieationa, I (LondiMX, 190S, «U0.
49; Dabxmt, AeU of At Privy Council (London, 1890-1907],
TII, lOB; XIII, 336. 407; Cofandor Stole Pupen Domntie ISBI-^
1866),240, 278, 305; Coiuin, Ainva, I (LoBdon, 177S),

John B. Wainbwbiqht.

Sommmofal, Cablob. See Socibtt of Jesus.

Smderboiid. See SwmuBLAND.

Song, Rbuoious (or Sacbed), is the general desig-
nation given to the numerous poetical and musical
ereatitms which have come into existence in the course
of time and are used in connexion yritb public Divine
worship, but which are not included m the o£Scial
liturgy on account of their more free and subjective
character. It has its origin in the desire on the part
d the faithful, a desire ever encouraged but always
guided and controlled by the Church, to participate
actively in the pubUc religious ceremonies of the
Church. While the psalms were sung in traditional
fashion during the earfar Eueharistic celebrations at
tiie public meetings, and the love-f easts, or agape, of
the earljr Christians, there soon sprang up the cus-
tom of improvising songs, participated m by the
whole assembly, which, thougn reli^us in burden, by
their spontaneity and freedom stood in contrast to tfaie
peahns and other t^c parts of the Holy Scripture in
use at the Euchanstic celebration. These creations
in oourse of time lost their spiritual character, dignity,
and fervour as the institution which gave them oirth
and of which they formed an importfmt part degene-
rated in character, departed from its origmal purpose.

and became an occasion for pleasure and disaipatioiL
The songs thus originated continued in use l(»ag after
the institutioD had lost official sanction, and have be-
come known in history by the name of the instttutioo
whichgave rise to them.

As Christianity spread, there was an ever greater in-
crease of spontaneous creations of this kind caigiiiat-
iug in the desire on the part of their authors to set
nearer to the people and to convey to them by this
means instruction as well as edification. As early as
the fourth century there had come into use so nuuy
chants^ hymns, and songs, in various parts (A the
Christian world, and abuses and aberrations had be-
come so general, that the Council of Laodioea (360-
381) forbade the singing of any text not taken fimn
Holy Scripture. The h^mns by St. Hiluy and St.
Ambrose of Milan feq>eoiaUy the latter) — which now
form a part of the hturgy — liad for their original pur-
pose the instruction oi the people by having toem
sing in striking metrical form and to vigorous laelo-
dies the fun£mental truths of religion. The se-
quences and tropes which came into existoice wiUi
such exuberance m the early Middle Ages, while popu-
lar in fOTm, sprang directly from the litursy and at-
ways partook of its character. In those regions whan
the Utuivical language remained at the same tims the
tongue OI the people, at least in a modified form, par-
ticipation in the official chant of the Church on
part of all was general for many cmturies, and in con-
sequence the influence of the spirit of the liturgy uid
its music prevented the early development of a more
subjective religious poetry and music than was to
be the case in later times in other regions. T\ua is
probably the reason why in Italy, ^Min, and the othor
Latin countries the reuigious song in the vernacular
has never taken root.

While this was also true of France, for a consider-
able time, we find there an early and rapid growth of
songs of every kind, bearing a strong national char-
acter. Every important event in the domestic and
religious life of the people soon found expression in
song. The festivals of the Church inspired them and
became by these means in turn impressed upon the
popular imagination. One of these characteristically
French songs is the noU, or Christmas song, which bad
great vt^e in the eleventh century, a vogue which
reached its height in the seventeenth century and has
survived in a certain form, even to our d^. The
nojl, the words of which were often paraphrases <A
Utui^cal texts, set to melodies naive and pastcural in
character, was popular in every section of the king-
dom and sung m ever^ dialect in use. Processioiu,
pilgrimages, and especially the mystery and miracle
plays gave rise to many forms of songs. The trou-
baaours in the south and trouvdres in the north ex-
erted great influence on the development and propa-

gtion not only erf seoular but of reli^ous songs as wdL
nong the many forms in use was the complaint, a
scmg m narrative form of which the "Story of uie
Resurrection" (O filii et fili») ia a pnmiinent type.
The pastorale was another form which flouri^ed
from the twelfth to the sixteenth century, sometimes
having rel^ious texts and then again voicing secular
sentunents. With the sixteenth century began the
custom of substituting secular airs in use at the time
for the melodies to which Uie Snared texts of the nolU,
complaints, etc., had thus far berai sung; they were
not onl^ modelled on the Gregorian chant but had a
distinctively niave unqde che^oter. This substitu-
tion sometimes involved even the partial taking over
of the profane text as well. This was the beginning
of the decadence which finally, in some places, reached
the point where ehatuont de galanlerie, or k>vB songS)
were completely trao^ormed into oanti^piet, or re-
ligious so^B, by meniy subslatuting the name oi the
BleaBed Virgm or that of Jesus Christy for tiw nama of
the beloved one mentimied in the original. Hw mod-

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BOMOXSH

era French canti^, which baa taken the place of the
traditional religious songs, is sentimental, quasi-mili-
tapr, and savours of the world, plainly showing the
influence of the favourite Frenon musical form, the
opera.

On account oi their total imfamiHarity with the
Latin language, the Qermanio races were prevented
from participating in the litiu^cal chant introduced
with Christianity itself by their first missionaries. At
most they joined in singing the Kyrie Eleison, and
that in the form of a refrain. This primitive practice
became so general that it survived lone after songs in
the vernacular had come into univeraaTnse. The lat-
ter would frequenthr end with the above invocation,
which was gradual^' abbreviated into "Kyrieleis".
The songs or hymns m the vernacular were themselves
otlled later on "K^deis" and "Leisen". The word
"lay", which designatee a vast song literature of a
whole subsequent period, is derived from "Leisen".
To wean their neophytes from pagan beliefs and prao-
tioea, the early missionaries were wont to make use of
melodieB famuiar to the people, apply Christian texts
to than, and turn them mto ^eetive means of iostrucK
tion. This practice soon led the maturely onotional
and sdbjeotire race to give v^t to their growing re-
ligious feelings in words and melodies of their own in-
vention, so that as early as the latter part of the ninth
century words in the vernaculaf were mixed with
those of lituivical chants, the former forming a sort of
glossary to the latter. From this time on there is a
oonstant powth in songs of all kinds in honour of
Jesus Cbrut, the Blessed Vitpn, the sainte, inspired
by the n«at feasts; songs called forth by national
events, the Crusades, and, as elsewhere, processionB
and pilgrimages, many of them created and all of
^em fostered by the minneaingers and poets of the
day. The texts in the vernacular and tne melodies
onginated from the earliest days of Christianity up to
the Jleformation in Germanic countries; they were
usually sung by the whole oot^regatton, and oelonK
to idiat is most sturdy and profound in sentimmt and
expression in this field. The fact that some 1500
melodies, antedating the Reformation, have come
down to us gives us some idea of the hold the rel^ous
song had upon the people.. The Reformers, like the
Arians of the fourth century, availed themsetves of
the love for song on the part <tf the people, and con-
verted it into an insidious and powerful means for the
d^Memination of their erroneous doctrines. The im-
petus thus given to singing exclusive^ in the vernacu-
lar by the leaden of Prot^tantism was so widespread
and powerful that it soon reacted upon those woo re-
mained loyal to the faith of their fathers. It resulted
not only in the creation of a lai^ number of new
hymn books but also in the custom^ which has not yet
been rooted up in all places, of singing in German dur-
ing liturgical services.

A number of influences have contributed to the de-
generation of the hymn in the vernacular which
reached its limit in the eighteenth century. The
most potent factors in its decay were the growth of
Rationalism affectii^ even those within the fold and
ihe ever-increasing ascendancy of secular music, re-
sulting in the seventeenth century in the abandon-
ment of the Gregorian modes, upon which practically
an hymn melodies had been tnodelled, and the substi-
tution of the modem ke^s. With the revival of the
Catholic vpixit at the beginnine of the nineteenth cen-
tury came a return to early ideals. Poets and musi-
(oans of the right stamp, both clerical and lay, in-
spired by the spirit of the Church and later fostered
by the powerful agency of the Saint Cecilia Society,
have restored to the Catholic people of German-
speaking countries a sons literature in the vernacular
ton^, which is as rim in variety as it is sturdy
in itB ennresBion of faith. In Tnaee a vigtwouB
effort is bang made, as part of the Qregorian res-

toration, to reconstruct a sound and whokeome taste
among toe people by the republication and propaga-
tion of proses, rkythmea, sequences, and otitter onants
in honour of Jesus Christ, the Blessed Virgin, the
saints, <nr the church festival^ written in one or o^ter
of the (Gregorian modes, and m vogue during the ages
of simple and lively faith. Competent church mu-
sicians and Gregorianists are successful enaitiEUi
similar new melodies to standard texts. Their use u
becoming widespread.

There is very little trace of the existence in early
times in most EngUsh-speaking countries <^ religious
songs in the vernacular. The mtssicnuuies sentfrom
Rome in the sixth century introduced the litu^oal
chant into the British Isles and seem to have made but
little effort to utilize any characteristicallv national
melodies already existing. Unlike their colleagues in
regions across the Channel, the gleemen, harpers, and
bards of old continued to cultivate chiefly Uie secular
field, and their productions and activity liad not much
influence on the creation and development of anational
religious song literature, nor does Celtic musical and
poetical culture seem to have been directed into that
channel. While polyphonic music had attained a
highly flourishing state before the sixteenth century,
it was only at the time of the Reformation that sin^
ing in the vernacular assumed greater importance m
E^^land. As in the other Protestant countries the
song in the vernacular became a great factor in Brit-
ish national worship. On account of most unpropi-
tioiia conditions during several hundired years fAg-
lish-speakmg Catholics had created but very litUe of
any permanent value until, about the middle of the
last centm?, a new era was inaugurated by religious
poets like Faber and N'ewman. Unfortunate^ their
lyrics have as yet seldom found adequate musical in-
terpretation. What is true of transatlantic English-
sprakii^ CathoUcs holds gooS in a greater degree in
toe United States of America. ParUy on account of
the scarcity of suitable and worthy hymns in tiie Eng-
lish vernacular and pertly on account of inoompie-
tency on the part of those who undertake to i"T>p!y
the deficiency, the taste of the people has been termed
by trivial and superficial tunes, generally echoes of the
opera, the shallow popular air, and even the drinkiruK-
song set to sentimental and often trivial texts. Of
late years, however^ several collections of hymns in the
vernacular, indicating a retom to what is best inro-
ligious poetry and in popular sacred soiw, have come
into existence and are gradually making their w^r into
general use.

Wbinmank, AUory Churek Uuaic (N«w York, lftlO)t
BaOhkcb, Dom (foutodw K^tkmtUd in teinm AinpiHwcn (Ft^-
burs, 1901); Waoneb, BinftUmuia in dxt orrgorianueKen tida-
4in (Friboun, 1901); Tiebmt, Melodies popuiain* det
•met dt Franca, imMi fransai*, ate. (Parii, 1894) ; DncHnm,
ChrMan Worahip (London, 1903).

Joseph Orrair.

Soncish TmHant. — Atribeof someimportoncefor*
me^ holding the south coast of Vancouver Island, -
B. p., in the immediate vicinity of the present Vic-
toria and now gathered upon smsJl reservations at
SoQgheee, Cheerno (Beecher Island), Discovei;y Is-
land, and Esquimalt, within their former territory,
and under the Cowichan agency. Their proper name
is Lkungen, the other being a corruption of Btsangite,
the name (u a former principal division. They are
of Salishan linguistic stock and apaik the same lan-
guage as the Sanetch and Sodce of Vancouver Iriand
and the Czalam and Lummi of Washington. . From
1000 souls they have wasted away from small-pox and
diseases induced by dissipation on the firet adv^t of
the whites about fifty years ago. In 1895 they still
numbered 215, but by 1910 had decreased to 171, and
within another generation will probably cease to ex-
ist. Although visited by several of the early voy-
aoOT t^dr first iwular communioatiott witli the
whites dates from tbe establishment/of FnrtCuBO-

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142

by ana Hudson's Bay Company in 1S43 at the
present site of Victoria and close to the village d the
principal Songish chief. The secular priest, Fatho*
John B Bolduc (d. 1889), already known for his mis-
sionary work among the tribes of Puget Sound, had
been requested to accompany the expedition, and
through his good offices a friendly meeting was ar-
Tangedwith Uie Indians. On Sunday, Id March, the
whole tribe thronged to attend Mass and a sermon,
which was held in a temporary chapel, after which
over one hundred children were baptized. No con-
tinuous work was undertaken until the arrival of the
Oblate vicar, Father L. J.' d'Herbomez, who estab-
lished a residence at Esquimalt in 1857 and was

1'oined two years later by several SisterB of Saint Ann.
n 1859 the distinguished Oblate missionary Father
Casimir Chirouse, beloved by all the tribes of Puget
Sound, arrived from the Columbia Country, and was
soon joined by two younger workers of the same order,
almost equaHy noted later, Fathers Pierre P. DuHeu
and Lton Fouquet. Protestant work was b^un by
the Episcopalian Rev. John B. Good in 1861. In the
meantime the discovery of gold on the mainland had
reaultcd in an influx of miners and dissolute adven-
turers, which made Victoria a centre of dissipation
and for a long time virtually nullilled missionary effort.
hi 1862 a small-pox epidemic swept over the whole
iwioa and terribly wasted all the tribes. Of the
wfiole nuinb^ two-thirds are now Catholic, most of
ib» othcn being Methodists. They are repiorted as
industrious and prosperous farmers, fishermen, and
labourers, moral and fairly temperate.

In tiieir primitive condition the Songisb had the clan
system, with twelveclans, eachof which haditsownfish-
ing and bunting territory. Ghiefsfaip was hereditary
in the nu^e line and they had the three castes of no-
bles, oommons, and slaves. Salmon-fishing and berry-
picking were the chie^ dependence for subsistence.
They uved in large rectangular communal houses of
cedar pltuiks, adorned with carved and jointed totem
posts. They had laive dug-out c^oee of cedar, and
wove blankets from dogs' hair, duck down, and the
woolV the mountain goat. They had the potlatch
or ceremonial gift distribution, common to all tb»
tribes of the norUi-west coast. Head flattening was
also practised. There were many curious customs,
beheu, and taboos concerning births^ puberty, mar-
riage, and death. The dead were buried in canoes or
boxes upon the surface of the ground, or laid away in
trees. Slaves were frequently sacrificed at the grave.
The names of the dead were never mentioned. As
with othw tribes of ^e region thar culture hero was the
Great Transffmn^. The religion was animism, each
man having his protecting dream spirit, and the tribal
life and ceremonial were dominated by two secret
societiee.

BxNCRorr, HUt. «4 firAfih CoIiimMit (Sao Fnnciseo, 1887) :
Matmx, foiar Ywn \n Br&itk ColmMa and Vancotmr Idana
QMVAtm, 18S2): Boab, Sixth RepoH on NoM-^Mittrn Tribet of

^mada, Brit. Asm, Jvt Adtaneement a/ Seienee (Ltmdaa, 1890):
Canada, Dept. of Indian Affairs, Annual RtparU (Ottawa):
MoKicB, Caiholie Church in Wettem Canada (Toronto, tOlO).

James Moombt.
Boog of Solomon. See Canticlb or CAimcLBa.

Soxmius, Fhanciscus. theologian, b. atZon in Bra-
bant, 12 August, 1506; a. at Antwerp, 30 June, 1576,
His real name was Van de Velde, but in later years he
called himself after his native place. He went to
school at Bois-le-Duc and Louvain, and afterwards
studied medicine for a time, then theology; in 1536 he
recaved the licmtiate and in 1539 the doctorate in the-
ol^. After labouring for a short time as a pariah
priest at Meo-beek and Louvain he became professor
of theok^ at Louvain in 1544, and attended the
Council of Trent in 1546, 1547, and 1551. He was
sent to the council first by Bishop Karl de Croy van
Domnik, then by Maria of Hungaiy, the r^entof the
NfltherimlB. In 1557 he aho took an active part in

Hw reliaous disputation d Wonus. Not loos after

this liiiBpII sent him to Rome to n^tiate with P«il
IV in ngfiid to ecclesiastical matters in the Nether-
lands, especially as to increasing the number of dio-
ceses and separating the Belgian monasteries from the
German, as m the latter heresy was rapidly spreading.
In acknowledgment of his successful labours he was
appointed Biwop of Bois-le-Duc ih 1566, but he was
not consecrated until two years lata*, by Cardinal
Granvella. In 1569 he was appointed the first Bishop
of Antwero and in the following year came into poih
session of his diocese. He did much to strengthen the
Church, founding an ecclesiastical court ana persOD-
ally visiting all
the parishes of his
diocese. He pro-
claimed at once
the decisiMis of
the Council of
Trent and eetab-
hshed regular
meetings of the
deaneries. As
Bishop of Ant-
werp, he held two
diocesan synods,
setting an ex-
ample that ex-
erted influence far
beyond the boim-
daries of the Arch-
bishopric of Mech-
hn. He showed
particular zeal in
combatting tiie
errors of Calvin-
ism and wrote fat
tfaia purpose a
clear summary

of its teachinas for the use of the clergy, under the title
"Sucoincta demonstratio errorum confessionis Cal-
vinistffi recenter per has regiones sparste" (Louvain,
1567). He also wrote a textbook of^ dogmatics: "De-
monatrationum religious (diristianffi libri tree" (Ant*
werp, 1564), to whiui in 1577, after his death, a fourth
book was added, "De sacramentis". In 1610 the
cathedral dbaptw and the city erected a mouomait
to him.

Gils and Comnrn, Ifieuun bfchrijting mn hM biadom
fioMh, I (Boift-le-Due, 1840). 218; AUge. dmOuita Biag., TLXXXV.

PATBIcniB SCBUUIBB.

Son of Qod. In the Old Testambmt. — l%e tide
"son of God" is frequent in the Old Testament.
The word "son" was employed among the Semites
to signify not only filiation^ut other close connexion
or intimate relationship. Tfaus, "a son of strength"
was a hero, a warrior, "son of wickedness" a wicked
man, "sons of pride" wild beasts, "son of possession"
a possessor, "son of pledj^" a hostage, "son of
lightning" a swift bird, "son of death" one doomed
to death, "son of a bow" an arrow, "son of Befial"
a wicked man, "sons <rf prophets" disciples of
prophets, etc. The title "son of God" was applied
m tne Old Testament to persons having any spiecial
relationship with (Sod. Angels, just and pious men,
the descendants of Seth, were cmled "sons of God"
(Job, i, 6; ii, 1; Pa. Ixxxviii, 7; Wisd., ii, 13; etc.).
In a umilar manner it was given to Israelites
(Deut., xiv, 1); and of Israel, as a nation, we read:
"And thou shalt say to him: Thus saith the Lord:
Israel is my son, my firstborn. I have said to thee:
Let my son go, that he may serve me" (Ex.,iv,228q.).

The leaders of the people, kings, princes, judges,
as holding authority from God, were called sons of
God. The theocratic king as heutenant of God, and
eqwciaUy wbeo be was providentially selected to be

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a type of the Meeriaa, was hoDOOxed witii the title of tlie Clavd, saying: This is my beloved Son, in
"aon of Ood". But the Mearias, the Cboeen One, whom I am well pleued: hear ye aim" (Matt., x\-ii,
the Elect of Oad, waa par «MtlhtU9 called Uie 6; Mark, ix, 6: Luke, ix, 35). Though Bok admits
Bon of Qod (Pd. ilj 7). Even W^auieo admits that ttiat the words epoken at the Baptism need not
11 ta Meaeidmo H&dt., "Diet, of the Bible", necessarily mean more than what was suggested by the
IV, Th4 pi^pbMi(« r^Ai^t^ the Mesaiaa OldTestament, viz.Sonof GodisequaltotheMffisias,
oe«ame clearer aa tune went dfl, Afld the remit Is still, as the same words were used on both occasions,
ably summed up by Sanday (ibid.): "The Scripturta H Is likely they had the same meaning in both eases-
of which we nave been speaking mark so many Th^ Transfiguration took place within a week after
different contributions to the total result, but the St. Peter's ooafesfflon. and the words were tised in the
result, when it is attained, has the oompleteness of meaning in which ihe three disciples would then
an organic whole. A FiRora was ereated-^iojected understand them; and at the Baptism it is prolmbte
as it were upon the oloudb— ^irtiioh was invested with that only Christ, and perhaps Uie Baptist, heard thenot
all the attributes of a person. And the miiids of men so that it is not neoaE»ary to interpret them accord-
. were tum^ towards It In an attitude of expectation, ing to the current opinions of the crowd. Even so
h til&kGi Htt wait«f thai (h« lidM of the Figure are cautious a critic as the Anglican Professor Sanday
dra*nx from diffetedt originals: They ineet at last writes on theee passages: "And if, on the occasions
ih ft fflngle portraiture. And we sbould u^ret have la auestion, the Spirit of God did intimate prophet-
known how perfectly they meet if we had not the New Ically to chosen witnesses, more or fewer, a revelaUon
Testament picture to compare with that of the Old couched partly In the language of the ancient Scrip-
Testament. The most literal fulfilment of prediction tures, it would by no means k>11ow that the meaning
would not be more conclusive proc^ that all Uie of the revelation was limited to the meaning of the
course of the worid and all the threads of histc»y <^d» Scriptures. On the contrarv, it would be likely
are in one guiding Hand." The Measias beeides bong enough that the old words would be char^ with
the Son of Ood was to be called Emmanuel (God new meaning — that, indeed the revelation . . .
with ub), Wonderful, ' Counsellor, God the Mighty, would yet be in substance a new revelation. . . .
the Father of the world to come, Prince of Peace (Is., And we may assume that to His (Christ's) mind the
viii, 8; ix, 6) (see Mbssias). announcement 'Thou art my Son' meant not only
In tbb New TSstambnt. — The title "the Son d all that it ever meant to the most enlightened seers
Ood" Is frecmently applied to Jesus Christ in the of the past, but, vet more, all that the response of
Gospels and Epistles. In the latter it is everywhere His own heart tola Him that it meant in the prsent.'
• employed as a short formula for expressing His . . . But it is posmble, and we should be justified in
Divinity (Sanday); and this usage throws liglit on supposing — not by way of dogmatic assertion but
the meaning to be attached to it in mairy pasBagea by way ctf pious belief — in view of the later history
of the Gospels. The angel announced: "He shall oe and the progress of subsequent revelation, that the
great, and shall be called the Son of the most High words were intended to suggest a new truth, not
> . . the Holy which shall be bom of thee shall be hitherto made known, viz. that the Son was Son not
called the Son of God" (Luke, 1, 32, 35). Nathaniel,- only in the sense of the Messianic Kin^, or of . an
at his first meeting, called Him the Son of God (Jt^n, Id^ Pecn}le, but that the idea of sonship was ful-.
i, 40). The devils called Him by the same name, the filled in Him in a way yet more mysterious and yet
Jews irotaically, and the Apostles after He quelled the more eesential; in other words, that He was Son.
storm. In all these cases its meaning was equivalent not merely in prophetic revels^ion, but in actual
to the Mesfflas, at least. But much more is implied transcendent fact before the foundation of the
in the confession of St. Peter, the testimony of the world" (Hastings, "Diet, of the Bible").
Father, and the words of Jesus Christ. Teslimotiy o( Jesus Chriat. — (1) The Synoptics. —
Confession of St. Peter. — We read in Matt., xvi, The key to ttus is contained in His words, luter the
15, 16: "Simon Peter answered and Bsid: Thou art Resurrection: "I ascend to my Father and to your
Christ, the Son of the living God. And Jesus answer- Father" (John, xx, 17). He alwaw spoke of my
ing, said to him: Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jona: Father, never of our Father. Hesaid to the disciples:
because flesh and blood hath not revealed it to thee. "Thus then shall you pray: Our Father", etc. He
but my Father who is in heaven." The parallel everywhere draws the clearest possible distinction
passages have: "Thou art the Christ" (Mark, vni, between the way in which God was His Father and
29), '"The Christ of God" (Luke, ix, 20). There can in which He was the Father of all creatures. His
be no doubt that St. Matthew gives the original form expressirais clearly prove that He claimed to be of
of the expression, and that St. Mark and St. Luke the same nature with God; and His claims to Divine
in ^ving "the Christ" (the Messias), Instead, used Sonship are oontMned very dearly in the Synoptic
it in the sense in which they understood it when they Gospels, though not as frequently as in St. John,
wrote, vii. as equividcnt to "the incarnate Son of "Did you not know, that I must be about my
Ood" (see Rose, VI). Sanday, writing of St. Peter's father's buuness?" (Luke, ii, 49); "Not every one
eoi^ession, says; - "the context clearly proves that that saith to me. Lord, Lord, shall enter into the
Matthew had before him some further tradition, kingdom of heaven: but he that doth the will of my
possibly that of the Logia, but in any case a tradition Famer who is in heav«i, he shall enter into the king-
that has the look of being original" (Hastings, "Diet, dom of heaven. Many will say to me in that day:
of the Bible"). As Rose welfpoints out, in the minds Lord, Lord, have not we prophesied in thy name, and
of the Evangdists Jesus Christ was the Mesnas cast out devils in thy name, and done many miracles
because He was the Son of God, and not the Son of in thy name? And then will I profess unto tiiem,
God because He was the Messias. I never knew you: depart from me ^u, that
Testimony o( the Father.— (I) At the Baptism.— work iniquity" (Matt., vii, 21-23). "Everyone
"And Jesus bemg baptized, forthirfth came out of the therefore that sh^l confess me before men, I
water: and lo, the heavens were opened to him: and will also confess him before my Father who is in
he saw the Spirit of God descending as a dove, and heaven" (Matt., x, 32). "At that time Jesus an-
ooming upon nim. And behold a voice from heaven, swered and said : I confess to thee, 0 Father, Lord of
saying: This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well heaven and earth, because thou hast hid these things
pleas»i" (Matt., lii, 16, 17). "And there came a from the Trise and prudent, and nast revealed them
voice from heaven: Thou axt my beloved Son; in to Uttle ones. Yea, Father; for so hath it seemed
thee I un well pleased" (Mark, i, 11: Luke, iii, 22). oood in thy ^t. All things are ddivered to me
(2) At HiB Tt»iifiguratiQn.-~''Ana lo, » voiee out by nty F^^i^Fi And no one knowedi 1^9<»^ oat

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the Father; neither doth any one know the Father,
but the Son, and he to whom it shall pleaae the Son
to reveal him. Come to me, all you that labour, and
are burdened, and I will refreeih you" (Matt., xi,
25-30; Luke, x, 21, 22). Jn the parable of the wicked
huflbandmen the son is distinguished from bI\ other
messengers: ''Therefore faaviiv yet one son, most
dear to him; lie also sent him unto Ihem last of all,
saying: They wiU reverence my eon. But the hus-
bandmen said one to another: This is the heir; oome
let us kill him" (Mark, xii, 6). Compare Matt.,
x»i, 2, "The kingdom of heaven is likened to a king,
who made a mam^e for his son. " In Matt., xvii, 25,
He states that as Son of God He is free from Uie
temple tax. "David then^ore himself calleth him
Lord, and whence is he then his son?" (Mark, xii, 37).
He is Lord of the angels. He shall come "in theclouds
of heaven with much power and majesty. And he shall
send his angels" (Matt., xxiv, 30,31). He confessed
before Caiphas that he was the Son the blessed
God (Mark, xivj 61-2). "Going therefore, teach ye
all nations, baptizing them in the name of toe Father,
andof the Son, and of the Holy Ghost . . . and behold
I am witib you all days, even to the consummation
of the world" fMatt., xxviii, 19, 20).

The claims of Jesus Christ, as set forth in the Sy-
noptic Gospels, are so great that Salmon is Justified
in writing (Introd. to New Test., p. 197) : " We deny
that they [Christ's utterances in the Fourth Gospel] are
at all inconsistent with what is attributed to Him in
the Synoptic Gospels. On the contrary, the dignity
d our Saviour's person, and the duty of adhering to
Him, are as strongh^ stated in the disoourses wmch
St. Matthoir puts mto His mouth as in any later
Gospel. . . . The Synoptic Evai^lists all agree
in representing Jesus as persistii^ in this claim (of
Supreme Judge] to the end, and finally incurring
condemnation for blasphemy from the high-priest ana
the Jewish Council. ... It follows that the clainw
which the Synoptic Gospels represent our Lord as
making for Himself are so high . . . that, if we
accept the Synoptic Gospels as truly representiiu; the
character ci our Lord's language about Himself, we
eoiunly have no right to reject St. John's account,
on the score that he puts too exalted language about
Himself into the mouth of our Lord."

(2) St. John's Gospel. — It will not be neceasaiy
to give more than a few passages from St. John's
Gomel. "My Father worketh until now; and I
work. . . . For the Father love^ the Son, and shew-
eth hiTin all things which he himself doth: and greater
worira than these will he ^ew him, that you may
wonder. For as the Father raiseth up the dead, ana
(pveth life: so the Son also giveth life to whom he
will. For neither doth the Father judge any man,
but hath ^ven all judgment to the Son. That all
may honour the Son, as they honour the Father"
(v, 17, 20-23). " And this is the will of mv Father that
sent me: that everyone who seetb toe Son, and
believeth in him, may have life everlasting, and I will
rMse him up in the last day" (vi, 40). **Father, the
hour is come, glorify thy Son, that thy Son may

florify thee. . . . Ajid now glorify thou me, O
'ather, with thyself, with the glory whidi I had,
before the worlcf was, with thee'*^ C^ii. li 5).

(3) St. Paul.— St. Paul in the Epistles, which we«
written much earlier than most of our Go^>eIs,
clearly teaches the Divinity of Jesus Christ, and th^
He was the true Son of Ood; and it is important to
remember that his enemies the Juduzers never dared
to attack this teaching, a fact which proves that they
could not find the smulest semblance of a discrepancy
between his doctrines on this point and that of the
other Apostles.

Lmns, Jinu MmU wl FiU ie Dieu (Paris, 1900): «1so Bd?-^-
(Fhiladekiift): Robe, Suuhu on tht OotpeU (LondoD. 1008);
BunuT, ZfM. ZMeC Mil*. C. AhIBHB.

L4 8Q«r

Son of BKan.— In tiie Old Testament "son of man"
is always translated in the Septuaginst without the
article as Mt MptArm. It is employed (1) as a poetical
synonym for man, or for the ideal man, e. g. "God
is not as a man, that he should lie, nor as a son of
man, that he should be dianged" (Num., xxiii, 19).
"Blessed is the man that doth this and Uie son of man
that shaU lay hold on this" (Is., Ivi, 2). "Let thy
hand be upon the man of thy right hand: and upon the
son of man whom thou hast confirmed for thyself"
(Ps. bcxix, 18). <2) The Prophet Ezechiel is addressed
by God as "son of man" more than ninety times, e. g.
"Son of man, stand upon thy feet, and I will apoak to
thee" (Ezech., ii, 1). This usage is confined to Ew-
chiel except one pass^e in Daniel, where GahnfA said:
" Understand, O son of man, for in the time of the end
the visimi shall be fuliilled (Dan., viii, 17).

(3) In the great vision of Daniel, after the appear^
anoe of the four be&'its, we read: "I b^eld themore
in the Vision of the night, and lo, one like a son of man
came with the clouds of heaven, and he came even to
the Ancient of days: and they presented him before
him. And he gave hSm power, ukI glory, and a Ung-
dom: and all peoples, tnbes, and tongues i^all serve
hiih: his power is an everlasting power that shall not
be taken away: and his kingdom shall not be de-
stroyed" (vii, 13sq.). The person who appears here
as son of man is interpreted by many non-Catholics
as rei»«Benting the MTeesianic kingdom, but tJiere is
nothmg to prevent the passage from being taken to
represent not only the Messianic lungdom, but par
excdlence the Mee»anic king. In the explanation,
verse 17, the four beasts are "four kings" R.V., not
"four kingdoms" as translated by D. V., though they
appear to signify four kingdoms as well, for the
characteristics of oriental kingdoms were identified
with the characters of their kings. So when it is said
in verse 18: "But the saints of the most high God
shall take the kii^dom: and they shall possess the
kingdom for ever and ever", the king is no more ex-
clucwd here than in the case of the four beasts. The
"son <^ man" here was early interpreted of ihe Mee-
sias, in the Book of Henoch, where the expression is
used almost as a Messianic title, though there is a
good deal in Drummond's argiunent that even here
it was not used as a Meesianic title notwithstanding
t^e fact that it was understood of the Messias. It has
to be added that in the time of Christ it was not very
widely, if at all, known as a Messianic title.

The employment <A the expresdon in the Gospels
is very remarkable. It is used to designate Jesus
Qbjist no fewer than eighty-one times — uiirty times
in St. Matthew, fourteen timee in St. Mark, twenty-
five times in St. Luke, and twelve times in St. John.
Contrary to what obtains in the Septuagint, it appears
everywhere with the article, as & ^ roO M^Strm.
Gredc scholars are agreed that the correct transla-
tion of this is "tJie son of man", not "the son of the
man". The possible ambiguity may be one of tiie
reasons why it is seldom or never found in the ear^
Gredc Fathom as a title for Christ. But the most
remarkable thing cotmected with "the Son of Man"
is that it is found only in the mouth of Christ. It
is never employed b^ the disciples or Evangelists,
nor hy the early Christian writers. It is found once
only m Acts, miere St. Stephen ratdaims: "Behold,
I see the heavens opened, and the Son of Man stand*
ing on the right hand of God" (vii, 55). The whole
incident proves that it was a well-known expression
of Christ 8. Though the saying was so frequently
employed by Christ, the disciples preferred some more
honorUio title and we do not find it at all in St. Paul
nor in the other Epistles. St. I^ul perhaps uses
Bomethii^ like an equivalent when he calls Christ
the second or last Adajn. The writers of the Efristles,
moreovo-, probabfy wished to avoid iim Greek am-
tnguity iuat alluded to.

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Hm ciqaoarioa ia Cairiit'& in s|Bte ct ib» fottle
attempts of some Gmnaa Rationalists and othera
«o show that He could not have used it. It was not

invented by the writers of the Gospels to whom it
did not appear to be a favourite titfe, as the^ never
use it of Christ thrauaelves. It was not derived by
them from what is asserted was a f^se interpretation
of Daoie^ because it appears in the early portions of
the public ministry wluBie then is no ref erenoe to
Darnel The objection that Qirist could not have
used it in Aramaic because the only similar expreeaion
was bar-^uuha, which then meant only "man", ttor
having by that time lost its meaning of "son , is
not of much weight. Only little ia known of the
Aramaic spoken in Palestine in the time of Christ:
and as Drimunond points out special meaning ooiUd
be given to the word by the emphasis with which
it was pronounced, even if bor-nasAa had lost its
primary meaning in Palestine, vbkh is not at all
proved. As the same writer shows, thoe were other
fficpresuons in Aramaio wliidi Christ could have em-

floyed for the purpose, and Sanday suggests that
[e may have occasionally spoken in Greek.
The early Fathers were of the opinion that the ex-
pression was used out of humility and to ^ow Christ's
Ikuman nature, and this is very probable oonsidering
the early rise of Dooetism. This is also the opinicm
of Cornelius a Lapide. Others, saA as Knabentnuiar,
tiiink that He adopted a title whii^ would not give
umbrage to His enemies, and which, as time went on,
was capable of being apblwd so as to cover His Mes-
sianic clainiB — to include everything that had been
foretold of the representative man, the seaond Adam,
the suffering servant of Jehovah, the Messianic king.

J4*ut Mtuie tt FiU d» DUu (Patia, 1906); Ron, SfudUt on
C*« GtuptU (London, 1903}; Dbumhomd, Tk* Jow. «/ Tfttol.
Studw, n (1901), 360, 539; Hartl, jlrvforw uiu^ Eadede* Tit^
"MtncAnueAn" in Bibt. ZnUchrift (Freiburg, 1909), 342.

C. Ahebne.

Bonora, Diocese of (db Sonoba), in tiie Republic
of Mexico, suffragan of the Archdiocese of Durango.
Its area is that of the state of the same name, 76t619
•9. miks, and its population (1910) 262,545. The
bishop imd the governor of &b state reside at Herau>>
(dllo, a city situated 681 ft. above sea level, containing
(1910) about 14,518 mhabitants. The Gospel was
first preached in the territory of the Diocese of Sohora
by the cel^rated Father Niza, who accompanied
Uie daring expeditions of the first explorers and con-
querors of Mexico. The Spaniards settled at different
places in this section; they evangelized the numerous
tdbea who lived in that rmon in the b^iinning of the

eeventeenth century, afternaving estabusbed tbe new
See of Durango, to which all these lands were given.
Ilie Jesuits, who were assigned the task of converting
to Chriatianity the people of these lands, founded tbe
famous missions of Kio Yaqui, Rio Mayo, and Upper
and Lower Fimeria. Notable among these pnests
was the celebrated Father Kino (q. v.). When the
Jesuits were expelled from all the Spanish colonies
(1767) th^ had the foUowin|[ residenoee: Mission
of the Upper and Lower Fimena (Guazaves, Aconche,
M^pe, Oposura, Movas, S. Ignacio, Arizpe, Aribeohi,
Batuoo, Onavas, Cucurupe, Cumuripa, c^guaripa,
8ta Mfuia Soanca, Tubutama, Odope, Sario, lecoripa,
Ures, Caborca, Babiape, Baca de Guachi, Cuquiarachi,
Onapa, Banamichi) ; S. Javier del Bac, Santa Maria
Basoraca, and Guebabi, which were then in the terri-
toiy now belonging to tha United States; Missiou
del Rio Yaqui (Hulrivis, Belon, Rahnm, Torim,
Baeum) ; Mission del Rio Mayo ^enta Cruz, Gaamoa,
Nabojoa, Conioari, Batacosa;.

On 7 May, 1779, Pius YX established the Diocese
of Bonora, to which belonged at that time the present
states of Sinaloa and Sonora and the two Calif omias
(tipper and Lower). It was suffn«an of the then
fwimfnt ArehdioeesB of Maxioo. Tuia tMritcoy ma
XIV.— 10

dnidad In 1840 irtieo tiie See of S. B^aneiBeo de
Califonua was founded. In 1863 it ceased to be a
suffragan of Mexioo and became suffragan of the new
metropolitan see established at GUiadi^jara. In 1873
it was separated from Lower California, which be-
came a vicariate Apostolic, and in 1888, when the
See of Sinaloa was created^ the See of Sonora was
reduced to its jwesent limits. In 1891 Leo XIII,
by the Bull lUud in Primu, separated this See from
the eceksiaBtical Province of (xuadalajara uid made
it a suffragan of tiie new Archdiocese of Duran^.
The bishop's reaidenoe was first situated in ihe city
of Arispe, but owii^ to the uprising of the Indiana
it was removed to AJamoe and later to Culiacan, the
present eapital of the State of Sinaloa. When the
new See of Sinaloa was created tbe Bi^u^ of Scmraa
made his residence at Homoeillo.

This dioeeae has 1 aemmaiy with 10 students, 17
parochial sdioob, 2 Catholic collies with about 700
students. Prot^tants have founded 11 churches.
Among the 221,000 inhabitanta a great number of
Indiana from the Seris, Yaquis, Apaches, Papagos,
and other tribes are to be found; Uiese have unJor*
tunately returned in large numbers to barbarism
since the missionaries abandoned them. Few Apaches
and Papagos Indians remain in the Sonora territory.
Hie Sens Indians aro more numeroua and live in the
large island of Tiburon in the Gulf of California and
in a large part of the territory along the banks of the
Rio Sonora. Those who live on the island are savage
and opposed to civilisation, wiiile those on the con-
tinent have formed agricultural colonies and are quite
subdued since the last uprising. As to the Yaqui
Indians, the Federal Government of Mexico has had
some serious tronble with them. It appears, however,
that had they not been deprived of their landa a more
peae^iil people could hanlly be fotmd.

VbKa, Cateeuwto mogrdfieo hMirico dt li» IgUtia Mexieana
(Ameoameca, 1881); Davila, ConlitutaiMn da la hittoria dtlaC.
aej.m Nima Btpafta (Puebla, 1889) ; Carrez, Aliat otoanphieua
Soeielati* Jtiu (Piuia, 1900) ; Douknbch, Gma oeiural dferiplita
df la ilqwWaa iOxieana (Mudoo, 1899).

CAMILLnB CrIVELLI.

Boothsarlnff. See Divination.

Sophana, a titular see, suffragan of Melitene in
Armenia Secunda. In the sixth century "Notitiie
^iscopatuum" of Antiocb, Sophene is a suffragan of
Anida in Mesopotamia ("Eclws d'Orient", X, 145).
Justinian in a letter to Zetas, "master militum" of
Armenia and Pontus Polemoniacus, grants him juris*
diction over various provinces, among them Sophene
and Sophenene, "in qua est Martyropolis" ("Codex.
Just.", I, 29, 5). At the beginning of the seventh
eentuiy George of Cyprus ("Descriptio orbia ro-
mani", ed. GeTzer, 49) mentions Sophene in Armenia
Quarta, snd we know elsewhere that Arsamosata waa
^e capita of the latter province. From these texts
we conclude, first, that there were two distinct dia-
tricts, Sophene ratuated more to the north and very
well known to the Clascal writers as an Armenian

grovince, subject to the Roman Empire, and, second,
ophenene, situated near Martyropolis and Amida.
The latter is pxobfdily the titular see. Le Chiien
("Orienschristoanus", il, 1001), mentions two bishops
of Sophene: Ars^htis, presoit at the Council of
Constantinople in 381 ; EuphemiuB, at Chalcedon, 461.
The exact gdiuation of this bishopric is unknown.

SmTH, IHtl, of Oreek and Boman Qtog, (London, 1870), i. v.;
La /inmUin di rXupAroi* (PwS, 1007). 168-70.

S. YAILHfi.

Sophlata, a group of Greek teaohers who flourished
at the end of the fifth century B. c. They claimed to
be j)urve^ors of wisdom — hence the name vo^mto^
which originally meant one who poffiesses wisdom—
but in re^ty undertook to show that all true certitude
is unattainwle, and that culture and preparation for
the bnsmeaB at pidiUo life are to be aoomred, not by

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onrfbund thinking, but by disouaeion and debate.
Id accordance with tt^s prinoiple, they gathered
around them the youuK men of Athens, and profeesed
to prepare them for their career as oitiiens and as
men by teaching them the art of public speaking and
the theory and practice of ai^umentation. They did
not pretaad to teach how the truth is to be attained.
They did not oare whether it could be att<dned or not.
They aimed to impart to their pupils tUa abiUty to
make the better cause Beem the worse, and worse
the better. If we are to believe their opponents,
Plato and Aristotle, they affected all kinds <h refine-
ment, in dresa, speech, gesture, etc., and carried their
k>vG of argumentation to the point where all BoriouS'
nesB of purpose teased and quibblii^ and sophistry

he principal Sophists were: Protacoras of Abdera,
called the Individualist; Gorgias of Leontini, sur-
named the Nihilist: Hippias of Ells, the PolymaUiist;
and Prodicus of Ceos, the MoraJist. GorgiaB was
called the Nihilist because of his doctrine '"nothing
exists: even if anything existed, we oould know noth-
ing about it, and. even if we knew anything about
anything, we could not communicate oiur knowledge ".
Hippias was called the PolymaUust because helaid
claim to knowledge of many outK^-the-way subjects,
such as archeology, and used this knowledge for the
flot^iisticfil purpose of dazzling and embarrassing his
opponent in argument. Procucus, called the Moral-
ist oecause in his disoourses, especially in that which he
entitled "Hercules at the Cross-roads", he strove to
inculcate moral lessons, although he did not attempt
to reduce conduct to principles, but taught rather by
proverb, epigram, and illus^tion. The most uo*
portant of aH the Sophists was Protagoras, the In-
dividual iBt, BO called oecause he held that the indi-
vidual is the test of all truth. "Man is the measure
of all things" is a saying attributed to him by Plato,
which sums up the Sophists' doctrine in regard to the
value of knowledge.

The Sophists may be said to be the first Greek
sceptics. The materialism of the Atomisto, the ideal-
ism of the Eleatics, and the doctrine oi univenal
change which was a tenet of the School of HeracUtus
— all these tendencies resulted in a condition of un-
rest, out of which philosophy could not advance to
a more satisfactory state until an enquiry was made
into the problem of the value of knowledge. The
Sophists did not undertake that enquiry — a task re-
served for Socrates (q. v.) — ^however, they called
attention to the existence of the problem, and in that
way, and in that way only, they contributed to the
progress of philosophy in Greece. The absuxdities
to which the Sophistic method was carried by the
later Sophists was due in part to the Megarians, who
made common cause with them, and suratituted the
method of strife (Eristic method) for the Socratio
method of discovery (Heuristic method). It was
inevitable^ therefore, that the name Sophist should
lose its primitive meaning, and come to designate, not
a man of wisdom, but a^uibbler, and one who usee
Mllacious argmnents. Too Sophists re^s'esent a
phase of Greek thouj^t which, while it had no oon-
Sbnctive value, and is, indeed, a step backward and
not forward, in the course of GreeK speculation is
nevertheless of great importance historically, because
it was the evil influence of the Sophists that inspired
Socrates with the idea of refuting them by showing
the conditions of true knowledge. It was, no doubt,
their me^ds, tooj iJiat Aristotle had in mind when
he wrote his treatise of the fallacies, and entitled it
"De Sophisticis ElMichis".

For texts »oe Ri-iter aNp Pbsli.br, Hittoria Phit. Onnm
(Ootha, 1888), 181 sq.; Bakewell. Smirtx Book in Anciml Phi-
htovhy (New York, 1907), 67 sq.; ZsLLSB, PrtSomOie PhiitMO-
' I, tr. ALLETNEXLondou. ISSl}: II. 304 sq.; TuBinCB, HU-
PMot^j/ (BoMon, 1903), TO aq.

WiLUAU Tusma.

Sc^onias, tiw ninth of the twelve Minw Ptopheti

ci the Canon of the Old Testament, preached and
iiTOte in the second half of the seventh century b. c.
He was a contemporary and supporter of the great
Prot^et Jeremias. His name (Ueb. Zephcmja, that
is "roe Lord conceals", "the Lord protects") might,
on the anidogy of Gottfried, be most briefly tran^
lated by the words God protect. The only primarjr
source from i^ch we obtain our scanty knomedge m
the persomJit^r and the rhetorieal and litc9>ary quali-
ties <tf Sophonias, is the short book of the Old Testa-
ment (containii^ only three chapters), which bears
his name. The soene of Ids activity was the city of
Jerusalem (i, 4-10; iii, 1 sqq.; 14 sqq.).

1. Date. — ^The date of the Prophet's activity fell
in the reign of King Joeias (641-11). Sophomas is
one (rf the few Prophets whose chronology is fixed by
a predse dat« in tiie introductory vcree of the book.
Under the two preceding kinas, Amon and Manassei
idolatry had been introduced in the most shameful
forms (especially the calt of Baal and Astarte) into
the Holy City, and with this foreign cult came a
foreign culture and a great eomiption of morals. Jo-
sias, the king with the anointed sceptre, wished to put
an end to the horrible devastation in the holy places.
One of the most zealous champions and advisers of
this reform was Sophonias, and his writing remains
one of the most important documents for the undei^
standing of the era of Josiaa. The Prophet laid the
axe at the root of the religious and moral corruption,
when, in view of the idolatry which had pene&atea
even into the sanctuary, he thr^tened to "destroy
out of this place the remnant of Baal, and ■ the
names of the . . . priests" (i, 4), and pleaded fw
a return to the umplicity of their fathoB instead of
the luxurious foreig^i clothing which was worn espe-
cially in aristocratic circles (i, 8). The o/gta of So-
phonias was also a most serious and decisive period,
because the lands of Anterior Asia were overrun by
fore^ers owing to the migration of the Scythians
in the last decades of the seventh century, and be-
cause Jerusalem, the city of the Prophets, was only a
feV decades before its downfall (580). The far^ee-
ing watchman on Sion's battlements saw this catas-
trophe draw near: "for the day of the Ix>rd is near"
is the burden of his preaching (i, 7). "The great
day of the Lord is near, it is near and excc^ing
jswift: . . . That day wr a day of wrath, a day of
tribulation and distress, a day of calamity and mie-
&y, a day of darkness and obscurity, a day of donda
and whirlwinds" (i, 14-15).

IL CoNTSNTB.-'-'nie book of tte Prophet nato-
rally contains in its three chapters only a sketch of
the fundamental ideas cS the preaching of SoplKM
nias. The selMme of the book m its present form is
as follows:

(a) i, 2-ii, 3.— The threatening of the "day of
the Lord", a uies ira dies ilia of the Old Testament.
The judgment of the Lord will descend on Juda and
Jerusalem as a punishment for the awful d^eneraoy
in religious life (i, 4-7a); it will extend to sS classes
of the pexyplB (i, 7b-13), and will be attended with M
the horrors of a frightful catastrophe (i, 14-18);
therefcH^, do penanoe and seek the Lord (ii, 1-3).

(b) ii, 4-15. — Not only over Jerusalem, but over
the whole worid (tirbi et or&t), over the peoples in all
the four regions of the heavens, will the hand of the
Lord be stretched— westwards over the Philistines
(4-7), eastwards over the Moabites and Ammonites
(&-1I), southwards ov» the Ethiopians (12), and
northwards over the Assyrians and NmiviteB (13-15).

(c) With a special threat (iii, 1-8), the Prophet
tiben turns again to Jerusalem: " Woetotheprovotang,
and redeemed city. . . . She hath not hearkened to Uie
voice, neither hath she received discipline " ; the sevei^
est reckoning will be required of the aristocrats and
the adminiatijttcff; erf the >w (ju titg teadhig nUmm of

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tiie eivil community), and of the Propheta and pneete,
M the directors of public worship.

(d) iii, 9-20. — consolatory prophecy, or prophetic
glance at the Kingdom of God of the future, m which all
^e world, united in one faith and one worship, will
turn to one God, and the goods of the Messianic King-
dom, whose capital is the daughter of "Sion, will be en-
joyed, llie universality of the judgment as well as
of the redemiition is so forcibly eamroaacd in So-

Ehonias Uiat his book may be regarded as the "CaUio-
e Epistle" of the Old Testament.

(e) The last exhortation of Sophonias (iii, 9-20)
also has a Messianic colouring, although not to an ex-
tent comparable with Isaias.

III. Character op thb Pbophbt.— Sophonias'
prophecy is not strongly differentiated from other
prophecies Like that of Amos or Habaouc, it is confined
to the range of thought common to all prc^hetic ex-
hortations: threats of judgment, exhortatitm to pen-
ance, promise of Messianic Hdvation. For tiiis
reason Sophonias might be regarded as the type of
Hebrew Prophets and as the final example of the pro-
phetic termmology. He does not seek the glory of an
original writer, but borrows freely both ideas and style
from the older Prophets (especially Isaias and Jere<
mias). The resemblances to the Book of Deuter-
onomy may be oq^ained by the fact that this book,
found in the Josian reform, was then the centre of re-
ligious interest. The language of Sophonias is vigor-
ous and earnest, as becsjne the seriousness of the
ptfiod, but is free from the gloomy el^ac tone of
Jeremias. In some passages it becomes pathetic and
poetic, without however attaining the classical dic-
tion or poetical flight of a Nahum or Deutero-Isaias.
There is something solemn in the manner in which the
Lord is so frequently introduced as the speaker, and
the sentence of judgment falls on the silent earth (i, 7).
Apart from the few plays on words (cf. especially U,
4), Sophonias eschews all rhetorical and poetical orna-
mentation of language. As to the logical and rhyth-
mical build of the various exhortations, he has two
strophes of the first sketch (i, 7 and 14) with the same
opening ("the day of the Lord is near"), and closes
the second sketch with a hymn (ii, 15) — a favourite
practice of his prototype, Jeremias. A graduated de-
velopment of tne sentiment to a cUmax m the scheme
is expressed bv the fact that the last sketch contains an
animated ana lon^r lyrical hymn to Jerusalem (iii,
14 sqq.). In Christian painting Sophonias isrepre*
sentea in two ways; either with the lantern (referring
to i, 12: "I will search Jerusalem with lamps") or clad
in a toga and bearing a scroll bearing as text the be-
ginning (rf the hymjx "Give praise, O daughter of
aon"liii 14).

IV. CBmCAL PROBLEUS OFFERED BT SOFHO-

NtAS. — The question of authorship is authoritatively
answered by the introductory verse of the book. Even
radical hi^er critics like Marti acknowledge that no
reason exists for doubting that the author of this
prophecy is the Sophonias (Zephaniah) mentioned in
the title ("Das Dodckapropheton", Ttibingoi, 1004,
359). The fact that this Prophet's name is men-
tioned nowhere else in the Old Testam^t does not
affect tbe conclusive force of the first verse of tiie
prophecy. Sophonias is the only Prophet whose gene-
alogy is traced oack into the fourth generation. From
thishas been inferred that the fourth and last ancestor
mentioned Esechias (Hizkiah) is identical with the
king of the sune name (727-698). In this case,
however, the explanatory phrase "King of Judah"
would undoubtedly have been put in apposition to the
name. Gonaequentty the statement concerning the
author of the book m the first part of the introduo-
tory verse appears entirely worthy of belief, because
the stat^ent concerning the chronology of the book
iven in the second half of the same verse is confirmed
intenial eritcria. Tb» daaoriptkma of enstoaif

especially in the first chapter, showing the state <rf r^^
ligion and morals at Jerusalem are, in point of fact, a
true presentation of conditions during the first yean
of the. reign of King Joeias. The woruip of the attn
upon the nat roofs, mentioned in i, 5, an imitation of
the Babylonian worship of the heavens that had be-
come the fashion in Puestine from the reign of Man-
asses is also mentioned bythe oontouporary Prophet,
Jaremiaa (xix, 13; zxxii, 29), as a relinouB diBordw <ri
the Josianie m. All this confirms the credibility of
the witness of i, 1, concerning the authorship of
Sophonias.

Critical investigations, as to where the original texts
in the Book of Sophonias end and the fosses, revisi(HiB
of the text, and still later revisions bemn, have re-
sulted in a unanimous declaration that the first oh^>-
ter of the book is the work of Sophonias; the second
diapter is r^pirded as not so jenuine, and the third
still less so. In separating what are called the seo-
ondary lajrers of the second chapter neariy all the
highw critics have come to diffovnt oonclusions, —

rt eapila, lot senatu. 'E&ch individual verse cannot
investigated here as in the detailed analysis of a
commentator. However, it may be pointed out in
general that the technical plan in the literary oonstruc-
tioo of the speeches, especially the svmmetrical ar^
ransement of the speeches mentionea in sectkm II,
ana the responses spoken of in section III, forbid amy
large excisions. The artistic form used in the con-
struction of the prophetic addresses is reoognixed more
and more as an aid to literary criticism.

The passage most frequently considered an addition
of a later date is iii, 14-20, because the tone of a herald
of salvation here Eidopted does not agree with that of
the prophecies of the threatening judgment of the two
earlier ehapten. It is, however, the custom of the
PnH>hets alter a terrifying warning of the judgments
of Jahve to close with a ghmpse of the brilliant future
of the Kingdom of God, to permit, as it were, the rain-
bow to follow the thunder-storm. Joel first utters
prophetic denunciations which are followed by pro-
phetic consolations ( Joel in Vulfi^te, i-ii, 17;ii, IS-iii);
Isaias in ch. i calls Jerusalem a city like Sodom and di-
rectly afterwards a city of justice, and Micheas, whose
similarity to Sophonias is remarked nqion by critics,
also allows his threats of judgment to die away in
an announcement of salvation. One of the guiding
eschatological thoughts of all the Prophets is this:
The judgmrait is only the way of transition to salvia
tion and the consummation of the history of the world
will be the salvation of what is left of the seed. For
this reason, therefore, Sophonias, iii, 14-20 cannot be
rejected. The entue pkm of the book seems to be in-
dicated in a small scale in the first address, which
closes ii, 1-3, with an exhortation to seek the Lord
that is with a consolatory theme directly after the ter-
rible proclamation of the Day of the Lord.

The queries raised by the textual criticism of the
Book of Sophonias are far simpler and nearer solution
than th(Me connected with the bi^er criticism. The
condition of the text, with exception of a few doubtful
passages, is good and there are few books of the Bibli-
cal canon which offor so few points of attack to BU>-
lical hypercriticism as tbe Book of Sophonias.

lUiMKB, Dtr Pfphtt Ztphmja (MOuter, 1868): Kmabbr-
BAcn, Comptmt. in propk. nin, (Paiu, 1886); tan Hoonackeb,
Let dotuejO. proph. Cnria, 1908); Lippl, Da* Sucfc dti Propk.
Sopktm. (Iwburc,I910),cont^iDg(pp. is-xvi) anexccUent bib*
Uosnvhy: ScnwAJXT, Da* Bttch Zephanja (GiMsen, 1890);
ScHUU, Commml. Hber den Frooh, Zephanja (HBiiover, 1892);
Adahs, The Minor Proph. (New York, 1902): Drivck, The Min.
Propk. (JVokum, /TaftoUvL Zofibmia*) (EditibuiBh, 1907); the
oompett oonmotUiiw of SxsACOC'ZfiaKm; Nowack; MAan;
•ad 0. A. SuiTB.

M. Faulbabxb.

Soohronitu, Saxnt^ Patriarch of Jerusalem wd
Greek ecdesiastioal writer, b. about 560 at Damascus
<tf axAie paimtagB; d. prob^b^ 11 M^di, 638, al

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somoKnre 1

Jenisalem. In company with John Mowhus he trav*
etled extenaiveh' through the East and aJao went to
R4Hne. He probably became a monk m Egypt olxtut
680 and later removed to Palestine. From the year
633 until his death he was the principal exponent of
Monothelitism. Conspicuous for his learning and
inety he became in 634 Patiiaroh of Jerusalem, and
MffTOwfulW witnessed durins his reign the conquest of
Patestine by the Arabs and their capture of Jerusa'
leax. He must probably be identified with the
Sophionius known as the rhetorician (w^^nrr^i), and
was the author of biographies, homilies, and hymns.
Among the first nam^ are: his Life of Jc^ the Al-
moner, written in collaboration with J. Moechus and
only partly preserved in Symeon Metwhrutes: the
lives of Sta. Gyraa and John; and probao^ a Life of
St. Mary of Egypt. Tea homilies wbidi have bean
preserved deal chiefly witii eodeBiastical festivals, and
are ronarkable for uieir dogmatic contents and ora-
torical style. Numerous anacreontic odes entitle
him to a place amoDg Greek ecclesiastical poets. A
large work in which he collected 600 testimonies of
the Fathers in favour of the two wills of Christ has
perished.

Tbe moot oomprebetulve ooU«etioD of the works of Sophroniua
im found ia P. G.. LXXXVII, iii, 3147-4014; Venablm in Did.
Chritt. Biog., b. t. SophTon\u*(lS); VailbA, Sophrotu U toi^iaU tt
SovhroM UjaatriaTche in Renu d« VOrient CArAvsn, VII (IflfKI),
360-85; VIII (1003), 32-69. 356-S7; BABDXNaEWBR.SHAHUi.
Patrolon (St. Loub, 1908), 55&-61, 564-66.

N. A. Weber.

SophroniuB, Bishop of Constantina or Telia in
Oerhoene, was a relative of Ibas, Bishop of Edessa,
and apparently of Uie same theolo^cal tendency,
i. e. stroni^ anti-MonophyBite and liable to be ni»*
peeted of Nestoriauism. He was present at a synod
held at Antioch in 445 at which Athanasius, Bishop of
Pmtha, was deposed on charges of misconduct, the
chief among which was that he had purloined some
silver pillars belonging to the chui^. We have
no means of judging whether these charaes were true;
very possibly, if not trumped up, they were too
easily credited from partisan motives. Four years
later at the Robber Council of Ephesiu (q. v.)
most extrat»dinaiy charges of magio and sorcery
were brou^t agflinst Bi^op Sophronius. For some
reason or other, perhaps because it was foreseen that
the charges would break down, perhaps because he
was not worth cnishing in view of the more important
personages being pursued, Sophronius's case was re-
ferred to the new Bishop of Edessa, when one should
be appointed in place of Ibas whom the Concili-
abumm had deposed. Sophroniw is next heard of at
tlie CouncU of Chalcedon. At the ei^tii session,
after Tbeodoret had anathematiied Nestorius, "the
most reverend bishops cried out 'Let Sc^)hronius
also anathematixe'.^ Sophnmius, the most reverend
bishop of Constantina, said 'anathema to Nestorius
and Eutyches'".

The char^ against Sophronius have only been
brought to light in recent years by the discovery of a
Syriac version of the Acta of the Robber Cnincil.
lliey were made by a priest and two deacons of
Telia (Constantina), who daimed to represent the
rest of the clergy of Uiat city. The bishop, they
declared, practised astrology and other vaticinative
arts of the pagans. The miserable heresy of Nes-
torius which he had learnt from Ibas was not enough
for him, so he threw himself into those other abomina-
tims. He once lost some money, and not content
with making the suspected persona swear on the
Gospels, "he, fiu-Uier testing them by the ordeal
of bread and cheese, compellra them to eat". Hiis
not succeeding, he had recourse to tJie divining cup.
He used the son of one of his servants as a medium,
and with two others, after some incantations, placed
tbe youth before a vessel containing oil and water.
In duB mixture the youtJb first saw flames of Are,

tS 80BBAIT

then "a man sitting on a throne of gold^ and clad
in purple and a crown upon his head . After this
ihay imt the oil and water in a hole near the door,
ana the medium saw the bishop 's son Habib who was
returning home from Constantinople "seated on a
black mare-mule that is blind-folded; and behind
lum two meo on foot". The lad coufeased these
and other like thin^ on oath. He was hMmt^l by
seven men dressed in white and lost his reason, and
was with difficulty cured by bemg brou^^t into holy
places and anointed with oU. Many persons, amraig
others the cc^yists, could testify to Sophronius's
aatrtdogioal writings. A deacon who came to him,
to have a ticket of alms signed, found him inspecting
a brass sphere. His son Habib introduced a Jew into
lus faUm's house and ate with him after the maimer
of the Jews. "Durii^ the week of Lent, when we
fast, he feasted with this Jew, and kept him at table
till ten o'clock; and even carried his audacity (so
far aa) to bring him into the Sanctuary of the Apos-
tles, at the time that Service was beins held, llie
city and the clergy, shocked by this conduct,
chased both the Jew and Habib, who sought refuge
in the Pnetorium of the Commandant (Duke)
Florus. The impious and pagan Florus rushed upcm
the city, where (his people) laid violet hands on a
number of men' and children — certainly more
a hundred. In despair, these took refi^ near
the Tabernacle; but the arrows reached their oodies,
their blood was shed before the Altar, and many died
in the act of embracing it."

Th« Second Si/tiod of Sjiketiu, from Sytiso MSS., «d. Fxbbt

£^10^, 1881). pp. 189-199; see art. sojAron. of Cetubtntiiubi
i. of Chrin. BiOff.

■ Francis J. Bacchus.

Son. See Aquino, Sora, and Pontecorvo, Dio-
cese or.

Sora, a titular see in Paphlagonia, suffn^an of
Gangra. Sora must have been an iosignifioant town;
an inscription discovered at Zorah, a village in the
vilayet of Castamouni, in which a local era and the
worahip of Zeus Epicarpioa are mentioned, has
enabled its exact position to be fixed. (Doublet in
"Bull, de correspondance helldnique", 1889, p. 310.)
It was placed later under the government of the
Pnetor of Paphlagonia (NoveL, 29, 1\ Hierocles,
695, 7). It is spoken of by Coostantme Porpt^-
rogenitus, "De tnemat.", I, 7. Le Quien ("Oriens
christ.", 1, 557), mentions six of its bishops : Theodora
represented by his metropolitan at the Council <a
Chalcedon (451); Olympius, who signed the letter
of the bishoju of the province to Emperor Leo in
458; John, present at the Council of Constantinople
(692); Theophanes, at the Seventh CEcxunenical
Council of Nicaia (787); Phocas, at the eighth gen-
eral Council at Constantinople (869); Constantine,
at the Fbotian Council of Constantinople (879).
ITie Greek "Notitise episcopatuum" mentions the
see till the thirteenth century.

Smith, Diet, of Gretk and Roman Qtog., b. v.; Ruiut, A«£a
Minor (Lmdin, 1880), puaim.

S. Vifoaota.

Sorbait, Paul de, physiciui, b. in Hainault, 1624;
d. at Vieima, 19 April, 1691. He went to scho<^ at
Paderbom, then attended the University of Padua,
wh^ apparently he obtained his degree of Doctor of
Philosophy and Medicine. He practised as a phy-
sician at Rome, Cok^e, and Arnheim, and in Au-
gust, 1652, was made a member of the medical faculty
of the University of Vienna. In 1655 he became pro-
fessor of theoretical medicine at the same university,
and in 1666 professor of practical medicine. In 1658
he was appointed court-physidan to the Empress-
Dowager Eleonora. In 1676 he rebuilt at his own ex-
pense the students' hall "Gol(U>erg" and added a
cb^el to it. During the yvu of the pest <I670), the

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Emperor LaopoM I appointed him offidal eoundllor
and chief saperriaor of sanitary oonditions in Vienna.
Soon aSter this he was ennobled. In 1681 he redg&ed
hifi professorship and founded a soholarship for medi-
cal Btudents. During the mega of Vienna by the
Turks in 1683 he commanded the company fMmed of
students aa chief sei^^eant-major. His tomb is m the
Cathedral of St. Stephen at >^enza. In 1909 the na-
tional asBociation of the official doctors of Austria se-
lected Sorbait's portrait as the insignia of the associa-
tion. He gained a high reputation as a teacher at
Vienna by zealous encour^ement of anatomy and
botany, as well as by firm adherence to the Hippo-
cratic school. His prominent poaition in the year
1679 ^ve him the opportunity to oi^anize sanitaiy
oonditions in Vienna. His wntinge show a harmom-
oua mixture of profound thinking, strong piety, and a
merry wit. His style fre^ently recalls that of the
Augustinian monk and Viennese preacher Abraham
a Santa Clara, but Sorbait was not an imitator of the
latter, as the orations delivered upon receiving a
higher position were delivered in part before 1666,
consequently before Father Abraham's i^>pe8zanoe as
a speaker at Vienna.

BOTbait's wOTks are the following: "Univeraa medi-
cma tarn theorica quam practica" etc. (Nurembei^,
1672, 1675) ; this is his chief work. It was issued in a
revised ajid enlarged form under the title: "Praxios
medicae tractatua VII" (Vienna, 1680 and 1701);
"Commentaria et controversiee in omnes libros apho-
rismorum Hippocratis" (Vienna, 1660); "Nova et
auota institutionum isagoge" (Vienna, 1678); "Mo-
dus innmovendi doctores in archilycffio Viennenri"
(Vienna, 1667), in "Praxios medics tract.". 553-677;
"Encomiastioa neoprofessurse prolegomena", oration
ddiverod on entrance to his proiessM^p, 31 Januaiy,
1665; "Discursus academicus in renovatione magis-
tratus civici", 7 Jan., 1669, in German; "Resignatio
rectoratus", 25 Nov., 1669; "Exhortatio in honorem
St. Barbane ", 25 Jan., 1664; all these are to be found
in the "Prax. med. tract.'', 57S-90; "Die Johann
Wilhelm Mannagellasche Pestordnung im Auftrag
der Rc«ienmg von P. Sorbait herausgegeben und ver-
mehrt" (1679); "Consilium medienm seu dialogus
loimicus de peste Viennenai " (Vienna, 1679: also in
Offlman, 1679; 1713; Berlm, 1681), Sorbait's most
popular book; "Catalogus rectorum" (Vienna, 1669
and 1670). He also wrote short artkiles which are to
be found in the "Miscellanea'curiosa academia ctesa-
reffi Leopoldiiue II, III".

OftMrreiehMeher QaUntu, da»i itl Lob- LeieK- und Ehrtuvrodig
Thro IttimifieeTtt dw Wohl-Bdel Ga6oAm«K und KoehgMvrlm
Paidi dt Sorbait ton P. Bmericua Pfendtner O.F.M., 10 Mai, 169t
(Vieniw); SsNnLDEB, Paul de Sorbait ia Wiener klinitdie Bmd-
adkau (1000), noa. 21-27, 2»-30.

Leopold SENTBLras.

Soxtranne. — This name is frequently used in ordi-
nary parlance as synonymous witfa the faculty of
theology of Paris. Strictly speaking it means, as in
Hub article, the celebrated theologi^ coUeoe of the
Frendi capital. The title was adopted Rom the
name of the university uistitute founded hy Robot
de Sorbon, a native of Le H^thelois, a distmguished
P|rofessor ^nd famous preacher who lived from 1201
till 1274. Sorbon found that there was a defect
in the primitive organization of the University of
Paris. The two principal mendicant orders — the
Dominicans and the Franciscans — had each at Paris
a college and delivered lectures at which extern
students mi^t attend without fee. In order thai
the university, which was ah-eady enraged in a
struggle with the religious, mi^t offer the same ad>
Tantftfee, Robert de Sorbon decided that it also ^ould
provide fnatuitous instruction and that this should
be given by a society of professors following, except
as regards the matter of vows, tlie rules of the ceno-
bitieUfe. This important work was rendered posd^

by the hi^ esteem in 'which Rob^ was held at
Paris, together with his brilliant -parts, his great
geoerDsity, and the assistance of his friends. The
foundation dates from the year 1257 or the beginning
of 1258. Nor was the aid. be received merely pecu-
niary; (3iuillaumedeSaint-Amour,G^rardd' Abbeville,
Hemy of Qhoit, Quillaume des Gres, Odo or Eudes
4rf DouaL Chrdnen de Beauvais, OOTard de Rdms,
NKolaa de Bar are but a few of the most illustrious
names inseparably oonnected either with the first
chairs in the Sorbonne, or with the first association,
that constituted it. These savants were already'
attached to ihe university staff.

The esnstitution of the society as conceived by
Robert was quite simple: an administrator (provitor),
associates 'inoeU), and guests iko»pite$). The pro-

visor was the head; nothing could be done without
consulting him; he insteJled the members selected
by the society, and confirmed the statutes drawn
up by it: in a word^ as his title sig^iifies, he had to
immde for everythmg. The associates formed the
body of the society. To be admitted to it, the candi-
date was required to have taught a course of ohiloBat
phy. There were two kinds of associates, the 6ur-
sairea and the pengionnairea. The latter paid fcHty
(Paris) pounds a year, the former were provided (<x
by the nouse, which expended a like sum from its
revenues. The burse could be granted only to
persons not having an income of forty (Psuis) pounds.
There was a primiainier pares, the prior, who presided
over all internal affairs of the house. Doctors and
bachelors were alike eUgible, but, owing to the
number of the latter, the custom rapidly grew up of
selecting only bachelors. Other persons were candi-
dates for admission to the society rath^ than mem-
bers ci it. From the material and intellectual point
of view th^ enjoyed the same imvileges as the
members: board, loi^ng, books, spiritual and scho-
lastic exercises; but they had no votes. When they
had fulfilled the condition of teaching philosophy, they
were admissible as members. The course of studies
lasted ten years, during which time their burses
continued; but, if at the end of ten years, they had
not pven proin their abilify, either as teachers or

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aa pMuhert, their buise wu TMated. l%e «diiuiy

lectures were pubHc. and eonsequentiy were attended
by students who belot^ed to neither of the divisions
of the society. The doctors and bachelors were
authorized to give shelter to otho* poor pupils. Be-
sides the work of the classroom, there was the duty
of preaching or labouring in the pandies. In prep-
aration for this, the associates, on certain days, had
to ddiver sermons or conferences {etUlaiionea) in
presence oi the community. The purdy spiritual
side was not forgotten." Conferences, usually deliv-
ered by the prior, on this important part of the Chris-
tian and priestly life were given, if not exclusively, at
least specially, to the interns. For twenty years the
^ility of the administrator, or provisor, corresponded
to the foreseeing devotednesB of the founder. Hub
lapse of time showed the wisdom of the regulations
and administrative measures, which Robert had
adopted, after taking the beet possible advice, and
which he laid down in thirty-eight articles. This
rule was directed towards the maintaining of common
life_, from silence in the refectory, which was not very
strict, to simplicity of the authorized dress. As soon
as circumstainces permitted, Robert (about 1271)
added to the theological oollese a litmiy coU^:
this was the College de Calvi or the "fitUe Soi^
bonne".

Fruit of deep thought and personal experience, the
constitution given by Robert de Sorbon to his coll^
received the consecration of time, for it lasted through-
out centuries. If H^m^ saw in the project the
conception of a powerful intellectj "Hoc primus in
lyeaco Parisiensi vidit Robertus", its realisation was
surely a work of graiius. That this was so appears
from the fact that, while Rdiert united in his work
whatever good he found in the university, his coUeee
iriken completed served as a model to the others. It
is unnecessary to dwell on each word of the original
title, for some persons rather enigmatical, of the
society. The expresBlon "Pauvres mattres ^tudiants
en th&logie" seema to emphasize the two primary or
essential characteristics of the society: equality in
poverty, an equality so perfect between masters and
pupils that it designated them by a commw name;
the poverty of the pupils, since most of them were
bursaires; the poverty of the masters, since, content
with what was strictly necessary, they renounced all
other professional remuneration. This equality was
always maintained with scrupulous care; the Sorbon-
nists repeated as an axiom, "Omnes nos sumus socii
et equales", and referred to the college as "pauperem
nostram Sorbonem".

From the outset the coll«^ enjoyed the favour of
the Holy See. Alexander IV (1259) urged the French
bishops to support it. Urban IV (1262) recommended
it to the goodwill of the whole Christian world, and
Clement IV (126S) granted it papal approbation.
Wealthy benefactors provided it with ample endow-
ment. A high standard of scholarslup was main-
tained and the severity of the "actus Soibonnicus",
or examination for d^rees, including tbs defence of
the "thesis Robertina", became proverbial. The
{ff^essorial corps waa h^ily respected, and from all
parts of Europe differmt theological and even politi-
cal questions were sent to it for solution. As the
other teachers of theol<^ in the university became
members of the Sorbonne, its staff, at the beRinning
of the sixteenth century, was practically identical
with the university faculty. Rmert de Sorbon had
reaUsed the necessity of a library, and had taken
measures to supply (me. This increaiwd rapidly, owing
diiefly to numerous gifts. In 1470 the Sorbonne in-
troduced the art of printing into France by calling
to Paris three of Gutenberg's associates, Going,
FribuTger, and Crants. Among^ its principal patrons
and benefactors was CardiniU RidteheUt who held for
a time the office <rf proviaor and who, in 1636, laid the

cwfUTstone of an edifice to be built at his ezpeOM for
the use of the oollwe. He was buried in the church
of the Sorbonne, miere his tomb is still preserved.
The doctors of the coll^ were loyal ddfenders of the
Catholic faith against the inroads of Protestantism
and against tlw so-called Enlij^tenment. On the
other hand, the^f gave thor support to Gallicanism
and obliged thrar members to subscribe the "four
articles". This attitude naturally weakened the
prestige of the Sorbonne as a ueoloipcal sdmd,
and obli^d ecclesiastical students to sedc their
education in the seminaries. The Sorbonne itself
was suppressed by decree of 5 April, 1792, but was
restored by N^leon in 1S08 as the theological
faculty of (he new^ organized imiversity. It did
not, however, regain its former standing or influence,
thoudi it otmtinued in existence until 1882, when it
was finally suppressed. In 1884 the construction of
the present building was b^un and it was coni^ted
in 1880. It is now occupied by the vanous d<
meats of letters and scimce which form the "1
des Hautes Etudes".

Dk Bouut, Hitt. Uniten. Paris. (Ptru, 1665-73) ; Cbeticb,
Bitl. de rUnit. de Pari* (P&ru, 1761); Joqsdain, HuL de Fvn^
Mr. de Pari* au X VII' etauX VIII' eiieU; (Paris. 1866) ; DwrnriM,
Ckartutarium Unitrri. Pari*. (PkHb, 1889-97); Jadabs, Robtrt
de Sorbon (Rdma, 1877) ; Miuc, La Sorbonne et aon fondatevr
(Paris, 188^; Ralkioh, Univ. of Pari*; Fesbt, La facatU ds
thtotoffie d* Pari* et «m doeUur* le* plu* eiObre* (Paris, 1804-1000);
ItKUi, Sorbona originM, di*eij)lvia el nrt iUuetr**, and other iD«tiu>
awipka; Fkankuk, La Sorboniu. h* vrigmet, sa MbKodUgw
(Fan^ 187in: IUhdOlfs. Bitlorw Serbanne: RaaRDALL,

Tht UnieenMee ef Europe in Ote UWU Age* (Oxford, 1808).

P. Fbkbt.

Bcolii, Edwabo, the founder of Notre Dame, In-
diana; b. 6 Feb., 1814. at AhuiU^, near Laval, France;
d. 31 Oct., 1893, at Notre Dame, U. S. A. His ear^
education was di-
rected by his mother,
a woman remarkable
for intelligence as
well as virtue. AStet
completing his clawi-
oal studies, his vo-
cation for the priest-
hood being marked,
M. Sorin at once en-
tered the diocesan
aeminary, where he
was distinguished for
superior ability and
exemplary life.
Among his fellow
students were Cardi-
nal Lang^nieux and
others who shed
lustre on. the
Church.

At the time of Father Sorin's ordination, gloy

reports <rf missionary enterprise in foreign lands

fired afresh the hearts of the French clergy, and in-
srared numerous vocations, not a few of which were
those of future martyrs, particularly in China and
Japan. It was to tihe first of these countries that the
Abb^ Sorin felt attracted; and to the end <^ his long
life accounts of the trials and triumphs of Chinese
missionaries had for him a singular fascination. He
was influenced by circumstances to enroll himself
in the (Ikingregation of the Holy Cross, a community
of priests, brothers, and sisters lately founded at Le
Mans by the Abb4 Moreau. The need of mission-
ariee in the United States^ so earnestly represmted
in letters frtnn bishops in this country and in addresses
by others who had occasion to visit Europe, was not
to be disregarded by the heads ot religious orders;
and althoi^h France had not as yet recovered from
the effects of the Revolution, she generously oon-
tributed men and means for the support and qiread
of Amerioan missions. Father Bonn, bat recently

Fatheb SoBnt
From a Photograph

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ordained, waa selected by hia superkM to establidi
tbe Congregation of the Holy Croes in what was then
oonaidered a remote distriot of the United States.

Accompanied by six brothers, he arrived in New
York in the autumn of 1841, and immediately set
out for Indiana, which was destined to be the Md,
the centra rather, of his apostolate for upwards «
half a oMitury. After a snort stay at St. Peter's,
in the Diocese of Vinoennes, he prooeeded northward
with five of his confrtees. In the b^^nning of an
exceptionally rigorous winter, in pover^ mm priva-
tioD t» began the foundation of Notre Dame, which,
under his fosterinx care, from aa Indian miseionary
station, devetopea into one of the lanest r^igioufl
and educational institutions in the New World,
the centre of far-reachinK activities for the work of
the Church. Several coll^ea which Father Sorb
founded elsewhere are also in a flourishing condition.

It is a far cry from Indiana to India; but the flour^
iflhing mission in Eastern Bmgal, in charge of tlw
Congr^tion of the Holy Cross, owes mucb of its
success to Father Sorin's ardent zeal and active co-
operation. Thither he sent its former bishop and
other priests whose services could ill be spared,
together with a band of sisters, the superior of whom,
a native of New York, died at her distant post, a
-victim of her self-sacrifice. The founding of the Con-
creation of t^e Sistera of the Holy Cross in the
United States is rightly regarded as one of Father
Sorin's most impor^nt services to religiott. Under
his administration and care, this community, at first
a handful, has become a host, with flourishing estab-
lishments in a dozen states. During the Civil War,
thanks to Father Sorin's forethouf^t, this sisterhood
was able to furnish nearly fourscore nurses for sick
and wounded soldieiB on transports and in hospitals.
A numbor of priests of the Congr^tion of the Holy
Cross served as chaplains at the front. Another
oi f^her Sorin's many claims to the grateful remetn-
branee of English-speaking Catholics is the "Ave
Maria", which he founded m 1865.

Father Sorin was elected superior-general of hia
order in 1868; and held this important office durii^
the rest of his life. In reoogmtion of his work in
educational lines^ the French Govemment conferred
i^n him the insignia of an Officer of Publie Instruc-
tion (1888). Soon after the celebration of his sacer-
dotal golden jubilee (the same rear), the venenJsle
founder of Notre Dame entered upon a long period
of mental and physical suffering, which closed with
a^Mceful and painless death on the eve of All Saints',

1900): A aiorv ■/ Pihi rtm (Notr* Duae. 1906)[ Ctreubw
JMUri ofllu yam Itn, Bdvard Smin.C. S. C, p^rivjite& phQt«4.

Daniel E. Hudson.

SomntOi Archdiocesb of, in the Province cS
Naples, with one suffragan, Castellamare. The city
is situated on the southern arm of the Gulf of Naples
and is protected towards the south by Mount Sant'
Angelo, which makes Sorrento a popular siunmer
resort. The peninsula is bounded on the one side
by the Gulf of Naples, on the other side by the Gulf
of Amalfi, and was in Roman antiquity dotted with
TiUas. Sorrento is situated at a con^leraUe
altitude above the sea, as it were on a peak, llie
churches are more ornate than beautiful. There are
also ruins of certain temples: of Ceres, described by
Vitruvius (a few colunms and mosaics); of Venus,
near the Marina mnde; of Sirena; and of Minerva,
the latter said to nave been built by Ulysses, the re-
puted founder of Uie dty, which in ancient times had
Its own coins and was autonomous. In 312 b. c.
it became the aiVy of Rome; but Hannibal ci^tured
it in liie Seoraid Punic War. Augustus sent a «^ny
thither. In a. d. 645 Radctfo, Duke of Beneventum,
beaieted it in vun; it remained Byiant^ ai^ as

late as Uie eiglrtb ceatury had [»obably a dux (tdiut
magistrate) of its own, and was almost oompletdy
independent of Constantinople. In 890 the Sor-
mntmes won a naval victory over the inhabitants of
Amalfi. In 1036 it was conquered by Guaimario IV,
Duke of Salerno, who made nis brother Guido Duke
(rf Sorrento; but forty years afterwards it fell with
Salsmo uMer Norman d<nuination. Sorrento is
the birUiphoe d Twquato Tasso. 'The Goffl>^ was
preached at Sorrento probab^ as early as the first
oentury; the martyra QuartuSf QuutilhiB, and thdr
companmiB are venerated there. Among the known
bishops the first is St. Renatus, a native of Angers,
at the b^snning of the fifth centui?. His successor
was St. Valerius, who died in 4^; Rosarius was
presHit at Rome in 499. The SMrentines venerate
otiicrbishops of theses: St. Athanasius, St. Johannes
{about 594), St. Amandus (d. 617), St. Baculus
(seventh century), St. Hyaointhus (679). In the
tenth omtuzT it Deoarae a metrc^litan see, 1^ &st
anhbidiop oeing Leo Parus. Among its bishops
were Francesco Remolino (1601), who was made a
prisoner by the Turks and ransomed with the treas-
ures (A the diurch (in part his own donations),
and Filippo Stroasi (1526), said to hate been three
times rescued fromjpri8<Hi in the sack of Rome in
1527. In 16SS the Turks under Pialy Pasha effected
a landing at Salnoo, and plondraed and burned the
city, on which occasion the archives perished. The
new bishop, Giulio Paveei, sought to repair the dam-

X. Diego Pietra (1680) founded the seminary,
-wards enlarged Filippo Anastast (1699);
Uie latter defended the immunities of the Chiu-tm
and waa forcibly exiled to Terracina. In 1861
Franowco Apuzso was, by order of the new Govern-
noit, exiled to France. In 1818 the Dioceses of
Massa Lubrense, Vico Equense, a suffragan of Amalfi,
and^ Capri were united with Sorrento. Massa is an
ancient city, the fame of whose celebrated temple
(de/u6rum) of Juno Argiva is still preserved in Uie
title of the church known as the Madonna della
Lobra. It became an episcopal see mrobably when
Sorrento- was made metropoUtan: the first known
lHsh<^ was Pietro Orei, in 1289 deUvered from [vison
in Sicily. Vico Equense, the ancient McpiA, destec^red
in the Social War, probably had a bidiop at tJie
same time as Massa Lubrense; the firat known was
Bartolomeo (1294). Paolo Rwi (1682), a renowned
l^ist, oompiled the lives of the Neapolitan saints, and
waa a proUfio writer, llie last bishop was Michele
Natali (1797), condemned to death in 1799 for having
taken part in the revolution of that year.

The Island of Capri was even in antiquity cele-
brated for its climate. Augiutua acquired it from
the Neapolitans, and Tiberius built there his famous
villa. Oommodus bacidied thither his wife Oiapina.
Justinian gave the island to the Benedictinee. In
868 it was captured by the inhabitants of Amalfi;
from 1806-1808 it was in possession of the En^ish.
The Archbishop of Amain named its first bishop
(987), a certain Johannes. Sorrento has thirty-six
parishes, 267 secular and 34 r^ular deigy, and
56,900 souls; 8 monastoies for men and 21 eonventa
for women, 3 institutes for bore and 10 for girls.

CAPrsLunn, L§ c&mm ^ludia, XX; Anastasio, Luaibrn-
lionM in Sorrmtinorum aetiUtitutieat dviU*^ anti^iiaitt
(Rome, 1731); Capamo, Topoanfia ttorit»<treM«oioqica dMa
pmitola mrmtHna (NqriM, 1846); FASino, La pmiMrfa Mnrnf
Hna (NsplM, IMQ). — . i~

U. BamoNi.

Sorrows of tiia Bleued ^nrgln VUay, Feasts
OF THE Seven.— (1) Friday before Pahn Sunday,
major double; (2) third Sunday in Septembn*,
double of the second class. The obiect of these
feaate is the spiritual martyrdom of tne Mother erf
God and her compassion with the sufferings of her
Divine Son. (1) The seven founders of the Sorite
Order, in 1239, five yean altar tb^ estaMished theas
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Belves on Monte Senario, took up the sorrows of Mtkry,
standing under the CnMs, as the priitcipal devotitm
of their order. The oorrespondit^ feast, however,
did not originate with them: its celetettion was
enacted by a provincial i^od of Cokgne (1413) to
expiate the onmes of tiie iconoclast Hussitee; it wm
to De kept on the Friday after Uie third Sunday after
Easter under the title: "Conuuemoratio aogustire
et doloris B. Maris V.". Its object was exoluavelT
the sorrow of Mary during the Crucifixion and Death
of Christ. Before the sixteenth century this feast
was limited to the dioceses of NorUi Germany, Scan-
dinavia, and Scotland. Being termed "Compassio"
or "TVaiufixio", "Commendatio. Lamentatio B. M.
v.", it was kept at a great variety ^ dates, mostly
dunngEastertidew shortly after Pentecost, or on some
fixed day of a month (18 July, Mersebuiv; 19 Jtdy,
Halbeistadt, LObeck, Meissen; 20 Juhr, Naumr
burg; cf. Grotefend, "Zeitreohnung", 11, 2, 166).
Dreves and Blume (Analecta hymnica) have pub-
lished a laige number of rhythmical offices, sequcaioas,
and hymns tor the feast of the Compassimt, whidi
show that from the end of the fifteenth oentury in
BBvent dioeeBsa the scope oi this feast was widwed
to commemorate either five dolours, frran the im-
prisomnent to ibe burial of Christ, or seven dalours,
extending over the entire life of Mary (cf . XXIV,
12^-63; VUI, 51 so. ; X, 7» sq.. etc.). Towards the
end of the sixteenth century the feast spread ova*
part of the south of Europe; in 1S06 it was granted
to the nuns (tf the Annunciation vnder the title
"Spasmi B. M. V.". Monday after Flsssion Sunday;
m 1600 to the Sen4te nuns of Valencia. "B. M. V.
sub pede Crueis", Friday before Palm Sunday.
After 1600 it became popular in France and wAS
termed "Dominse N. de Pietate", Friday before
Palm Sunday. To this latter date the feast was a»-
signed for the whole German Empire (1674). By a
Decree of 22 April, 1727, Benedict XlII extended it to
the entire I^tin Church, under the title "S^tem
dolorum B. M. V.", although the Offioe and Mass re-
tain the original eharaeta- of the feast, the Compaa-
sion c/[ Manr at the foot of the Cross. At both Mass
and Office the "Stabat Mater" of Giacopone da Todi
(1306) ia sung.

(2) The second feast was granted to the Servitee,
0 June and 15 September, 1663, double with an oc-
tave for the third Sunday in September. Its object
from the beginning has been tne popular deyoticA
oS the seven dfdoura of Mary (aocarding to the rfr*
sponsories of Matins: the sorrow (a) at the moplw
ecy of Shneon; (b) at the flight into Egypt;
(o) having lost the Holy Child at JerusAlon; (d)
meeting Jesus on his way to Calvary; (e) standmg
at the foot the Croes; (f) Jesus being taken from
the Cross; (g) at the bunal of Christ). This feast
was extended to Spain (1735); to Tuscany (double
of the second class with an octave. 1S07). After his
return from his exile in fiance Fius VII extended
tiie feast to the Latin Church (18 Sentetnber, 1814.
major double) ; it was raised to the rank ol a douUe of
the second class, 13 May, 1906. Tbe Servitee cele-
brate it as a double <rf the first class with an octave
and a vigil. Also in the Psssionist Order, at Florenoe
and Granada (N. S. de las Angustias), its rank is
double of the first class with an octave. The hymns
which are now used in the Offioe of this feast were
probably composed by the Servite Callisto Palum-
bella (eighteenth century). On the devotion, cf.
KelhiOT, "Heortolopy", p. 271. The oId_ title of
the "Compassio" is preserved by the Diocese of
Hildesheim in a simple feast, Saturday after the oc-
tave of Corpus Christi. A feast. "B. M. V. de
pietate", with a beautiful medieval office, is kept in
honour of the sorrowful mother at Goa in India and
Braoa m Portu^ on the third Sundav of Octobca-;
m the ftBfflflffifflt'Cftl piDvinoe (tf Rio do Janeiro in

Braa^ last Sunday itf May, etc. (cf . the oorreqKMidinc
oalanoars). A special form of devotitm is practised
in Suttish-apeakinK countries under the term of
"N. S. de la eloledad", to commemorate the solitude
of Mary oa Holy Saturday. Its origin goes back to
Queen Juana, lamenting the early death of her hus-
band Philip I, King of Spain (1506).

To the «rieatal ehurohes these feasts are unknown;
the Catbolio Ruthenians ke^ a feast of the sorrowfui
Mother on Friday after the octave of Corpus Christi.

Niixm, ZoiMdonum sun. (Iniabruck, 1886} ^olwzcs. FaaU
Aforiont CFmburg. 1892); CALVEMiSBnJB. KaL Marianum,
17 Mtmh In Sumnta Aurm, III, 690 act.; Auttn. BtHthen-
krOnMt. V (Pttdarbam. 18»4>, 40-190.

F. G. HOLWBGK.

Boter, Saint, PoPB. See Caics and Soma, Saintb.

Soto, Dominic, Dominican, renowned theol(^ian,
h. at Segovia. 1494; d. at Salamwica, 15 Nov., 1560.
His first studies were made in his native city. He
next studied at the University of Alc^ imder St.
Thomas of Villaziova, and later went to Parib, where
he obtained his baccalaureate in philosophy. Having
studied theology for a time at Paris, he returned to
Aleali about 1520. and was made professor of phi-
losophy in the Colle^ of San Ildelfonso. In this
capacity he distinguished himself by securing a
complete triumph of moderate Realism over the
errors o£ Nominalism. Already enjoying a wide
rc^tation as a professor, and apparently destined
for higher honours, he was sudd^y moved in 1524
to abandon his chair as teacher and join a religious
ordor. Straightway he made a retreat at the Bene-
diotme monasterv of Montsnrat, and then sou^t
admissioa into tlie Order of Prea^iers at Burgos^
where he was received and entered upon his novitiate
in the Convent of St. Paul The following year
(23 July, 1525) he was admitted to profession, and
was made at onoe professor of dialectics in his convent.
In 1529 appeared his first work called "Summuls",
which in simplicity, [decision, and clearness was a
decided improvement on the manuals of logic then
in use. After teaching in his convent for seven years,
he waa called to a chair of theology in the University
of Salamanca on 27 Nov., 1532, and continued to
teach there till 1545, when he was chosen by Cilharles
V imperial theologian at the Ckiuncil of TVent. Dui^
ing his labours at the council he rendered great service
in helpios to formulate dogmatio decrees and in
solving theolo^cal difficulties. The general of his
order, Albnius Caauis^ having died just before the
opening of Uie counciL it fell to Soto to r^nwent his
order ouring the first tour seesions. In the following
sessions be represented the newly-elected genei^
EVanciscoB Ronueus. It was at Trent Uiat Soto
wrote and dedicated to the fathers of the council
his treatise "De natura et gratia", in which he clearly
and ably expounds the Thomistie teaching on original
sin and grace. When the council was interrupted in
1547^ Soto was summoned by Charles V to Germany
as his confessor and spiritual director. He refused
the Bishopric of Segovia offered him by the emperor,
and in loSO was permitted to return to his convent
at Salamanca, where he was elected prior the same

rir. Two years later he succeeded Melchior (jano
the principal chair of theology at the University
of Salamanca, at that time the metropolis of the
intellectual world. In 1556 Soto resigned his pro-
fessorial chair. Cbief among his philosophical works,
besides tiie "Summuhe", are: "In dialecticam Aria-
totelis oommentarii" (Salamanca, 1544); "In VTII
libros ph;ysicorum" (Salamanca, 1545). The follow-
ing are bis best-known theological works: "I^ natura
et gratia Ubri HI (Venice, 1547); "De ratione t^ndi
et det^endt secretum" (Salamanca, 1541); "De jus-
titia et jurelibri X" (Salamanca, 1556); "Comment,
hi Ep. ad Romanos" (Antwerp, 1550); "In IV sent,
libros oommoit." Salamanca, 1555-M).

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163

sons

Bcun>, acrijit. ord. prmd., II. 171 aa.i Rtimiam, N^mmdalar,
n (Iiuubniok. 190S). ms oq.; TatL%i RnrnTOwiiktU (Mv.
June, IMM). 151 aqq.; (BfvrJane, 1905), 174 m.

ChARLBS J. CaIiLAN.

Soto, Hernando db. See Dn Soto, E^bnando.

Soul (Gr. <^vx4; Lat. OTuma; Fr. dme: Ger. 8mU).
— The question crif the reality of the soul and its dis-
tinction from the body is among most important
problems of phiketqiliy, Cor with it is bound np the
dootrine of a future me. Various ttnorioB as to the
nature fA iha soul have claimed to be reconoilabfe
with ih^ tenet of immortality, but it is a sure instinct
that leads us to suspect every attack on the aubstan-
tiality or spirituality of the soul as an assault on the
belief in existence after death. The soul may be
defined as the ultimate internal principle which
we think, feel, and will, and by which our bodies are
animated. Ilie term "nund" usually denotes tiiis
prindple as the subject <A our emisdous states, iriiUa

soul denotes the source of our vegetatiTB activi-
ties as well. That our vital activities proceed from
-s principle capable of subasting in itself, is the thesis
of the substantiality of the soul: that this principle
is not itself composite, extmded, c<»poTeaI, or essen-
tially and intrinsically dependent oa the body, is
the doctrine of spirituality. If there be a life after
fleath, clearly the agent or subject of our vitid
activities must be capable of an existence separate
from the body. The belief in an animating prmcipLe
in some sense distinot from the body is an almost
inevitable inference from the observed facts of life.
The lowest savages arrive at the concept of tiie soul
almost without reflection, certainly without any
severe mental effort. The mystenes of birth aiu
death, the lapse of oonsraous lite duttog sle^ and in
Bwooninc, even the commonest operations of imagina-
tion and memory, which abstract a man from lua
bodily presence even while awiJce — all such facts
invincibly suggest the existence <rf someUiing besides
the visible oi^^ism, internal to it, but to a la^
extent int^iendent it, and leading a life of its own.
In the rude psychology fA the sava^, the soul is
often r^jresented as acUudly migratmg to and fro
during dreams and trances, and after death hauntuigi
the neighboiurhood of its body. Nearly alwrnra it
is figured as something extremely volatile, a peifulm
or a breath. Often, as among the Fijiani, it is rE|>-
Tssented as a miniature replica of the hoiy, so smiul
as to be inviuble. The Samoans have a name, for
l^e soul which means "that i^ch comes and goes"-
Many savage peoples, such as the Dyaks and Suma-
trans, bind various parts of the body with oords/
during sickness to prevent the esoiVB of the soul.
In short, all tiie evidence goes to show that Dudism,
however uncritical and inoonsistent, is the instluo-
tive creed of "primitive man" (see Animisu).

The Soul in Ancient Philosopht. — Eoriy litera-
ture beEa*s the same stamp of Dualism. In the
"Rig-Veda" and oth^ liturgical books oi India,
we find frequent references to the coming and going
of manas (mind or soul). Indian philoeophy, whether
Brahminic or Buddhistic, with its various syatams
of metempsychosis, accentuated the distinotaon of
soul and body, making the boctily life a mas laranai'
tory episode in the existence of the soul. They all
taught the doctrine of limited immorialily, ending
either with the periodic worid-destructlon (Brah-
minism) or with attainment of Nirvana (Buddhism).'
The doctrine of a world-soul in a highly abstratet form
is met with as early as the ei^th century before
Christ, when we find it described as "the unseen
seer, the unheard hearer, the onthonght thinker, the
unknown knower, the Eternal in which space iswoven-
ond wlueh is woven in it ".

In Gbeece, on the other hand, the first essa^ o£
pbilosc^ilff took a porttive and smnewhat mstonalis-
^ ^t^mtOf inbonted bom the ^xo-fixQaaopbAo

from Houwr and the eariyGre^relimm. InHmBsr,
while the distan^n of soul and body is reooenised,
the «m1 is hardbr concaved as possesnng a substan-
tial existence oi its own. Severed from the body,
it is a mere shadow, incai>able of energetic Itfe. The
pbilcmophers did something to correct such views.
The eaniest school was that of the Hylozoists; these
conceived the soul as a kind oS cosmic force, and at-
tributed animation to the whole of nature. Aay
natural fme mi^t be deocnated V>9c4: thus Thalea
uses this term for t^e attractive foroe oif tbei ibagnet,
and similar language is quoted even from Anaxagoras
and Democritua. With this we may compare the
"mind-stuff" theory and Fan-psycnism of certain
modem scientists. Other philosophers again de-
scribed the soul's nature in tenns of substance. Anax-
imander givee it an aeriform constitution; Heracli-
tUB describes it as a fire. The fundamental thought
is the same. The cosmio etiher or fire is the subtkst
oi the elements, the nourishing flame which imparts
heat, Itfe, sense, and intelUgotoe to all things in their
several dorses imd kinds. The Pythagoreans tau^t
tiiat the soul is a harmony, its essence consisting in
those perfect mathematical ratios which are the law
of the universe and the music of the heav^ily spheres.
With thb doctrine was combined, according to CScero,
the belief in a imiversal worldHBiHrtt, from whidi
all particular souls are derived.

All these eady thewiea woe eosmologioal raUiw
Uian psyeholt^cal in oharaeter. Tbeology, pfayncs,
and mental science were not as yet distinguished.
It is rady with the rise of dialectic and the growing
reoognition oi ihs prc^lem of knowledge that a gen-
uinely psychologicTal theory became possible. In
I^ato the two stanf^xHnts. the cosmological and the
emstemokmcal, are founa combined. Thus in the
'*11nueus (p. 30) we find an account derived from
Pythagorean sources of the origin of tiie soul. First
the world-eool is created according to ^ Iowa of
mathonatical ^mmetir and musical concord. It
is composed of two elements, one an element ol
"sameness" ^to^t^), correeponding to tiie univet^
sal and inteUigible order of trutii, and the other an
element of distinction or "otherness" {0dTtfiow),
ooCTBSpondaM to tiie wtsM o[ seonble and particular
existenoea. lite individual human soul is constructed
on the same plan. Sometimes, as in the "Phsdrus",
Phto teaches the doctrine of plurality c€ souls (cf.

well-known allegory of the charioteer and the
two steeds ui that dialogue^ The rational soul waa
located in the head, the passionate or spirited soul
in the breast, the appetitive soul in the abdomen.
In the "Kepublic", instead of the triple soul, we find
the doctrine oi three dements witmn the oomplex
uni^ <A the rin|^ soul. The question of immor-
tality was a prindpal subject of Plato's speculations.
His account of the origin of the soul in the " Tinueus"
leads hira to deny the intrinsic immortality even of
the world^oul, and to admit only an immortality
conditional on the good pleasure of God. In the
"Phaido" the chief aigument for the immortahty
<rf tit6 soul is based on the nature tA intellectual
knomrledge inter|weted on the theory of reminisoenee;
this of oourse impHes tiie pre-eristenoe of the soul,
and pertius in strict lo^c its eternal prfr^zisteace.
There is also an argument from tiie soul's necessaly
participation in the idea <A life, which, it is argued,
makes the idea of its extinction impossible. Inese
various lines of argument are nowhere harmonised
in Plato (see Imuortautt). The Platonic doctrine
tended to an extreme Transcendentalism. Soul and
booty are distinct orders (A re^itrjr, and bodily exis-
tence involves a kind of violence to the higher port
of our composite nature. The body is the ' prison",
the "tomb", or even, as some later Platonists expreBi-
aedit,the"heU"oftiieaoul. In Aristotle this error
k ftvoiM 4e6i»tioii of ttw aonl "the fiirt

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•nteleehy of a physical organized body poteDtiaBy
poeseenng life" emphaaizes the cloeenees cS tm
union of bouI and body. The difficulty in his theory
is to determine what d^ree of distinctness or aeparat&>
ness from the matter of the body is to be oonoe^d
to the human soul. He fully recognizes the spiritu^
dement in thought and deseribeB the "active intel^
loot" (mOi vMirruAf) as "separate and impasuble",
but tiie precise relation of this active intellect to the
iudividiw mind is a hopeleeshr obscure question in
Aristotle's psychology. (See Inivllbct; Mind.)

The Stoics taught that all existence is material,
and deecribed l^e soul as a breath pervading the
body. They also called it Divine, a particle of Qod
(irifwaapa reO *«) ); it was oompoeed of the most
refined and ethereal matter. Eight distinct parta
of the soul were recc^nized by them: (a) the nUing
reason (rft Irri'oniot')', fti) the five sensea; (o) the
procreative povren. Amolute immortality they
denied; relative immortality, terminatong with the
universal conflagration and deetotiction of all things,
some of them (e. g. Cteantbes and Chrysippus) ad-
mitted in the case of the wise man; otnera, such as
Pametius and Posidonius, denied even tins, arguing
that, as the soul began with the body, so it must
end with it.

E{ncureaaiam acoepted the Atcmiifli tfaewjr of
Leucippua and Democritus. Soul oonasts of the
finest grained atoms in the univoBe, finer even than
those of wind and heat which they resemble: h«ice
the exquisite fluency of the soul s movements in
thought and sensation. The soul-atoms themselves,
however, could not exercise their functions if they
were not kept together by the body. It is this which
gives shape and consistency to the ff^up- this ia
oeBtroyed, the atoms escape and me is dissolved;

it is injured, pert of the soul is lost, but enough
may be l^t to mwntain life. The Lucretian veraon
ot Epicureanism distinguishes between anivuts
and anima: the latter only is soul in the biolo^cal
sense; the former is the hi^er, directing principle
(rft ^/lOFucAi') in the Stoic terminology, whose seat
is the heart, the centre of Ha oogmtnre and emotional
life.

The Soul in Christian Thought. — Qneoo-Roman
philosophy made no further progress in the doctrine
of tiie soul in the age immediatelyprecedinK theChria-
1^ era. None of the existing theories had found
general acceptance, and in the literature of the period
an eclectic spirit nearly akin to Scepticism predom-
inated. Of the strife and fusion of qrstems at this
time the works of Cicero are the best example. On
the question of the soul he is by turns Flatonio and
Wthagorean, while he confesses that the Stoic and
Epicurean systems have each an attraction for him.
Such was the state of the question in the West at
the dawn ^ Christianity. In Jewish circles a like
uncertainty prevailed. The Sadducees were Ma^
terialists, denying immortaUty and all spiritual- exist-
ence. The Pharisees maintained these doctrines,
adding belief in pro-existence and transmigration.
The p^hology of the Rabbins is founded on the
Sacred Books, particularly tiie account of the crea-
tion dF man m OeneeiB. Three terms are used for
the soul, nephesh, nuoA, and neahanuth; the first was
taken to refer to the animal and vegetative nature,
the second to the ethical principle, the third to the

Surely spiritual intellwence. At all events, it b evi-
ent that the Old Testament throughout either
asserts or implies the distinct reahty of the soul.
An important contribution to lat^ Jewish thought
was the infudon of Platoiusm into it by Philo of Alex-
andria. Bb taught the immediately IMvine oripn
o{ the Boul, its pre-enstence and transmigration;
he contrasts the jmettma, or spiritual essence, with the
soul proper, tin source of vital i^enomena, whose
tmX u the blood; fina% he vevivw the old mtonie

4 um

Dualism, attributihg the orig^ of rin and evfi to flis

union of E^hit witii matter.

It was Christianity that, after many centuries <tf
struxgle, applied the final criticisms to the various
psychologies of antiquitv, and brought their scattered
clients of truth to full focus. The tendency of
Christ's teaohii^ was to centre all interest in the
enirituai side of man's nature; the salvation or loss
of Ihe soul is the great issue (rf existence. TheGoepd
language is popubr, not technical, '^vx'i and TwtS/ia
are used inddTerent^ dther for the principle of
natural life or for spint in the strict sense. Body and
soul are reoognized as a dualism and their values
contrasted: "Fear ye not them that kill the bodv . . .
but rather fear him that can destroy both soul and
body in heU."

In St. Paul we find a more technical phraseology
empltqred with great oonmstenoy. 'irux^ is now ap-
pn^niated to the purely natural life; tmO/u to the
life of supernatural religion, the principle of whioh
is the Ho^ Spirit, dwelli^ and operating in the heart.
The opposition trf flesh and spirit is accentuated afreeh
(Rom., i, 18 etc.). This Pauline system, presented
to a wond alr^tdy prepossessed In favour m a quasi-
Platonic Dualism, occasioned one of the earliest
widespread forms of error among Christian writm
-*-the doctrine of the Triohotono^. Acoording to
this, man, perfect man (rA«io>), oonasts oi three
ports: body, soul, spirit {(rQpa, ^vx^, vmO/w). Body
and soul come by natural generation; spirit is given
to the r«;Mierate Christian alone. Thub, the "new-
ness of life", of which St. Paul speakSj was conceived
by some as a superadded entity, a kind of oversold
sublimating the "natural man" into a higher species.
This doctrine was variously distorted in the diffoent
Ornostic systems. The Gnostics divided man into
three classes (a) prmaniUici or qiiritual, (b) psyckici
or animal^ (c) choid or earthy, ascribing to each
class a different origin and destiny. The spiritual
were of the seed of Achemoth, and were deetmed to
return in time whence they had sprung, via. into the
pleroma. Even in this life they are exempted from
tite possibility of a fall from their high callin(r they
therefore stand in no need of good works, and have
nothing to fear from the oontammations of the world
and the flesh. This class consists of course of the
Gnostics thMnselves. The psycfnci are in a lower
pofrition: they have capacities for spiritual life which
they must cultivate by good works. They stand in
a middle i^ace, and may either rise to the spiritual
or sink to the h^ic level. In this catwiry stands the
Christian Churah at lai^. Lastly, the earthy souls
are a mere material onanation, destined to perish:
the matter of which they are composed being inca-
pable of salvation (/*^ yip th-ai t^w BXijr 8«ct»kV
vwnifitat). This class contains the multitudes of the
m^ly natural man.

Two features claim attention in this the earliest
essay towards a complete anthropolo^ within the
Christian CSiurch: (1) an extreme splntuality is at-
tributed to "the perfect"; (2) immortality ia eondir-
Uonal for the second class of souls, not an intrinato
attribute of all souls. It is probable that originally
the terms pneumatici, ptyckici, and choici denoted
at first elements which were observed to exist in all
souls, and that it was only by an afterthought that
they were employed, according to the respective pre-
dominance 01 these elements in diiTerent cases, to
represent supposed real classes of men. _ The doctiins
of the four temperamenta and the Stole ideal of the
Wise Man afford a parallel for the personificMiian
of abstract qualitiee. The true genius of Oiristianity,
exproned by the Fathers of the early centuries, re-
jected Gnosticbm. The ascription to a creature oi
an ^Bolutely si^tual nature, and the claim to end-
less existenoe asserted as a strictly d« jwre privilege
in the G«M ot the "perfeot", Been»$l^to them m eik

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156

SOUL

oDMbmeot on the ineommunieable attributM of

God. The theoiy of Emanation too wag seen to bd '
h doo^tion from the (fignity of the IMvine nature.
For this reason, St. Justin, suppoeii^ that the doo-
tnne of natural immortality logically implies eternal
ezvteDce, rejecte it, making this attribute (like Plato
ID the "Timfeus") dependent on the free will of God;
It tite same time he plainly aseots the ete facio im-
BMfftati^ of every human soul. The doctrine ot
mtemOion, aa the neoeasary oomplement <tf cnar
liop, was not ^et elaborated. Even in Scholastic
iduloaophy, which asserts natunJ immtJrtality, the
abstiBct possibiUty of annihilati<m through an act
of God's abflolute power is also admitted. Similarly,
Tatiaa demes the simphcity of the soul, claiming
that absolute stmpUcity belongs to God alone. AU
9ther btaagfs, be held, are composed of matter and
niiit. Here again it wmUd be rash to a ohaijse
Of Materiafism. Many <rf these writers failed to dn-
tingoi^ between oorpomty in strict essence and
anpwraty aa a neoenary or natural concomitant.
Thus ih» soul may itsen be incorporeal and yet
require a body as a condition of its existence. In
this sense St. Irensus attributes a certain "oor-
poreal chiuracter" to the soul; he represents it as
poneasing the form of its body, as water possesses
the fonn of its oontfunin^ Tessel. At t^e same time,
he teaches fairly explicitly the incorporeal nature
d the sold. He also sometimes uses what seems to
be the language of the Trichotomists, as when he
nys that in the Resurrection men shall have each
thcdr own body, soul, and spirit. But such an intei>
pretatdon is impoeeible in view of his whole position
in re^ird to the Gnostic oontroversy.

The dubious langua^ of these writers can only
be understood in relation to the system ttiey were
opposing. ' assigning a litend divimty to a eet^
tain small aristocracy of souls, Gnosticism set aedde
the doctrine of Creation and the whole Christian
idea God's relation to man. On the other side,
by its extreme dualism of matter and s^urit, and its
denial to matter (i. e. the flesh) of all capacity for
npiritual influences, it iuTotved the rejection of ear-
iniul doctoines tike the ReeuirecticHi of the Body and
even U Hie Incarnation its^ in any proper sense.
The orthodox teacher had to emi^anse: (1) the soul's
(Estiiiction from God and subjection to Him; (2)
its affinities with matter. The two converse truths,
rit. those of the soul's affinity with the Divine nature
and its radical distinction from matter, were apt to
be obscured in comparison. It was only afterwards
utd very gradually, with the development of the
doetaine of grace, with the fuller recognition of the
■qwnataraT order as such, and the reallEation of
the Taaoa and Office of l^e Holy Spirit, that t^e
miouB errors connected with the pneuma ceased to
be a 8tumbling4ilook to Christian psychobgy. In-
deed, nmilar eiron have aeconwamed ^most every
mbaequent form ol heterodox luununism and Myi^
tieion.

Tertulliw's treatise "De AmxEia" has been called
the first Quistian olassio on myoholoey proper.
The authiv aims to show the failure ci m philoao-
pUes to e^cidate the nature of the soul, and ai^pies
doquratiy t^at Christ alone can teach mankind the
tnith on such subjeects. His own doctrine, however,
ia rimply the refined Materialism of the Stoics^ sup-
ported b^ arguments from medicine and physiolo^
ud by ingenious interpretations of Scripture, m
wlueh the unavoidable materialism of languag^ is
Bade to establish a metapbysiGal Matraiatism. Tfer-
toIBan is tte founder of uie theoiy of IVaducianinn,
vUdi derives the rational soul ex traduee, i. e. by
pnereation from the soul of the parmt. For Ter^
bMaa this was a necessary consequence of Mate<
niam. Later writm found in the dootrine a cod-
raaent «aqdaastloD of the tmnsouaBum of oripnal

nn. St. Jerome says that in-Us H «m I3i»
common theory in the West. TheohMoiiuia have long
abandoned it, however, in favour of Creattoniam, as
it seems to compromise the q>irituality of the soul
(ef. Traducianibh). Origen tau^t the pre-exist-
enoe of the soul. Terrestrial life is a punishment and
a remedy for pre-natal sin. "Soul" is properly
degraded spirit: flesh is a eoncUtion ttf alienation and
bondage (cf. Comment, ad Rom., i, 18). SpiriL
however, finite spirit, can exist only in a body, albdi
of a glorious and ethereal nature.

Neo-Platouism, which through St. Augustine con-
tributed BO much to spiritual philosophy, belong to
this period. Ljke Gnosticism, it uses emanations.
The primeval and eternal One b^ta by emanation
noua (intelligence): and from nous in turn ^rings
MyeAe (soul), which is the image of noiu, but distinct
inMtt it. Matter is a still later emanation. Soul
has relations to boUi ends of the scale of reality, and
its pmfeetion liee in turning towards the Divine Unity
from which it came. In everything, the neo-Platonist
recognised the absolute primacy of the soul with
respect to the body. Thus, the mind is always actave,
even in sense-perception; it is only the bodN' that ia

gassively affected oy external stimuli. Similariy.
k)tmu8 prefers to Bay that the body is in the soiil
rather than vice vosa: and he aeuns to have been
the first to cenedve the peculiar manner of the soul's
looation as an imdivided and universal presence per*
vading the organism {Ma in ioto et lota in ttnjiwts
vart&nu). It is impossible to give more than a very
brief notice of the psychology of St. Augustine.
His contributions to every branch of the science
were immense; the senses, the emotions, imagination,
memorv, the will, and the intdlect-Hhe explored
tibem aU, aod time is searoely ai^ subsequent devel-
opment of mniortanee tiiat he did not forestall.
He is the founds of the introspective method. Nov-
erim Te, noverim me was an intellectual no leas than
a devolicmal a^iralion with him. The following
are peorhaps the chief points for our present purpose:-
(1) ne Opposes body and soul on the ground of the
irreducible distinction of thought and 'extension
{d. DsBCAims). St. Augustine, Dowever, lays more
stress on the volitioud aetivities than did the French
Ideatbts. (2) As against tiie Manioheans he always
asserts the worth and dignity the body. like
Aristotle he makes the aoul the final cause of the body.
As God is the Good or Summum Banvm of the soul,-
so is the soul the good of the body. (3) The origin
of tiie soul is perhaps beyond our ken. He never
definitely decided between Traduoianism and Cre<
ationisin. (5) As regards spirituaUtjr, be is eve^*
whore most «iplicat, but it is intacsking as an incUi-
oation of tiie futile subtleties cnrrent at the time
to find him warning a friend apunst the controversy
on the corporeality of the soul, seeanA that the term
"corpus" was used in so many different amses.
"Corpus, noa oaro" is his own descripldon of the
angelic body. '

Medieval peycholc^ prior to the Aristoteleiui
revival was affected by neo-Platonism, Auffustinian-
ism, and nrvstleal influenoes derived from uie works
of pseudo-Dionyvhis. Hiis fusion produced some-
times, notably in Scotus Eriugena, a pantheistie
theory of the soul. All individual existence is but
the development of the Divine life, in whidi all
things are destined to be resumed. Hie Arabian
commentators, AverroSs and Avioenna, had inter-

greted Aristotle's psycholoe^ in a panthdatic sense,
t. HioHias, with the rest cm the Schoolmen, amends
this portion of the Aristoteleaa tradition, aeeeptiuff
liie rest witii no important modifiestions. St.
Thomai^e doctrine ia briefly as follows: (1) the rational
soul, which is one with the senative and vegetative
principle is tiie form of the body. This was defined
as of faith by the Ooaaoil of Vienne of ^11; <2)

Digitized by

SOUL 1

ttM soul is a sutifltaBoe, but an uux»npfete nilMitanoe,
i. e. i% has a natural {4}titudfl and ex^ency for aasb-
ence in the body, in ocuguDOtion with which it makes
up the substantial unity <A human nature: (3) thoufffa
connaturally related to the body, it ia ita^ absolutely
an^le, i. e. of an unext«nded and BiHiitual nature.
It is not wholly immwsed in matter, its faighoropa-
ations being intrinsieally independoit <tf the oigaa*
ism; (4) the rational soul is produced by q>ecial crea-
tion, at the moment when organism is suffioioitty
developed to receive it. In the first stage of embiy-
<»uo development, the vital j^rinciple has meruy
v^etative powers; then a seuntive soul oontes into
bems, educed from the evolvins potencies of the organ-
ism; later yet, this is r^laced oy the perfect rational
Boul, which is eesmtialty immaterial and so postulates
a qwiaal oreatiTe act. Many modem tbeolocpans
have abandoned this last point of St. Thomas's teach-
ing, imd maintain that a fully rational soul is infused
into the embtyo at the firat moment of its existence.

The Sool in Moobbn Thocqht. — Modem spec-
ulations re^>ecting the soul have taken two main
directions, Ide^ism and Materialism. Agnosticism
need not be reckoned as a third and distinct answer
to the |»oblem, since, as a matter of fact, all actual
agnosticisms have an easily rect^nised bias towards
one or other of the two solutions aforesud. Both
UesliBm and Materialism idr i»e8ent-daiv philosophy
merge into Monism, which is probably the most
influential system outside tiie Catholic Church.

Hi9tory. — Descartes conceived the soul as essen-
tially thinking (i. e. conscious) substance, and body
as essentially extended substance. The two are thus
amply disparate realities, with no vital ocnmexiott
betweoi thera. This is significantiy mariced by his
theory of the soul's location in the body. Unlike
the ^holastios he confines it to a single point — the
pineal ^land — from which it is suppcwed to contnd
the vuious organs and muscles through the medium
of the "animal spirits", a kind of fluid circulating
through the body. Thus, to say the least, the smil's
biological funotioiis aie made very remote and in^
direct, and wwe in fact later on i«dueed almost to
a nuUity: the knrer life was vioksitly serared from
the hi^oer, and regarded as a simple mechanism.
In the Cartenan theory animals are mere automata.
It is only by the Divine assiatance that action be-
tween soul and body is pOEuible. The Occauonalists
went further, denying all interaction whatever, and
making tiie oorrespondence of the two sets of facts
a pure result iA the action of God, The Leibnizian
theory of Fte-establiabed Hanncaiy nmilariy refusea
to admit any inta<-causal relation. The aapaior
monad (soul) and the aggr^ato of inferiw mcmads
whidi go to make up the body are like two cloeks
constructed with perfect art so as ^ways to agree.
They register alike, but independently: they are still
two clocks, not one. This awkward Dualism was
«ttirely ^t rid of by Spinosa. For him there is but
one, infinite substance, of which thought and exten-
sion are cmlv attiibutes. Thou^t oomprciiaids
extensmn, ana by that veiy fact shows that it is at
root one with that which it comprehends. "Hie
alleged irreducible distincti<m is transcended: soul
and body are nather of them substances, but each
IB a property of the one substance. Each in its
q>heTe is the counterpart of the other. This is the
meaning of the definition, "Soul is the Idea of Body".
Soul is the counterpart witiun the sphere of the
attiifaute of tiiought of that {Hirtieular mode of the
attribute of extension which we call the body. Such
was the fate of Carteoiuiism.

Engfidi Idealism had a different course. Berke-
ley had begun by denying the existence of material
substance, wUch he reduced merely to a series of
iim«esti(His in ihe sentient mind. Mind is tiie only
fWstMtoet Hww fioii^e4 the argument b^ diB«dv^

iv SOUL

ing mind iteelf into its phenomena, a loose collection
of "impresaons and ideas". The beosist school
(CondUlac eto.) and the .^sociationists (HarUey,
the Mills, and Bam) ocmtinued in nmilar fashion to
regard the nund aa constituted by ito phenomena or
"states", and the growth of mo(km positive p^chol-
ogy has twded to moourage this attitude. But
to reot in RienomenaliBm as a theory is in^Msuble,
as its ablest advocates themselves have seen. Thus,
J. S. Mill, irtule descrilmifi the mind as merely "a
series [i. e. of conscious phenomenal aware of itaelf
as a series", is forced to admit that such a conception
involves an unresolved paradox. Again, W. James's
assertion that "the pasaiog thouuit is itself the
Thinker", which "appn^riates" all past thoughtein
the "stream of consciousness", amply blinks the ques-
tion. For surely there is something which in ite
turn "appropriates" the passing tiiought itself and
tiie entire stream of past and future tiioughte as
wdl, vii. the self-conscious, self-asserting "I",
the substantial ultimate of our mental life. To be
in this sense " monarch of all it surveys" in introf^iec-
tive observation and r^ective 8elf-c<HiBciousness, to
^^HTopriate without itself b|Hng appropriated by
ansrthing else, to be the genuine owner of a certain
limited section <^ reality (the stream of oonsi»oua-
nees), tbis is to be a free and soverogn (tihough finite)
penonality, a self-conscious, spiritoal substance in
the language of Catholic metephyucs.

Criiidm. — ^The forgoing discussion partlv antici-
pates our criticism of Maten^ism (q. v.). The father
of modem Materi^ism is Hobbes, who accepted the
theory of Emeurus, and reduced all spmta either to
phantoms of the imaynation or to matter in a highfy
rarefied state. This theory need not detain us hare.
Later Mat^alism has three main sources: (1) New-
tonian physics, which taught men to regard matter^
not as inert and passive, but as instinct with force.
Why should not life and consciousness be among
its unexplored potencies? (Priestley, T^dall, ete.)
Tyndall himself provides the answer adzoittlng that the
chasm that separates psychical facte from material
phenom^ta is ''intdlectiulty impassable". Wiiten,
fiierefore, who make tiioai^t a mere "secretion of the
brain" or a "phosphorescence" of its substance (Vc^
Moleeohott) may be simply ignored. In replv to
the more serious Materialism, qxrituaUst philoeo-

Shers need only re-assert the admissions of the
Caterialiste themselves, that there is an impassable
chasm between the two olassee of facts. (2) Psycho-
phymcs, it is alleged, shows the most minute <Wen>
dence of mind4unctions upim brwi-staies. Tbia
two wders of facto are ther^ore pcvf eotly omtinu-
oUB, and, though ^ey may be superficially differait,
yet they must be mter all radically <me. Mental
phenomena may be styled an epiph^ome&uo or by-
product of material force (Huxley). The answer
IS the same as b^ore. There is no analogy for an
wipheoomenon being separated by an "impassable
chasm" from the causal series to which it Dekmjza.
The term is, in fact, a mere verbal subtofuge. The
oniy sound principle in such argumoito is the princi-
ple fbat essential or "impasaiiUe" distinctions in
the effect can be explained onljr by similar distinctiona
in the cause. This is the principle on which Dualism,
as we have explained it, reste. Merely to find r^a-
tions, however close, between mmtat ajid physioloK-
ical facte does not advance us an inch towards
transcending this Dualism. It only enriches and
fills out our c<mcept of it. The mutuid compoietrft.
tion of soul and body in their activities is just what
CatiioUe plulosophy (anticipating positive sdmoe)
had teught for centuries. Man is two and one, a
divisible but a vital unity. (3) Evolutiaoism en-
deavours to explain the origin of the soul from merely
material forces. Spirit is not the baab and fffinc^kle;
nttlwr i9 the qltiiAftte eQoretoeQM ^ tbe Cwowt.

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lOVTH CABOLDU

157

noxrm cAsoLDU

U we aak then "what toaa the oricinal bwb out of
wfaieh qiixit and all things aroeeT'' we are told Ht
was the Unknowable (Spenoer). This smbem must
be treated as Materialistic Monism. The answer
to it is that, as the outcome of the Unknowable has
a spiritual character, the Unknowable itself (assuming
its reality) must be spiritual.

As regards monistic s^tems geoeraily, it belongs
rather to cosmology to discuss them. We take our
stand on tiie oonsciousness of individual personality,
which consciousness is a distinct deliverance ot our
v^ highest faculties, growing more and more «^
pbcit with the strengthening of our moral and intel-
tectual being. This consoiouBneas is ranphatic, as
agunst the figments of a f ^laeiously abstract reason,
in asserting the self -subsistence (and at the same time
the fo^tude) of our being, i. e. it declares that we are
independent inasmuch as we are truly per$ons or
adt>es, not mere attiibhtes or adjectiveSj while at
the same time, by exhibiting our manifold limitations,
it directs us to a higher Cause on whidi our bems
depends.

Suoh is the CathoUe doctrine on the nature, unity,
fltdMtantiality, spiritually, and origin of the aoiil.
It is the only system consistent with Christian faith,
and, we may add, morals, for both Materialism and
Monism logically cut away the foundations of these.
The forgoing historicfd sketch will have served also
to show uiotber advant^ it possesses, vis. tiiat it
is by iar the most compraiensive, and at the same
tinw discriminating, synthesis of whatever is best
in rival svstoms. It recc^nixea the phymcal condi-
tions of tne soul's activity with the Materialist, and
its spiritual aspect with the Idealist, while with the
MoEust it insists on the vital unity of human life.
If enshrines l^e principles of aucioit speculation,
and is ready to receive and assimilate the fruits of
modem research. See Aniuish; Consciouskiss;
BmROY, THK- Law of the Consebvation of; Fao
Dunas or thb Soul; Fobm; Fbu Will; Idea;
Ihhobtautt; Iktsuject; Lm; Mihs; Mbtbu-
psTCHOsis; PsrcaoLOOY; SpiRiruAumi.

Tb» foUowins works may be oonauKad: Ladd, PhUotojihv
of Mind (New Yoik and Londoa, 1895); Idem, BUmenli of
Phutiotogieai Pti/iAoioov (New York, 1887) ; Jaukb. /V»n-
eipln of Ptueht^y (2 vols.. New York, 1898); Driboou.,
The Soul (New York. 1898); Mahbk, Pty^ulom (6th ad»
London, 1909): McDovoau, Body and Mind: A mfenee ctf
Animitm (LoDdon, 1011); Coconnikb, L'ime humain* (Paris,
1890) ; MiBCiiB, Ptjidutlogit (Louvaio, 1904) ; Idkm, Lm ortginn
da la pniehotogU iwnI«mporiMn* (LouTKin, 1906); FAaOES. Li
HTMaw, Tdnic «t Im faettiU* (Pftria, 1888); Qahdaik, PAtlMffpAis
tU S. Thomat: la Jiaturt humaim (Paria, 1896); OvTBSBtET, Dit
Prt/tAeioffie (Manster, 1898); BooiLUXB. Li jirinoipe wUal *t
rd«M panmtiue (P»ria, 1873); LasBnoN, Lta orioittM da Is doo-
(riM de la TriniU (Pkris, 1910); Le Rot, Lm rriigion dm prvMtift
(P&ria. 1908); Ttlok, AnlhropaUm/ (Londoo, 1904); Idbu,
PrimiliMi Culture (London. 1903); db Wulf, SdtelaHie PUlot-
•Mv. (r. Comr (bublin and London, 1007) ; Emsb. Du 8—Utt-
Utrt Ttrtullian* (WOrsburs, 1893) ; BsAaiBa, Philon ^Ahxcmdris
(Paria, 1908); L\obakos, Etudei (ur Im r^gioiu ■JirMtkm
(Paria, IS08). Tar the references to St. Thomab and 9t. Anooa*
mm aaa tb» artialaa in tba Catbouo Enctclopbdia. Soe alao
INdL da lUoL eoMoL CParia, 1909), a. V. Arw.

Michael Maher.

JoBSPa BOLAND.

South Carolina, one ol the thirteen origin^ colo-
nies of the United States, has an area of 30,570
square miles throu^out its 35 counties, witii an ex-
traooe breadth of 235 miles and an eaAreme width Of
215. It is bounded eastward by North Carolina and
the Atlantic, witJi a coast line of 200 miles; GeMcia
lies to the west and North Carolina bounds it oa tne
nwdi. Columbia is the capital.

Phtbical Charactbristics.— South Cartdina rises
from marshland in its eastern tidewater section to a
mountainous r^ion in the extreme westmi portion
of tiie state. The Pedee and tiie Sontee are navigable
rivers fknriag into the Atiaotic and reaohing title asB
thrmigh deltas in the marsh regions. It is ^mbsble
that mon than half of the state was at one time
in dmae tindwr.

Population.-— The state is twenty-sixth in rank of
pMHilatitmaeoordingtotheoensuBof 1910. Thepopu-
Ution in 1820 was 502,741; in 1840, 594,308; in I860,
703,708; in 1880, 995.577; in 1900, 1,340.31ft; in
1910, 1,515,400. Beaufort County is the fifth county
in the United States in point of density of negro popu-
lation, having a percentage of 90.5. In 1790 South
Carolina was second only to Virginia in the number of
ite slaves, having 107,097. The largest cities with
their respective populations are as follows: Charles-
ton, 58,833; Columbia, 26,319; Spartanburg, 17,617;
(^eoiville, 15,741.

Bjisources. — More than one-third of tiie cultivated
land is devoted to cotton. It is the fourth cotton state
m the Union, producing in 1010. 1,116,000 bales. The
islands along the coast and the swampy tidewater
region from the very beginning yielded much rice,
the state ranking second in the Union in this product.
Much attention is given to the production of early
fruit and vegetables for northern markets and a more
reo«at industry is the planting and shipping of tea.
From the pine forests lumber and naval supplies are
obtained, and a great deal of phosphate rock is dug
in the southern
tidewater region,
yielding a rich
supply o( ferti-
liser for export.
The chief manu-
faoturing indus-
tries are cotton
weaving, lumber
milling, turpen-
tine distilling, rice
cleaning, and fer-
tiliser. Accord-
ing to tiie state
census of 1906
the coital in-
vested in ite man-
ufaoturing indus-
tries was $113,-
422,224, employing 59,441 wage earners who were paid
$13,863,950. The value of t£e product totalled $79,-
376,262. The cereal crop of 1910 was oats, 4,599,000
bushels; com, 44,733,000; wheat, 4,983,000; rye,
40,000. Hie railway mileage of the state in 1907 was
3,324.41. Charleston has long been one of the leading
cities of the South, owing its prosperity largely to its
fine harbour. Its imports in 1907 were $3,528,553;
in 1908, $3,376,997; its exports in 1907, $1,082,466,
and in 1908, $2,510,965. Coliuubia, the capital, is
on the Congaree River, and its fine water power is
used for several large cotton factories. Greenville
and Spartanburg manufacture cotton cloth. The
banks of the state are in a prosperous condition, and
scarcely a town of any consequaice is without ite
banks, either national, stete, or private. There is a
State Bank Examiner, who regularly watches the
operations of aJl these institutions, and a bank fail-
ure is rarely chronicled. There are 19 national banks
with a capital of $2,713,000; 143 stete banks with a
cl^>^tal $6,332,871, and 9 private banks with a
capital of $106,000.

£U>UCATIDN. — The supervision of public instruction
is vested in a state superintendent of education,
elected {<a two years; a stete board of education,
oomposed of tiie govonor, the state superintendent
of eiwcation, and not above seven persons appointed
by the governor; a county supermtendent, elected
for four years, and, in each county, a county board
of education of three members, one of whom shall
be the county superintoulent and the other two
appointees of the stete board, whose tehns of office
are two years. The General Assembly makes pro-
vision lor the dection or ^pointment of all otiier
Winn— IT Mhool oSaen, immdes a of free

Digitized by VjOOglC

Shu. op Bovm Camuma

iOtTTH CABOtmA 1

pubHo schools for all ofaildren between the ages of six
and tweDty-one, and divides the oount^ into scbotrf
districts. The main school fund derives from a
tliree-mill tax on aJl taxable property, an annutd d(w
tax of fifty cents, and the pmI tax assessed and coU
lected in the various school districts. In addition to
these sources the school fund drew, up to 1907, the
state dispensary tax, the most unique feature <h the
law. School districts are allowed to vote fw special
taxation. No public money from whatever source
derived shail be used, either directly or indirectly,
in aid or maintenance *'of any college, school, hospital,
orphan house or other institution, society or organisa-
tion of whatever kind which is wholly or in part under
the direction or control of any church or of any reli-
gious or sectarian denomination, society or organisa-
tion". Separate schools are provided for children of
the white and coloured races, and no child of either
race is ever permitted to attend the school provided
for children of the other race.

Section 1201a of the General €k>de reads: "Hiat
the nature of alcoholic drinks and narcotics and special
instructicai as to their effect npon the human system,
in connection with the several divisions of the subject
of Phj-siokiffy ;ir]i,I TryKii--iLi'. r^hall be included in the
brancK(?« of dtudy tuuglit. in the common or public
Mhoolg in the ^tat« of SoiitJi Curolina and shall be atud-
it;d and taught as thcroughly and in the same manner as
other tikerequiredbwni.'h said schools, by the

use of text bodn !n the hrinds of pupils where other
branohcH nre thus Btudietl ui said schools, and orally
i:i the ciisc of punila imnlili' to read, and shall bo
taiight Ky ffiirrirr^ (mil studied by all pupUs in
atl said B<:liii - p^ii| '|"': !ril \vlii)lly or in part by public
money . . . and any olEiccr, school director, com-
mittee, euperintend^t or teacher who shall refuse
or n^ect to comply with the requirements of this
Act, or shall ne([lect or fail to make proper provisions
for the instruction required and in the manner speci-
fied by the first section of this Act, for all pupus in
each and every school under his jurisdiction shall be
removed from office and the vacancy filled as in other
oases." Schools must be kept open and the exercises
continued in each school district for a period of at
least three months in each year. "Arbour Day", the
third iViday in November, and Calhoun's Birthday,
18 March, "South Carolina Day "^ are observed in an
appropriate manner. The age limit of pupils— ^be*
tweea the ages of six and twenty-one-^as been ruled
under an opmion of the attomey-generid as prohibit-
ing the establishing of free-kindei^^artens.

For white childrCTi there are 2712 public schools in
the state (1909), employing 933 men teachers and
3247 women, and reaching 153,807 pupils with an
average attendance of 107,308. Far negro children
there are 2354 public schools, emplojang 894 men
teachers and 1802 women, and teaching 181,095
pupils, with an average attendance of 123,481. The
total revenue for both white and negroes was $2,-
346,647.72; out of which there waa expended $1,-
590,732.51 for whites and $308,153.16 for negroes.
The state's per capita expenditure, according to en-
rolment, was in 1809, »4.90 for idiite, $1.42 for negro,
$2.69 average for both; in 1904, $6.88 for white, $1.47
for negro, $4.08 for both; in 1909, $10.34 for white,
$1.70 for negro, $5.67 for both. There are 27 institu-
tions of higher education for whites and 1 1 for negroes.
Of the 27 institutions for whites, 5, non-sectarian,
receive a total state support of $355,994.88 ; 5 are
Presbji^ian, 3 Methodist, 3 Baptist, and 2 Lutheran.
The remainder are non-eectarian seminaries or tech-
nical eoll^. The University of South' Carolina,
chartered in 1801, is located at Coltunbia, has 29
officers and members of faculty, 298 students and a
total income of $97,385.18. Ctemson Agricultural
Col^e, chartered in 1889, located at C^nson, has
47(^uieni and members of the faeolty, 666 atudiait^

SOOTH CABOUKA

and a total income of ^1.477.28. Tke Winthrop
Nnnd and Industrial Gwwe, chartered in 1801,
looated at Rode Hill^ has 45 omeen and members of
factdty, and a total mcome of $94,685.37.

HiSTORT. — A. dvU. — Owing in part to presumably
unfavourable olimatio conditions, m part to the fact
that the land lay in the disputed Eone between the
Tj^gl^h and Spsjtiish settlements, colonisation in the
Carolinaa was tardy and spasmodic. In 1629, a
patent to the territory had been granted by Charies I
and fwfcited throuj^ inaction on the part of tiie
patentees. Vircpnia assumed to make grants without
any permanent results, though a small company of
di^enters, in 1653, migrated f rom that colony and
b^an the Albemarle settlement, with a connderable
number of Quakers; while New Englanders, a few
years later, purchased land from the Indians on Cape
Fear River, but abandoned the settlement with dis-
gust. At last, in 1663, Charles II gnmted to the Earl
of Clarendon and seven other of his favourites all
Can^ina frcon the 36** to 31** nOTth, and Cape Fear waa
settled under this grant by colonists from Baihadoes.
The proprietors were nearly absolute in their power,
thoi^ the "advice, consent, and approbation" of
the freemen were necessary before laws could become
vaUd and there was to be freedom of religious worship.
The colony, however, did not prosper, and the rela-
tions between proprietors and colonists were further
■trained by an attempt to govern the colony under a
eonstitulion framed by the Earl of Shaftesbury, with
more or less assistance from the philosc^her Xocke.
This document was a remarkably impractical product,
based, quaintly, upon medieval and aristocratic ideas
with one of its principal and avowed motives — ' ' to avoid
erecting a numerous democracy". Its model was the
independent Palatinate of Durham; officials were
called palatines, chancellors, high stewards, and ad-
mirals. Two-fifths of the land was to belong to the
nobility. There was to be a Parliament, which was
to consider nothing but what was referred to it by
the Proprietory Council. Freedom of worship was
granted, but citiaens must profess their beli^ in God
and the obligation to worship, and, contrary to the
wish of Locke, the Church of En^and was to be aa
Established Cnurch. Dissatisfaction with tiiis Con-
stitution, which was never enforced, and with the
Navigation Acts, kept the Carolinas in a perpetual
ferment.

In 1670 the foundation of South Carolina was laid
in the settlement of the Ashley River and an inde-
pendent governor was appointed. Locke's Constitu-
tion was abandoned, and a mode of government was
adopted limiting the powers of the executive and out-
lining a le^ature q( elected delates. In 16^
Charleston was fixed as the pmnanent rite for the
settlement, a number of Dutch immigrants from New
York having arrived the year before, as vrd\ as a
shipload of slaves, the latter only too soon to out-
number the whites. The colony was further aug-
mented by Presbyterian Scotoh-Irish in 1683, but the
most important addition to the little colony was the
coming of the French Huguenots, upon the revocation
of the Edict' <rf Nantes, who setued aa the Cooper
River, and were later admitted to the political rights
of the colony. But worthless settlers, selfish and unen-
lightened proprietors, tactless governors, relitpous dis-
sent with the party of the Church and the king, and
the uneasy proximity of the Spanish settlements, led
to open revolt, the banishment of a governor, and, in
1689, the declaration of martial law. Trouble was
averted by the appointment of Archdale, one of the
proprietors and a Quaker, as govmrnr, who made
many important eonecasions, as did his successor,
Blake. In 1697 rdigious liberty was accorded to all
"except Papiste". An attempt was made in 1704 to
exclude IKMentas from the Assembly, but tiie law
waa f""^!^M by Queen Anns. Fm^^fiow cm unti]

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169

SOUTH OlSOUKA

fhe Revolution the ooime of South Candms ma a
■uoecrioa of cumulativvty fonuble raaistanoee to in*
terfwenoe on the part of the proprietors, and, after
1721, when the Crown assumed oontrol, on the part of
the sovereign and ibs royal governors, interapeised
with the disBolving of popular aaMmblies, the annul-
meot of governmental deoreas, and a saies of Moody
campaigns against the Indians, with the gradual
formation of two distinct social dasaeis, the rise of
CharleetoD as a mart of trade, a seat of wealtii and
fashitm. and a virile and oosmopcriitan oommuni^.
The oolQiiy warmly sympathised with the northem
colonies, the royal ^vemor being forced to abdicate,
taking refuge on a Briti^ man-of-war in September,
1775. A State Constitution was first adopted on 26
March, 1776, and, by a vote of 149 to 73, the national:
Constitution was ratified on 23 Mav, 1788.

Early in its state history South Carolina evinced a
feeling f<H- States' Ki^ts, which nade it the leader
in the aou^em aatation that led op to the Crtil War.
A Nullification Act was passed in 1833 in oniodtion
to the high tariff upon iinportatione passed by the
Federal Government; but the trouble was temporarily
reheved by the passing of a compronme tarifi in the
succeeding session (rf Congress. Serious difficulties
aroee upon the election of Lincoln to the presidency.
On the day of his electitm both Houses of the State
Legislature in joint sesoon passed a resolution pro-
vitung fw a state convention to conudor the with-
drairal of the state from the Umon. In Novembtf
the Legislature paened an act authoiiiing such a con-
vention, declaring that "a sovere^pi State of the
'Uaion had a right to secede from it; that the States
o( the Union are not subordinate to the national gov-
emment, were not created by it, and do not bdong
to it: that they created the national govemmuit;
that from them it derives its power; that to them it is
re^Donable; and that when it abuses the trust reposed
in it tiiey, as equal soveragns, have a ri^ht to resume
the powers reflectively ddegated to it by them."
^Btors now stumped the state, valance oonunittees
were organized, assemblages of n^roes were dispersed,
and the delegates chosen on 3 December, 1860, met
at Columbia on the 17th, adjourning to Charleston,
owing to the prevalence of smallpox. On 20 December
an ordinance declaring that ''the union now sub-
sisting bi^ween South Carolina and other States
vtnda the name of the Umted States of America is
hereby dissolved" was unanimously adopted forty-
five minutes after it was submitted. A proclamation
to this effect was read and adopted aimd scenes of the
wildest ^thu^asm. All federal office-holders at onee
reedoied. A new bamier was adopted for "The Inde-
pendent ComnKmwealth". A oommittee was ap-.
pmnted to wait on tiie premdeot and toeat for the
poasesNon of public lands within the state, lliey
urged the president to immediate withdraw aU
national troops from Cfaarieeton harbour and pre-
sented him with a resolution of seoession. Ijnooln
was courteous but firm. He replied that he would
present their demands to Congress, but gave tiiem to
understand that he ^ould defend Fort Sumter. A
taunting reply was forthcoming from the commisewm-
en which the preddent declined to answer. The oom-
nussionas reUimed and, <m 12 April, 1861, South
Carolinians attacA»d Fort Sumte^ oompdied its
evacuation by federal troops, and the stato fw four
years became one oi tiie most cnargetio and nalouv
defenders of the Confederacy.

At the close of the war a proviaonal gorwnment
was set up by the presidrat on 30 June, 1866, and a
stato convention, m the fall of the same year, re-
pealed the ordinance of seces^n and declared
davery abolished. An election was held in Novem-
ber and a state government was elected which oon-
tinoed in office until superseded fay the militaiy
flOTcnuoeiit in 1807— fioudi and North GaidiBa

being inoluded in one military district. The stato
paned aaitfy throu|^ the terrors of the Beooa*
stnifition Pniod. On 14 January, 1868, at a omh
ventiott composed of 34 whites and 63 blacks tiie
Constitotion was adopted and ratified at an election
the foUowinc year, which chose 85 negroee and 72
white men tor the State Ledslature. On 13 Juty.
1868, the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified and
the mihtary authorities were withdrawn. The Fif-
teenth Amendment was ratified by the State L^ia-
lature, 11 March. 18d9.

In the oty of Charleeton, from 1 December, 1901.
to 1 May, 1902, a "South Carolina Interstate and
West In(uan Expoation" was hel^ which eloquently
demonstrated the development of the Southern states
unce the Civil War and the industries and resources
of Cuba, Porto Hico^ Mexico, and South America.

B. ScdenaatiaU. — In the stormy peribd of r^-
li^ous dissent that characterized the early colonial
years ctf the Carolinas, Catholics bore no part; nor
mdeed does tbwe appear any evidmce of the presence
of a mngle active Catholic in South Carolma until
after the Revolution. This religious dissent came
from the Quakers and a growing class of colonists,
indifferent to religious ideals, who objected to the en^
fOToed establishment of the Church of England, in-
volving on their part the pigment of three-fourths
shaie for the maintenance of a religious establishment
representing a minority. But the hypothetictd pres-
ence of Gaelics was duly provided for in the Aets<tf
1696 renewing tolerati(m, by the usual parenthetical
intrunon of the phrase — "Papists only eaanepied".
Indeed it was not until a generation after the Revolu-
tion, with its (hsestablishmcnt of the Anglican Church
in the states of North and South Carolina, that the
Metiopolitan of the United States solicited the pope
to erect a southern diocese for tiie bands of Catn-
olics soattoed ihrauc^ QecHvia and the OaioUnaa who
were abeady bedomme inamerent and maloontmt,
if not actually hereticar. To include these states in
ite territory, the See of Charleston was erected by
Pius VII, 11 July, 1820. and the Rev. John England,
the parish priest of Killorgsui and Ballymoodan, Ire-
land, was consecrated ite bishop at the Cathedral of
St. Finnbar, refusing at the same time to take a
agecial oath <tf allegiance to the Kins of En^^and.
'Die ludu^ embariced for the Umted States on 23
October; set about Ids onerous duties with indefati^
able aaedduity; founded the first Catholic newspaper
of America. "The United Stotes' Catholic Mis-
cellany", which, with a slight intermisaon. endured
up to the Civil War; established The Philoeophical
and Claasioal S^ninaiy of Charleston for Catholics
and non-Catholies alike; oi^anized, in 1830, the
Sisters of Our Lady Mercy; drew up a model
Constitotion for the Church, and incwporated its
trustees. Bishop England combined in a renunk-
able decree ]»aotical inoghth indomitaUe oi^yi and
wide culture, while atn^sung against bafflu^ dif-
ficulties.

In 1850, during the episcopate of Bishop Reynolds,
the See of Savannah was erected with jurisdiction
over Geor^ and Eastern Florida, and the Diocese
of Charleeton hmceforth comprised the Carolinas
with a Catholic populstion estamated at 8000. The
OvO War wroi^t teniUe havoe with Catholic
lives and Church property, culminatingin the horrors
of ^wrbian's march to the sea, and Bishop Lynch
cUsplayed remarkable energy in building up again his
ruined and pennileas diocese. The Vicariate Apos-
toha of North Carolina was erected by a Papal Bull,
3 March-, 1868, so that under the present episcopate
of Bldiop Hmry P. Northrop, the Diocese <n Charles
ten cmnprises ahnply the State of South Carolina.
Them are' in the cuooeae 108 relwous women, nov-
ioea and poatalanta, 10 secular priests, 12 churches
vith nriotnl priesto, 17 nuswrns with^^Aurobei^ 7|

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iOUTBGOVl 1

BtaAkuu Attd 8 ohafwU; 5 a«ademiei for yomag USm
vi^L 395 pupils; 9 pftrishes with parochial schools
iwovidia^ lor 866 pupils; one horoital, tha. Infirmaiy
and Sanitarium of St. Francis Aavier, under the
Sisters of Mercy, at Charleston. The ^ooese aup-
pcu^ and cares for 72 orphans and the eatiraated
Catholic popuktum of the state is 96C0.

DENOMINATIONAL STATISTICS (1908)

DsmmaiA'nom

No.
Cbohchw

No.

MiNUTXIU

Mbhbsb-
tep

BapttBt

1,003

410

118,217

M. £. Church, South..

798

367

85,441

276

121

23,442

85

34

13,993

94

47

7,620

1

1

117

Congr^ational

1

1

71

A. R. Presbyterian —

46

36

4,227

30

19

9,650

Leqiblation Affectinq RsuaiON. — ^The State
allows a rectory and two acres of land with building
to be exempt from taxation. Nor are relipous bouses
taxed. Teaching orders have speoalprivU^flB exempt-
ingtheir schools, as the parochial sohoola, from tax^on.
^FuU liberty of conscience is eraoted in South
Carolina, but it has beta held that Hob does not
leg^ize wUfuI or profane swearing or scoffing or

ereveait l^islation prohibiting the MHiduct of secular
tunness, not of an imperative nature, on Sunday.
South Carolina recc^nizes as legal holidayB 1 Jan-
uary, 19 January, Lee's Birthday, 11 May, Con-
federate Memorial Day, 3 June, J^enon Davis'
Kithday, 4 July, Labour Day, Election Day, Quist*
mas, and ThurBoay of Fair Week, but no Church holy
days, as such, are rerognized as bolidi^. Hie law
allows the same privileges to communications made
to a priest undw the seal <A a ooofeaaion as it does to
confidential communications made by a client to
his counsel or by a patirat to hia phyncian. The
statutes contain no proviuons making any exertion
between the lights and privileges of civil or eceleaa^
lical corporaucms. Hie property d the Church m
the diocese is held by the bishop and his aucceasoia
in office. The seasiona of the Lespdature are opcoied
wiUi prayer; those of tiie Courts are not.

Marriage and LHuorce. — ^The marriage laws d
South Carolina prohibit all marriages within the
Levitical decree, of white with negro, or white with
Indian. It is one of the few states in the Union that
does not reqnure the taking out of mamam lioemaeB.
A. startling feature of the South Carolina law is the
fact that no divorces are granted. All laws per-
mittiiig divorce were repealed in 1878 and have never
been re-enacted. From 1867 to t^e repeal of the
Divorce Law South Carolina had granted but 163
divorces, which was at the rate of 1 per 100,000 ot
population.

ExcKB AND DispENBART AcT.— Quite the most
unique feature <rf the prohibition le^slation of South
Carolina — indeed one of the most unique excise
features of any state l^^slation — was the passing of
the Dispensary Act viatAi placed the entire control
of the hquor traffic in the hands of the Govcnunent,
the profits from which accrued to the state scjiool
fund. This Act was abolished in 1907 under the
pressure of a temperance movement that was sweep-
ing through the Southern states and local option was
adopted with the result that in 1909 eaghteeu coun-
ties had voted prohibition. The Dispensary Law
had scarcely been enacted in 1892 when it met mth
fierce oi^xMdtaon, reonving, howerrar, hearty oflbsiJ
support from Governor Tillman. In 1894 the
Qa^m Court of tin State deoided that it ma nn-

iU BOOTH OiASOTA

eonslitutioiial, but suooeasive Legudatuies modified
the original act in oonf ormity to the ruling <A the
Court. In 1897, tJbe United States Supreme Court
decided that the section foriiidding the imptutattan
of Uciuor into the state bv private persons ni^ated
the interstate commerce laws of Congress.

WiLU. — Evwy person , is entitled to make a will
unless insane, under afe, or labouring under sMne
disability of law arising from want <rf capacity or
want iH perfect liberty oi aetimu Married women
deal, in every reqteot, as though ihey wwe nng[Ie,
and have the same power to make contracta with
reoard to thdr separate property as do their hudwmds.
All wills shall be m writing a<id signed by the party
devinng, or by some other person in his presence and
by his expreea direction, and shall be attested and
subscribed, in the presence oi said devisOT, by three
or taiore arodible witnessei^ eadi in the presence td the
otbo'. No nMMnipalive will shall be good, where tiie
estate exceeds fifty dollars, unless tbe same is provided
hy the oaths of three witnesses who were present at
the making thereof and bid by the testator to bear
witness that such was lus will, or words to that
^ect; nor unless such will was made during the last
ncknesa of the deceased, in the house or place where
he shall have died. No testimony shall Be admitted
to prove saoh a will, if six months diall have eti^iaed
after speaking the teetamentwy words, ensept such
testimony, or the substance thereof, was committed
to writing within ax days after the making of said
will, and not then, unless such will shall be presented
for probate within twelve months. The assets which
come into the hands of the executors or admini»-
tratOTs shall be applied to the paymoit of the debts
of the estate in the foUowingora^: (1) Funeral and
other ezpenaea of last nckness, charges of probate or
letters m administration; (2) Debts due to public;
(3) Judgments, mortxages, and exeeutkma — the
oldest first: (4) Rent; (6) Bonds, debts by spedaaty
and debts by simple contract.

ColMwal Records NoriK Cmtitta (1886-90); South CaroUna
Hist. Sode^'a CoBteHoM; RrvBJw. SkeUA of tlu Uitt. qf SovA
Carolina to t7t9 (CharlMfan. 18S6): McOradt, Sovttk CaroHna
undtr Boval OoMmmunt (N«w York. ISBOT; Euu Locus, Jountmt
and Latum (HdlMO(A'a «d. I860); O'ComiBLL, CaOuMcau ii»
tt« CotoIhmi and Gtarfia Qfnr Yoric, 1S7S): Sbjul, Airt. M«
CtOKotte Ckurak intk* V.8 (N«w Ti^ IttOTnuop Em-
um'e Work;

3axvib KaiLBT.
Southcote, Joanna. See Sabbatabianb, Sab-

BATABIANISU.

South Dakota, the thirty-ninth state, admitted to
the UnicHi on 2 November, 1889, is officially bounded
as follows: "Beaming at the point <A intersectitm
of ti» westem boundanr of Minneaota with the
northmi boundary <A Iowa and running thenoe
northerly along the westem boundary of Minnesota
to its intersection with the 7th standard parallel,
thence west on tJie line of the 7th standard parallel
produced due west to the intersection with the 27th
moidian of longitude west of Washington (Approx.
104 W. Greenwich) thence south on the 27th meridian
of longitude to its intersection with the northern
boimdary line of NeluadEa, thenoe easterly alom^ said
northem boundary line of Nebraska to its mter-
section witJi tlie westOTi boundary line of Iowa,
thenoe nOTth fdong the western boundary line of .the
State of Iowa to ^e north-west coma- of said State of
Iowa, thenoe east along the northern bousdaiy line
of Iowa to the place of beginning." „ „ „

The state contains 76,860 square nailes. Qeaen^
the surface is undulatiu prairie lands, except m the
eonth-^restem portion which is oocupied by the Black
Hills. The general altitude is about fifteen hundred
feet above sea level. The lowest point, Bigstone
Lake on the eastem boundary, is 962 fee^ and
Harney's Peak in the Blaok HiUs rises to 7216 feet.
TV Minouri River dividflS the rtate into neaily

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SOUTH XUKOTA

161

noma. Dakota

_tioDS having quite dittiiict soil oluraotim-
ties; the pwtioD east <d the river being glaoUI dagr,
and the portion west bdng in part covered with a
tenacious olsy formed by the disiot^patioD of Fort
Fjem Shalefl, and the remainder with I^aramie
loam eroded from the weetern mountamfl. The
pcq>uIatioa numbers 58338S (1910) and is chiefly
of American ori^n. The ohiu foreign dements are
German and Soandinavian. There are about 18,000
Sioux Indians residing upon lands in severalty in the
stake.

Rbsoubcu. — ^Acrimdture is the chief Tesouiee
and tJie main imuucte for 1910 were:

Com 64,050,000 buahel»-«21,620,000

Wheat 46,720,000 " — 41,581,000

Oats 35,075,000 " — 10,622,000

Barley 18,655,000 " — 10,633,000

Rye 595,000 " — 363,000

ElMBeed 3,300,000 " — 7,557,000

Potatoea 2,420^000 " — 2,057,000

Hay 2.750,000 tons — 19,000^000

The Black Hills regiim is rich in minerals and gc^d
mining is an important indusl^. There are exten-
sive lime and cement works in the state and oon-
siderable BtcMie quairies. The mineral product of
1909 was as follows: gold, $6,447,093: mica, SI,-
000,000; lime, oement and other mmerau, and stone,
$2,562,917. In 1910 the value of gold produced fell
to S5,187j070. Maaufaoturing is but little devd<^>ed.
Fkxir milling and the manufacture of butter in
orearaeries are the leading industries. The last
figures are for 1906 when the total product of manu-
factories was $13,065,333, of idiich $2,182,663 was
produced by creameries and $6,619^364 by flour
mills. A considerable wholesaling is done from
Aberdeen, Sioux Falls, Watertown, and other points.
Agriculture products in 1909 shipped to marketo
outside the state returned $123,706,000. South
Dakota is w^ provided with railroad communioi^
Ikm f<H- intra state and interstate transpcvtatioiit
the total mileage (1910) beh^; 3953 miles.

Education. — The public education nrstem is
correlated from the common schools through tba hi^
schools to the state univosity. For the main-
tenance of public education in the state. Congress
granted a total of 3,531,174 acres of land. About one-
aghth of this has been sold for the sum of $7,725,637,
which returns an annual revenue of interest and rent-
als of a half million dollars. The sdiool fund is most
carefully guarded by the constitution and laws. It
is believed the ultimate school fund will maintain
public education without taxation. The total ex-
penditure for public school purposes (1909) was
$3,162,000.09. There woe 169,706 persons of school
age (between 6 and 21 years), of whom 121,166 at-
tended school in 1900. There were then 4358 school-
house* and 5565 teach^. The state university,
located at Vermilion, was first opened and endowed
by the territory in 1882. It has collies of letters, uts
and sciences, law, medicine, engineering, and music,
each presided over by a dean under the general direc-
tion of ihe president. There are 48 members of the
faculty and 445 students. TTie State CoU»e of
Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, located at Brooungs,
is supported jointly by the State and Federal govem-
ments. It was opened in the autumn of 1884.
There were forty-tliree members of the faculty and
525 students (1909).

The State maintains four normal schools^ located
respectively at Madison, Spearfish, Springfield, and
Aberdeen; the latter institution has industrial '
features. The State likewise mamtama a school
for the deaf at Sioux Falls, for the blind at Gary, luul
for the feeble-minded at Redfield; the training school
for incorrigible boys and girls is at Flankinton. The
wAooiB for the deaf, blind, feeble^nmded, and in-
ootrigiblBB are under the Mpflrvitkn of fba State.

Board ttf Charities, but the universi^ oikt ofiur
sehoob ot hi^wr education are under the State
Regents of Eouieation. Several religious d«iomina-
tioiu maintaiTi coUeees in the state: the Baptists at
Sioux FallS; the Catholics at Chambeilain, the Con-
gregaUonahsts at Yankton and Redfield, the Scan-
dinavian Lutherans at Canton and German Lutherans
at Eureka, the Mennonites at Freeman, the Methodist
Episcopals at Mitchell^ the Preebytenims at Huron.
The f^pisoopalians mam tain a seminarv for young
ladies at Sioux Falls, and the Free Meuiodists have
a seminary at Weesington ^rixuES. The Catholic
Church has academies at Aberdeen, Bridgewater,
Bristol, Dell Ri4)ids, Elkton, Epiphany, Farmer,
'aid, /efferson, Kranibuig,

Pariuton, Salem, Sioux

SuL or Sotrm Dakota

Turton, Hoven.
Marion, Milbank,
Falls, Stureis,
Tabor, VermUion,
Webster, Woon-
Boeket, Water-
town, Yankton,
and Sell. Hie
Scandinavian Lu-
thcfrans have a
normal school at
Sioux Falls. Co-
lumbus College,
t^e Catholic m-
stitution at Cham-
berlain, was
founded in 1909,
when Bishop
O'Gorman pur-
chased from the
Federal Government the plant of the Government
Indian School, but v«y snortly after Uu establish-
meat of the college the main building was burned. A
leorgaoisation was effected in time to rwpea with
the regular oollece year for 1910-11.

HiSTOBT.— Ctru.— -The first settlers within the pr«e-
ent boundaries of South Dakota were F^ch fur
traders, who established a fur post on Cedar Island
in the Missouri River thirty mues below the present
capital in 1796. The next year a second post was
established at a point near the present Greenwood
post office in Chanes Mix County. These posts were
discontinued eSter several years, but in 1817 Josq>h
La Frambois established Ft. Teton on the present
site of Ft. Pierre and the settlement at that place
has been continuous since. The first agricultund
settlement was made at Sioux Falls in 1857. Owing
to the hostility of the Indians, settlement was slow
until the discovery of gold in the Black Hills in 1874,
and untU that tune was confined to narrow strips,
along the Missouri and the Lower Big Sioux. About
1877 began a great influx of homesteaders, and witlun
five years most of the land east of the Missouri had
been settled upon, and all of the chief towns date
from that paiod. The Constitution of South Dakota
was made by a convention authorized by the terri-
torial Legislature, which met in Sioux Falls in Sep-
tember, 1885. This Ccmstitution was revised to
meet cotain requirements of the EnaUing AclP(^
1889 and adopted by the people on 1 October, 1889.

Eceleaiaatical. — ^The first Catholics to come into
South Dakota were probablv the men of Charles
Pierre Le Sueur, who visited the Sioux Valley in 1800,
The Verendrye brothers were here in 1745 m an
escplco'ation tnp and were accompanied by a priest.
In June, 1842, Father Ravoux of St. Paul miade a
trip to the Missouri River to baptize the families
criF French Catholics living 'at Fort Titxre. In 1845
Father Ravoux visited V^milion for the same pur>
pose. In 1848 Father DeSmet came among the
Indians of the Dakota country and labourea with
them until his death, about 1866. Father DeSmet
was annifltffll in hia work anumg the,.pakotas iff

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SOVtBBBNl

162

SOUTHWA&X

Batiwra Christlaa and Adrian Hoecken. The first
permanent miasion plant in South Dakota was made
at Jefferson in Iwl. A considerable number of
fWtch Catholic families had settled in that net^-
bourhood, and Bishop Grace sent Father Pierre
Boucher among them as Apostolic missionary, and
he organized and built St. Peter's Church at JefFer-
Bon, the first Catiiolie church building in the state.
From that time there had been a strady nowth in
Catholic populatkm, distributed among the Germans,
Irish, and lireneh, witli a few Italians and other South
Europe immigrants. The original Vicariate Apos-
tolic of Dakota was established with the episcopal
seat at Yankton, but upon the division of the terri-
tory and the admission of South Dakota in 1889,
the Diocese of Sioux Falls was established to embrace
the entire state. Rt. Rev. Martin Marty was the
first bishop and he was succeeded, after an. interval
during which Uie diocese was administered by Rt.
Rev. Henry Wensing, by Rt. Rev. Thomas O'Gorman,
the present inciunbent. In 1902 the diocese was
divicted, and that portion of the state west of the
Missouri River became liie Diocese of Lead with Rt.
Bffv. John Stariha as bishop; in 1909 Bishop Stariha
resigned and was succeeded oy Bishop Busoh. There
are m the two dioceses, ISO prieste^ 208 churches, 13
chapels, 71 stations, 28 parochial schools, with
3530 pupils, and a Cathouc population of about
68,000. While Catholics have been largely repre-
sented in the Legislature and county offices, not many,
in proportion to their numerical strength have held
state office. Peter C. Shannon was chief justice
of the territory (1873-Sl); John E. Kelley repre-
sented the state in Congress (1896-98) ; Beotius H.
Sullivan was surveyor general (1889-93); Patrick F.
Wickham, internal revenue collector (1893); and John
A. Bowler, warden of the penitentiary (1897-1901).

The latest religious oensus of South Dakota, taken
in 1906, is as foHowa:

DSNOHINATtOM

Adventists
Baptists. . ,
Brethren (F
Christim Science
Congregationalists

Disciples

Dunkers

Eastern (Greek)

Evangelical

Friends

German Evangelical.

Independent

Latter Day Samts. .

Lutheran

Mennonites

Methodists

PVesbyterians

Protestant Episcopal

Reform Bodies

Roman Catholic ....

Sidvation Army

Swedish Erangelioal.

Theosophists

Unitarians

United Brethren

Universalists

Total

No.

No. -

Chubchkb

Mbvbkbs

40

1,042

92

6,198

1

3

8

237

168

8,599

21

1,478

2

165

4

280

69

1,797

5

103

6

325

8

334

1

85

506

45,018

15

995

322

16,143

126

6,990

126

7,055

65

2,711

199

61,014

7

109

22

1,042

1

7

1

21

7

257

I

13

1,798

161,961

Mattbbb Aftbcttko Religion. — The Ccmatitu-
tion guarantees complete freedom of worship. A
chapter of the penal code defines crunes against re-
l^wn and conseienoe, eqwoiBlty makiDg blaq^iony,

IMTofaae swearing, and deaeerataon ot Ifce SiUMth,

misdemeanors. No relippus holidays are observed
by law as such, exo^t llianksgiving Day. Christ-
mas is a holiday. Every session of the L^[i8latwe is

rned with prayer. One of the chaplains in sessions
1907 and 1909 was a Catholic priest. Churoh
societies may incorporate tmder a simple and in-
expensive statutory provision. All property used
(or rd%iou8 and educational purposes is exempt tnm
taxation; clereymen are eznnpt from jury and miU-
tary duty and poll taxes; marriages may be cele-
brated by any r^ular minister of uie Go^l, or be-
fore justices of the peace and the judges of the courts;
a rigid marriage license law is enforced: and con-
sanguineous marriages are forbidden; all marria^
are finally recorded in the State Vital Statistics
Division at Pierre. Divorces ate allowed for adul-
tery, extreme cruelty, wilfUl deserticm, witful n^eot,
habitual intemperance, or ocmvictim of felony. The
plaintiff must nave been in good fai^ a residait oC
the state one year and of the county three months
before bringing action for divorce. Free educati<m
is offered every person and elementarv educaticm is
compulsory; training in parochial scnools may be
substituted for compulsory training in public schools.
The BiUe nuty be read in the public schools but all
seetariaa teatAing ia forbidden. All state-supported
oluuitable institutions, prisons, and refbrmatOTiOB are
under the oontrol of the State Board of CTharities and
Corrections. These institutions are the Hospital
for the Insane at Yankton, the School lor Feeble-
minded at Redfield, the School for the Deaf, Sioux
Falls, the School for the Blind at Gary, the Training
School for Incorrigiblea at Plankinton, the peniten-
tiary at Sioux Falls, and sanatorium fc^ tubearculous
patientB at Custer. The Catholic Church maintains
mie honiitals at Aberdeen, Cascade Springs, Dead-
wood, Pierre, Mitchell, Sioux Falls, Welwt», and
Yankton. Ine Scandinavian Lutherans maintain an
orphfmage at B«resford, and the State Children's
Home at Sioux Falls is maintained as a public be-
nevolence. The last-named is not a churoh insUta-
tion. though Bi^op O'Gorman of the Catholic Diooese
of Sioux :^ills is a member of its board of control.

The sale of liquor is strictly renilated by law;
a fa^h license system prevails; SIOOO per year is the
minimum license fee. Every person of sound mind
may dispose of all his ixt)perty by will, but a cor-
poration cannot make a will; there is no proviraon
of law regulating or affectii^ charitable bequests.
Cemetery eorpratitions or itKUviduals may provide
cemeteries; burial upon a oemetoy lot renders the
title thereto inalienable; no corpse may be buried
within the state without a permit from a justice of the
peace.

Bri«/ Biitorv of SmOh Dakota (New York. 190fi) ; HonMSOW^
HUtoni of South Dakota (Indunapolis, 1904): JoumaU of Levia
and Clarke; South Dakota HUiorictU Collediont I, II ^torre,
1602, 1904): Anmua Reritia afths Progrei nf South Dakota (Pievn,
1909); Rnittd SlatuU* a/Souik Dakota iPism. 1909).

DoANB Robinson.

Southeme, William, Venbrable, English mar-
tyr, suffered at Newcastle-under-Lyme, 30 April,
1618. An alumnus and priest of the Englidi College
at Douai, he laboured mainly at Baswich, near
Stafford, which then belonged to a branch of the
Fowler family. He was arrested while saying
Mass, and committed by a neighbouring justice
to Stafford gaol. He was immediately sentenced
to death for Ming a priest and refusingto take ^eoath
of allegiance; he remained in prison for six days after
condemnation, no hangman beii^ forthcoming.

Challohbb, MUaiMorti PriaU, II, no. 159.

John B. WAimiwiuwr.

South wark, Diocbbb or (Southwabciihbi8), suf-
fragan of Westminster, England, eomprises tfae
nuth-eatteiii oouatns of Kent, Surrey, and Snasmc

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SOUTHWABX

aouUi of the Tham«, iaeluding the southern half of
the adaainiBtrative Cx)unty of Londm. Southwark,
the principal boroiigh in Soutii London, is the ept»-
eopu city. This diocese was founded on the resto-
ration <^ the hierarchy in England in 1851, and when
first erected included Berkshire, Hampshire, and the
Channel Mands in addition to Surrey, Kent and Sussex.
Previous to this these five counties formed part of
the London District, which district was govwned by
a vicar Apostolic, to whom also was conuuitted
emMOpal juriBdiction over North America and the
Bahama ulands. In 1860 London, even at that
time a comparatively small city, which, owing to
die exigencies of the times, had previously hem under
the jurisdiction of a single bi»iop, was now divided
between ths two new Diocesee of Weetminster
(north of the Thames) and Southwark (south
of the TTiamea), the newly-erected Church of St.
George, Southwark, astately and magnifioHitsta-ueture
in tab Gothic style designed by the elder Pugin,
being designated as the cathedral of the newlv-
erected On 6 July, 1851, Right Rev. Thomas
Grant, D.D., vice-
rector of the Eng-
lish College, Rome,
was consecrated as
first bishop at the
earty age of thirty-
five. He was suo-
ceeded 25 March,
1871, by Right Rev.
James Dandl, for-
merly his vicar-
gen^al. The next
occupjmt of the see
was Bishop Robert
GoQin, vrho at the
time of his appoint-
ment in 1882 was
Pirovincial of the
Redemptorists i n
Great Britain and
Ireland. On his

demise in 18S5 the
choice of the Holy See fdl upon his auxiliaiy,
Bishop John Butt, who governed the diocese for
twelve years until his resignation in 1897, when he
was succeeded by his coadjutor. Bishop Francis
Bourne, who became Archbishop of Westminster in
1903.

The present bishop. Right Rev. Peter Emmanuel
Ami^, was bom at Gibraltar, 26 May, 1864. He
studied at St. Edmund's, Ware, and St. Thomas's,
Hammersmith: was ordamed priest, 25 Feb., 1888;
was for a short time at Stoke Newington, then pro-
fessor at St. Edmund's from Sept., 1888, to July,
1892. He was then appointed assistant priest at
Hammersmith from Sept., 1862, to June, 1896. He
was afterwards at St. Mary's and St. Michael's,
Commercial Road, first as assistant priest, th^ as
rector from June, 18S6, to April, 1901. He was then
appointed rector of the mission at WiJworth in ihe
Diocese of Soutjiwark, and remained ihsm until hia
consecration as Bisiiop of Southwark, 25 March,
1904. He is stmiuously engaged in carrying on to
their fullness the various important works initiated
by his predecessors by miiltiplying much-needed
churches and schools in all paits of this important
diocese, as well as endeavouring to pay off the
enormous liabOities that in past years nave had to
be incurred in emergencies when there would have
been the ^vest dsraeer of loss of faith, .especially
to the destitute little ones of the diocese, if the large
and magnificently-equipped orphanages and poor-ktw
schools <^ the diocese had not been promptly erected.
In additkm to the debts aa iha hwtitutwDs then are
■be eoormotts debts inenrred in the building of new

churches and schools in new and rapidly-growing
centres of p<q>ulation, which were necessary if wont
for the ^ood of souls was to be adequately carried on
in the nudst of the huge population of South London
and its environs. There is every prospect that the
efforts of the present bishop in this direction will be
crowned with complete success, as he has already
succeeded in securing for the important work of safe-
guarding t^e poorer ehiklren of the diooese from km
of faith the united and cordial co-operation tit not
only the whole of the clergy, but also of every elaM
of the laity, which is eloquently attested by the totals
of the subscriptions and collections for tms purpose,
which go on steadily increasing from year to year.
As a cousequezioe of this united support of clergy
and laity, jomed with the establishment of a sinking
fund for the gradual extmctiou of mission debts,
Bic^op Aimgo IodIeb forward to hftnding over to bm
successor at tho close of his life a splendid array of
churches, schools, and inBtitutionB, all oitirely free
from debt.

Southwark in many ways occupies a notable posi-
tion amongst the.
dioceses of Eng-
land. First of aU,
South Ixndon, with
its enoTnous popu-
lation of close on
two million inhabi-
tants (census of
1911, 1,844,310) is
one of the largeet
cities in the world
as well as one of
the poorest. Being
for the most part a
place <tf resuknoe,
for the salaried
worlrars of London
north of the Thames,
where all trade ana
business is concen-
trated, South Lon-
don, with its im-
meosepopulation, has scarcely a single hotel above the
level of the third class to be found withm its area.
Outside the boundaries of South London proper there
stretches towards the south a fringe of more sparsely
populated residential districts, inhabited chieflv by
the well-to-do professional and business people of
the City of London, amongst whom there are very,
few CathoUcs. . Between this residential lone and
the English Channel Ues, still further to the south,
a pleasant well-wooded agricultural district that k
also day by day becoming more residential in char-
acter, until the sea-coast is reached with its chain of
watering places, girdling the coast line of Kent and
Sussex from the mouth of the Thames on the north
to beyond Selsey Bill on the south. These resorts
are really suburbs of London by the aea, and in the
summer months especially are fiued by visiton drawn
from aUparts <tf LondMi.

The Cnunt^ d Kent, one of the most important
of the rural divisions of this diocese, wiU always have
an interest for English-speaking Catholics of all
times, as the district in which Christianity was first

E reached in the Saxon tongue by St. Augustine and
is followers, who landed near Kichborough on the
coast of Kent in 597. The actual church in which
the Apostle of England offered up the Holy Sacrifice
is still to be seen to this very day at Canterbury,
whiohj once the Primatial See of Etagland, is now
an unimportant and dwindling country town of this
large diocese. The Diocese oiSouthwark, it may be
noted, includes within its present boundaries not
only the whole of the territories formerly bekm^g
to the ffvmer Diooesea of CanterbuK. itochester.

Iktkhiok or &t. GKUtas's Catbsdbal, SovTawAKK

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80UTBWIIA ]

tad CbUb/atiKf but also a large portion of the fonoa
Dioeeee of Wmchester. The Church may also be
■aid to owe the world-wide devotion of the Brown
Scapular to this diocese, ae St. SinuHi Stock, its prop-
agator, was bora in the Weald ot Kmt .tomnu the
end of the twelfth century.

Another Btai]dn([ duracteristio of this diocese is
the very marked mcrease shown in the numbers of
cfaurdies, dei^, and Catholic p<q]ulation. Thus
in 1882 the Diocese of Southwark comprised South
London, the five counties of Keoit, Surrey, Sussex,
Bericshire, and Hami»hire, and the Channel Islands.
On the ^pointment of Bishop Coffin in 1882 the
diooeae was divided, and the Counties of Berkshire
and Hampshire, t(^;ether with the Isle of Wight and the
Cihaanel Islands, were separated from t£e diocese
and erected into the new Diocese of Portsmouth.
Before the division Soutinrark had 148 public
churchee, chai>els, and stations, with 247 priests.
After the division the present dioeeee started afresh
with only 93 public churches, chapels, and stations,
served by priests. The diocese now has 218

Eublic churches, chapels, and stations, with a popu-
ition of ahnost 120,000 Catholics^ whilst the number
of priests attached to or workmg in the diocese
amounts to 591, a higher total than any other English
diooeae. Besides the above^nentitmed public puioes
(rf wonhip, l^ere are also 160 private cn^ls, either
belonging to religious communities or m private
houses, where Mass is as a rule celebrated daily.

As mi^t be expected from the foregoing facts, the
clergy ot this diocese, owing to the encoura^ment
aiiBy have always received from a succession of
broadr^oinded and progressive bishc^ with high
ideiUs and exceptional gifts of or^wization, have
always been noted for their zeal, initiative, and gift
of oombination amongst themselves for the further-
ance of every good work. It has always been their
pride to have the most up-to-date and best-equipped
schools in the oountiy, and they led the way in the
foimdation of volimtary pupil-teachers' centres, for
the traming of the coming generation of teachers,
before the work was made a public charge. Hie
clergy of South I^ondon especially have also dis-
tinguisbed themselves by the active share they have
ahnys takm, with their bishop's hearty approval,
in the great work of local government and adminis-
tration, many of them having done splendid work
for religion on public bodies such as the former Ixm-
don Scnool B<mrd, as well as upon the Boards of
Guardians eiid the local councils. The Sou^
Loodrai League, a non-political body (or the pro-
tection of Catholic interests in South London, with
the bi^op as president, bean witness to ibo very
Bucceesful way in which the clergy as well as the laity
of all parties nave discovered the Be<9ct of successful
oi^uiization on a purely Catholic platform, to the
exclusion of party or national politics.

Ever since 1891, when it was first started,
"Paatoralia", the popular little clei^ reviewforthe
discussion of pastoral topics, has been edited by a
committee mainly of South London clergy, and has a
large circulation amongsttbe cko^of E^gfoh'Speaking
lands. Its pages are full of m tercet as giving an
iiuight into pr^lems and difficulties the Church has
to face in great cities, as well as the practical means
by which new methods are evolved to meet present-
day exkencies.

Slinodi Dimxtii Soidhtporcmtia, 1850-1868 (London. 1SS8):
Tha CaOuKe tHrmtom (LobcIod. 1850-1911). pusun; FtMonlia
(London. 1891-1911). puaim.

W. M. CUNNINQHAH.

Southwell (Sotwil), Nathan. See Baoon, Na-

THANIDL.

Southwell, RoBBHT, Vbnxsabub, poet, Jesuit,
martyr, b. at Horsham St. Faith's, Nmolk^Jkigland,
iaUIdl; hanged at lybum, 21 Feb., 1596. fiiigrand-

H SOmWILL

father. Sir Riehard Southwell, had been a weafth^

man aiid a prominent courtier in the reign of Henry
VIII. It was Biohard Southwell who m 1547 had
brought the poet Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, to
the block, and Surrey had vainly begged to be allowed
to "fight him in his shirt". Curiously enough their
req>eotive grandsons, Father Southwell aiMFhilip,
Earl of Arundel, were to be the most devoted of friends
and fellow-prisoners for the Faith. On his mother's
side the Jesuit was deaoended from the Copley and
Shelley famihes, whence a remote connexion may he
established between him and the poet Peccy Byssha
Shelley. RobertSouthwellwas brought up a Catholic,
and at a v^ early age was sent to be educated at
Douai, where he was the pi^il in philosophy of a
Jesuit of extrawdinary austerity of life, the famous
Leonard Lessius. After qMidu^ a wort time in
Paris he b^ged ior admiaaion into the Sodety of
Jesus — a boon at first draied. TIub dis^pointmoit
elicited from the boy of seventeen some passionate
laments, the first of nis verses whic^ we have rec-
ord. On 17 Oct., 1678, however, he was admitted at
Rome, and made his simple vows in 1580. ' Shortly
after his noviceship, durii^ which he wassent to Tour-
nai, he returned to Rome to finish his studies was or-
dained priest in 1584, and became prefect of studies
in the English Coll^. In 1€86 he was sent on the
English mission with Father Henry Gamett, found
his first refuge with Lord Vaux of Harrowden, and
was known under the name of Cotton.

Two years afterwards he became chaplain to the
Countess of Arundel and thus established relations
with her imprisoned husband, PhiUp, Earl of .Arundel,
the ancestw of the presimt duoal house of Norfolk, as
well as with Lady Margaret Sackville, the earl's half-
sister. Father Southwell's prose elegy, "Triumphs
over Death", was addressed to the earTto console him
for this sister's premature death, and bis "Hundred
Meditations on the Love of God , originally written
for her use, were ultimately tranaorit»d by another
hand, to present to her daughter Lady Beauchamp
("The Month", June, 1900, p. 600). Some six years
w^ spent in seidous and suecesafiU missionary work,
during which Father Southwell lay hidden in London,
or passed under various disguisee from one Catholic
house to another. For his better protection he in-
fected an interest in the pursuits of the ooimtry gentle-
men of his day (metaphors taken from hawking are
common in his writings), but his attire was always
sober and his tastes simple. His character was sin-
gularly gentle^ and he has never been accused of tak-
ing any part ather in poUtioal intrigues or in rdigioua
dilutes of a more domestic kind. In 1592 Father
Southwell was arrested at Uxenden Hall, Harrow,
tiirmif^ the treachery of an unfortunate Catholic girl,
Anne Bellamy, daughter of the owner of the house.
The notorious Topcliffe, who effected the capture,
wrote exuHingty to the ^ueen; "I nev^ did take so
weighty a man, if he be rightly used. " But the atro-
cious cruelties to which Southwell was subjected did
not ahake his fortitude. He was examined thirteen
times under torture by members of the Council, and
was long confined in a dungeon swarming with ver-
min, iuter nearly three years in prison he was
brought to trial and the usual punishment of hanging
and quartering was inflicted.

Father Southwell's writings, both in prose and verse,
were extremely popular with bis contemporaries, and
his religious pieces were sold openly by the booksellers
though their authorship was known. Imitations
abounded, and Ben Jonson declared of one of Soutii-
well's nieoee, "The Burning Babe", that to have writ-
ten it he would readily forf dt many of his own poons.
"Mary Magdalen's Tears", the Jesuit's earliest
printed work, licensed in 1591, pn^ably repreemts a
deliberate attempt to employ in the causa aiputr tba
eupkuiatio pniae atyle, (fien so pep«lar. "Tnumnht

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SOKOIfW

Desth", also ia prose, exhibits the same ohano-
tcnaties; but this arufieiuity of stnicture is not so
marked in the "Bhort Rule a Good Life", the "Let^
ter to His Father", the "Hiunble SuppUoaticMi to Her
M«i«rty", the "Epistle of Comfort" and the "Hun-
dred Meditations'' Southwell's longest poem, "St.
Peter's Complaint" (132 six-line stanzas), is imitated,
though not closely, from the Italian "Lagrime di S.
Pietro" of Luigi Tansillo. This with some other
smaller pieces was first printed, with hcense, in 1595,
tiw year of his death. Anothwvohime of (Awt poems
appeared later in the same year under the title of
••Mffloniffl". The early editions of these are scarce,
and some of them command hiRh prices. A poem
called "A Foure-fold Meditation , which was prmted
as Southwell's in 1606, is not his, but was written by
his friend the Earl ot Arundel (see "The Month'%
Jan., 1896). Perhaps no higgler testimony can be
f<rand of the esteem in which Southwell's verse was
held by his ooutemporariea than the fact that, while it
k iHobable Uwt Southwell had raad Shakespeare, it is
practically certain that Shakespeare had read South-
well and imitated him (Camb. Hist. Eng. Lit., IV, 129).

Laa in Diet. Nat. Biog., s. v.; Folbt, Rtcord* of Om Snoluh
Pnniux, I; Tatloh, Robert Soutkw^ Poitand MaHyr (St. Louis,
1910): T^uMTON in The Monih <Fkb.-M«rch, 18S5; Jtn., 1896;
JoiM, 1900; Sept., 1906J; Nolan ia Amariean Cath.Qw. Rm.
{1$82). 426; Eaut in CaUoIie World. XVII. 40: XXXII. 121;
CailAMic Rmrd Society Publieationi, vol. V (London, 190S);
CmiJt ia Cawibridg* Hi^on/ of Bn^fiitk tAtmUvr«,rV (Cuobridce,
1900), 127-40; Polun, Father Robert SovlhtpeU and the BabinaUm
Plot in Th» MorOh (London, March, 1912), 302-05. Tha best
flditioB of Bouthmil's poems stUlrenuuna tliat (rf Ommabt in the
PtOUr Wwlhin lAbrary (Loodni, 1872).

Hbbbsbt Tbubston.

Soatfairorth, John, Venekablb, Englidi martyr,
b. in Lancashire, 1592, martyred at Tyburn, 28 June,
1654. A member of a junico- branch o( the South-
worths of Samlesbury Hall^ Blackburn, he was or-
dained priest at the English College, Douaij and
was sent on the mission, 13 Octobra, 1619. He was
airested and condemned to death in Lancashire in
1627, and imprisoned first in Lancaster Castle^ and
afterwards in the Clink, London, whence he and fifteoi
other priests were, on 1 1 April, 1630, delivered to the
IVencn Ambassador for transportation abroad. In
1636 he had been released from the Gatehouse, West-
minster, and was livinf^ at Clerkenwell, but frequently
visited the plague-stncken dwellings of Westminster
to etrnvert the dying. In 1637 he seems to have taken
m his abode in Westminster, where he was arrested,
28 November, mA again sent to the Gatehouse,
llienee he was again transferred to the Clink and in
1640 was broi^t before the CommisBioneTB for
Causes Ecclesiastical, sent him back there 24
June. On 16 July he was again liberated, but by 2
December he was again in the Gatehouse. After his
final apprehension he was tried at the Old Bailey,
and as he insisted on pleading "guilty" to being a
priest, he was reluctantly condemned bv the Reooraer
of London, Serjeant Steel. He was allowed to make
« long epeech at the gallows, and his remains were per-
mitted to pass into the possession of the Duke of
Norfolk's family, who had t^em sent to the English
CoUege at Douai. Hie wonderful recoveiy in 1656
of F^rancis Howard, seventh son of Henry Frederick,
Earl Arundel, was attributed to uiese relics,
which were secreted during the French Revolu-
tiim, and the present location of which is now
unknown.

CBallonxb, JKefiwireof Mitiionarv Prietta, II, no. 190; Bbiicb,
Calmdar SlaU Paper* Dimetie 16t»-Sl (London, 1800), 233;
Csteidar, «to., 1637 (London, 1S68), fi72; Hahiuiom, Calendar
•te., /MOOondon, 18«Q, 341, 483; CaUndar, etc., 1840-i (Lon-
don, 1882), SM. John B. WAumnaoHT.

Sonoft and nttg^laao, Diocesb op (Suansnsib
IT PmuAHKMSiB).— -The two towns, Sovana and
Ffti^liaiKk are situated in the Province of GrosBefto,
Goitrallti^. SonnavasanaiudntEteusoanoi^,

and preserved a certain importance till tlw eod of
the uiirteaitji oeatuty, havinK beeo from tlw dm of
CSiariema^ the carats « the counts of Aldo-

brandesohi, lords of Southern Tuscany. In 1240 the
city withstood a siege by Frederick ZI. Later it
passed imder the swa^ of the Orsini, who transferred
their residence to Pitigliano, a more salubrious looal-
ity, mentioned for the first time in 1081. In 1401 it
fell into the power of the Republic of Siena. In 1434
Count Gentile Orsini having been killed at Sovana,
tb» people of Pitwliano put the town to fire and
sword, and brought about its complete decay, so
that in 1833 it contained only 64 inhabitants. The
territory of this diocese includes the celebrated
Vallomoroaan Abbey of Monte Calvello, which was
transferred in 1496 to within the city limits. St.
Gregory VII was bom at Sovana. Its first known
bishop is Mauritius (680); other biahops were:
Raineri (063), who re-introduoed common lire anxmc
the canons; Pier Niool6 Blandinetli (1380), who hai
tibe docnra m the cathedral made; ApoUonio Maasaini
(1439), tmder whom the relics of S. Mamiliano,
Bishop of Palermo, were translated from the Island
of Giglio; Alfonso Petnicci (1498), son erf the Tyrant
of Siena, later a cardinal, condemned to death by Leo
X in 1537; his successor, Lattansio Petruoci, was
accused of high treason and forced to flee, but he was
acquitted b^ Adrian VI; C^urvajal Simonoelli (1636)
ruled the diocese for 8ixty-<me years; IVanoesoo l4o
Santi (1776) resisted the innovations of Leopold
and the Synod of Pistoia. For a long time ihe bisnopa
of Sovana have resided at Pitigliano. In 1844 that
city was made an episcopal see and united ceqtu
principaliter to that of Sovana. The diooeee is
suffragan of Siena, and contains 47 parishes, with 90
secul^ and 8 r^ular priests; 2 Franciscan convents^
4 convents of nuns, and 38,500 inhabitants.
CunLLsm, Le Ckieu ^HaUa (Venka, 1867}.

U. Bbnigni.

SoSOllMn, Salauinius Hbrhiab, one of the famous
historians <^ the early Church, b. at Bethelia, a small
town near Gaza in Palestine, in the last quarter of
the fourth century; d. probably in 447 or 448. What
the epithet Salaminius means cannot be determined.
The supposition that it had some connexion with
Salamis in Cyprus has no foundation. On the
authority of StMomen himself ("Kst. eoel.",' V, rv) we
learn that his grandfather became a Christian thnni^
witnessing a miracle wrought by St. Hilarion.
Through many years of persecution the family re-
mained faithful, and Sosomen thus enjoyed the ad-
vantage of bein^ trained in a Christian household.
His early education was directed by the monks in his
native place. It is impossible to ascertain what
curriculum he followed in these monastic schools, but
his writinm give clear evidoue of the thwou^bnees
with which he was grounded in Gredc studies. A
reference to Berytos has led to the mistaken supposi-
tion that he pursued l^al studies in the famous law
school of that place. Wherever his professional train-
ing was acquired, he settled in Constantinople, prob-
ably about the beginning of the fifth century, to com-
mence his career as a lawyer. While thus engaged he
conceived the project of writing a history of the
dturch. A preUminary study containing a summary
of the historv of Christianity from the Ascension to
323 has been lost. He purposed to oontinue the history
of Eusebius, and to deal with the period between 3^
and 439. The period actually covered in his work
ends at 425. Sosomen dedicated his work (Histraria
eocleriastica) to Tbeodoeius the Younger. It is
divided into nine YxxAb, distributed aocordiiu; to the
reigns of the emperors. Books I and II embrace the
reign of Constantino (323-37) ; III and IV Uie reigns
of his soBe (337-61); books V and TI the reigns of
Julian, Jovian, Valentintaa I, and Valena (MKU);

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bodn VII and VUI the i«igii8 of Gntiaa, Vaieotinian

II, Theodoaius I, and Arcadius (37&-108}. Book IX
deals with the reign of Theodoeius the Younger
(408-39). As the work of Socrates appeared at the
same time as that of Sozomen and dealt with the
same subject and the same period, an important
question arises as to the relation, if any, which existed
between the two authors. There can be no doubt
that the Toric of Socrates antedated that ot Soaomai,
and that the latter made use of the woifc d hu pred-
ecessor. The extent of this dependence cannot be
accurately determined. At most it would appear that,
while Sozomen used the work of Socrates as a guide,
as well in regard to materials as to ordfs', and while at
times be did not hesitate to use it as a secondary source,
be was, nev^heless, neither an indisoiminate bor-
rower nor a plagiarist. In some mattera, however, as
in regard to the Novatians^ Sosomen is entirely de-
pendent on Socrates. The mnthboo^ which S(Msomen
expresshr declared would terminate at the year 439,
is maniKstly mcomplete. There is no reason to think
that portion of it has been lost. It is more likely that,
because of advancing age or some other cause, he
was unable to carry the work to the date he had set
before himself. Internal evidence points to the fact
that Sozomen undertook to write nis history about
443, and that what he succeeded in doing was accom-
plished in a comparative^ short time

The work of Sozomen suffers in many ways by
oomparison with that of Socrates. Tliou^ the style
is rmuted to be better, the construction of the work
is inferior, and the author's grasp of the significance
of historical movements is kss sure. Nevertheless,
Sozomen made a painstaking effort to be acquainted
with ail the souroesof information on the subjecte which
he touched, and he had a passionate desire for the truth.
He was filled with a protound conviction of the Provi-
dential purpose ot Christianity, and of its mission, un-
der Divma guidance, for the regulation of the affairs of
mankind. In doctrinal matt«B he aimed constantly
at being in thorough accord with the Catholic party,
and was a consistent opponent of heresy in all its forms.
But, while he maintamed a constant attitude of hos-
tility to Arianism, Gnosticism, Montanism, ApoUina-
rianism, etc., he never assailed the leaders of these
lioresies or allowed himself toindulge in bitterpersonal
attacks. "Let it not be accounted strange", ne says,
"if I have bestowed commendations upon the leaden
or enthusiasts of the above-mentioned heresies. I
admire their eloquence and their impresaiveneas in
discourse. I leave their doctrines to be judged by
those whose rkht it is" (UI^ xv).

The work <n Sozomen is mterestiDg and valuable
for many reasons. In the first place he pays more
attention than any of the older histonaos to the
missionary activity of the Christians, and to him we
are indebted for much precious information about the
introduction of Christianity among the Armenians,
the Saracens, the Goths, and other peoples. The
history is e^>ecially rich in information regarding the
rise and spread of monasticism. His account cl the
labours of the ear^ foundm of mtmasterics and
monastic communities, thoiwh s^pathetio, cannot
be said to be overdrawn. The histoiy as a whole is
fairlj comprehensive, and though his treatment of
affairs in tne Western Church is not full, his pages
abound in facts not available elsewhere and ia docu-
mentary references of the highest importance. In
his attitude towards the Church, in his treatment of the
Soipturesr and in his views of the hiaiaxchy and
ecclesiastical order and dignity, he is always animated
by feelings of submission and respect. There are
many faults and shortcomings in his work. Of many
of these he himself was conscious, but it was not in
his power to correct them. Frequently it was hard
for him to know the truth becMise of the mass <Mf
divwBnt evidence with which he had to deal, fro*

quently there was not enough evidence, but in eveiy
case he aimed at expressing the truth and at making

his work serve some usefurpuipose in the defence or
elucidation of Christian ideas. The work of Sozomcm
was printed at Paris in 1544. There are later edi-
tions by Christophorson and Ictms (Cologne, 1612)
and by Valesius (Paris. 1068). The text of Valeaius
was reprinted by Huas^ (Oxford, I860), and by
Migne (P. G., LXVII). There ia an excellent English
translation by Hartranft, with a learned though some-
what diffuse introduction, in the "Nicene and Poet-
Nicene Fathers", II (New York, 1890).

Jbbp, QueOmuiUcriucAtifvm m. <L onecft. XirdUnAwtonbm
(1884): B/LTiTwou SoMomnu H SabinMta BvMatOinUi^ ZeUadir^
VII (1888), 368 KN. PATEIOC J. HEALT.

SosopoUs, titular see in the Balkans, suffragan
of Adrianopolis. The town, at first called Antheia,
was founded in Thrace on the shore of the Pontus
Euxinus, principally on a little island, by Anaximauder
(b. 610-609 B.C.) at the headofMilcaancohnuats. The
name was soon changed to ApoUonia, on account of
a temple to Apollo in the town, conwning a statue
of the god 30 cubits high, transported later to Rome
by LucuUus and placed in the Capitol. The coins,
which begin in the fourth century B.C., bear the name
Apollonia and the image of Apollo: the imperial
coins, which continue to the first half of the third
century a.d., and the "Tabula Peutinger" also con-
tain the name Apollonia; but the "Periplus Ponti
Euxini", 85, and the "Notitise episcopatuum"
have only the new name Sozopolis. In 1328 Can-
tacuzene (ed. Bonn, I, 326) speak.*) of it ka a large and
populous town. The islet on which it stood is now
connected with the mainland by a narrow toiuue
of land. Sozopolis^ in Turkish Sizebolou, in Bul-
garian Sozwol, is m the Department of Bourgas,
Bulgaria. Its 3000 inhabituits, dmost exclusively
Greeks, lived by fishing and agriculture. - Le Quien
(Oriens christianus, I, 1181) knows only eight of its
bishops: AthanasiuB (431): Peter (680)*; EutJiymius
(787); Ignatius (869); Theodosius (1357); Joan-
nicius, who became Patriarch of Constantinople
(1524); PhUotheus (1564); Joasaph (1721). ThU
list might be easily lengthened, the see atiU existing
among the Gredcs. From being suffragan to Adriao-
opolis it became in the fourteenth century a metrop-
olis Tvithout suffragan sces;^ it disappeared perhaps
temporarily with the Turkish conquest, but reap-
peaied later; in 1808 it was united to the See of
AgathopoUs and has remained so. The titular
resides at AgathopoUs, now Akht^bolou, in the
vilayet of Adrianopolis^ in Turkey. Its relations to
the new Bulgariui kmgdom are not yet settled.
Eubd (Hierarohis cathoUca medii svi, I, 194) men-
tions four Latui bishops of the fourteoith century.

Shitk, DieL €jGreik ana RoitKm QBOff„ g. v. ApoUonia; -Padlt
Km WiasowA, Hoat-Bneydopadie, b. v. AboOohw: ToHASOsn.
Zvr Kmtde dor Hsmwt-Habintd (Vieiuia, 1887), 38; Boomu.
Diet. tfBiaL and Otog. (OraBk), Vll, 1148. ■

S. Vtraxaka.

Sonuai a titular see of Palestina Prima, suffragan
of OKsarea. The town, at first callod Apollonia, is

mentioned by Pliny," Hist, nat.", V, 14, and Ptolemy,
V, XV, 2, between Cajsnrea and Joppa, and by other
getwrapners. According to Joscphus, "Ant. jud.",
XIII, XV, 4, it belonged at first to the Phcenicians.
From Appianus,"Hist.rom. Syr.", 57, it seems to have
been founded by a King Seleucus, whose name it was

S'ven, but the history of this maritime city and the
tte of its eatablidiment, are entirely unknown. ^ The
R(nnan proconsul, Gabmius, found it ruined in 57
D.c. and had it rebuilt (Josephus, "Bel. jud.", I, viu.
4). On the arrival of the Crusaders it was called
Arsur or Azuffium, and was protected by strong walb;
Godfrey de Bouillon attempted to capture it, but
failed for want of ships (William of Tyre, IX. x).
King Baldwin I took it in 1108, after a ai^ by una

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and sea, allowing the iohabitants to withdraw to
AscaloD. Ooci^ied in 1191 by Saladin, the town
waa captured by Richard Cceur de Lion after his
victory at Poolietaill6e. In 1251 St. Louis re-erected
its ramparts, and fourteen yoais later, in 1265,
after a aiogie of forty days, it was stormed by the
sultan Bibars; the mh-ibitants were killed or sold
as slaves and the town completely razed. It never
reooveared, and in th€ fourteenth century the geog-
nj^er Abulfcda said it contained no inhabitants
("Tabula Syriffi", 82). Its name Apollonia was re-
placed by fwzusa at an early period; in 449 at the
Robber Council of Ephe.«u& Baruohius sigris with this
ttUe; its bishops, Leontius in 518. and Damumus in
563, are sivo known (Le Quien, "OrieiiB dvistianus",
III, 595). Under the name of Sozusa it occurs in the
Byzantme geographers Hierocles and Geoi^e of
C^nis. In the Middle Aece it was confusea with
Ajntipatris, situated more inland, and it is under this
name that some of its titular bishops are to be sought.
To-day its ruins may be seen at Ar^, north of Jaffa.

FhUr^ina «x monummtU Mfariftiu lUtMtrata, It (Utreohb, 1714),
1023; GoArix, Deacription d§ la Palmline, SamarU, II (Paris,
1S76), 375-82; Pnvist aud WusoiTa, Raat'Bwt/ciopadit dtr
tHatntditn AUtrtunuwiMentdMfl, s. v. ApoUonui.

S. VailhA.

Space (Lat. spo/ium). — The idea of space is one of
the most important in the philosoph}[ of the matmal
world; ifx centuries it has preoccupied and puzaled
philosophers and psychologists, and even to-day the
views as to its nature are far from being harmonious.

It ia important first to ascertain the exact meaning
of the terra. In ordinary language space means
empty extension occupied by bodies, and in which
local motion takes place. This notion of emptiness
is so closely connected with it, that the word is often
used to mean the distance between bodies. Space is
thus put in contrast with bodies, and we imply, more
or less unconsciously, that space by itself contains no
body — ^in a word, that it is empty. Evidently space
in popular sense is the ext^ision the world.
It surpasses in magnitude all that the strongest
imaginaUon can picture, and consequently it is
assigned no limits. Not indeed that space, in the
popular sense, is considered strictly infinite ; but rather
It is conceived as something "mdefinite". Again,
space, in the popular mind, is clearlv conceived as
being tri-dimensional, that ia^ we can draw in it three
strai^t linee each of which is perpendicular to both
(rf the others, and which exhaust all its dimensional
{»o»ibiIities.

The concept which mathematicians form of space
does not correspond in every respect with thepopulax
notion. The geometrician is oonoemed only acci-
dentally with the space of the world. From it he
derives his idea of mathematical space; but he elimi-
nates from it all predicates which are not absolutely
necessary to establish his geometrical relations.
Mathematical apace ther^ore abstracts from all
existence. It ia conceived as an extensive, continu-
ous, abstract quantitfr, in which geometrical points
ana places can be detomined. Mathematical space
is said to be infinite — cot a metaphysical infinity,
which affirms the positive absence of all limits, and
with whidi the mathematician has no concern, but
that mathematical infinity, which signifies that the
nature of a reality is such that no limit can be assigned
to it. The distinction beween mathematical and
m^tq)hyBical infinity ia somewhat subtle, but it is
real; it prevents much confusion and facilitates the
aolntion of difficult probl^ns. It may be remarked
here that mathematical spaoe is not necessarily tri-
dimensional or homogeneous, matters to ndiich we
^all refer presently.

Philoaophers cannot be satisfied with mathematical
Epaot, an abstract construction useful for theoretical
pmpowa, fn- they wish to arrive at the teal space of

nature. Nor can they restrict themselves to the
popular notion, for their task is precisely to purify
the data of common sense from all the extraneous
factors modifying them and giving rise to latent con-
tradictions. But in their efiforts to discover pure and
real space, th^ have sometimes arrived at the most
paplexing results; so that many philosophers, while
not subscribing to the doctrines of Kantian criticismf,
consider the idea of apace as hopelessly contradictop',
as a purely illusory fancy. To recall ul the successive
explanations of the nature of real space given by the
great philosophers it would be necessary to go through
the history of philosophy; but, leaving aside the
complete negation of extension, all the doctrines, from
Heaiod (cf. AristoUe, IV Phys., vi, 213b) to our day.
fluctuate between toe idea of absolute space, a real
substance indqjoident of the bodies it contains, and
purely relative i^ace, a mental fiction based on the
real extension of matorial bodies. The most radical
expressions of these two conflicting views are those of
Newton and Clarke, on the one hand, who consider
space as the «en«orium of God, and on the other, of
Leibnii, who asserts that tliere is no space independ-
ent of extmded bodies, and reduces it to "the order
of co-fxt9tinf things".

Tti' ti-oditional philosophy of tbo Catholic schools
re^e«' " tUi^nlufo spiu'cv Newton's idea incompatible
with I hi- ("on' i fii ft hi(-h (hL^ lijeat dortorb of the yrlnHhl,
following AflsIijIIl, f-irrniM of i^ujintity. SuarijZ
deckrM iha? ^*p!L''«' is only "a -.'oiuf-plmiJ t.'ntity [t'ta
ra(»o"t-^], not, iiQwever, formed at wiil like chiiilJ^nie,
but extiaotea fiom bodiee, which by their extet;dii>n
are capable of Donstituting roal spaces" (Mot. disp.,
61). Thfi exprewioa ens raiionii may be equivocal,
but it expresses somewhat exaggeriitetily (he vtry
active jiart nlnyod by the human iiitelli.i.'l in the con-
struclifJti 01 Bpace. Sp.un Ls not iiialirijl Iioiiifti
them'^Hv c^, ^'\•^ff if ivpiK jirs to he riilhcr a rcccptaclo
eontiiinirii^ tli'.'ni. l''r"[n thi-= point of view it iiiuiit
be pui-c extciisioL, :tri unqu;iHfkd quantity. In tho
Stricft^eHB^f the termB a quiuiLity without quality
is e<tBtraaictory; for quantity ia only the multi-
pUcitv of the homogeneous parts in the unity of
a bwiv; it if the diatribution of im essence, aimple in
its fnrrn-l dri i rmination. Multiplicity imphes a
thmf 'Ie l! 1-^ ruuluplied, and distribution aouKPtbing
that .li^trihutpd. Every (quantity ia the_ quantity
<rf soTUi'iliint;; nil oxtcnaion is theraore, in itself, the
extension ao extruded substance. Yet quantity
is bcspM-U^ mora than a modal accident; it is ii)
truth tna absolute accident jur acel^im (see Acct-
MNl'i; it r™[pr9 on a Bubstance ft prrfrt!tion .«uch
that, iinuitert till! cxiatenoe o£ a nubaJitni-f, i.bc- pnrpo-
real )>^''ly i.^ iin'iv^nrpti by iti? QutLnfity, It in iinriL- the
lees tru-- l [i;i!- iimriiiiy pa-iHthil^j.'.-? u qinuitiLiilive
Bubat.'iii'''? : If sense, etiLirtily dilTenjnt however
from ilii*' i^inri' ^ of ancient physics, it may always be
said thai uQ finuty qti^uty is a contradiction in
terms. From tbu we must conchide that exCenaion
is only a derivative of quftattty; a noa-qualifle.! es-
tension, pure extension, pure space in the reality of
the oorpDreal world ia contradictory. We ooticeive
it, howBTar, and what i?, prnpprly spiakiniz, foa-
tradlBtory js inconcei^ al^li?- Th<^ r untriLJirtii'ii ;^^i■^^g
when, we add the condition of Gxktenci" t ) [n\n' tipuce.
Space is not contradictcuy in the mind, Lhoiifich it
would be coutradititiBy in the real wcirid, ber-nuse
space is nn abstraction. Elxtension is ul^vay.-' (he
extension of something ;but it ia not the thing i \ t <- 1 1 1} ■ d .
MmtaUv va can eepajac« extension from the sub-
stances h'om which wc distixiguiab it; and it h extpo-
uon Uius eepfirai't] , ronrpiv<?d apart, wbii-h con-
stitutes the spflf - uE rhi' uni"i'rr;!f>. Spar:c is ihcrffure
as real, as ohjcitiv*:, as tbe parpiin.Ml warll il.self,
but in itMt^if it oxiats apart only in tbn huiujin mind,
seeing that in the reality of exiting things it is only
the eaiteBMOP ot Mw,1bwM«4yW. .

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Space tbUB concaved avoids many of the difficultiea
raised against its reality. But there still remain ones-
tions tlukt have taxed the ingenuity of philoBopherB.
What is to be thought of the infinity of space, which
to many philosophers seems to be an indisputable
postulate? Here we must carefully distingtush the
two id«u to whidi we alluded above. Mathemati*
oiaos do not understand mfinity in the same eeoae as
philoaophera. The latter consider absolute infinily
as the plenitude of being, being itself; spatial infinity
for them can si^mfy only plenitude of . extension.
There are no linuts to an infinite space, nowhere can
there exist a definite relation to its extronities or even
to itself. It is impossible to add even mentally any-
thiqg to each extension, for it would be an absurdity
to oou<»ive ao^faii^ greater than infinite exten^n.
Mathematioal infinity is something quite different.
It is not considered solely in relation to the bemg to
which it is attributed, but in relation to this bein^ and
to the determinations of limits possible to the mtel-
lect. Whatever by its nature surpasses all the limits
we can assign it, that is mathematically infinite. It
must be cajrefuliy noted that theee two ideas in no
way coincide, since it is possible that the intellect may
not grasp the nature of a being fully enough to deter-
mine its Ihnits: the possibility that this nature may
surpass all assigndt>le limits does not involve the con-
clusion that the being! is in itself unlimited. Mathe-
matical in&iity introduces into the problem a factor
extrinsic to the nature of the being: the relative per-
fection^ or rather the imperfection, of the human idea;
and it is noteworthy that in all problems conoemii^
quantity oiu* intellect is, to a very great extratjde-
nendent on our senses and our imagination. This
distinction being established, we may remark that real
space evidently suipasses all tJiat experienoe can teach
us. We are fonea, ocmsequently, to solve the prob-
lem by analysis.

Mathematical space is abstract and mathematici^
infinite ; but we are dealiD|; here with the real uni vase.
Ths notion of mathematical infinity may be ai^Iied
to it in a secondary sense. The nature of real space is
such as not to demand any definite dimensions. No

Cof space in itself needs be the last. For all we
w, or do not know, about it, apace may be greater
than any limits whatsoever we mi^t assi^. But
space cannot be metaphysically infinite. It is impos-
srole to have an actual quantitive infinite being com-
posed M finite parts. To infinite extension nothing
can be added, and from it nothing can be taken awiQr,
even mental^. For if, by hypothesis, infinite exten-
sion is divided in two, neither of the parts is infinite
since neither by itself contains the plentitude of ex-
tension. Both therefore are finite: by their union
they would form the original whole, out it is absurd to
imagme that an infinite whole is formed by the \inioa
of two finite puts. It is clear that we can mentally
take way a portion of space. Henoe it is clear that
space cannot be metajihj^aU^ infinite. An aoto-
tSly lignite quantity ia a conbadiction in terms.
Hoc of course our imagination cannot follow our in-
tellect. We cannot represent exactly to ourselves
what may be the limits of the world; and it is dear
that in this case certain physical laws, those of mo-
tion, for instance, cannot be fully applied. It is use-
less to discuss the subject further because, owing to
tiu limitations of our experience, we are apt to indulge
in mere fantastic and aibitraiy qpeouIatKms.

A still more abstmse subject is readied irtiea we
come to deal witii the number of dimensious of space
and its homt^eneity. Our imaginatiw always rep-
resents real space as having but three dimensions.
We reach this intuitive space (see below) sponta-
neously; it seems to us so natural, so ineviteble, that
we have great difficulty in freeing ourselves from the
domination of this image, and in oonoeiving (to
Imagine it is impoaiA^) a apace with man than tisree

IS g»AOI

dimaiaioiu. However, the question haa been raised:

for geometricians reason frequ«itly about a Bpaot of
four, of five, or of n dimensions. The problem is not
of the experimental order. Our sensory experiences
and everything in practical life reveal only three
dimensions. But does experience exhaust the poasH
bilities of real space? and can this space have no mm
than three dimensionsT Nothing ooliges us to brieve
that such is the ease. Tlw mata-ialwwld requfava
eesmtial^ only quantity, and this is not id«itical with
extension. Quantity oonfera on substance a multi-
plicity of parts; extension supposes this multiplicity
and ^ves a relative position to the parts. Quantity
imphee a distinction of parts, extension adds extrapo-
sition, i. e. the placing of part outside of i>art; henoe it
will be seen that, in a stnct sense, material beinga do
not neoessarib^ postulate extension. It would then
be quite arbitrary to declare a priori that they must
have extension according to three mutually perpen-
dicular directions, and that they cannot nave any
more. The word dimmHoru is h^ used, of course,
only by analc^ with the three dimensions perceived
by experience; we can get at pure quantity onl^
through extension. But the intellect in ite aual^su I

?;oe8 beyond the data offered to it by sense, and it is !
orced to conclude that space of more than three
dimensions implies no contradiction, i

By a veiy similar process we can solve the problem,
so perplexing for tne avera^ mind, of the homo-
geneity of space. The essential properties ofquanti^
require no definite number of dimensions. Tne same
may be said of the quality, or rather intensity, <A
extension: the parte may be more or leas extr^Msed.
The parte, remaining the same, may give a greater or a
less extension in the ordinary sense of the word.
There is nothing contradictory, therefore, in all the
parte of space being everywhere equally eztraposed,
in which case space would be homogeneous. But, on I
the other hand, there is no reason why space should
not be differently extraposed in differmt parte, and if
tiiia be so, space would be heterogeateoua; and if the
variation be simple and constant, we can formulate
the laws of theee spaces- and determine the properties
of the figures formed therein. This explains why
geometry, so rigorous in its methods and sunple in its
postulates, is not necessu'ily one. The ancient geom-
etry of Euclid takes for granted the homogeneity of -
space; but it is well known that non-Euclidian |:eome-
mes have been constructed, notably those of Rtemann
laA of Lobatchewski, diffenng item Eudid'a and yet
free from all inooherency.

These speculations on the nature of space cannot,
however, do awav with the fundamental fact that tiw
human mind is dominated by an image, imposing ir>
resistibly on it a homo^neous tri-dimensitmal space.
One of the central questions of classic p^chologjr con- |
oems the origin of this representetion. We dismiss j
Kant's well-lmown view, that space is an a priori form
of sHiBcnry activity. But paychc^ogiBte fiuotuate
tween two extremes: on the one hwd, nativiam, rc|>- i
resented by Johann MUUer, Fichte, Bigwart, Macn,
and manv othcm; and on the other hand, anpiricism.
followed oy Lodte, Hume, (>>ndillac, Maine ae Biran, '
John Stuart Mill, Bain, Spencer, and others. The
former hold that we obtain the image of space torn
the primordial subjective dispositions of our mental-
ity; and many of tnem see thoein a condition pfeee-
dent of an experienoe. The aeoottd okss, on the con-
trary, believe that this image is a«iuired, that it
resulte from visual and tactile immessicmB and is only
a result of association. Man^ authorities hesitate and
try to discover an intermediate position. From the
facto adduced and the analysis to which tltey have ^
been subjected it seems clear that the image of space
is in reality acquired like all otlier images: in very
young chiloren we see it, so to say, in inooaes of form-
ation. It ia the rasiUt <h tbe ^oatanaoaa intetprata

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sFAam

169

SPAIN

tion irf* all tbe exteiurTQ aeiuatioAB; and it U because
this )nteriM«tatioa takes place in tbe simplest manner
that our intuitive space ia bomogeneoua and tri-di-
menaional. Evident^ this', daboration nipposes a
special nature in Uie subject, the facul^ of receiving
extensive impressionSf and that of Dombming them b^
^thesis. But this is natural to man, and there is
nothing to justify ua in speaking of an innate image of
q;>ace.

Every pbiloaopher and payebok«l>t haa tmMd tbe qoeetkm
ol ^Muw; ban merely a few important woriu an dted to help
towuda & deeper study of the question. — Fabqm, L'idit du cott-
Mm dsn* r»*poe* M U Umjm (Paria, 1803) ; Hodmoii, 3Vbm and
8pae* (London, ISdfi) ; Jaub*. PeretmtuM of Spaee in Mind, XII
(1887): PULI.KKTON, Tht IKctriiu of Spate and Tint in Phiio*.
Rm., X_{1901); OcTBsnLrT. DU neut RaufntheorU (Maina,
1883): WiuJin. InitUutitmM phUM^pMea, II (Trier, 1906);
Ntb, La notion d'ntaet au point d* eaamalogypu *t payckota-
ffifiu (Louvain, 1901); WoMnr, Orundms de.- Pnchalcoi* (Leip-
Bt, 1907); Ideu, OrundiQoe dtr ph]/*xoi. Piychotogie, II (LeipiiB,
19(0) ; HaFTDiNO, J¥*9UMM d'un* ptv^hotagit boat* «w fexptritne*
(Peru. 1906): BsBCtaBaaa-Dimn, OwwM«< dtr PtycKoloaia
(Leipsic 1911); Zimbwk, PhuuoioffvKhi Ptt/ehhlogis (Jena, 1911);
EuLBB, WOrterbvch dtr phuaiophixhm Btgrifft (Berlin, 1910);
BweMN, Aeof twr let tbmiUee immtdiatn da kt eatueianea
(Pazto, 1906).

M. P. DH MUNNTNOK.

Bpagnl, Ahdbba, educator and author, b. at Flm^
enoe, 8 Aug., 1716; d. at Rome, 16 Sept., 1788. He
entered the Society of Jesus, 22 Oct., 1731, and was
employed chiefly in teaching philosophy and theol-
G«y, though for a time he profebsed maUiematics at
the Roman ColliKe, and assisted Father Asclepi in
his astronomical wsomtions. The most noted of his
writings is the worit "De MiraouUs" (Rome, 1777),
which ne carefully revised in two succeeding editions
(Rome, 1779 and 1785). In this work, besides uving
the positive doctrine on the nature and reality of mir-
acles, he has marshatled together with great thoroiigh-
nees the objections brought forward by the rational-
ists of his own and preoedinK times against the chief
miracles of the Old and the New Testament, so that
the work may be conadered as a compwdium of the
literature of the subjectf up to the last quarter <A the
eic^temth oratury. His other chief works are: "De
Causa effidente''^ (Rome, 1764); "De Bono, Malo
et Pulchro" (Rcnne, 1766); "De Mundo" (Rome,
1770): "De Ideis Mentis humans" (Rome, 1772):
"De Motu" (Rome, 1774): "De Anima Brutorum''
(Rome, 1776): "DeSignisIdearum" (Rome, 1781).

SoMHnrooai, BiU. dTUC. da J., TH (Bnueeb. 1896).

Edwabd C. Philufs.

Spagnoli. See Baptibta MAimrAmiB, Blbssed.

^pAln. — This name properly signifies the whole
nemnsula which forms the south-eastern extremity of
£urope. Since tbe political separation of Portugal
however, the name has gradual^ come to be restricted
to the largest of the tour pohtical divisions of the
Peninsula: (1) Spain; (2) Portugal; (3) the Republic
(rf Andtun; (4) the Britishpossession of Gibraltar, at
the southern extremity. The etymolo^ of the name
Spain (fspofia) is uncertain. Some denve it from the
F^inie wwd teepon, "rabbit", basiiw the opinion on
the evidence of a coin of Galba, on which Sptun is rep-
resented with a rabbit at her feet, and on Strabo, who
calls ^ain "the land of rabbits". It is said that the
PhoeQjdanB and Carthaginians found the oountiy
overrun with t^eee rodents, and so named it after
them. Another derivation is from spAon, "ncnih",
from the circumstance that the countW was north of
Carting, just as the Greeks called Itafy Hegperia,
because it was their western boundary, or ihe land
of sunset (^mr^). Again, some Bascophiles would
assert a Basque ori^n for tbe name of Spain: Es-
pania, " Land of the Shoulder", because it formed the
western shoulder of ancient Europe. Padre Larra^
mendi has remarked that, in the Basque language,*
ffpaffa means "tongue", "fip", or "ntremity", uid
might thus have been applied to tbe eztxeme south-

western region of Eun^ The Spanish Peninsula

has also been called the Iberian, from its original in-
habitants, and (by oynecdoohe) the Fyienean, from
the mountains which bound it on the north. As the
Sptmiatds named one part of America — Mexico—
Nueva Bvpaiia (New Spam), we speak of "the Spains"t
in the plural, to signify the Spanish possessions.

I. Fhtbical Chabagtebisticb ano Statistics. —
The geogr^hical boundaries of Spain axe: on the
north, the Pyrenees, the Republic of Andorra, and the
Bay of BisCf^ (known in Spain as Mar Cantwrico, or
"Cantabrian Sea"): on tbe east, the Meditoraneaa;
on the south, the Mediterranean, the Straits of Gib-
raltar, and tbe Atlantic; on the west, Porti^al and tJw
Atlantic. Its four extreme points are: on the noiUi,
the Estaca de Vans, in N. lat. 43° 47' 32"; on the
south, the southern extremity of the Island of Tarifa,
in S. Lat. 35° 59' 49"; on the east. Cape Oeus, in lon-
dtude 3° 20' 16" E. of Greenwich, on the west, Oame
Torinana, in longitude 9° 17' 33"^ W. of Greenwich.
The total area of the Spanish territory in the Penin-
sula is 194,663 square milee. with a coastline of 3060
miles in length. The combined French and Portu-
guese frontiers measure 3094 miles.

The surface of Spain presents the most varied geo-
logical features. In the seas of the Cambrian epoch
the first elements of the Peninsula appeared as a mul-
titude o( islands. The most important of these is-
lands formed what is now Ofdicia and the North of
Portugal, with parts of the Provinces of Caceres, Sala-
manca, and Zamora. To liie soutii-east of this was
another idand, whm is now Bejar and the Sierra de
Giedoe, comprising part of the Provinces of Avila>
Segovia, ana Toledo. To the north-east, the Pjto-
nees and the Catalonian coast took the form of islets,
while in other directions other islets occupied the sites
of Lisbon, Evora. CiLoeree, Badajos, Seville, Cor*
dova« and Jaen. The upheaval of the land went on
during the Devonian and Silurian epochs until it
formed what is now the whole of Galicia, part ct the
AsturiaSk Leon, and Zamora, and as far down as To-
ledo, Chidad Real, Cordova, Huelvas, and the Al-
garves, while, to the east and north, were formed the
Catidonian coast and a great part of the Pyrenees.
Larjse islands arose in the ne^jhbourtioods of Bur«)s,
Soria, Darooa, Granada, Malaga, and GUiraltar. No
Permian formation is to be found in Spain, nor does
there appear any Triassio wortb mentioning, t^e for^
mations of tlicse two poiods having heea suDinerged
during later pmods. Durii^ the Jurasric period Imig
parallel tracts were forn^ along the present courses
of \iie Ebro and the Tuna, as well as a great mass
between Jaeu, (Granada, Malaga, Osuna, and Mon-
tilla. The eastern portions of the Peninsula were
built up durhig tbe Cretacean period, while, between
these formations and the Granitic and Silurian, ex-
tensive lakes were left which have since disappeared
but whidh may stUl be toaoed in the level steppes fsi
Aragon and the two Castiles. What is now the Ebro
was then a vast lake extending through the Eocene
and Pliocene formations of Lerida, SaragOBsa, and
Logrofio, and joining, in the r^pons of Sto. Domingo
de la C^alzada, Haro, and Bnviesca, another It^e
which then covered the sites of Burgos, Valladolid,
Leon, Zamora, and Salamanca. Another extension
of the £oc«ae formation was from Mie region where
Madrid now stands to that of Albacete and Murda.
Tbe Quaternary formatioiis are found chiefly on the
east coast ana the Provinces of Madrid (north-
weet), Segovia, YaUadolid, Paleneia, and Asturias,
and the basins of the principal rivers. Down to thu
last period Spain does not seem to have been defini-
tively separated from Africa, its formations — Eocene
aod Miocene, as well as ^urian — being continued in
tikat region.

Owing to Ae diversity oi formations deseribea
sboTflb ud the elevation of iha oentra^^portioD«,

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SPAIN

170

ftPAIN

Buifaoe o£ the P«unsula is, in Keoeral, of an uneven
chancf«r vith a very unequuqr dubrlbuted irriga-
tion, some regions enj(^ying a wonderful fertility,
white others are nothing but ateppes. In other parts,
af^n, the abrupt slope of the ground is such that the
rains produce torrential floods in the rivers and thxia
native their beneficial action. The unevenneas <rf
the country at the same time results in great differ-
ences of climate. The arid pruries of certain parts
of the Castiies and Estremaduxa are in as striking
contrast with the fertile, though monotonous, plains
of the Campos district and Lower Aragon, and the
iextremcly nch arable lands and meadows of Anda-
lusia find the eastern provinces, as are the perpetual
snows of the PjTenees, the Cantabrian Range, and the
Sierra. Nevada with the piarched lowlands of Estre-
madufa, Andalusia, Murcia, and Alicante. No less
uneven is the distribution of rainfall — from the north-
em provinces, with their ever-clouded skies, to the
almost invariably dry and transparent atmosphere
of the south. The contrast extends even to the eeaa
surrounding Spain — the tranquil Mediterranean, the
fitormy Bay of Biscay, and tM Atlantic with a char-
acter midway between.

The general structural form of the Peninsula is
somewhat that of a truncated pyramid, sloping
abruptly towards the west, but gently towards the
east. The elevated plains of the centre are inters
sected by mountain ranges. The mountain masses
may be divided into six groups: (1) the norUion,
coexisting of the Pyrenees on the east and the Canta-
brian Kfuiee on the west, and terminated by Capes
Creus and Finisterre; (2) the Iberic, or eastern, com-
prising the mountains which bound the basin of the
Ebro and extend as far as Cape Gata; (3) tiie central
sj^m, the Caipetan, or Carpeto-Vetonic, Ranee, so
called from the Carpetani and Vetones who inhabited
its slopes in ancient times; (4) the Mountains of To-
ledo, or Cordillera Oretana; (5) the Betic system, or
CcfftUlIera Mari^ca, fomm^ the ri^tr-hand aide of
the basin of the Betis^ or Guadalquivur, and the chief
part of which is the Sierra Morena; (6) the Penibetio
grstem, extending from the Sierra Nevada to Cape
Tarifa. The hi^est elevations are: Maladeta (11,004
ft.) and Pico tie Nethou (11,168 ft.), in the Pyrenees;
Pefia de Cerredo (8784 ft.), and Moncayo (7593 ft.),
in the Cantabrian Range; Plaza del Moro Almanzor
^92 ft.), m the Caipetan Range: the plateau of
Corocho de Rocigalgo {4750ft.), in the Toledo Moun-
tains: Estrella (4260 ft.), in the Betic Range; Mul-
hacen (11,417 ft.) and Veleta (11,382 ft.) in the Peni-
betic.

For hydroeraphic purposes the surface of Spain is
divided by the Institute GeogrAfioo into the follow-
ing ten basins.'fl) the Eastern Pyrenees, basin of the
Rivers Muga, Fluvia, Ter, Tordeva, Besos. Uobr^at,
Foix, and Francoli: (2) the basin of the H)ro, to the
south and west of the preceding, containii^ the Nela,
Zadorra, Ega. Ai^a, Arag6n, Arba[ Gallego, Cinea,
and Segre, affluents of the Ebro, on its right side, and
the Oca, Tiron, Oja, Najerilla, Ircgua, Alhama, Jal6n,
Huerva, Aguas, Martin, Guadalope, Matarrana, and
other smaller affluents on its left; the south-eastern
region, watered by the Cenia, Migares, Palancia,
Turia (or Guadalaviar), Jucar, Swpis, Vinalop6,
S^ra, and Ahnanzora; (4) the southern region, inter-
sected by sm^l streams, the most important rivers
being tl^ Almerfa, Adra, Guadalfeo^ Guadalhorce,
Guaoiaro, and Guadalete; (5) the basm of the Guad-
alquivir, the affluents of which are. on the right, the
Rivers Borosa, Guadalimar, Rumblw, Jinduia, Yeg-
uas, (Juadamellato, Guadiato, the Brook of Huesna.
the River Viar, and the Brooks of Cala, Huelva, and
Ouadiamar, and on the Idt, the Guadiana Menor,
Gen^ GuadabuU6n, Guadajos, Corbones, Quadaira>
and &dado de Morto; (6) Hie bairin of the Guadiana,
with its tributaries, the Zfbieara, or DgQela, BuUaqae,

and G^vora, on the right, and the JavaUn, Zujar,
Ardila, and Chanxa, on wb left; (7) the basin of the
Tagus, which river rises in tiie Frofviuee of Terud,
in the Sierra de Molina, and receives, on the ri^it,
the Gallo, Jarama, Guadarrama, Alberche, Ti^tar,
Alagdn, and Eljas, and, on the left, besides other
streams of slight importance, the Guadiela and tiie
Almonte. The Jarama, in its turn, receives the
Lozoya, Guadalix, Manzanares (which flows fay
Madrid), Heoares, and Tajufia; (Si the basin of the
Douio, which rises in the Pefia ^tock) Urbi6n, in
the Province of Logrofio, 7216 feet above the sea
level. The chief affluents of the Douro are, on the
right, the Pisuerga and the Esla, and on the left, the
Ereema and the Tormes. The Pisuei^a, again, re-
ceives, on the rwht, the Burejo, Vallama, Astuoillo,
and C;arri<Sn, and on the left, the Camesa, Odra, Ar-
hnsdu, Baltania, and Esgueva. Affluents of the
Esla, on the r^t, are the Curu^o, Bemesga, Orbwo,
Tera, and Aliste, and on the left, the Cea. (9) The
western r^on of Galicia, the chief rivers of which
are the Miilo, Oitaben, Lierez, Umia, Ulla, Tambre,
Jallas, Castro, Rio del Puerto, Allones, Mero, Mandeo,
Lume, Jubia, Rio de Porto do Cabo, Mera, and Sor.
(10) The northern basin, containing the Eo, Navia
NaltSn, and Sella, in the Asturias; the D^a, Nansa,
Besaya, Mas, and Miera, in Santander; the Nervit^,
Oria, aad Bidaaoa, in the Basque eoimtry. The only
important lakes in Spain are the lagoons: those at
Gatlocanta, in Aragon; the Alfaques, in Catalonia:
^e Albufera, in Valeocia- and, in Cadiz, that m
Janda, the scene of the battle which has been generally
known as the battle of Guadalete, which put an end
to the power of the Goths.

Silver, lead, and iron are abundant, the last espe-
cially in Biscay. Veins of quicksilver are found in
Almad^n, besides others of less importance elsewhere.
There are also copper, tm, zinc, gold, cobalt, niekc^
antimony, bismuth, and motybaenum. Spam is not
rich in coal, which, however, is found in the Provincea
of Gerona, I4rida, Switander, Asturias, Le<Sn, Pa-
lencia. Buncos, Guadalajani, Cucnca, Ciudad Keal^
Badajoz, (jordova, and Seville. The most important
carboniferous deposits are those of S. Juan de las
Abadesas (Gerona), Mieres (Astiirias), Barruelo and
Orb<i (Palencia), PuertoUano (Ciudad Real), Bflmez
and Espiel (Cordova), and Vilhmueva del Rio (Sev-
iUc). There are also dq>osits of anthracite, lignite,
asphalt, and turf, while springs of petroleum, thou^
not of any importance, exist in Barcelona, Bumts,
Cadiz, and Guadalajara. On the other hand, sulphur
is abundant, as well as common salt, and waters im-
pregnated with sulphates and with sulphur.

'llie botanical reeources are abundant and various
— the chestnut, the oak, the cork tree, the pine, and a
number of other conifers. Castile produces a great

Suantitv of cereals: Valencia, rice, oranges, lemons,
iu/os (the tuber of a variety of sedge), melons, and
other fruits in immense variety; Catalonia, potatoes,
oil, figs, Blberts, carobs, pomegnmat^, alfalfa; Mur-
cia, peppers, dates, saffron etc.: Andalusia, oil; Estre-
matlura, pasturage etc. Excellent wines are produced
in nearly all the provinces, the most highly esteemed
being those of Jerez, Malf^a, Montilla (Andalusia^,
Carifiena (Aragon), Va]d^>^ia8, Rioja etc. The soil
of Spfun is apportioned agrieulturalty as follows:

Acrtt.

Market gardenB 391,128

OrcIiaiJs 704.528

Grain 82,014,934

. Vinej-ardfl 3,480,816

OlivegrovBs , 2,001.706

Kfeulows l,803,S0d

Pasturage '. 6,307,100

Hizhwaya utd wooda 207,767

MouduId 11,608,107

UntiUMl,butfittorcrHisg 8.2M,0U

W«rt« 4.024,7%

Total ^ TO^OMlf

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8FAIN

171

spAiir

The nonnal i^ctiltural ptoduetion is:

Wheat 00,1«7.965

Bnlv 47.866,912

Sm 20.337,766

UUae 21.42S.S3B

OaU 7,245,315

MncKtK aatlotu.

OU 73.«47.467

WiM JI0B.71231S

Total produoUon

of grain 187.072,496

It is not easy to ascertain the number of head of
stock bred in Spain; great pains are taken to conceal
the statistics, owing to the increase of taxation. The
following statement, may be taken asapproximately
correct: horses, 500,000; mules, 900,000; asaes,
950,000; cattle, 2,500,000; sheep, 18,000,000; goats,
3,000,000; hogs, 3,000,000. At the end of the eight-
eenth ceiilturj' there were 19,000,000 head of sheep.
One of the chi^ causes of the decline in this respect
was the laicization of reUgious houses, which even-
tually resulted in the mountain slopes being denuded.
It is estimated that 68.000,000 kilogrammes (6ft,830
Tgnglwrti tons, or 74,849 American tons) of fish are
cai^ht annual^ on the sea coasts of Spain. Of this
quantity 24,000,000 kilc^ammes are salted, and
8,000,000 pickled. The quantity exported is 26,000,-
000 kilogrammes (25,590 English tons, or 28,660
American tons).

While Spain does not rank as a manufacturing na-
tion, it has important manufactures of woollen, cot-
too, silk, lifien, and hempen textiles; of paper, teather,
poTceUia, earthenware, and glass; of chocolate, soi^,
tpd chemiesls. Weapons are manufactured at
Toledo, Oviedo, Seville, Tnibia (onfiiajice), Eibar,
Plasencia, Siu^ossa, and Albacete (the famous
Albacete naxajas, or knives). There are also notable
manufactures of bricks, glazed tiles (qzuh^os), and
other ceramic products. The principal articles of im-
portation are cotton, wheat, coal, timber, sugar, salted
codfish, woollen fabrics, and machinoy; of exporta-
tion, wine, oil, meteJs, and other mineral products,
cork, and iruit, both dried and fresh. The principal
banks are the Bank of Spain; the Bank of Barcelona,
the Banco Hipotecari^. the Sociedad Tabacalera de
Filipinas, etc. The nrst-class maritime custom-
houses are those of Aguilas, Alicante, Almeria, Barce-
lona, Bilbao, Cadiz, Carril, Cartagena, Conuma,
GijoQ, Grao de Valenci^ Huelva, Mah6n^ Mar
lags, Palamds, Palma in Me^orca, Pasajes, Ribadeo,
Sap Sebastiibi, Santander. Seville, Tarragona, Vigo,
and Vinaros. The first-class inland custom-nouses
are those of Junquera, Portbou, Inin, Canfranc,
Benasque, Palau, Salient, Torla, Les, Al<is, Bosost,
Farga de Moles, Dancharinea, and Valcarlos, on the
French frontier, and, on the Portuguese frontier, those
of Albuquerque, Badajo, Olivenza, San Vicente, Al-
cantara, Herrera de Alc^tara, Valencia de Alc&ntara,

Pedralva.

Accordii^ to the census for those years respectively,
the population of Spain was: 15,464,340 in 1857;
15,673,481 in 1860; 16,634,345 in 1877: 17,565,632 in
1887; 18,132,475 in 1897; 18,618,086 in 1900. The
last of these census shows a distribution according to
Bex <tf 9,(^7,821 males and 9,530,265 females, an excess
of 442,444 females; tiiere were 5,200,816 unmarried
men, waA 5,109,609 unmanied women ; 7,021,512 mar-
ried men and women; 391,452 widowers and 888,629
widows (excess of widows 497,177); condition not
ucertuned, 3615 men and 2453 women. In regard
to age the mairied perBons were divided as followB:

, Malta. ftmaU*.

B«tw««illaadl£yMnoface U 324

Betweeal6aiid20yMnofaie 8.700 65.296

BM(fw&21ft&d28yemotaie 189,903 880.957

BMmM 36 BBd 80 FMn ))(■■• 4«,«W SS7^

Unmamed persons wwe <Uvided as foDowt:

MaUi. Pamatm,

BetwMi>41uMl48yMnofBte 85,201 80^17

Botwaan46aiKlA0yemflfatB 82^ 80.OO7

BMimnfilMuieOyMnofaie 45,266 7S.0S7

As to longevity, the figures were:

Mattt. famaUt.

Pareone living between 7 land 80 yean of atB 174,815 184,604

Penou living between 81 and 90 years of age 28,075 35.948

Persons living between 01 and too yean of age 1,656 3,048

PrnwHW living over 100 yean of age 28 124

II. GovsRiWENT. — ^A. CvBd and Military Organixi^
Hon. — Spain was formed by the coalition of various
states, which for many centuries had kept their own
names and boundaries, and had differed considerably
in laws (the ftieroa), customs, characteristics, and
methods of government. These states were: The
Kingdoms of GaUcia, Le6n, Old and New Castile,
Estremadura, Andalusia, Muroia, Valencia, the
Balearic Isles, Aragon, and Navaire, the two prin-
cipalities of Curias uid Catakmia, and the Basque
Provinces. The Bourbons, wiUi their French pro-
pensity to centralize, made the govmiment uniform,
converting the ancient states into so many tntenden-
das, or departments. In 1809. Joseph Bonaparte,
the intruded occupant of the Throne, divided Spain
into 38 departments, and the present division, mto
49 jirovinces, was leeally enacted in 1834. The
ancient Kingdom of Galicia makes four [wovinees:
Conmna (or Corufia), Lugo, Orense, and Pontevedra.
The PrincipaUty of Asturias is the Province of Oviedo.
Old Castile forms the ei^t jnovinces of Avila, Se-
govia, Soria, Valladolid, Palencia, Burgos, Logrofio,
and Santander; New Castile, those of Madrid, Toledo,
Ciudad Real, Cuenca, and Guadalajara. Ine three
Basque Provinces are: Alava, Guipuzooa, and Vis-
cava^ their respective capitals being Vitoria, S.
Sebastian, and Bilbao. Navmre forms a single prov-
ince, with Pamplona for its capital. Arafmn is divided
into the three Provinces of Saragossa, Huesca, and
Teruel; Catalonia forms those of Barcelona, Tarra*

fma, L6rida, and Gerona; Le6n, those Le6n,
amora, and Salamanca; Estremadura, those of
Cdceres and Badajoz; Valencia, those frf Aiicante and
Castell6n de la Puma; Murcia, those of Murcia and
Albacete. Andahisia forms the e^t Provinces of
Ctnrdova, Almnfa, Gnuiad^ Malaga, Jaen, CadiSf
Huelva and Seville. The Balearic Isles form one
province, with Palma for its ciqiital; the Canaries,
another, with Las Palm as for its capital. This divi-
sion has many inconveniences: it is ill-adapted to
historical analysis ; it is extremely unequal, some prov-
inces being three times as large as others. Moreover,
it does not lit in with the eccleidastioal organisatifm
of the country.

At the head of each province is a dvU Kovenwr^
the office being both administrative aiul puiti<»l in
character, and one of tiie few theineumbratsof whidi
change with the changes (tf political parties in power.
Subject to the civil governor are all the departments
of the provincial administration; the Exchequer,
prided over by a delegate, the Police, etc. The
civil governor suso wields authority over the civil
"facultative corps", as they are called — the engineers
of hi^ways, fonests, and minest and the agricultural
experts — as well as over public instruction, diarities,
and so on. Each province is divided into munici-
palities, which are governed by municipal councib
Xayvntamientos), with an (Ucalde, or mayor, at the
hwl of each ayuntamienlo. Each alcalde is dependent
on the governor of the province, and in his turn con-
trols the officials of his own municipal government.
The total number of municipalities and ayuntamisiv-
AM in Spain is 9290. Every village not la^ enoi^
to form a municipality has a sub-mayor (tdeaw
pmUmeo), govenilng the TiUaga in depeiulenoe upon
the «vufifttinisiito of the mnnioii»li^Kof wUflb it

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IPAIN 1

fotsns & iMrt. The theories of Cmtralisai have made

the municipal aywUamierUos oif ana of tlie central
poliUcal power; out in practice the«e bodies aspire
to be really represratative, each of its own oommumty,
in relation to the Government, and this forms the
programme of the Municipal Autonomy movement.

Tne central Government is administered by the
various ministerial offices and the bureaux dependent
upon them. These ministerial offices are: the Presi-
dency of the Council of Ministon, with its adminia-
trative corps; the Ministry of State, with the diplo-
matic and consular oorps, the corps of interpreters, and
the auxiliary administrative corps; the Ministiy of
Grace and Justice, which has charge of ecclesiastical
rdations, of the judges, notaries, registrars of prop-
erty, cl^kfl iaerihcmoa), and relators, and the direc-
tion of jnisoDs and p^ial establtshmenta; the Minia-
try <rf ^lanee, or the Exchequer {Hacienda), which
oontrols tiie adminiotration of tiie customs, the ad-
vocates oS the State, and the examiners of accounts,
beaideB its own nsecial administrative bureau. The
Ministerio de Gobemaci6n (equivalent to Home
Office or Department of the Interior) has charge of
puUic health and the Police, as well as the Postal
and Telegraph Services, and pubUc ch^ties. The
Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts has cha^
of the archives, libraries, copyright (propiedad liUra-
ria), geographical, topoRraphical, and astronomi-
cal worlurs, independent industrial entwraises,
and state professors and teachers. The Minis-
by of Pubho Works oontrols the state engineers
and exercises supervision over highways, mines,
agricultwe, manufacturee and commerce, and forests,
besides special administration. The Ministry of War
has chai^ of all that relates to national defence; the
Ministoy of Marine, of the whole administration <tf
the Navy, both as to material and men. The Minis-
terio de Ultramar (MinistJry of the Cokmies) has
oeased to exist since the loss of the colonies.

The ordinary administration of justice in Spain is
earned on by judges of first instance, territorial
courts (audienciae) of second instance, and the
Supreme Court, sitting at Madrid, to which caiisee
of great importance are taken in the last instance.
There are mteen territorial courts, or jurisdictions
(audUneiM): (Xi at Albacete; (2) Barc^na; (3)
Burgos; (4) C&ceres; (S) Corunna; (6) Granada;
(7) Madrid: (8) Oviedo; (9) Pahna ^ajorca);
(10) Las Palm as (Canary Islands); (11) Pamplona:
(12) SeviUe; (13) Valencia; (14) Valladolid; and
(16) Sara^ossa. Of these jurisdiotiwis (1) comprises
the Provmces of Albacete (eight judicial districts,
eighty-five ayunUmientoa^, Ciudad Real (ten judi-
cial oiaferiots), Cuenoa (eight districts), and Murcia
(ten divots): (2) of Barcelona (seventeen districts),
Genma (six oistricts), L6rida (eight districts), and
Tarragona (eight districts): (3) of Alava (three dis-
tricts), Bttfgos (twelve districts), Logrofio (nine
dis^cts), Sajitander (eleven districts), Soria (five
districts), and Biscay (five districts); (4) of Badajoz
(fifteen districts), and Ciiceres (thirteen districts);
(6) of C^HTunna (fourteen districts), Lugo (eleven dis-
tricts), Orense (eleven districts), and Pontevedra
(^ven districts); (6) of Almerfa (ten districts),
Granada (fifteen districts), Ja^n (thirteen districts),
and Malaga (fifteen districts) ; (7) of Avila (six dis*
triots), Guadalajara (nine districts), Madrid (seven-
teen districts), Seeovia (five districts), and Toledo
(twelve districts) ; {S) comprises the single province of
Ovie^. divided into fifteen districts; (9) comprises
tiie Balearic Isles, with six districts; (10) the seven
districts of the Cuiary Islands; (11) the Provinces of
Ouipuxooa (four districts) , and Navarre (five districts) ;
(12) of C^dis (fourteen districts), Cordova (seventeen
distaiots), Huelva (six districts), tmd SeviUe (fourteen
distekts); (13) of Alio^te (fourteen districts), Cas-
tdkn (fiim diitRots), aod Valeoou (tw^^nme

2 WAar

districts); (14) of Lson (ton districts), Palsnete
(seven distncts), Salamanca (eight districts), Vai-
ladolid (eleven districts)^ and Zamora (eight districts);
(15) of Huesoa (ei^t districts), Toruel (ten districts),
and Saragossa (thirteen districts).

The Peninsula and its adjacent islands are divided
into fourteen military districts, or captaincies^;ena:al
(fiapikmcu generalea): New Castile, Catalonia, An*
daluaia, Vubdcul Galida, Araeon, Granada, Old
Castile, EMxamadjura, Navarre. Bu^os, the Basque
District, the Balearic, and the Canary Islands. Each
district is oommanded by a lieutemuit-general with
the title of captain-^^eral, to whom all the troops in
the district, and all persons connected with the army,
are subject. A general of division, called the
seffundo cabo (second chief), takes bis place in case of
absence or illness, and is also the military governor of
the chief province (rf the district. Tbere is also a
o(»Qmaiida>in-chief at Ceuta, who is not dependent
upon any dtstiict commander. Each civil province
also forms a miUtuy government, usually commanded
by a general of brigade or^ in the case of the principal
ones, by a general of division. Every fortress or
place of high strat^ic importance ccfoistitutes a special
militant government under a comandante de jMza.

B. Ecdesiaatiad Organieation. — Spain is divided in-
to the foUowing ecclesiastical provinces: I. Burgos;
n. Granada; III. Santiago; IV. Saragossa; V.SeviUe;
VI. TarMspna; VII. Totedo; VIU. Valencia; IX. Val-
ladolid. By we Concordat of 1851 it was agreed
that eight should be suppressed. These eijght
were: .Ubarracln. Barbastro, (>uta, Ciudad Rodrigo,
Iviza, Soisofia, Tenerife, and Tudda. (See map.)

I. (l)The Archdiocese of Burgos {Bitrgensi»), erected
in 938, made metropolitan by Alfonso VI, numbos
1220 parishes, 47 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of
Burgos, Santander, Palencia, and Soria. (2) The
Diocese of Calahorra and La Calzada {Calagurritana)
is of Apostolic origin. It has 266 parishes, 47 rural
deanenes, in the Ftovinces of Logrofio and Navarre.
By. the provisions of the Concordat its capital should
have b^ transferred to Logrofio, but, owing to dif-
ficulties which arose, it is at present (1910) adminis-
tered by the Archbi^op of BuA^. (3) The Diooees
of Le6n {Legionenaia), founded in the third century,
has 345 parishes, 37 rural deaneries, in the Provinces
of Le6n, Valladolid, and Oviedo. (4) The Diocese
of Osma (Oxomensia) is of Apostolic origin. It was
suppre^ed on account of the Arab invasion, and
restored in the ninth century. It numbers 349
parishes, 28 rural deaneries, in Uie Provinces of Soria
and Bui^. (.5) The Diocese of Palencia ^(Paien-
tina), founded in the third century, has 34fi parishes
24 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Palencia,
Valladolid, and Burgos. (6) The Diocese of San-
tander iSanianderienaia), erected in the year 1354,
has 425 parishes, 26 rural deaneries, nearly all in the
same province. (7) The Diocese of Vitoria (Kic-
torienaia), erected in 1862, pursuant to the Ck)ncordat
of 1851, has 930 parishes, 36 rural deaneries, in tha
three Basque provinces.

II. (1) The Archdiocese of Granada {QramtUmtia),
of very ancient origin, was restored and made met-
ropolitan by the Catholic sovereigns in 1492. It
numb^ 182 parishes, 13 rural deaneries, nearly all
in the Provinces of Granada and Almeria. (2) Hie
Diocese of Almeria iAlmerienna). of very ancient
origin, was restored by the Catholic sovereigns. It
has 66 parishes, 7 rural deaneries, in the province
of the same name. (3) The Diocese of Cartagen*-
Murcia (Cartaginienaia) is of unknown orignn.
Urban IV restored it and fixed its see in Murcia. It
has 134 parishes, 17 rural deaneries, in the Provinces
of Murcia, Alicante, Almeria, and Albacete. (4)
The Diocese of Guadix {Aeeitana) founded by St.
Torquatus in the first century, restored at the end
of the fifteentli ouUny, h« 61 puidief, S nual

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173

BPADT

deanerieB, in the Provinces of Afanerla and Granada.
(6) The Diocese of Ja£n (GiaumU)^ very anoient
origin, was restored hy Innocent IV in 1249. It
numbers 119 parishes, 12 rural deaneries, in its own
province. (6) The Diooese of Malaga (MaJacUana)
dates from the Apostolic period and was restored by
the Catholic Sovereigns. It has 131 parishes, 17
rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Mali^, Cadiz,
and Seville, and the Afrioaa pomeBsions m Sptia
(MeliUa).

III. (1) The Arohdiooese of Santu^^o, or of Com-
pofltela {CompoOeUana) is of Apostolic oiinn. It has
788 parities, 36 rural deaneries, in the norinces of
Coninna and Fontevedra. (See Cokpostbu..) 0}
The Diocese of Lugo (Lueen-
ms), founded in the third cen-
tury and restored by Alfonso 1
in 739, numbers 647 parishes, 40
rural deaneries, in the Provinces
of LuKp and Fontevedra. . (3)
The Dioeeae of MondoQedo
(Mindonama), of which noth-
ing is known earber than the
sixth century, its see having
been established at Mondofiedo
by Dofia IJrraca, has 277 par-
ishes. 18 rural deaneries, in the
Provinces of Lugo and Conifta.

(4) The Diocese of Orense (Au-
risMw), of very ancient, some
tay Apostolic, origin, has 519
puiahes, 30 nu^T deaneries,
nea^ all in its own province.

(5) Tlie Diocese of Oviedo (Ove~
tenats) appears to have had its
origin in the ninth centuryj al-
though some attribute to it a
hidier antiquity. It numbers
909pariBhe8, 7S rural deaneries,
in its own province and a part
of Le6n. (6) The Diocese of
Tuy iTvdensis) is of Apostolic
origin. It has 276 parishes, 14
iwal deaneries, in the Provinces
of (hense and Fontevedra.

IV. (1) The Archdiocese of
Saragossa {Cataraugtukma),
f onnaed in the first century, re-
stored in 1117, made metropol-
itan in 1138. has 370 parishes,
15 rural deaneries, in its own
OTOvinceandthatofTeruel. (2)
The Diocese of Barbastro (Bar-
baatrmaU), erected m the reign
of Pedro I of Aiagon (1094-
1 104), is to be reunited, in punuonoe of the Concordat,
with the Diooese of Huesea, from whichit wasseparated
inthetimeofPhilipII. It numbers 154 parishes, 10 ru-
ral deaneries, in the Province of Huesoa. (3) The Dio-
oese of Huesca (Oacenais) dates from the first century
and was restored in 1086. It has 167 parishes, 9
rural deaomes, in the Provinces of Huesca and
Saragossa. (4) The Diocese of Jaca (Jacenaia),
erected by Don Ramiro of Aragon (eleventh century)
and separated in 1575, has 70 parishes, 8 rural dean-
eries, in tJie Fnmnl;es of Huesca, Saragossa, and
Navarre. (5) The Diocese of Pamplona (PampUo-
nmtU) is of Apostolic origin, its first bishop having
been St. Ferminus. It has 567 parishes, 21 rural
deaneries, in the Province of Navarre. (6) The Dio-
oese of Tarazona (Ttiriaaonenaia) dates from the
Gothic period and was restored in 1115. It has 138
pajiahes, 9 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Lo-
Knrfto, Navarre, and SaramaBa. (7) The Diooese of
Toruel (TVufsncfs), founded in 1577 at tiie peti^cm
of Fliilip n, hag 96 parishes, S rural deanerieB, ta tiie
pnnrinoe ot the same name. Its iurisdiction now in-

AuiiKAB, oa Town or thb Cathxdbal,

COKDOVA

dudes that of Albarraoin. (8) The Diocese ot Tudela
(Tvi^mata) has had but four bishopB, the last oonse*
orated in 1819. It was suppressed by tia Conewdat,
and its jurifldietion given to the Bimop of Tanwona.
It has a ooll^jate <murch and 26 parishes in tiie Prov-
inoe of Navarre.

V. (1) The Archdiocese of Seville {Hiapalenaia)
dates from the third century, and was restored by St.
Ferdinand in 1248. It has 270 parishes, 21 rural
deaneries, in the Provinces of Seville, Huelva, C^kU»,
and Mali^. (2) The Diocese of Badaioz (Pocemis)
is supposed to be of ApoetoUe ori^n, uthough there
is no documentary proof of its existence earuer than
the seventh eentiuy. It has 136 parishes^ 13 rural
deuieries, in the province o( the
same name. f3) The Diooese ot
Cadia-Ceuta (Gaditana) found-
ed by Alfonso X in 1263, has
32 parishes, 6 rural deaneries, in
its own province and Ceuta.
(4) The Diocese of the Canaries
{Canarietuia) o^ted by Inno-
cent VII in 1406, has par-
ishes, 5 rural deaneries, in the
Canary Islands. (See Canary
Islands.) (5) The Diocese of
Cordova (CordubenBta), dating
from tiie first century, has 124
parishes, 17 rural deanerieB, in
tlie Provinces oi Cordova and
Badajoz. (6) The Diocese of
Tenerife {Nivarienaia), erected
in 1819 by Pius VIII, is to be
incorporated, according to the
Concordat, with that of the
Canaries. Its see is at La La-
guna (Palma) and it numbers
62_pariBhe8, 10 rural deaneries.

VI. (1) The Ardidiooese of
Tarragona (Tarraconenaia) was
erecbEd in the first century, and
disputes with Toledo the ririit
of primacy. It was restored oy
Ram6n Berenguer, Count of
Barcelona, in 1088, and num-
bers 150 parishes, 6 rural dean*
cries, in tJie Provinces erf Tar-
ragona and L6rida. (2) The
Diocese of Barcelona (Bareino-
nenaia) is believed to be of
Apostolic origin, and was re-
stored in the twelfth century by
Ram6n Berenguer. Byarecent
concession of the Holy See, its
bishop wears the pallium, like a
metropolitaoi. It has 231 puiahes, 10 rural deaneries,
in the Provinces of Barcelona, Tarragona, LMda, and
Gerona. (3) The Diocese of Gerona (Gerundenaia)
dates from the third century, and was restored in the
eighth. It has 363 parishes iii the Provinces <rf Ge-
rona and Barcelona. (4) The Diocese of L^rida
(Ilerdensia) ia one of the most ancient in Spain. It
numbers 249 parishes, 12 rural deaneries, in the
Provinces of L6rida and Huesca. (5) The Diocese
of Solsona {Exedaonenaia) was erected in 1693, BUp-
pressed by the Concordat, and again constituted as
an Apostolic administration with a titular bishop.
It has 152 parishes, 11 rural deaneries, in the Prov-
inces of Barcelona, L^rida, and Gerona. (6) The
Diocese ot Tortoea (Derluaetma), believed to be of
Apostolic origin, restored in 1141, has 159 parishes. 12
rvnai deaneries, in ^le Provinces of Tarragona, Te-
ruel, and Castelldn. The Concordat provides for the
tnuufer of its oamtal to Castelldn de la Plana. (7)
Hie Dioeese oi Urgel (UrgeUenna) ia very anoieB^
and its bishop is the sovereign of the ValleyB of An-
dorra. It has 395 parishes, 10 nind deanenes, iath*

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FlovfaiQW tA Liridft and Gerona aod in the Baoublic
of Andorra. (S) The Diooese of Vich (Vieenns), in
the ancient Ausona, was erected in 713, and restored
by Ludovico Pio, and, later, by Vifredo the Hairy,
Count of Barcelona. It has 248 parifihes, 11 rural
deaneries, in tihe Provinces of Barcelona, Gerona, and
Tairaflona.

VII. (I) The Archdiocese of Toledo (TdetaTta),
erected in the first century, had for its first bishop St.
Eugenius. In the fifth century the see was made
me^politan, and after the Reconquest it became the
{Hincipal see of the Spains. The archdiocese con-
tains 442 parishes divided into 20 rural deaneries, and
covers the Province of Toledo and part of those of
Jain, Guadalajara, and C^lceres. (2) The Diocese of
Coria (CamieTma) existed as early as tiie year 589
and was restored in 1142 b^ Alfonso VIII. It com-
prises 124 parishes, divided mto 11 rural deaneries, in
the Provinces of Cdceree, Salamanca, and Badajoz.
(3) The Diocese of Cuenca (Corufuensia) was erected
in 1179 by Pope Lucius III. It has 326 parishes, in
12 rural deaneries, in the Provinces of Cuenca and
Guadalajara. .(4) The Diocese of Madrid-Alcal&
{Mairitensi»-Comj)lvteTma) was erected by the Bull (rf
7 March, 1885^ in pursuance of the Concordat of 1851.
It has 232 parishes, divuled into 18 rural deaneries, in
the Province (rf Madrid. (5) The Diocese of Pla-
sencia (Placentina), erected in 1190 by Alfonso VIII,
has 260 parishes, divided into 14 rural deaneries, in
the Province of Cdceres, Salamanca, Badajoz, and
Avila. (6) ITie Diocese of Sigilenza (Saguniina) ex-
isted in the time of the Goths, and was restored by
Alfonso VIII. It has 350 parishes, 18 rural deaner-
iea, in the Proviucea of Guadalajara, Saragossa, and
S(»ia.

VIII. (1) The Archdiocese of Valencia (Vcdenlina)
erected in the third century, and restored by Jaime I,
the Conqueror, in 1238, has 313 parishes, 25 rural
deaneries, in the Provinces of Alicante, Valencia, and
Castell6n. (2) The Diocese of Iviza (Ebusensis) is to
be merged in that of Majorca, pursuant to the Con-
ocffdat. It has 37 parishes. (3) The Diocese of
Majorca (Af^/oriceTisu) was erected by Jaime, the
Conqueror, in 1229. The see is at Palma, and its
uuxNTpcHntion with the Diocese of Iviza is provided
for by the Concordat. It has 50 parishes, 7 rural
deaneries, in the Balearic Isles. (4) The Diocese of
Minorca (Minoriccrms), erected in 1795, has its see at
Ciudadela and numbers 14 parishes. (5) The Diooese
of Orihuela iOriolenms) was erected in 1564. Its see
diould, by the terms of the Concordat, be trans-
ferred to Alicante. It has 60 parishes, 11 rural dean-
eries, in the Provinces of Alicante, Valencia, and Al-
meria. (6) The Diocese of Scgorbe (SegobrUxtuis)
founded in the time of the Goths, restored in 1171, and
^ain in 1245, has 65 parishes, 7 rural deaneries, m
the Provinces of CasteUdn, Valencia, and Teruel,

IX. (I) The Archdiocese of Valladohd {VaaUo-
Utana) was founded in 1595 and became metropoU-
tan in 1859. It has 93 parishes, 0 rural deaneries, in
the province of the same name. (2) Tlie Diocese oS
Astorga (Aaiuricenaia) is of Apostolic origin, and was
restored by Alfonso I in 747. It has 582 parishes and
18 rural deaneries in the Provinces of Le6n, Zamora,
and Orense. (3) The Diocese of Avila (Abvienm)
was erected by St. Secundus in Apostolic times, and
restored after the Arab invasion, by Alfonso VI. It
has 339 parishes, divided into 20 rural deaneries, in
the ProTincee of Avila, Toledo, and Valladohd. (4)
The Diocese of Ciudad Kodrigo iCivitatenm), founded
by Alexander UI, in 1175, is one of those suppressed
under the Concordat, its territory having been added
to th&t of Salamanca since 1884 under an Apostohc
administiator with episcopal character. It has 150
parishes, 11 rural deaneries, in the Province of Salsr
manca. (5) The Diocese of Salamanca (SalmarUv-
emuU) dates from the first oentuiy, and was r«atc»ed

by Alfonso I, the Great, in 901. It numbers 286
parishes, 19 rural deaneries, in the province of th?
same name. (6) The Diocese of S^ovia (Segovim-
sis) was erected in the time of the Goths and restored
by Alfonso VI. It has 276 puishes, 15 rural deaner-
ies, in the Provinces of S^ovia, Avila, and Vallado-
hd. (7) The Diocese of Zamora (Zamorerms) was
founded in the year 906. It has 265 parishes, 13
rural deaneries in the Provinces of Zamora and Vallar
dolid.

Besides these nine inovinces, Uiere is the Diocese-
Priorate of the four military orders, or of Ciudad-
Real (Cluniemia). which was erected as vere nuUiut
by the Bull "Ad ApostoUcum", put into execution by
the Decree of August, 1876. It has 115 parishes, in
11 rural deaneries.

The privil^ed eocleaiaBtioal jurisdictioDS are the
Apostohc Nunciature and the Su]n«me Tribunal of
the Rota, both at Madrid, and the Chapel Royal
(Clero de la Real CapUla y Patrinumio), mm a grand
almoner {capellan mayor) to His Majesty, honorary
chaplains, etc. The inihtary chaplains are under the
jurisdiction of a Vicar-General of the Army and Navy.
There are four deputy vicars and a proportionate
number of chaplains-^sneral, and fixst-claaB and seo-
ond-class chaplains.

Notwithstanding the measures of disamortization
which have deprived than of their property, and the
general expulsion effected a second time by the Revo-
lution of 1868, the religious orders of both sexes
prosper and possess many establishments in Spain.
Owing, howev^ to their anomaloxis legal position, it
is extremely dimoult to obtain statistics of them, al-
though an approximation may be made. The Lib-
oals assert that, since t^e Concordat ot 1851, only
three religious orders of men have any right to be ad-
mitted to the country, while the Conservatives and
Cathohcs in general imderstand that the Concordat
places these three orders in a privilra^ed position, but
admits all the other orders conformably with the pro-
visions of the canon law to which its stipulations are
subject. In 1903 the religious orders in Spain num-
bered 597 communitiea of men and 2463 communitiee
of women. The number of nude rdi^us was 10,630;
of female 40,030. These conununitiee were divided,
according to the chief object <tf then institutions, as
follows: —

Cotmmmitita:
Of Mm. OS IFomrn.

The ConUinplatiTe life 76 717

Charitable worka 39 1029

Teadiiag 29* 717

The prioiUiood 97

02

Total 597 3488 .

Of late years there has been a notable increase in
these figures, but statistics are not obtainable. The
most numerous orders are the Jesuits, Franciscans,
Capuchins, Augustinians, Fiariste, Missionaries of the
Heart of Mary, Brothers of the Christian Schools,
Marist Brothers, and Lazarists.

C. ^ducttium. — Three educational grades are reoog-
nized : t^e hif^er, intermediate, and primary. Hi^er
education is divided into acad^nicaJ (/acuOa/tin) and
technical {,s-p&aai): the former of these divisions is
taught in the universities, with their faculties of law,
philosophy and letters, sciences, medicine, and phar^
macy. Tedmical education is given in the special
schools of engineeringj architecture, vetOTinary sur-
«ry, and manual-trainms, and in tiie mihtary sduxtls.
Tiiere are three schools of industrial engineeriiuc
Mechanics, chanistry, and electricity), at MadruT
Barcelona, and Bilbao. At Madrid are also a school
of civil engineering (JEacuefa de Ingenierot de Caminos,
Canales yFuertot), a school of mines, and a school of
asriculture, while at Uie Esoorial is a school of forestry
(Jsteuda M Ingtaisnm y ds Mmtet). There an

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175

■dwols of architecture at Madrid and at Baroetona;
Teterinary schoolfi at Madrid, Saracoasa, Leon, Cor-
dova, and Santiago (Coruona). There are fouri«en
Government schools of oommerce, beeides many in-
dependent ones under Brothers of the Christian
Schools, Marists, Jesuits, etc. Manual-training
schools (Eaaidat d« arles 6 industriaa, or d» artet y
oficiot) are of recent ^rijan in Spain; the national
goveminrat nmintfti"" thirteen of them and gives
subventions to nuuiy otiters which are support^ by
the municipalities or provincial governments. There
are also schools of Uie fine arts, conservatories of
music, etc. The military schools are: at Guadala-
jara, for the Engineers; at Segovia, for the Artillery;
at Valladohd, for the Cavalry; at Toledo, for 1^
Infant^; at Avila, for the Army Service Corps (Ad-
minMraei6n MUUar); at Madrid, for the Army Med-
ical Corps; and again at Madrid, for the Staff (Estado
Mayor). Otiher institutions for mihtary education
are the College of the Guardias Civiles, at Valdemoro,
that of the Carabineros, at the Escorial, etc. The
schools of naval engineering and of marine artillery
are at S. Fernando (Cadiz). There are sohoc^ and
nautical institutes for the merchant marine, _ the
practical examinations being under the supervision
of the naval authorities. Preparation for teaching
in the upper branches of literature is ^ven in the
normal schools established in the provincial capitals;
tiie degrees are Maestro Elemental, Maestro Superior^
and Maestro Normal. A higher school of petugogy
has recently been opened at Madrid.

Ecclesiastical education, since the suppression oS
the theological faculties in the univeruties. has been
given in ^e conciliar seminaries established in all the
dioceses, as prescribed by the Council of Trent. In
Bome dioceses there are also lesser seminaries, which
prepare students for the ^ater. The univensitiee
now in existence are: Madrid (formerly Alcald), Sal-
amanca, Barcelona, Granada, Seville, Valladolid,
Valencia, Saragossa, Santii^o, and Oviedo. In the
last-named the only faculty in operation is that oS
law. There are intermediate schools in all the pro-
vincial capitals, as weU as others in certain other
localities — Baeza, Cabra, Figueras, Gij6n, Jerea,
Mahon, and Reus. The number of Government
primary schools is very inadequate; the deficiency,
towevffl-, is compwosated by the number of private
And religious institutions. By the School Census of
1903, there were in Spain a!t(«ether 31.838 schools
(20,324 for boys; 10;970 for gvib; 544 lor infants),
^e following statistics of pupua are taken from the
Census of 1900:

Puplli of theses of 5 yean 222.SiB 214,573

Pupilioftheageof 6y6ani 214,174 215.737

PupiUoftheagoof 7ye&r8 215,682 311.997

Pupils of the a«e of Syears 217,572 211^

PupUaoftbeageof Byean 195.676 193,186

Fupilaofthaagaof lOyean 213,911 211,939

PupUfoftbeassof LltolSyenra 034,027 028,993

Total 3,313,660 2,183,367

mrfting a total of 4,396,927 oi both sexes. As it is
estimated that two-thirds of the population of school
^e attend private or rehgious schools, it follows that
tne dearth of educationalfacilitiee in Spun is not so
great as is commonly supposed. The number of
absolutely illiterate has been much exaggaiited, owing
to the lack of proper statistics. That that number is
as huge as it i&uiy is may be explained by the in-
effective enforcement of the legal school-attendance.

Althou^ the Constitution of 1876, which is still
in force, nanta freedom of teaching, the right has been
very much curtailed by l^al enactments. There are
but two independent umveraties, that of Deusto

gUbao), directed by the Jesuits, and that of the
oorial, under the Augustinians. There are also,
at Madrid, two independent institutioiw of university
dwracter, the Aeadeauia Umversitsria Cat6Uca» undei

the presidency of the Bishop of Madrid-AIoald, and
the Instituciw Libre de Enaefianza (Free Institution
of Education), directed by the Krausista. For inter-
mediate, or gymnasium, education the religious orders
have many colleges L»ome of whidi also take charge
of interne pupils. The Jesuits, of whom there are
three provinces in Spain, have colleges as follows:
Province of Aragon.— With boarders at Sarrid (Barce-
lona), Saragossa, Valencia, and Orihuela (former
Dommican university); half-boarding {meduh-vension^
ado) school at Barcelona. Province of Castile. — For

FAgADB or TBC Cathedral, Gebona

boarders at Gijon (Asturias), La Guardia (Ponte*
vedra), Ordufia (Vizcaya), Tudela (Navarre), and
Valladohd: also day sdiools at Durango (Kscay),
Carri6n (Falencia), and Ofia (Burgos). Province oi
Toledo. — Boarding schools at Channarlin de la Rosa
(Madrid), Seville, Malaga, Puerto de Sta. Maria
(Cadiz), and Villafranca de los Barros (Badajos);
also a Catholic school of arts and crafts (wcuela
Ueniea), and a half-boarding school at Madrid. The
Jesuita also conduct the following ecclesiastical col-
leges: For the fcnmation of rehgious, houses of higher
studies at Ofia (Burgos), Tortosa (Tarragona),
Granada, and S. Jeronimo; literary collies at Loyola
(Guipuzcoa), Veruela (Saragossa), Cam6n (Palen-
cia), Gandla (Valencia), and Bui^os. The Provinoe
of Qistile has a pontifical seminary at Comillaa (San-
tander) and directs the episoopaf seminary of Sala-
manca. It also has an Apostolic school at Xavier
(Navarre).

The second religious institute in the work of teach-
ing is that of the Piarists, or Fathers of the Pious
Bcnools, which has been largely represented in Spain
since the seventeenth century. As the Revolution
has generally shown some respect for the Piarists,
they nave kept a larger nunUier of their colleges than
the Jesuits, who have been repeatedly expelled, and
■o obliged to estatdish their collect over again.

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BPAXV 1

Tlwn are Piuist ooUeses at Madrid, BareeltHia, Va*
lencia, Saragossa, eto., besides others at less important
eeatree of population. In recent timee some of the
older orders which are not mimarily teaching orden,
such as the Auguatiniaiw, Dominicaps, Fr&ncisoans,
and Lasarists, have establidied boarding aohools.
In technical, commercial, and primary teaching, the
Brothers of the Christian Schools of St. John Baptist
de La Salle and P6re Champagnat's Marist Brothers
have attained a position of great importance; their
establishments in Spain are numerous and have b&*
oome more ao since weir expulsion from France. The
Christian Brothers now have 53 coll^ee in Spain;
the Marists, 67. The education of girls is to a great
extent under the care of a number of congregations <tf
religious women, who have boardingand haL'-Loarding
schools as well as day schools. The principal are:
The Rehgious de la EnseHanxa (Society of Our Lady)
of Bl. Lestonac, who have 12 cloistered pensions.
The Visitandinee of St. Jeanne Franfoise Fremoit de
Caiantal, eBtabtished in Spain since 1758. The Re-
li^us of the Sacred Heart of Bl. Barat, with 15
houses, established in Spain since 1846. The
gious of Jesus and Mary, founded by M. ThSvwet,
entered Spain in 1850. The Ursulinea have a col-
lege at Molina de Aragdn (New Castile), and there are
some colleges of the EngUsh Ladies and of Our Lady
of Loreto. There are, in addition to these, numerous
small schools for ^Is and many religious conurba-
tions for women — m particular^ Carmelite Tertianee,
Franciscan Tertiaries, Augustmians, and Sisters of
Charity.

III. UI8T0BT. — The old historians say that Spain
was populated by the children of Tubal and of Tarsis,
son ana grandson of Ji^et. These were the Ibe-
rians, who were divided into Iberians proper and Tar-
tesians; the latter, in the South; the former, in the
Norlii. Some have held that the Iberians
Basques, and consequently were of the Uralo-AJtaic,
or Mongoloid, race, as the similarity of the Basque
with the Finnish languages would seem to indicate.
However this may be, me Iberians and Tarteeians
appear to have formed the aboriginal p<^ulation, and
the Celts, who occupied a great part of France, Great
Britain, and Ireland, would seem to have come in
upon them by way of the Bay of Biscay. The colli-
sion oi tiie two races produced the population whi^
later settlers and conquerors found in Spain: Celts
in the North and West, Ibmans in tiie East and
South, and in the centre (Aragon and part of Castile)
Celtiberians, whose very name indicates a fusion of
tiie two races—no doubt, after a Kreat deal of conflict.

It is very remarkable that the differencee of lan-
guage in the Iberian P^iinsula still, partially, corres-
poiM to this first distribution of the mhabituig races.
In the reebns of ib» pure Iberians, Catalan is spoken,
with ita diakots, the Valencian and Balearic; in the
regions conquered by the Celts, the languages are
Gall^, Portugueee, and the babU of Astunas; in the
Cdtiberian and Tarteeian portions, Castilian. This
fact seons to support the theory of Padre Lorenso
Hervas y Pandiuro, that races, even when they change
their grammar, never entirely change their own way
of pronouncing the language which they use. Upon
tiieae first strata of populatioi^ which may be con-
sidered abwiginal, were supcanmpoaed tiis cokmists
and oonquwors. The ool<HUBtR were Greeks and
Phoenicians; the conouerors, Carthaginians, R(»nans,
Goths, and Arabs. Takiii^ this as a guide, Spanish
history may be divided into periods as follows: A.
Colonies in Cdtiberian Spain; B. Carthaginian Spain
(third century b. o.) ; C. Roman Spain (4£ird century
B. c, to fifth century of our era); D. Visigothio Mon-
archy (fifth to eudith century); E. Arab Spam and
Kingdoms of the Reoonqueat (eij^th to fifteentii oen-
tarn; F. Hie Unifioatioii of Spam (fifteenth oentuty
to the present time).

r6 MfABt

A. Coloniet. — The Fhcsnidans^ vbo colonised all
tJie Mediterranean coasts, established a great many
colonies, or factories, in the South of Spain—Carteya,
Calpe, Malaga, Sen, and chief of all, Gades (C&diz).
the centre of their power in ^Mun and their cult «
HerculeflL whieh is symbolised on &e Gaditanian
coins. Soon after the I^tBnicians^, the Greeks began
establishing their colonies, the chief colonizers being
the Rhodians at Rosas, south of Cape Creus (910
B.C.), the Phocians, at Emporium (Ampurias, the
present name, or Ampurdan, being derived from
Empontanum) and at Artemisium (Denia, from
Diana, another name for Artemis), and the ^icynth-
ians, who founded Saountum and populated Iviza*
giving it tlie name of Ouiiusa.

B. Carthaginian Spom.— The Carthaginians set-
tled in the Balearic Islee in the seventh oenttn^ b. c.
In the sixth centuiy, haying aided the Phoenicians of
Cadis against the Tarteaians, they took possession ctf
that city and began trading in Bsetica- After the
First Punic War they sought to indemnify tiiem-
selves for their losses m Simly by conquering Spain.
The oonqueet was begun by Hamilcar Barca, and ex-
tended as far aa the Ebro; then, too, be«ui that
struggle of the Spaniards for indqiendence which was
to last until the nineteenth century <tf the Christian
Ex&. Istolacius and IndOTtes, the former a Celtio
chieftain, the latter chief of certain Celtiberian tribes
of the Ebro, raised an army, according to Diodonis
Siculus, of 50,000 men; but they were defeated and
condemned to death. However, Orison, another
Iberian duef, aohieved the rout and deatli of Hamil-
car at Glioe, or Eldhe (230). Hasdrubal, the founder
of Cartagena, (New Carthage), was assasunated by a
slave, and Hannib^, to complete the conquest of
Spain, laid stece to oaffuntum, whic^ city then im-
mortalised itsetf by its neroic act of self-destruction.
The issue of the Seoond Funic War caused the Car-
thaginians to lose Spain, and the Romans succeeded
to their mastery of tlie countiy.

C. Roman Spain. — But the Spaniards showed no
more docility to the Romans than to the Cartha^n-
ians. Indibil and Mandonius commenced that course
of resistance which ended only when Spain had been
romanized — vanquished not so much by the arms as
by the superior civilization of Rome, a culture whidi
Spain assimilated to such a degree as to produce
rhetoricians like Quintih'an, poets like Luean, Mar-
tial, and Silius Italious, philtwopherB like Seneca, and
emperors like Trajan, Hadrian, and Theodoaius.
Noteworthy among the wars of the S{>aniards f^dnst
Roman domination are those of Vinathus (150-140
B. c), a Lusitanian chieftain; the struggle of Nu-
mantia (133), which imitated the example set by S&<-
guntum; that of Sertorius, a partisan of Marius, who
was proscribed by Sulla, fled to Spain, and thov put
himself at the head <tf the Spaniuds. Sotoriua did
more than anyone else to rconanize the country; he
cave it Roman institutions, and founded at HueSca a
hi^ school wi1& Greek and Latin teachers. After
this, although the Spaniards took Uie side of Pomp(sr
against Cteaar, resistance to the Roman power as su^
was confined to the Cantabri and the Asturias, who
were conquered, though not subdued, in Uie time of
Augustus. The Romans at first divided Uieir Span-
ish temtories into Hith^ and Furthv S{HUtt mi*-
pania Citerufr, UUerior), taking the Ebro as dividing
lin^ but Augustus divided the country into Tarraoh
nenw, Lusitanui, and BosHca. Spain is covered wiUi
Roman remains, particularly aqueducts and bridgee,
but the most penetrating Roman influence was ua-
guistic, giving to ^e inhabitants a neo-Latin tongue,
which has survived in gn&t perfection in Castile and.
yriib greater modifications, owing to the astnrated
uttoukce, in die East.

Under the Romaa dtunination Spain reeeiTed Chris-
tianity. Thm is a venerable tradition that the

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ipinr

177

BPAIK

ApostlM Paul and Jamee came to the oountr^i vdl
as the Seven Apostolic Men (TorquatUB, CHeBiphon,
SecunduB, Indaleoius, Caeoilius, Heeyohius, ana Eu-
pbraaiufl) to whom the foundation of various ohurohee
18 attritmted. Connected vritii the coming of St.
James is the very ancient tradition of Our Lady of the
FiUar (la Virgen del Pilar) of Saragossa. Prudenthis
says that there were martyrs in Spain in evwy one of
the perseoutionB. Of uncertain oate are the martyr-
doms of Sts. FacunduB and Frimitiua in Galioia; of
St. FinoinuB and Sts. Marcellus and Nonia, with thor
twelve ehOdroD, in Leon; ol Sts. Aoisclua and Victoria
at Cordova. Sts. Hemeterius and Celedonius suf-
fered in the Decian persecution, as did Sts. Justa and
Rufina, St. Laurenoe, St. FruotuosuB, St. Aueurius,
and St. EulogiuB. The most famous of Spani^ mar-
however, are those who suffered in the peneeu-
tion of Diocletian, when Daoian was prefect; amoi^

hordes, u^sd forward by the pressure <rf the Huns fal

their rear, hurled thenuelves for the first time upon
the Pyrenean Peninsula — ^the Alani, a people of Scyth-
ian, or Tatar, race; the Vandals and Suevians, Ger-
manic races. The Alani were, for the most part,
quioldy brought into Bubjection. The Vandals, after
estabhdung themselves in Betica, to which they ^ve
the name of Vandalusia (Andalusia), passed on mto
Africa, while the Visigoths hemmed in the Suevi in
Galioia until ^e latter were completely brought un-
der control. These Visigoths, or Western Goths, after
saoldiw Rome tmder the leadership of Alario (410),
turned towards the Iberian Peninsula, with Ataulf for
^eir leader, and occupied the north-eastern portion,
which the9«after received the name of Gotha-landia
(Catalmnia, later Oatalonia). VaUa extended his
rule over most of the Peninsula, keeping the Sueviana
shut up in GiJioia. Theodoret took part, with the

Tn I vaoK *u 8ilu rat Hobo

them were Sts. Cuoufatis, Eulalia, and Severua,
Btahop of Barcdona, Sts. Felix, PonciuSj and Victor,
NartrissuB, Bishop of Gerona, Engratia, Valerius,
Bishop of Saragossa, and hia deacon, Vincentius,
Justus and Pastor of AlcaU, Leooadia of T<^edo, Eu-
lalia of M6rida, Cyricus and Paula of Malaga, Vin-
eentiuB, Sabina, and Cristeta of Talavera. During
this period, too, many councils were held in Spain, the
most important being those of Elvira (or Dliberis) and
of SaraKoesa, and the First Council of Toledo. At
tiiat of Elvira (300) the Acts, which are still extant,
were signed by nineteen bishops, and, among other
tbinsB, the celibacy of the clergy was insisted upon.
At tne Council of Saragossa (sSO) PrisoilliuiiBm was
•ondemned. The PriscillianistB abjured their heresy
at tiie Council of Toledo (400) , where, also, the sym-
bol was pronounced with the PUiomu, Among ilW>
trious Spaniards of tiie period may be mentioned Pope
St. DamasuB, the great Hoaiua, St. Pacianus, Kehop
of Baroelona, and ub son. Flavins Dexter, Juvencus,
and FrudentiuB.

D. Visig^ic Sffun. — ^Wfaen the Gemumio peopka
braded the provinces of the Roman Empiie^ ^
XIV,-12

Romans and Franks, in the battle of Chfilons, where
Attila was routed. Euric (466),'who put anendtothe
last remnants of Roman power in the Peninsula, may
be considered the fiist monarch of Spain, thou^ the
Suevians still maintained their independence in Cift>
Uda. Euric was also tiie first king to give written
laws to the ^^gotfas.

In the following reigns the Catholic kings of France
assumed the r61e of protectors of the Hispano-Roman
Catholics against the Arianism of the Visigoths, and in
the wars which ensued Alaric II and AmaJric kiet their
lives. Atan^ld, having risen against King Agilas,
called in the Bysantine Greeks and, in payment for
the succour they gave him, ceded to them the maritime
plaoee of the South-East (654). Leovigild restored
the political onity of the Peninsula, subduing the
Suevians, but the religious dividons of ^e country,
reaching even the royal family, brou^t on a civil war.
St. Hennengild, the king's son, putting himself at the
head of the Catholics, was defeated and tidcen pris-
oner, and sufTered mutyrdom for rejecting commune
ion with the Ariuu. Recared, son of Leovigild and
bvother of St. Hnrnengild. added reli^us unity to

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tiie political unity achieved by his faiber, acoeptin^
the Catholic Faith in the Third Council of Toledo
(589). The religious unity establieiied by this coun-
cil was the basis of that fusion of Goths vntii Uis-
pano-RonuuiB which produced the Spuiish Nation.
Bisebut and Suintila completed the expulsion of the
Ityiantines from Spain. ChiDdasvint and Reces-
Tint laboured for legiBlative unity, and legalized mar-
riages, hitherto prohibited, between Gotiis and Lat-
ins. After Wamba, famous for his oppcwition to his
own election, an unmistakable decline of the Gothic
monarchy set in. Manners were relaxed, immorality
increased, and Witiza has stood in Spanish history for
the type pf that deoay which, in the next ruga, that of
Rodoie (710-14), ended in me ruin of the kingdom.

During this period many imy impcHiaat councils
were held in Spain. Among we most memorable
vere: that of Tarragona (516), at whidi ten biahops

assisted, the First Council of Barcelona (540), and
those of L6ridft and Valencia (546). But most im-
portant of all, and of a special character, were the
Councils of Toledo and of Braga (Bracara). Emi-
nent among th« saints of the same period are the two
holy brothers Leander, wh^ presided at the Third
Council of Toledo, and Isidore, who presided at the
Fourth, and who wrote a celebrated encyclopedia
(The EtymologicB) and contributed to the upbuilding
of Mozarabic literature, St. Saturius. the solitary, St.
Emilian (MiUdn), the father of monks, St. Victorian,
abbot of the monastery of Asana, St. Gaudiofius,
Bishop of Tarazona, St. Toribius, St. Martin of Du-
mio, St. Ildefonsus, St. Braulius, St- Eugenius, and
St. Taj6n, Bishop of Saragossa. To this period, also,
belong the poets Orentius and Dracontius, the chrou-
ideta Idaoius and John of BicUra, and the historian
Paulus Orodus.

_ E. Arab Svain. — (1) The Moslem Domina-
tion.— While the Gothic kingdom was decaying
through effeminacy and the discord produced by the
elective system of monarchy, the fanatical sectaries
^ the Koran were advancing through North Africa.
Intend has it that Count Julian, the governor of

B 8MSM

Ceuta, in revenge for the violation <tf his dao^ter,
Florinda (also called La Cua), by King Rodenc, in-
vited the Moslems and opened to tnem the gates of the
Peninsula. The first eqiedition the Arabe was led
W Tarif , who gave his name to Tarifa; tbe tecoad,
Tank, who gave his name to Gibraltar (Gdial-Taiik,
"Mountain of Tarik")- Roderic went forth to meH
the invaders, and, in July, 711, the terrific battle was
fought which is generally called the battle of Guadar-
lete, but which really took place near the River Bar-
bate. This river flows into the Lagoon of Janda SLod
was known to the Arabs as Wadi Becca. The battle
appears to have been lost through the treacb^ of
putisans of Witiza, the last king. Roderic flisMH-
peared; it is not known whether ne perished in t£e
fight. The Arabs spread rapidly throuf^ Andalusia,
soon reaching Teredo, l^e Gothic capital, while the
Jews, who were numerous in the cities, facilitated their
entrance. Musa, governor of Barbary, came to
share the triumphs of Tarik. In 714 he captured
Saragossa and followed up his conquests as far as
Lugo and Gijon, while Tarik reached Leon and As-
toria. Some of the Spaniards settled down to live
under Arab rule, c^lii% themselves Mosarabs; the
rest fled to the mountains of the North, where they
formed the four chief rallying-points for the Recon-
quest: Asturias, Navarre, Ar^on, and Catalonia.

Arab Spain was at first governed by emira whose
authority was derived from the Omayyad Cahphs of
Damascus. The most noted of these emirs were Ab-
delaziz, son of Musa, who recognized the independ-
ence of the little state, d^ended by Todmir, with its
capital at Orihuela, and Abderraman el Gafequi, who,
faavii^ penetrated into Aquitaine, was vanouished by
Charles Martel at Poitiera (732). Before long, divi-
sions arose among the Spanish Mussulmans, out of the
antagonisms of Arabs and Berbers, Quelvites and Ma-
hadites. At length Abderraman I, a scion of the
Omayyad stock, who had escaped the slaughter of his
family by the Abassids, when the latter founded the
Caliphate of Bagdad, lumself became the founder of
the independent Emirate of Cordova. Here the cul-
ture of the Spanish Arabs reached its greatest splen-
dour, influenced, in great measure, by the Mozamis,
who were more advanced in the sciences and arts. In
786 Abderraman began the famous -mosque of Cor-
dova (now the cathedral), one of the largest and most
magnificent edifices of the Arab style. The first
caliphs treated tbe Mozarabic Christians with com-
parative leniency; Abderraman II, however, initiated
a policy of persecution, and his son Mohammed I con-
tinued it. In the city of Cordova there were seven
CathoUc churches and a monastery connected with the
Church of S. Ginte, while in the neidibourhood were
the monasteries of S. Crist^Sbal, S. F^lbc, 8. Martin,
Stos. Justo y Pastor, S. Salvador, 8. Zoilo, Cuteclara,
and Los TAbancw. In 839 a council of three arch-
bishops and five bishops was held at Cordova. The
epoch of the Martyrs here began with the decollation
of the priest Perfecto, in 860. In the following year
the monk Isaac spontaneously offered himself for mar-
tyrdom, and six monks and several laymen, among
them the celebrated Paulo Cordobfe, died for the
Faith. In 852 Gumersindo and Semdeo, with eight
othermonka and seculars, were martyred. The readi-
ness with which martyrs offered tnemaelves to the
tribunals incensed the Caliph Abderraman II, and he
caused the Council of Cordova of 852 to assemble unr
der the presidency of Recafredo, Archbishop of Sev-
ille. In this council it waa proposed to deny the
credit of martyrdom to ^ose who provoked persecu-
tion. But persecution recommenced in 863, imder
Mohammed I, and the monks Fandila and Felix, tie
virgin Digna, Benildis, Columba, and Pomposa shed
then- blood for the Faith, as did the presbyters Abun-
dio and Eliss, the monks Pedro, Paulo, Isidore, and
Argimiio, tbe youth Amador^ Luis of Cordova, Wite-

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170

ma

moAa, Bodi^, Solnnon, sad the Tinjin Anna in the
following year. St. Eult^iu, who had encouraged
the martyrs, himself suffered on 11 March, 869, and
the virgin Leocridia followed him. Distineuished as
writers among the Mozarabfi were St. Eulogius and
Alvar Cordofe, and their master, the Abbot Spera-
indeo; also the Abbot Samson, who combated the
anthropomorphism of the perverse Bishop Hoste-
geais and others. But the Mosarabs psdual^ died
oat in their Mohammedaa enTironmrat, so that St.
Ferdinand found hardly any traces of them in the
cities he oonquered.

After stifling an insurrection of the national party,
the Arab aristocracy, and the Berbers, and reducing
Toledo to obedience, Abderraman III established an
absolute monarchy, the Cahphate of Cordova (929).
His son, Al Haken II, distinguished himself by foster-
ing the arts of peace; he ooUected a vast numbw of

Tokwa (1212): fnnn tiie Bern Meriiieg, in 13w rrign of
Alfonso XI, who vanquiidied them in the battle of El
Salado. From that time the Spanish Mussulmans
were confined to the Kii^dom of Granada, which had
been founded by Mohammed Alhamar in 1238, and
lasted until 1492, when Boabdil was oonquered by
Ferdinand and Isabella.

(2) The Reconquest. — All the elements of the
Planish People abread^ existed in the kingdom of the
Catholic Goths: the Latinised Celtiberian race, or
Hispano-Romans, the Gothic element, and the Catho-
lic Faith. These elements, however, were as yet un-
combined, and still lacked that thorou^ fusion which
was to make one people out of them, with a character
and historical destiny of its own. The aeeney em-
ployed by Divine Providence to effect this fusion was
the terrible force of the Mussulman invasion. Undw
its inunense pressure the GoUis and Hiq)ano-Romam%

QnfBBAi .Vnw or vn Baiooa amd Citt or Cokdova

books, and founded schools and aoademies. In the
Toign of Hixem II, both the home government and the
armies were directed by his haachib Almansor (the
Victorious), who, by dint of almost annual incursions
into the Christian kingdoms, well-nigh reduced them
to the condition of the first days of the Reconquest,
and indeed threatened them with total destruction.
He took and burned Bareekuta, mastered Leon, Za-
mora, and Pamplona, and rased Santiago de Compos-
tela (997). At last the Christians, united, crushed
bim at Calata&azor (1002), and he went to Medina
Celi to die. After its fleeting day of glory, the Cali-
phate fell into a rapid decay, until it was broken up
into more than twenty states known as the King-
ck>inB of Taifas. Hius was the progress of the Re-
conquest favoured by circumstances; it would have
been completed in the tliirteenth oraituiy, had not
divisions and i^seords among the Christians impeded
it. The ^>aniah Mussulmans then sought aid from
Uie Moors of Africa. This they receiv^ chiefly on
three occasions; from the AlmoraWda, after the tak-
ing of Toledo by Alfonso VI (1085) ; from the Ahno-
bads, in the time of Alfonso VIII, who was defeated by
tiiem at Alaroos and defeated them at Las Navas de

in the mountains of the North, became one people
with one rehgion and one national aspiration, to re-
conquer their Spanish fatherland and make the Cross
triumph over the Crescent. Though already morally
a unit, the Spanish people were still eight centuries
away from pohtical unity, and the Reconquest was
begun from four distinct centres. Chief among these
four centres was Asturias. The fugitive Gotba found
a retreat in those mountains where the Romans had
never been able to effectively establish their authority-
only a few years after the rout of Guadalete, they
gained a victory over Alkama, the Ueutenant of rA
Horr, in the portentous battle of Covadonga, where
popular faith saw Divine aid fighting for the Chri»*
tians. Here was erected a sanctuaiy of the Blessed
Virgin which afterwards became a collegiate church
ana still exists. Don Pelayo, or Pelagius, the Gothic
chi^tain who was victor at Covadonga, was ac-
claimed king, and took up his residence at Cangas.
His eon Favila was killed while hunting, torn to pieoee.
by a bear, and was succeeded by Alfonso I, son-m-law
of Don Pelayo, who set about pushing the Recon-
quest as far as Galicia and Tierra de Campos (the
'^Gothic Fields" or Campoa GdUcn). Fruela I (727-

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728) founded Oriedo. He was aawBsinated, and was
succeeded by several insignificant kings {Aurelio, Si-
Bo, Mauregato, and Bennudo I, the Deacon) and at
last by Alfonso I, the Chaste, who set up his Court at
Ovieao, recommenced the great expeditions against
the Arabs, and seems to have invited Charlemagne
to come to Aaturias, thus ocoaooniiig the Frankish
monarch's eiqieditHHi which ended in the disaster of
Roncesvalles.

In this region occurred the discovery of the body
of St. James (Santiago) at Compostela. Ramiro I
i^telled the Northmen who tried to effect a landing
in Astuiias. To him legend atbibutes the victory of
Clavijo. According to this l^^emL Mauregato had
promised the Moors a tribnte of one hundred maidens,
which Ramiro refused to pay. In Uie battle that en-
sued, the Apostle St. James, Patron of the Spaniards,
iras seen fighting, mounted on a wiute diarger — "Es
visus in Fmlio, equoque et ense acerrimus, mauros
furentes stemere" as the Spanish Breviary has it.
This king is said to have made the "Vow of Santi-
ago", by which he bound himself to pH^ a certain
tribute to the Church of Compostela. Modern critics
pronounce the docum^t apocryphal, but the national
tradition loses none of its foroe tliereby. Ordofio I
emulated the exploits of Ramiro, driving back the
Northmen and defeating the Moors at Albelda; he
also rdsuilt Leon, Tuy, Astorga, and ottier cities. Al-
fonso in, the Great, continued the forays as far as the
Kerra Morena, and fouiuled Burgos, the future capi-
tal of Castile. His sons rebdled against him, and be
abdicated the Crown, dividing his dominions among
them. With him ended the K^dom of Asturias, the
territonr of which soon became subject to Leon.

Another rallying-point of the Reconquest was Ara'
gon; the other two, Navarre and Catalonia, were
placed by the circumstances of their origin in peculiar
relations mtii France. The Basques on either side
of the Western Pyrenees, dissatimed with Frank ish
lule, rdwlled on several ocoauons. At Roncesvalles
they annihilated the armies of Charlemagne, and in
824 another victory secured the independence of the
Basques of Pamplona. The names and dates of their
kings, or chieftains, are very uncertain until we come
to Siutcho II, Abarca. He abdicated in favour of his
son Garcia III, the Trembler, in whose time the Leo-
nese and Navarrese together were routed at Valdejun-
quoa. Sanoho in, t& Great, was one of the mon-
ardis who most influenced Spapish history; he was
eventually King of Navarre. Castile, Aragon, and So-
brarbe. At his death (1035) he divided his kingdoms,
nvin^ Navarre to his eldest son Garcia, Castile, with
uie title of King, to Fernando, Aragon to Ramiro,
and Sobrarbe to Gonsalo. This fashion of regarding
the various states as patrimonizd possessions — an idea
borrowed from Frtneh fnuWism, and previously
unknown in the Spaaishkii^doms — was introduoed at
this time; it resulted in the numerous divisions whidb
led to so many wars and which long formed an obstacle
to the unity of the Reoonquest in the West. (On the
(ttigin of the Countehip of Barcelona, the fourth cen-
tre of tJbe Reoonquest, see Catalonia).

As the Reoonquest advanced, the churches de-
B^yed by the Mohammedan invasion were restored.
The Reoonquest went forward in the name of the Holy
Faith. Alfonso I of Asturias, snmamed the Catholic,
restored a great man^ churches; Alfonso IT| the
Qiaste, founded the EHocese of Oviedo and buiH its
first cathedral and the royal burial^laoe. The Dio-
ceses of Pamplona and Sasave corresponded to the
nascent Kingdoms of Navarre and Aragon, while in
Catalonia the Diocese of Urgel seems never to have
ceased to exist, and that of Gerona was soon rest(»«d.
tJnhappi^ distinguished amongthe biriiops erf Urge!
is Fduc, who, with Elipando of Toledo, onbraeed the
Adoptionist heren^ assoting that C9ir«t is the adopt*
fre son of God. This heray was combated by Theo-

0 flPADr

dulus, Bishop of Seville, Ethctius of OmuL aad hg
St. Beatus of Liebana, and was condemnedf by the
Council of Ratisbon. In the same period lived H
PaeetiM, Isidore, Bishop trf Beja, whose Chroniol& s
continuation of St. Isidore's, begins at the year 610
and ends with 754^

As the year 1000 apmoached, it seemed that the
Kingdom of Christ in Spain was about to be anni-
hilated by the terrible and victorious expeditions cf
AlmanstHT. A second restoration began ^riously with
Ferdinand (Fernando) I, who assemble the Council
of Co^anza (Valencia de Don Juan), obtained from
the Kmg of Seville ^e relics of St. Iidaoreijirtiich were
translated to Leon, aad fostered ^e QiurdieB oi
Coimbra, Leon, Santiago, and Oviedo, and the mon-
asteries of Arlanza, and Sahaglin. Fernando
GonzAles^ Count of Castile, restored the monastery of
Siloe, which has now been reoccupied by French Bene-
dictines. Sancho the Elder restored and reformed
many monasteries, and brought the Cluniac monks
into^am. Alfonso VI tranaerred to Burgos the an-
cient See of Valpuesta. During the same period the
Diocesea of Osma, SigQenza (1102), Segovia (1120),
Salamanca, and Zamora were restored. Ferdinand
II of Leon erected the Diocese of Ciudad Rodrigo, re-
storing the old Diocese of Caliabria (1171), AJUonso
VII re-established that of Coria, and Alfonso VIII of
CastQe founded that of Flasencia. St. Olegario pre-
pared the way for the restoration of Uie metropolitan
See c( Tarragona, whidi had his successor, Gr^eorio,
for its first archbishop (1137). But eminent wove
all the other diurches of Spain was that of Santiago
de Compostela, to which was united the ancic^
Bishopric of Iria. The famous Don Diego Gelmires,
having been elected bishop (1100), rai^ the number
of canons from twenty-four to seventy-two, ob-
tained from Rome the ratification of the Vow of
Santiago, as well as the privilege of wearing mitres for
the canons, and at last made Cranpostela the ardii^ns-
copal see of the Province of M^da, or Em^ta.

As early as the eighth century there existed the
monasteries of San MiMn (or S. Emiliano), Sahagto
(S. Facundo), S. Vicente de Oviedo. and Sta. Maria
de Obona, and in Catalonia that of Sta. Maria de I>a-
vax. In the ninth century two hundred monks of the
monastery of Cardefta, near Burgos, suffered martyr-
dom. From the monastery of Mormiela, on the bwks
of the Riw Esla, its two founders, St. Froilan and
St. Atilanus, went to occupy the Sees of Leon and
Zamora. St. Eulogius has left us an account of the
monasteries which he visited in the ninth century —
S. Salvador of Leire, S. Zacarias, Urdax, S. Martin de
Cillas, and S. Vicente de Igal. That of S. Cu^at, in
Catalonia, seems to date from Gothic times, while the
first independent count founded those of RipoU and
Montserrat. In the eleventh century the Cluniac Re*
form was ifltroduoed into Spun. Bonard, formerly a
monk of Saint-Orenoe at Aux, planted it at Sahwdn,
making the monastenr there the mother-house of the
reformed branch in Spain, as Cluny was in France.
The migration of French monks into Spain made its
influence felt in the famous refonn of the Mosarabio
Rite, for which the Roman was substituted. Known
also as the Isidorean, or Spanish, Rite, the former was
abol^ed in Aragon in iml, through the exertions oi
the Cluniacs and the queen, vrbo was a fVoidiwoman,
and the Roman Rite was first introduced in the Clu-
niac monastery of S. Juan de la Pefia. The same in-
novation was made a little later in Catalonia, and in
1076 in Navarre. The Caetilians offered a strons
resistance to the supplanting of their ancient rite, and
Pope John X, havmg sent the Le^te Zanelo to ex-
amine and report on it, approver it. Fifty years
later, Alexander II sent Caiduud Hugo Candido, but
neither would he undertake to make any chaoge.
Gr^iT VII SNit Cardinal Ricardo. i^o, togetfier
wiUi AiFonao VI, the oonqusror of Toledo, decreed the

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abolition of tike woient rite, atthou^, aooording to
title Qhioniele, appeal was made to the trial by com-
bat, and Don Juaa Ruix, the champion of the Mosa-
R^o Rite, was victorious. It was, nerartheless, per-
mitted in certain ehurehes, and is even y«t pwoeryed
at Toledo as an historical monunuot of toe aneiemt
Spanish Church.

The CisterciaD Reform, too, was introduced into
Spain, during the lifetime of St. BemanL and the
cathedral chapters lived by the Rule of St. Augustine.
The most charaoteristio development of this period,
however, was that of the mlHtary orders. The old-
est of tiism seems to have been that of the Knights of
La Temsa, founded by Don Garcfa de Najera, in the
eferenth century; but this order, as well aa those of
the Palms, of the Redeemer, and of the Cnieadertt, es-
tablished ay Alfonso I o£ Aragon in the twelfth cen-
tury, disappetued, beeocnin^ mt^rpitfl with the orflers
whi(Ui came from Paleatine. The cJrdtr of Ciiliilravii
was founded by St. RaymotLd, Abbot or Fit^ro, iu La
Rioia, who, in 1158, undertook to defend the strong-
hold of CaUtrava. abandoned by the Templars. Its
habit is white with a ^ fiHWB^ '&itQtdi»«iiJtM^
tara was at first know* aa IbM of m..>fma» ili( t&6
Peartree (del Pere-
iro), but it soon took
thename of thetown
of Alctotara, which
was ceded to it by
the Kni^ts of Cala-
trava. Its habit is
white with a green
cross. The order of
Santiago was found-
ed to protect pil-
grims to Compostela,
to which service thir-
teen knights vowed
themselves. With
these knights the
Augustinian Canons
of S. Eloy of Leon
joined to form the
famous order whose
badge is an elon»t-
ed red cross (1170),
These three orders
were all awroved
Alexana^ III.

"tm f^aw VM^m* M*^uw.

_ e importance to which the Spanish military orders
attained may be gathered from the fact that King
Alfonso the Fighter {El BataUador) wished to hand
over the Kingdom of Aragon to them, beUeving that
there was no oetter way of securing the speedy com-
pletion of the Reoonquest. The Aragonese, however,
would not consent to their king's testamentary dispo-
sition of them, and had zeoouiae to Ramiro, a monk
0^ S. Ponce de Tomenu, «rho wore the Crown until a
successor was forthconung.

F. The UnifiecUwn of Spain. — Several difScultiee
Btood in the way of the union of the various states
formed in Spain by the Reoonquest: the diversity of
its points of departure was the principal. Navarre
and Catalonia were in particularly close contact with
France, and the mamage of Raoutek Berenguo' the
Great with Dukna, beinss of Provence, made Ha
relations betweoi the peoples of tbe lanjfM tPoc so
close that the subsequent development of Catalonia
was connected rather with that of the South of France.
In Navarre, again, when the dynasty of Sancho the
Elder became extinct, the Crown pBased in succession
to the houses of Champagne (1234), of France, and of
Evreux (1340-1441), with the result that Navarre,
unUi the fifteenth century, lived in much doaer re-
latims vMi the French monarohy than with the
Spanish states. On tlw other hand, the feudal usagas
introdooed in the Wcrtam Einidomi bgr tike EUnise of

Navarre brought about repeated partitions of states.

Ferdinand I divided his kingdom into five parts,
Castile, Leon, Galioia, Zamcaa, and Toro, though, in
the event, his son Sancho the Strong despoiled hia
brothers and restored the kingdom to imity. BuC
Alfonso VII, the Emperor, again separated Castile
and Leon, leaving the former to lus son Sancho, and
the latter to Ferdinand.

Another result of feudal customs introduced by the
Biirgundian princes was the separation of Portugal.
For Atfonso Vl gave his daufditers Urraoa and Teresa
in marriage to Raymond and Heniy of BurgundVi who
founded two dynasties: that of Portugal, and that of
Castile and Leon, which began wiw Alfonso VII.
The Kingdoms of Asturias, Guicia, Leon, and Castile
were definitively united under St. Ferdinand, heir of
Leon through hia father AlTnnsG IX, and ■of Ctustile
tliToiiRti hi? niothpr Berenpjtlft, hi the &aiiic way
C:iliili5iii& and Aru^nn urrt «lefiniliv<=ly uuitetl by the
marriage of IUun6n berenguer, the Saint, with Doiia
Fetroniia, daughter of Ramiro, the Monk, of .Anwm.
of whom k^»ad af^ra that he made the famous "BeU
■of jHSfBiW out oi lh» iKsda of rebelliou.'? noblit:).
Tliew (few prinaj|iaiiAatai^ to which the diw^iutiti o(

the FeniDBula had
been reduced, com-
pleted the Recon-
ciuctit, llify were not
unit«i, to form Ihp-
rian imlioniil unity,
until three oenturiea

The kingdom
formed by the union
of Aragon and Cata-
lonia wag the first to
{roniplete that por-
tion oi the Recoa-
i]ii- -,r which the feo-
^ri4.^hical cwiidit ions
SaSigDeti it ; t hi-i) it
directed its tilreiigth
eBfitward- Pedro II,
the Catholic, Bove>
eign of Aragon ^d
Catfildnia. wt^iil to
Home to seek the
<nnulmfiit of his
marriage with Marie
of Montpelier, and to have himsdf crowned by the
pope. The former purpose he failed to accom-
plish; the latter oeoasioned him a great deal of
trouble, as the Aragonase nobles r^uiied to recog-
nise the position fA vassalage to the Holy See m
which Pedro had placed his kingdom. These nobles
then formed for the first time that union, or confedera-
tion, which was the cause of sudi serious disturbances
until Pedro IV with his daffler cut in pieces the docu-
meat which recorded it. Pedro II, the Catholic^ fell
in the battle of Muret (1213), drf^mdi'^ his Albigen-
sian kinsmen against Simon de Montfort, whom In-
nocent III had B^t apUnst ^em. His son, Jaime I,
Has Conqueror, completed the Catalan-Aragonese
Reoonquest. winning Maj<Mrca (1228) and V . . .
(1238) beaiaes helpii^ his son-in-law, Alfonso X, the
Wise, to complete the conquest of Muroia. His son
and successor gave a new direction to Catalan- Aragon-
ese policy by enforcing the r^ta of his wife, Dofia
Costanxa of Suabia, to the kmnloms of Sicily and
Naples. Profitmg by the risinc <3 the SieiUan Vemecs
a^amst the Angevins (12S2), £e possoosed himau of
Sicihr and attadced Nicies.

This conquest, howevn, placed the kings of Aragon
in a position of antagonism with the popes, who de*
fended the rights of liie House of Anjou. Martin IV
having exoommunicated Pedro III, the Aia«onesa
noUsB Uxk advantage of the faet to extend thair

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privil^eB at the expeow of the rt^al power. The
HemandB of the nobles increased in the reicn of Al-
fonso IIL who was forced to confirm to uiem the
famous PritHtegio de la Vni&n. Jaime II became
reconciled with the Holy 3ee, aooeptins Corsica and
Sardinia in Ueu of Sicily. Pedro IV, the Ceremoni-
ous, defeated the nobles at Epila (1348) and used his
dagger to cut in pieces the charter they had extorted
from his predecessors. In the meantime the Catalans
and Aragonese who were left in Sicily offered them-
selves to the Emperor Andronicus PalsBok^us to fight
the Turks. Having conquered these, they turned
their arms against the Greeks, who treacherously
slew their leaders ; but for this treachery the Spanit^da,
under Bemw^i of Rocafort and Berenguer of Enten9a,
exacted the terrible penalty celebrated in history as
"The Catalan Vengeance" and moreover seized the
Duehies of Athens and Naupatria (1313). The roj^
line of Aragon bectune extinct with Martin the
Humane, and the Compromise of Caape gave the
Crown to the dynasty ot Castile, thus pr^uuring the
finid union. Alfonso V, the Magnanimous, once more
tamed Aragonese policy in the direction of Italy,
where he possessed the Kingdom of Sicily and ac-
quired that of Naples by having himself made adopt-
ive son of Queen Joanna. Wiui these events began
the Italian wars which were not to end until the
o^teenth century.

Meanwhile the Reconquest languished in Castile;
at first, because of the candidacy m Alfonso the Wise
for the imperial Crown of Germany, in which can-
didacy he had secured a majority of the electoral
princes. This was followed by a (iisputed succession
to the Throne, the rival claimants being the Cerda
heirs (sons of Fernando, the eldest son of Alfonso X)
and the second son of Sancho IV. Next came the
minorities of Ferdinand IV, Alfonso XI, Henry III,
and John II, and fresh civil strife in the reigns of
Pedro the Cruel and of Hemy IV. Ferdinand IV
succeeded to the Throne at the age of nine, being
under the tutelage of his mother Dofia Maria de
Molina. Alfonso XI was little more than one year
tild when bisiather died (1312); and though his reign
was in many rcspectfl glorious, and be overcame the
Beni-Merines in the battle of El Salado (1340), still
his amours with Dofia Leonor de Guzm^in, by .whom
he had several children, resulted in the wars of the
foltowing reign, that of Pedro the Cruel, who was at
last slain by his bastard brother, Henry of Trasta-
mara, and succeeded on the Throne by hmi under the
title of Henry II. John I, who married Beatrix of
Portug^ (13^), sought to unite the two kingdoms on
the death <^ Ferdin^uul, the last King of Portugal of
the BurgundiaD Une. The Portuguese, however, de-
feated John of Castile at the battle of Aljubarota, and
the Portuguese Crown went to the Master of Aviz,
who became John I of Portugal (1385). Henry ill,
who married Catherine of Lancaster, was the first to
take the title of Prince of Astiu-ias as heir to the
Crown, which he inherited during his minority, as did
his son, John II.

National unity was eventually attained by the most
unexpected means: Isabel of Castile, who was not the
heiress of Henry IV, married Fernando (Ferdinand)
of Aragon, who was not the heir of John II, and the
tragic death of the Prince of Viana, on the one hand,
and, on the other hand, the no less tragic fate of Juana
la Beltraneja contributed to a result which no doubt
entered into the designs of Providence (see Isabella
TOB Catbouc). Portuf^al, which failed to be united
with Castile on the extmotion of the House of Bu>
gundy, was united with it when the Avis dynasty
ended, in the time of Philip II, to be again s^mrated,
however, under Philip IV, when the Hbuse of Braganza
secured the Crown. But, before reviewing the civil
histoiy of united Spain, it will be well to glance at its
aeeleniBtteal history during tliii poriod « tniuition.

O. BdigUniM D0)dopmmt.^'tb» neat wftn^ygfa of
tiw Reconquest were distinguished by iheix weal in
restoring and founding churches, or converting the
oonauered mosques mto Catholic churches. St.
Feroinand re-established the ancient churches and
sees of Ja^n, Cordova (where the great mosque be-
came the cathedral), and Seville, and began the eieo-
tion of the magnificent cathedrals of Burgos and
Toledo. His contemporaiy, Jaime the Conqueror, is
said to have consecrated to God no feww thw 2000
churches; be founded the Cathedral of Majorca (1229)
and restored the ancient See of Valencia, making
it suffragan to Tarragona, though it aftM^ards, in
the fifteenth century, became metropohtan. Its
first bishop was Ferrer of San Martin. The thirteenth
century was a very prosperous epoch for the Spanish
Church: it was then that the CanneUtes, Dominicans,
and fSaacisoans were established in the Peninsula,
as wdl as the Order of the Most Holy Trinity for the
redemption of captives. For this same object, also,
Jaime the Conqueror, St. Peter Nolaaco, ana St. Ray-
mond of Penafort founded the Mercedarians (Orden
de la Merced), at first a military order, but afterwards
monastic (1228). When Philip the Fair brought
about the extinction of the Templars, Jaime II of
Aragon and the Councils of Salamanca and Tarragona
assorted their innocence and, when obli^ to carry
out the decree of suppression, divided their posseasions
between the Orders of St. John of Jtrusalem and
Montesa, tiie Latter created to defend the frontiers of
Valencia previously defended hy the Templars. The
Knights of Monteaa took for their device the pbin red
cross on a white mantle.

In the Great Schiam of the West Spain played a
great part, chiefly througji the influence of the Aragon-
Pedro de Luna (antipope Benedict XIII). As a
cardinal, his influence led Henry II of Castile and
Pedro IV of Aragon to recognize Clement VII, and
after his own election he ended by withdrawii^ to
Spain, where he lived in the castle of Pefiiacola. In
1399 an assembly held at Alcaic resolved to obey
neither pope, as it waa not known whic^ of the two
was legitimate. The antipope favoured the election
of Ferdinand of Antequera in the Compromise <tf
Caspe, in which St. Vincent Ferrer, an ardent partisan
of Fenlinand, was arbitrator. In this way the anti-

Epe secured reco^ition from the Spaniards. At
t, in 1416, St. Vmcent Ferrer and the kings aban-
doned the cause of Benedict XIII and gave their ad-
herence to the Council of Constance. Gil Sanchea
Muflos, a native of Teruel, was, on the death of
Benedict XIII, elected by the cardinals of PefilBcola,
who were supported by Alfonso V of Aragon; but he
BOon afterwards redgned his clainu, in the Council of
Tarragona, recognized Martin V, and was made
Bishop of Majorca.

During this period the Jews in Spain became very
numerous and acquired groat power; they were not
only the physicians, but also the treasurers of Uie
kings. Don Jus^h de Ecija administered the rev-
enues of Alfonso Xl, and Samuel Levi was chief favour-
ite of Pedro the Cruel. The Jews of Toledo then set
on foot their migration (Traruito) in protest avunat
the laws of Alfonso X {Lot Partidag), which prohunted
the building of new synagogues. After the accession
of Henry ofTrastamara to the Throne, the populace,
exasperated by the preponderance of Jewish influence,
perpetrated a massacre of Jews at Toledo; in 1391
another general massacre took place, b^inning at
Seville; a little lata-, the Jewries of Toledo, Butcob,
Valencia, and Cordova were attacked, and the like
scenes were enacted in Aragon, especially at Barce-
lona. St. Vinc^t Ferrer converted innumerable
Jews, among them the Rabbi Josuah Halorquij who
took the name of Jeronimo de Santa Fe and m his
town converted many of his former oonlicioDistf in
the famouB DispiibB of Toitoaa (U]£).

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by rezatiouB lawa, and abhorred by the pec^Ie, whom
they ruined with their usury, p«^erted, and scandal-
ised with^ their saorikges, they were finally expelled
from Spain by liie CftUiouo Soverei^, who regarded
them as dangerous to the religions unify and the seouiv
ity of the country on account of tiie reUticnw which
thCT- maintained with the Moors.

Connected with the pwrsecutions of the Jews is the
institution of the Inquisition. It was introduced into
Spain by Jaime I the Conqueror, King of Aragon, to
stop the invasion of the same Albigensian heretics
aeainBt whom it had been estaUished Innocent
in. The Count of F<ux and the Viscount of Cas-
tellb6, with many of th«r subjects, embraced the
Albigensian errors. Amaldo of Vilanova and some
B^bards of Aragon were punished by the Inquisition.
There were also in Catatonia Fraticetli and other
heretics, like Raimundo of Ttbr^a, as the Holy
Office was informed. In 1376 Padre Nicolas Eymer-
ich published the "Directorium Inquisitorum". But
the Bpamsh Inquisititm did not acquire its true chai^
acter and importance until the Catholic Sovereigns
establishoi it m Castile imder authority obtained from
Pope Sixtus IV (1478). It was a mixed tribunal, in
which the ecclesiastical element took cognisance of
the orthodox or heterodoxy of doctrines and, con-
sequently, of offences against Catholic faith or morals:
after sentence was pronounced, the culprit was handea
over to the secular arm to be punished according to
the IftWB of the realm. Such a law was Idiat of title
28 <A the seven Partidaa, which provided the punisb-
ment of death by fire for heretics who refused to be
converted, and, again, those of book IV, title 1. of the
Fuero Real, which imposed the same penalty for
heresy and apostasy. The laws regulating the pro-
cesses of the Inquisition, indeed, were Spanish, and
not laws of the Roman Church. The Spanish In-
quisition, although established by virtue of a pontifi-
cal Bull, became to some extent independent of Rome,
as appeals lay to the ArchbiiAiop of Seville, who passed
sentence in the pope's name. The Tribunal of the
Holy Office, as it was called, was made up of thirteen
— afterwards fifteen— provincial tribunals, with ter-
ritorial jurisdiction, and a supreme councU, which
supervised them and pronounced on appeals. The
frrocedure was minutely r^ulated and was fax supe-
rior to the [procedure of other tribunals of its time. It
is not certain that anonymous accusations were con-
sidered, although the namee of the accusers and wH-
. nesses were concealed from the accused. Torture was
not arbitrarily employed, but only when sufficient

{>roof ahready existed, and even then it was applied
ess barbarously than in the contemporary civil
tribunals. The prisons were of the most humane
^id. The sentences pronounced were : abandonment
to ^e temporal arm {Tele^adon) for the impenitent
heretic: recondtiation for the repentant; abjuration,
when th^ was a suspicion of here^; and abaoluticnL
On^ the impenitent were eondmuMd to the stake,
and the number of oondemnationa has been muofa
exaggerated.

H7Af aiem Period. — ^The political and religious de-
velopment which we have outlined above roulted in
Spanish national unity, and explains the character of
Spain as a Catholic nation. The struwle of eight
centuries to reoover the temtoiy wrested frmn them
by the Mtusulmaas, who wero enemies at once ot
their land and of their faith, effected in the Spanish
people that intimate fusion of patriotic uul religious
leehng which distinguished them during many cen-
turies. Non fine numine, it may be said, did a Span-
ish pope (Alexander VI) give the title of Catholic, by
eminence, to the sovereigns who first united recon-
quered ^ain imd«> th^ soeptre, for they and their
mcoeasOTB deemed it the first duty of the Crown to
wi*int*hi the purity of the Catholic Faith in thflir
Tsalins, to pn^agate it in the vast oountriea whieh

they ookmiied, and defend it in Europe against the
assaults of heretics. The same pope, Alexander VI,
issued in 1493 a Bull, in which, to prevent the diq)utee
that misht arise between Spaniards and Portuguese
in regani to then: disooveries in the East Indies and
(as Am^oa was then calted) the West Indies, he
established as a line of demarcation between them the
meridian running 100 leagues west of the ABores, de-
CTeeing that the newly discovered lands west of that
line should belong to the Spaniards, and those east of
it to the Portuguese. Afterwards, in the Trea^ of
Tordesillaa, another line, 360 leagues west of the Cape
Verde Islands, was substituted — an arrangement
which UTe Braiil to Portugal.

The CathoKo Sovereigns, by reuniting the Crowns
of Castile and Aragon, annexing Navarre, «id com-
pleting the Reconoueeit with the reduction of Granada
(1492), established the political unity of Spain; wiltt

TBI Old Cathcdkal, Salamanca, rnou tbe East

the Inquisition and the expulsion pf the Jews they
achieved its religious unity: the marriages of their
children with the Kings of Portugal and of England
and the son of the Emperor Maximilian, secured to
Spain the friendship of the leading states^ by the dis-
covery of America and the conquests in Africa a
broad road was opened for Spain's colonial expansion.
But the death of their son Prince John caused the
Crown to pass to Charles I (the Emperor Charles V),
son of Juana la Loca, and entirely changed the course
which the magnanimous Isabellahad traced forSpanish
policy. Charles V, attracted to Italy by the ancient
strife with France for the possession of the Italian
states, and to Germany his inheritance of the im-
perial Throne from his grandfather Maximilian, was
more the Emperor of Germany than the Kii^ of Spain,
and completely diverted Spanish policy from America
and Africa. Philip II, though he did not succeed his
father in the empire, could not extricate himself from
his father's European policy, and Spain was exhausted
by the wars in Plauders against France and England.
Nevertheless^ unlilte bis father, Philip II was a thor-
oughly Spanish king, and united the whole Iberiaa
Peninsula under his sway by the incorporation (d
POTtugaL

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With the death of Philip 11 the decay of ^uuwh
power b^aa. The monarchy, which needed tite
shouldeis of a giant to support it, fell upon those <tf
the pious but feeble Philip III (1698-1621), who left
the task of government to a favourite or minister —
firstj the Duque de Lerma and thai his son the Duque
de Uceda. In the Low Countries he airanged the
Twelve Yeats' Peace. He brou^t aid to tbe Cath-
olics o{ Ireland, sending an en}edition under ^uilar
(1602), and intervened m behalf of the German Cath-
ohcB in the first period of the Thirty Years' Ww.
White thus aiding CathoUcs abroad, he resolved to
guard against the duiger that thrt^ttened religious
unity at home in the presence of the Mojiscoee, or
sublimated Moors, who were suspected of coiu$>iring
with the Moors of Africa; these be expelled from
Spain. In this re^ and the next, Castilian litwature
and art attained their finest flower. Philip IV (1821-
66), less pious than his father, was nevertheless a bet-
ter ruler. For his prime ministers and favourites he
had, first, the Conde-Duque de OUvares and then
Don Luis de Haro. Zn this reign the colossal mon-
archy of Philip II began to crumble. The Duke of
Braganza was proclaimed King of Portugal as John
IV; Catalonia rose and maintained a war lasting
twelve years; Naples and Sicily also rdwUed, the
famous Sinniah infantry raiments {tereios espafloles)
were beaten at Rocn^, and Spain, by the Peace of
the Pyrenees with France, lost Rousullon and, by
the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), a great part of her
importance in Europe.

The wei^ening of Spain continued under the sickly
Charles II (1665-1700), who succeeded his father at
the age of four. The rwency fell to the queen, Dofia
Mariana, who shifted the biirden of government on
her confessor. Padre Nithard, and, after him, on her
favourite Valensuela, the husband of one of her ladies-
in-wuting. Spain, aft^ intervening on the side of
CatjwUcism in all the conflicts of the European states,
now saw herself an object of ambition to foreiniers.
The failure of the king's health obliged him to leave
the duties of government to ambitious ministere, while
France reached her apogee in the reign of Louis XIV,
and Spanish ^wer abroad continued to decline. The
king being without issue, the rivalries of France and
Austria for the succession began even in his lifetime
and led up to the project for the dismemberment of
the Spanish monarchy. Following the advice of
Cardinal Portocurero, Charles disinherited his Aus-
trian kindred and designated as his heir the Duke of
Anjou, afterwards Philip V. Upon the death of
Charles 11, the reign of the House of Austria ended in
Spain, and that of the House of Bourbon oommniced,
bringmg Frrach centralism into Si>anish administn^
tion, and hdping to chu3«e the national character by
linkmg the nation more closely with France.

Phffip V (1700-46) had to sustain the War of the
Succession with French assistance. By the Peace of
Utrecht, which terminated that war, Gibraltar and
Minorca fell to the share of England; the Italian pos-
sessions and the Low Countries, to Austria. Cata-
lonia, having vigorously defended the rights of the
Archduke Cnaries. was despoiled of a part of her
constitutional rights {Pueroa). Philip V, who had
been, under French influence during the lifetime of his
first wife, Maria Luisa of Savoy, gave himself up to
Italian influence after his mamage with Isabel Ftu^
nese, being directed by Alberoni. To find possessions
for the children of Isabel Famese, the Italian claims
of Spain were revived; Alberoni, however, fell before
he succeeded in obtaining anything more than the
eardinalate for himself and the Duchies of Panna and
Tuscany for the Infante Don CmIos. In 1724 I^iUp
abdicated in favour of his son Luis^ but the death of
the latter in the same year obliged his father to resume
the Crown. By the Treaty of Vienna (1736) Naplee
and Sid^ were ipven to the Infante Don Carlos. Uup

B4 gTAIV

questionably the meet ^orious reign of the Spanidi
Bourbons was that of Ferdinand vl, thanks to the
care with which he maintained neutndity between
Franoe and Enghmd. The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle
(Aachen) ended the wars undertaken to find crowns
for (he (diildren of Isabel Famese: the Ihichice of
Panna, Fiacensa, and Guastalla were given to Don
Fdipe (Philip). The king thenceforward left the
task of govenuu«it to his ministers^ Carvaial and the
Marquee de la Ensenada, while he surrendered hinn
self to the enchantment <a Farinelli's music. By the
concordat which be made with Boiedict XIV, the
Real Patronato (royal patronage) over all the Cfaiu*chee
within the monarchy was recognized, as it had aJrouly
been in force in the foreign possessions and the King-
dom of Granada. Althw^ the English party^led
by the ambassador, Keene, and the minister. Wall
(successor to Carvajal), succeeded in overthrowing
Ensenada, and alUiou^ the flench off»ed the res-
toration of Minorcoj and the EkigUah of Gibraltar,
the king persev«red m his neutral^, with the rrault
that the nation prospered, and the ooffexs of the
treasury were filled almost to bursting.

Ferdinand died of a broken heart occasioned by the
loss of his wife, Dofia Barbara (1750). He was euo
oeeded by his brother Charles III, who was already
King of Naples, and whose greatest mistidce was the
abandonment <h his predecessor's policy of neutralify
by that fatal "Family Compact" (1761) which united
the fortunes of ^>ain with those of the degenerate
Froioh Bourbons. With this begfm a war with Eng-
huid, issuing in the loss of Havana and Muiila (1763).
Meanwhile Spain was governed by two foreigners,
Chimaldi and Esquilacce, and the people rose m the
famous "Hat-and-Cloak Riots" {tnioin de lag capos y
aombreroa), which led to the MadrilefioB b^ng pn^
hibited the use of the national dress. Fombu and
Choiseul had driven the Jesuits out of Portugal and
France, and their enemies in Spain e:q>loited tnis t^
mult to persuade the king that the Society was a
menace to public ordw. Adding other calumnies
(such as the story that the Jesuits denied the king's
bdz^ the lefdtimate son of Philip V), they succeecfed
in inducing Charles III to otda the Jemiits out of his
dominions without stating any reason^ reservii^ "in
his royal breast" the motive of their banishment.
Under the ministiy vi Floridablanca Spain into
vened in support of the independence of the United
States. During this reign many pubUc buildings were
constructed — the Fine Arts Acaaemy, the Botanical
Gardens of Madrid, etc. — with money saved during
the preceding reign. But the king's snortsightedness
admitted to his counsels men imbued with Voltairean
ideas, who, however little they may have been aware
of it, were the allies of the Revolution that was to ruin
the Bourbons. ' \

Charles IV (1788-1808), even more deficient in
ability and character than Charles III, had to suffer
the consequences of pohtical errors committed in the
preceding reign. In his time the French Re solution
broke out, and the Spanish Bourbons w^t so far as
to al^ thraiselves eventually with that Revolution-
aiy France which bad beheaded Louis XVI. The
Aran da ministry, having overthrown that of Florida-
blanca^ was in turn overthrown by Don Manuel Go-
doy, the queen's favourite no less than the king's,
who made the Treaty of S. Ildefonso, allymg Spain
with France against England, and leading up to the
disaster of Trafalgar (1806). This reign ended in a
most disgraceful manner: Prince Ferdmand having
rebelled against his fath» and the inept Godoy, the
Aranjuez rising resulted in the abdication of Cnaries
IV, ^en the French had already treadberously guned
a footing in Spain. The king and queen having
sought range at Bi^onne, Napoleon made them sur-
render the Crown en Spain to him, intending it Ua his
brothor Joaq;ih Bonaparte. But thish^uainatioii tbe

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j>Ie would not brook; risInK, after the ter-
lible Second of May, 1808,^thcnr fotuht the glorious
War of Indcputdenee, in which Napoleon emend his
fint rerenes. The most eel^rated bsAtles of this
WW were those of Brueh, in the highlands of Mont-
serrat, in which the Catalan sometanea (peasant sol-
dioB) routed a French army; BaiKn, where Castafies,
at tiie head of the army of Andalusia, defeated Dd-
pont; and the siecee of Saragossa and Gerona, which
were worthy of tne ancient Spaniards of Baguntum
and Numantia. The British generaJ, WdUngton,
gained the battles of Salamanca (1812) and Vittoria
71813), and hdped to drive the French out of the
Peninsula. But while the Spanish people wve shed-
din|[ their blood for thdr faith, their country, and
their king, the liberals, aasembled in tiie Ontes d

aaoe, bowevw, which sent to Spain the "hundred
ttioinuMi sons of St. Louis", restored the old order of
thioBB. The Froioh BoIdi»s, who had met with such
desperate re^stanee at the hands of the Spaniards in
the time of Napoleon, were then received as brothers
and liberators, and the Constitution was abolished.
But the Liberals took advantage of the dynastic
question, which arose on the deatib of Ferdinand VII,
to revive their party. The king had no male issue and
only two dau^ters, who by the SeJic Law (brought
into Spain by the Bourbons), were incapable of suo-
ceedii% to the Throne. The king accordingly pro-
posed to set aside the Sahc Law and re-establish the
ancient Spanish law of succession, which admitted fe-
males, failing male issuee. The question, whethw the
Sahc Law was or was not legitimately abrogated.

Vnw OW BU.LUCANCA, WITH TBB N»W CAnSDSAL, nOU TBB KlTBS ToRMXa

Cadis (1813), were drafting a Constitution modelled
on the French. Ferdinand VII, however, liberated
by Napoleon, returned to Spain, refused to recognize
this Constitution, and restored the old regime, thus
mitiating that struKgle between Absolutists and Lib-
erals which lasted throughout the nineteenth century.
The old colonies of Spain in Mexico and South Amer-
ica took advantage of this conflict to make them>
sdves independent.

That moral unity which the Catholic Sovereigns
had restored in Spain by the expulsion of the Jews,
the subjection of tne Moons, and the establishment of
Catholic unity, was broken by the influx of ideas from
the French Revolution and English Liberalism. Face
to face with the Spanish people, so stroi^ly attached
to their ancient traditions and forms of government,
then arose the Constitutionid Party, which at first
proclaimed no furtho: aim than the ^abhshment of
representative (rovemment, saving the principle of re-
lij^ouB unity. But the Liberals, persecuted in 1812,
pushed their ideas to extremes and, profltim: by a
military insurrection in 1820 (Don Raiael de Riego),
finidly proclaimed the Constitution and forced Ferdi-
nand \^I to swear to it. The Constitutionalists then
■edit into the two parties — Extremes and Moderates
CSxaUadtm and Moderadot) — which have continued to
the iffMent time. The interrentioa of the Holy Alli-

formed the legal basis of the dynastic quarrel between
Don Carlos (Charles) V, brother of Ferdinand VII,
and his daughter Dofia Isabel II.

The true animus of the conflict, however, arose
from the division of Spaniards into Traditionalists
who supported the cause of Don Carlos, and Liberals,
who sided with Dofla Isabel and her mother, Dofla
Cristina. This division — ^the origin of all the ills
whidi Spain suffered in the nineteenth centuiv — led
to the Seven Years' War, from 1833, when Ferdinand
VII died, to 1839, when the Convention of Vergara
was signed. In the meantime the Liberals ruled, ex-
cept in the provinces occupied by the Carlists, and the
Moderate ministry of Mfartfnez de la Rosa, during
which the horrible massacre of friars took place at
Madrid (17 July, 1834), was succeeded by those of
Toreno uid of Men<Utdbal, who put up the posses-
dons of the Church for sale (1836). The predomi-
nance of the BxdUadot culminated with the regency of
Sspartero (1841), who closed the Nunciature and
broke off all relations with Rome. The queen having
been declared of age, the Moderate Narvaes ministiy
came into power, exiled Eepartero, and suspended the
sale of church property. Relations with Rome were
resumed, and Spam intervened in brhalf of Pius IX,
who haa been tfaiven to take refuge at Gaeta. In
1861 the Concordat, regulating the nerc'Vonditions 9t
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the Spanish Ghuroh, was edgned. From 1864 to 1856
(the Bimio lAberal) the Liberale, with Eepartero and
O'DoDnell, were c^ain in power, and O'Donnell ac-
quired prestige in the African war of 1869. This
miniatry also re-established the Constitution ofl846
and stopped the sale of church property (1856).

It was succeeded by the Narvaes mini!^ (1866),
and after these two generals. Prim and Serrwo, who
had been exiled, obtained the aid of the Navy, com-
manded by Topete, and e£Eected the Revolution of
September, 1868, which dethroned the Bourbons and
summoned to the Throne Amadeus I (Duke of Aosta),
of the House of Savoy. Prim having been assassi-
nated just as Amadeus landed in the Peninsula, the new
king was left without any soUd support md, in Febru-
ary, 1873, was obUged to abdicate. On 8 June of
the same year ihe CJortes proclaimed the republic,
which Usted but two years and had four presidents:
Figueras, Pf y Manall, Salmer6n, and Castelar. In
the mean time the Spanish Catholics, exasperated by
the excesses of the Liberals, rallied round the Duke of
Madrid, Don Carlos de Borb<5n, in whom the Tradi-
tionalists saw the legitimate heir of Ferdinand VII
and Charles V, and the Thml Carlist War b^an— the
second having been nothing more than General Or-
tc^'s attempt in behalf of the Count of MontemoUn.
In the existing condition of political disorganization,
the Carlists were enabled to gain substantial ad-
vantages, and were on the point of making themselves
masters of the Government. But the aristocracy and
the financial interests, makii^ General Martinez
Campos their instrument, effected the restoration of
the female branch of the Bourbons, proclaiming Al-
fonso XII, in whose favour Isabel II had abdicated.
Don AIfons(j landed at Cadiz, 0 January, 1875, and in
a short time the Carlist rising was suppressed, as well
as that of Cuba (October, 1877). As a result of the
Bourbon Restoration, and of an ^^reement between
Antonio Cinovaa, leader of the Conservatives (suc-
cessors of the Moderates), and IVAxedes Mateo Sa-
gasta, leader of the Liberals, who had inherited the
aspirations of the Revolution, there was created in
Spain the political situation which has lasted until
now (1910), est^lishing the legal alternation ((umo
legal) of the Alphonsist-Monarchical parties in power.
Alfonso XII died 25 November, 1885, leaving the re-
gency to Dofla Maria Cristina of Habsburg, as mother
of his posthumous son, Alfonso XIII (B. 17 May,
1886). During the regency the Cuban Insurrection,
and that of the Philippines, gave rise to the war with
the United States, which led to the loss of the last rem-
nants of Spain's colonial empuv.

IV. AoruAL CoNDinoNB. — A. LegUHatUm. — The
Spanish nationality being formed out of two ele-
ments, the Gothic and the Hispano^Roman. had at the
outset two different legislative systems. Eurie, in the
code which bears his name, collected the laws of
the Goths, while the " Breviarium" of Anianus (in the
time of Alaric II) sums up the provisions of the Ro-
man law for the government of the Hispano-Latins.
But when the two races had become fused, thwewas
also a fusion of the two ^tems of legislation in the
"Forum Judicum'-', or "Fuero Juzgo" (completed in
the Sixteenth Council of Toledo), which is the first <^
the Spanish Codes, and in which the Gothic element
predominates in the law of persons, the Roman in
that of contracts. During the Reconquest there
arose the fueroa, BpeciaHaws,orprivileges, granted by
the kings to certam particular cities or provinces and
which were also known (as in England and fVance) as
oartat, or cartas pu^Um, i. e., charters granted to those
who populated a new ci^. Another general code for
CastUe was the "Fuero Viejo" (OW ftivilege), of un-
oertain origin, but probably commenced in the time
of Alfonso VIII and completed in that of Pedro I.
AUoma IX pubUsbed the "Fueros Real", which in-
ohided the declarations called the "L^yei del Es-

tik)" — rules of style, or of prooedure. The kyjdi^
tive work imdertaken in the time of St. Ferdmand
ended with Alfonso X, the Wise, author of the "Siete
Partidas", or "Seven Parts'*. This king, however,
bein^ a man of theory rather than a practical man,
modified the national laws and customs to excess, al-
lowing himself to be cuiiod away by his admiratioa
for the Roman Law. Henee liie ''Siete Partidas"
have never been in Iwal force, except as a supple
menCcay coda aad la Erarioe on tntaut partiouw

points — the succession of the Crown, for instuice, un-
til the Bourbons grafted upon the Spanish code the
Sahc Law which they brought from France.

The fact that the Siete Partidas" had not acquired
legal force was the reason why Castilian l^iuation
remained entangled with a mass oifuero$, ordmanoes,
and special provisions. One of these, the Ordinanee
of Alcald, passed by the Cortes of Alcald in the time
of Alfonso XI, established, among o^er matters, the
order of precedence of the Sptmish codes. Others
were the Laws of Toro and the Ordinances of Mou-
talvo, made in the time of the Catholic Sovereigns.
The other kingdoms of Spain continued to elaborate
their own several tegislations — Catalonia, with its
very ancient "Usatges" and its "Consulat de Mar"
(the oldest commercial code in Europe); Aragon,
Navarre, and the rest, with their respective special
fveroa. Wishing to give the united monarchy a tsivQ
code, Philip II published the "Nueva Recopilaci6n"
(New Digest) of the Spanish laws, though, indeed die
charter laws of the various provinces were at the same
time left in full vigour. In the reign of Charles IV
(1806), a "Novfsima Reoopilaoi6n'^ (Latest Digest)
was published, also leaving untouclwd the charter
laws of the provinces. Finally, in the nineteenth
century, there arose the division of laws into poUtioal,
civil, p^ial, and laws of procedure.

The Cortes of Cadiz, in 1812, formulated the first
Liberal Constitution, which, however, i^owed aome
regard for Catholic unity, lliis CcmBtitutitm wu

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not aee&pted by the king, when he was releaaed from

htB capbvity by Naptdeon, but Riego's military in-
surrection at Las Cafaesaa de S. Juan, in 1820, forced
it upon him. It waa overthrown by the French inter-
vention in 1828. In 1834 the queen-regent authorized
the Estatuto Real, a sort of moderate ccmstitution.
Next came the Liberal Gonatitution of 1837, in which
Catholic unity ia not stipulated for, although it i>
stated that Uie Cathoho Rdigion is that professed b/
Spaniards. Again, in the Constitution of 1845 it u
declared that the rehgktn of ^>ain ia the Catholic
Apostolic, Roman. In Uie Constitution of 1856 tol-
eration of other creeds is established much as it n jw
exists. The Revolution of 1868 produced the Liberal
Constitution of 1869, which established freedom of
worship (art. xxl), maintaining, however, the Catholic
Religion and its ministers. Finally, the Constitution
of 1^6, pi^lii^ed under the Restoration, admitted
rdigious toleration, but dedored the Cathouo Reli^on
that of the State. In practice, there is in Spain a
sreat deal of reh|pouB liberty, the only conditions
being that diasentmg places of worship nraet comply
with certain outiwud forma — such as not ha^-ing signs
placed on their exteriors. This last Constitution
places the legislative power in the Cortes with the
tang. The Cortes are composed of two chambers:
the'^raiatc and the Congress- Some of the senators
at of their own right (grandees, archbishops, etc.),
others for life, others by election. The members of
Congress {diputados) are all elected. The Idng can
convoke or prorogue the Ck)rte8. The executive
power belongs to the king and his ministers, who are
responsible for the conduct of the ^vemment. In
the succession to the Throne the ancient order, super-
seded by the ^tic Law, is followed. The heir to the
Throne takes the title of Prince of Asturias. The
king att^na his majority at the age of ebcteen and in
minority is under the regency of his nearest relative:
Alfonso XIII, posthumous son of Alfonso XII, was
under the regency of his mother, Dofta Cristina of
Habsbui^; on attaining his majority he was sworn
king, but was not solemnly crown«i. The judicial
power is entrust«i to tribunals which administer jus-
tioe in the king's name. The latter has the preroga-
tive of pafdon.

The relations of Church, and State in Spain have
been r^ulated bv various concordats. By law 13,
title 1, Book I, of the "Novlsima Recopilacifin", the
Coundl of Trent is the law of the realm. The chief
concordats with Spain are: that of 1737 (Clement XII
and Philip V); 1752 (Benedict XIV and Ferdinand
VI); 1861 (Pius IX and Isabel U). The lastrnamed
ia irtill in force, although Liberal Governments violate
it in varioas ways aimpretend to modify it, invoking
it, neverthekas, whenever convenient for their pur-
poseB. Accordmg to this concordat, which was in-
tended to r^ulate the grave disorders consequent
upon the confiscation of church property (disamor-
tizatton), the Cathohc is the only religion of the
Spanish people. Public instruction ia under the in-
meotion of the bishops and other diocesan prelates.
%e number of dioceses is diminished (see above:
Eedemastie^ Organization): the form provision
for bishoprics and other baaefices is determined
(Patrmato Reed), as also the remuneration of the
fdergy, maintenance of church buildings, etc. The
Ar(£bishop of Toledo receives 40,000 pesetas ($8000
or £1600); other archbishops, from 37,500 to 32,500
pesetas («7500 to S6d00); bishops, 25,000 to 20,000
pesetas (S5000 to $4000).

In tiie civil law of Spain the predominant tendency
is to suppress the individualities of the charter law
(derecAo fanal) in the various parts of the country.
These local peculiarities are found especially in the
hkW of family relations. In Catatoma the Roman
Lnr prevailed, tiie father enjoyed freedom of testit-
oMotary diqusitionj and the r^t of the children was

limited to the Tegal one^ouHh; in Castile the ririit <rf

testamentary disijosition was hmited to one-thira and
one-fifth of what could be disposed of for the individ-
ual advantage of one favoured child. Castile fol-
lowed the Gtothic custom by which the brid^room

Eiid arraa to the bride at the wedding, while in Cata-
nia the Roman dowry system was in f6rce. In
oUier parts of the country other laws Umited the
power of testamentary disposition even more than in
Otstile. The unifying tendoioy was eeqiecially prev-
alent in the "Codigo Civil" published in 1888 by the
minister, Alonso Martinet, and which came into foree
on 1 May, 1889. Although the charter law is pre-
served to some extent, modifications are introduced
such as that bearing on the (nenes ganant;iaUa of
Castile, providing that the gananciaa, or property
acquired after marriage, must, when the estate is
Uquidated, be divided between husband and wife.

Main Doobwat or tbx New Cathbdsal, Salahaxca

lAonaver, the fact that the magistrates belong to
different provinces has its influence upon the process
of unification, as also the spirit of the Supreme Tri-
bunal, the decisions of which have the force of juris-
prudence, and serve as norms for the adjudication of
parallel cases. In criminal law the Penal Code, pub-
lished in 1870 by the minister, Laureano Figuerola, is
in force. In many respects it betrays the spirit of
the Revolution, during which it mifpn^fid, and for
this reason the Catholic and Conservative elements
are demanding its reform in many points. The com-
mercial code now in force is that of 1885, published
by the minister, Vr. Silvela. Judicial procedure is
governed by the Law of Civil Suits {Enjuictamiento
Civil) published by the minister, Alvarez Bugollal,
m 1881.

Although the old privileged jurisdictions have been
abolished, and all Spaniards are equal before the law^
there ia still the military jurisdiction (fvero mUitar),
certain specified cases being reserved for the mill*
tary tribunals, and the ecclesiastical jurisdiction
(fuero edendaiieo), by which the rights of the Qiuroh
to take eogniiance of ootain oases sale ujegiuirdecL

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CuMMiioal marriage has legal foroe for all ^Mniih

CatholioB, without the necessity of any civil nuu^age,
provided the civil authorities are notified that Gana-
tian marriage has been contracted, such marriage
bei^ subject in Spain to the Decrees of the Council
of l^ent. Civil marriage eziats only for nonrCatii-
(dios, and Spamaids vrbo wish to eontract it must finC
a deoacatkm (rf having abandoned the Qithcdie
Belij;km and CSumh. The Church alao has juris-
diction ova oem^wies, whidi are blessed canonicolly.
For unbelievers, apostates, uid other persons by law
excluded from eodesiastical a^ulture, a separate
oemeteiy is provided, usuallv near the Catholic
cemetery, and under the control of the civil authority.
In Spain, where feudalism took little root, (he aristoc-
racy has lost its meaaptiom and privileees, dvO and
political, but as a social distinction it still existB, to-
gether with eertun titles of modem creation. The
royal family consists of the kin^, the queen consort,
and the queen-mother (collectively erpoken of in
Spanish as 2(M re^, literally, "the kings ), the Prince
of Asturiaa (heir apparent), and the "infantes of
Spain" — such relations of the king as may be granted
that dignity. At the head of the nobUity are the
crandees <x Spain of the first and the second class.
The dukes, marquesses, coimts, viscounts, and barona
follow in order. The civil decorations most used are
the American Order of iBabella the Catholic, and the
Order of Charles III. There are grand crosses, com-
manderies (encomimdaa), and simple crosses; those
who wear the grand cross are given the title of
Bxcdenlisimoa Seflores. Of recent fotmdation is the
Civil Order o£ Alfonso XII. The ancient military
cnders of Santiago, Alcantara, Montesa, and Cala-
trava also continue to exist as honorary distinctions.

B. The PtdiHad SUualwn. — The elements which ^
to make up the existu^ ^litical situation in Spam
are (besides the foreign mfluences, chiefly English
Liberalism and Frendi Jacobinism) the dvnastic
question, the fumo legal, or alternation, of the two
Restoration parties (see above), and the growth of
Republicanism. The political parties form three
flTpups: Dissidents of the Rudit, l^al parties, and
Dissidents of the Left. The Dissidents of the Ri|^t
consist of the old Carlist P&rty, dormant during the
last years of ihe reign of Isabel 11, but which devdoped
extraordinary vigour under the Republic and the
period of extj«me Liberalism, maintaining a civil war.
It is still ready and willing to defend the ideal of
traditional Spam whenever the excesses of Liberalism
destroy the equilibrium of Spanish society. By the
death of Don Carlos de Boiron. whom Uie Canists
r^arded as the lawful ICin^ of Spain, Don Jaime de
Borb6n has inherited his rights. In the summer of
1888 another division arose within the Traditionalist
party, its Extreme Right being formed, owing to the
approximation <A Don Carlos to constitutionalist
ideas. This division, not yet entirely healed, resulted
in the Integrist Party, directed by Don Ram6n de
Nocedal andf after his death, by a^unta, or committee.

Althoogb all Uie P9litical parties are recognized as
ParliamoitaTy minorities, only those are called legal
which recognise the reigning dynasty and take turns
in office. They are, at present, the Union Liberal-
Conservatives, whose undisputol leader is Don An-
tonio Maura, and the Liberal Democratic Party, the
leadoBh^ of which is disputed between Moret, Can-
atejM, and Montero Hios. The former of Uiese two
parties endeavours to find CathoUc and Conservative
solutions for political problems within the bounds of
actual^ existing conditions; it is oommonfy charged
with excessive tenderness for the accomplished facts
left by the Liberals as the result of their pork>d erf su-
premacy. The Liberal D^ocratic Party, on the con-
trary ^ &ough unwiUing to call itself anti-CaUiolic,
sails itself anti-Ckdriou, and tends towards Frmdi
Jaeobiaimi. Its urns an the aeeularuatim <tf maz^

riage and of borial, the laioisatiim cX edneatimi, and
the repression of the natural growth of religknu
orders oy Iwislative interferenoe.

The Dusidents of the Leit are the Repubhcau, whose
numbers are increasing among the less educated, sad
who are divided into numbowss factions, estch more
radical than the oUiw. Hie Vandal proceedings of
Baircdona, in July, 1909 — what ohurcnes and sqnit *
chres were burned and profaned, and persons cons^
crated to God were murdered and violated— ex-
hibited the a^irations ctf these extremists. And yet
their chief, Ferrer, who was shot for these crimes, has
found sympathisers and defendos in Europe and
America. In their general anarchy and lack of in-
fluential leaders^ the Repubhcans are divided into
Federals, Sociahats, AnanhistB, Aoratists. etc. Be-
mdes these political parties there are the Regkmalists
of Catalonia and the Basque Provinces, whose aim is
administrative decentralisation.

Divisions among Catholics and the indifference of a
great portion of the people have resulted in a fedt>le
Catholic Press, particularly in the department of daihr
papers. There are three Catholic dailies at Madrid:
^'El Coneo Espaftol" (Carlist), "El Sigk> Futuio"
(Integrist), "El Univeno" (Alfonsist Cstholie). In
tile provinces there are many of similar tendounes,
such as "El Correo Catalan" of Barcdona, '"La
Gacetadel Norte" of Bilbao, "El Notidero" of Sar-
agoesa, "LaVoz" of Valencia. Among the weeklies
mention should be made of "LaLectura Dominicid"
(Madrid), and among scientific reviews "Raz6n y Fe"
(Jesuit), "La Ciudadde Dios", and"EBpafiayAm£^
ica" (both Augustinian), "Los Estudioe fVands-
oanos'', "La Ilustraci<5n de Clero". The Moderate
Liberals have good periodicals, such as "La Corre-
spondencia de Espafia", the "A. B. C", "La
Epoca", "El Diario de Barcelona": weeklies such as
" Blanco y N^ro ", " La Ilustracidn E^afiolay Amer*
icana": but their reviews are inferior to the CathoUc,
with the exception of their professional periodicfds
— for medicine, engineering, bulletins of scientific so-
cieties, etc. The periodicals of the Extreme liberal
Press are widely read— "El Imparcial". "El Lib-
eral", and "EI Heraldo" of Madnd (forming a news-

gaper trust), and many others in the provinces, "El
ais" is notable for its Atheistical impiety, sud it
is foUowed by "El Pueblo" of Valencia, '^EspoOa
Nueva", etc. The official oi^an is "La Gaoeta de
Madrid", while in each province there is ih.t "B^^etfn
Oficial", and a "Boletln" in each diocese.

C. Educational and Social Improvement. — ^Besids
the edueatioiud institutions, tiiere are various aoad^
mies for theeultivation tbescienoes,^rtiieh an at the
same time consultative adjuncts of the State. The
prindpal of these is the Spanish Acadrar^, or "Ao^
demia de la Lengua", founded in 1713 under the pa-
tronage of Philip V. The statutes which now govern
it were approved by decree of 20 August, 18fi9. It is
composed of 36 active acadanicians, who must reside at
Madrid, 24 Spanish correspondents, who are honoraiy
members, and an undetenuned number of foreign
correspondrats. Its ohirf concern is the Castfliaa
language, in which it is regarded as authoritative.
It has published twelve eoitions of the Gastilian
Crammar and Dictionary, and many other inqKn^
tant works, among the more recent bdng the com-
plete Works of Lope de Vega, under the dlreotion of
Menendez Pelayo, The Academy of History was
created in 1735 and wproved by royal decree of 17
June, 1738, the former fonctimisof the official chnm>
icier of Spain and tiie Indies bdng vested in it. Its
present statutes were approved by decree of May,
1856. It is charged witn the preservation of na-
tional antiquities and monuments. The Academy of
Fine Arts of St. Ferdinand was founded in 1753 under
the name of "Re^ Academia de las tres nobles Artss
deS.Feniaado". Its inmnt statutes mm amaored

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189

spini

bf the Deane of S Deeandicr, 1878. Ite funeUon ii
the eDoouragement and dinotion of Hie study of
pajBting, MRiIpture, arohiteeture, and mueic, for
irikioh, 1^ the same time, special oonservatories exist.
The Academy of Exact Sciences, PhjyEioal and Natu-
ral, created m 1847, has 36 acaaemicians resident at
Madrid and 36 oorresponding members in Spain and
abroad, l^e Academ^r of Moral and Political Sci-
eneea was established m 1857 hy the Law ot Public
InstmctiMi of the same year. It has 36 aeadonioiana
reeident at Madrid, 80 eornqMHuding membos in

Tsa Chckcb ow tb« Kniohts or Cal-athava, Madkid

ftsain and abroad, and 10 foreim honorary members.
There are also Academies of medicine at Madrid,
Barcelona, and other leading cities, as well as Acade-
mies of Jurisprudence and L^islatkm, of Hie Fine
Arte. etc. Notable among those <tf the provinces are
tiie literary Aoaden^ (Atademia de Bueooe Lettras)
of Barcelona, dating from the end of the seventeenth
eentury; the Literary Academy of Seville, the Acade-
mia Juridioa Aragonesa, of Saragossa (1733), the
Real Aoademia de las nobles y Delias Artee de S.
CarioSr of Valencia, etc. The members of numerous
American Academies are correspondents of the Span-
ish Academy — those of Colombia. Ecuador (Qmto),
Menoo, Salvador, Venexuela, Chile. Peni (l^na),
Argentina, Guatemala, and the R^niblio of Honduras.
Fot the stuc^ of astronomy there are several obeerva-
tcniee, the principal being the two State obeervatories
tA 8. Fernando, founded at Cadis in 1754. by Don
Jorge Juan, ana transferred in 1779, and of Madrid,
the project of which had already been formed in the
reign ol Charles III, though it was not realised until
the reform of public education in 1845. Among ^e
private observatwies should be mentioned th^ of
Tibidabo (Bareekma) , that of tiie ESno, and the Jesuit
dMervatoir at Tortosa, where the various brandMS
<rf aatio-phyBiGs, teareatrial magnetism, etc., are
■tudied.

It k vaiy diffioub to obtain flunot itatiatioi of tiie

worics of floeial inttuovemait oiating in Spain, owing
to the persistent ieadma^ of offioiaJs to suppress aO
mention of Ca^oUe institutions. The Institute <rf
Social Reforms, managed chiefly by the Kraustst
Free-Teaching Institution, publisned in 1907 the fol*
lowing account of workingmen's associations oj^ifftjT^g
in the year 1904:—

CfttboUo uaooUtiMis 67

For the uxmHokUod of
the oontUtioiiB of labour 1147

Co-openUiv* 03

Mutual boDBfit 309

Potitie^

For inatnie^Mk aad rsore*.

tiao

MuiiuJ (inrtadtnicbwl)

Total

8S

70
84

IMS

In 1906 the foUowing figures are g^ven: —
Mutual inauraoce. . .

43

Total S020

Savinssbanki 18

Co-OfMratiTOMoietiH. . . . 374
MutualbaM6t 1S91

The following statistics published by "La Pas S<h
cial" (a social review of Saragossa and Madrid) givea
better idea of Catholic sooiarent^riae:

Cattwlie rural bsnka

Catholic agnauhuial aymticatea .

hia04.
SB

1007.
113
108

IBM.
373
450

From this it appears that the number of Catholic so*
cial enterprises is rapidly increasing, which is due to
the appreciation by the clergy of the importance ctf
combining social woric with the pastoral ministiy, so
as to meet boUi the spiritual and temporal needs of
the people. For the general direction of these worics
there has been formed at Madrid a Central Com-
mittee {Junta) of Catholic Action. The duties of
this committee are to co-operate with the prelates of
the respective dioceses in tne preparation of Catholic
congresses in such dioceses, to carry out the resolu-
tions of the congresses approved b^ the prelates, and
to direct the Catholic propaganda m all its branches.
It is made up of a president [at present (1910) the
■ Bishop of Madrid-Alcalij and 18 memb^, nine of
whom represent the nine ecclesiastical provinces. Up
to the present (1910) six Catholic congresses have
been held: at Madrid (1887), Seville, Saragossa, Tai^
ragona, Burgos, and Santiago (1902). Eucharistic
congresses have also been held at Valencia, Lugo, and
Madrid, and "congresses of the good Press" at Sev-
ille and Saragossa (1906). But pohtioal dissensiona
among Cath^cs have hindered the practical remits
which might have beem expected. The "social
weeks" are also held among some communities, to
bring together those who are engaged in works of this
kind and to spread the knowledge of them in the vari-
ous provinces. In 1907 the "Social Poptular Move-
ment" was inaugurated at Barcelona, in imitation ot
the Volksverein at Munlch-Gladbacfa, in Germany.

D. CAori^v.— Though the charity of Catholic Spain
has flouricdied in all ages and heea manifested tqr the
foundation of nunmouB benevolent institutions, it is
undeniable that the second half (A the nineteenth cen-
tury saw a greater number of such foundations than
did many of the centuries preceding it. Hie cause
of this was partly the reaction of rehgious feelings after
the Revolution and partly the necessity for such works
reeulthig from the destruction, hy disamortisation,
of those iriiich had previously ensted. Under the
administration of SeAra La Cierva as Direetor-Ooi-
«ra\, there was publi^ed in folio (cii-704 pages)
"Memoranda for the Study and Organiaation of
Benevolent and Provident Institutions" {Aptmtee
para el estudio ... de las Instituoiones de
Benefioencia) from which the following data are ex-
tracted. The benevolent institutions may be classi-
fied as general, provincial, municipal, and private.
The general institutions, sumxirted rnr the State^ are
nine m number, and mi^ be divided into hospitals,
asylums, and schools, aoeording to the objects tor
niiieh they exist. The hospitals are those oi La Prin-
eeia, with 300 beds, tot acute cases in medicine and
wrfoy; the Ophthalmio Inatitute^ witiKlOO bedu

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the insane asylum of Santa IsabeL at Legan^e, with
130 beds for poor patients, 30 beds for paying patients
of the first, and 40 for tJiose of the second, class. The
objeota of these last two estf^lishments are indicated
by their names. The asylums are the Hospitals of
Jesito Nazareno, the Carmen, the King's Hospital at
Toledo, and that for euperannuated workingmen, the
first and second of these being for men and for women
respectively, each with 250 beds; the third, mixed, 60
beds for either sex; the last, for men only, to the num-
ber of 80. The schools for the blind are: Santa Cata-
lina (29 pupils); La Union, for 106 oiphan girls.

The number of persons benefited in aU these estab-
lishments was 30,606 during the five years from 1904
to 190S. Moreover, in the single year 1908, the pub-
lic consulting-room of the Princesa Hospital pre-
scribed for more than 8000 persons; that of the
Ophthalmic Institute for more than 4000. The ap-
propriation for charitable purposes in the general
estimate of the GoTemment amotmted to 2,665,775
p^tas ($499,208)^ not including subventions to c^
tain private eatablishments. The annual expenditure
on the general establiahmeDts is 774,818 pesetas.

The charitable institutions, munioipal and pro-
vincial, may be classified as folkqra:

0 ma

Spain. Without counting the important donatioui
with which it has oontributed to more ^cient senriee
in the department of public charitiee> the alma givco
directly for the maintenance of mai^ oharitable.aaao-
ciations, to the needy on the public hi^ways, or pri-
vately to succour those who are ashamed to it
may be said that the capital expended by private
charity in Spain for the raief of the t^iysicalty and
moraUy indigent is enormous. Indeed, were it not
for the r^wcity of many, the ^oiam of some, and the
oarelessnesa of all, this alone would suffice to oounter-
aet in great part the ravages of extreme poverty and
to solve many of the problems of pauperism. The
number of charitable mstitutions founded and sus-
tained in Spain by private means is 9107. Laive as
this number is, it represents less than one-half the
number of those tl^t nave existed and those that stiU
exist without being known. Their capital amounts
to 400,652,370.36 pesetas ($80,130,000), yielding an
income of 10,405,872.18 pesetas ($2,081,000). Of this
capital 152,417,413 pesetas ($30,480,000) are invested
in registered bonds; 80,095,269 ($16,019,000) in cer-
tificates payable to bearer; 28,048,888 ($5,609,000)
in city property; 31,951,114 ($6,390,000) in mort-
gages and country property; 17,753,815 ($3,650,000)

Ho-pit^i^-a::::::::::

Aayluma

InMDe Asylumfl

Leper Hoepitals

Homes for the Aced

Poor Hoiiaes

EBtabliihmenta of vwrioua Idmb

Number.

51
339
70
19
7
S
S4
63

Cues.

3^,076
4,343.3H
3.740.431
1,427,349
10,660
78.485
3.361.862
3,066,709

Beds.

11.558
18.263
14,322
4.236
104
354
9.944
11,062

ExpenMs.

5.927.052
7.243,964
3,113.476
1.133,232

24,603
3,508,893
5,031.436

Ainu
Distributed.

22.355.07
1S6.370.86
206.360.00

13,045.00
82.7I0J»
88.978.00

Tha flgurea In the fouttfa and fifth oohumu of the ■bova labia rvresaat Spaniah pesetaa.
to 19 oaata Vnitad 8tataa eurraiMiy.

The pcaeta ia apivozinutdy equivalent

Besides these charitable institutions, the di»-
pensaries, consulting stations and clinics, noted in
the " Memoranda" above referred to as a single group,
must be taken into consideration. They are 113 m
number and exist in all the provinces except C&eena,
Cuenca, Gerona, Guadalajara, Huesca, LSrida,
LogroHo, Lugo, Orense, and Toledo. Through these
institutions 1,281.361 persons have received aasistr
ance, 420,397 meoical prescriptions have been given,
45,893 food rations, and 4762 articles of clothing dis*
tributed, 10,565 allowances provided for nursing
mothers, amounting to 37,829 pesetas ($7,500), and
608,686 quarts of milk distributed. In tiie statistics
of provinoi^ and municipal chanties may also be in-
cluded gratuitous medical attendance and attention
to sanitary precautions. The first is supplied by
7769 physicians who visit 813,815 families, approx-
imately 3,257,260 individuals, that ia to say that each
physician has 419 persons imder his carej the second
18 carried on by means of establishments m 23 of the
provinoes. The expenditure of tiie provinces on
charities amounts to 26,436,273 pesetas (about
$5,270,000), 44.72% of their budget; and of the
municipalities, 18,206,329 pesetas ($3,600;000), 6.23%
of their budget. The average for each mdividual is
2.26 pesetas (fUwut 42} cents). The provinciid and
munioipal revenues for charitable purposes are re-
^Dectively 5,061,794 pesetas ($1,190,000), and 2,387,-
. 347 pesetas ($470,000), a total of 8,349,141 ($1,660,-
000), a rate of 0.44 pesetas (about 81 cmts) per
ci^uta. These totab do not include Navaire and
the Basque provinces.

In stming contrast with the insufficiency and
scarcity of funds and resources which characterizes
the official charities, is the enormous amount expended
amd the variety of institutions founded by private
munificence ia the endeavour to meet this need in

in loans; and 27,694 432 ($5,538,000) in shares of the
Bank of Spain. All this capital, however, does not
produce the results intended by the donors. In
Sefior La Cierva's "Jlkfemoranda" the number of the
institutions which are inoperative, with their prop-
erties, are summarized under one heading (No. i^.
Fortunately they are not many — 4631 — ^with a capi-
tal of 6,862,380 pesetas ($1,372,000) and an income
of 378,832 pesetas ($75,700).

It is to be noted, also, that the capital for charitable
purposes increases continually and in no inaignificuit
proportim. The reports of the reiwtran and notar
ries, and the data publffihed by the '*Direcci6n General
de lo CTontencioso", show that the acquisitions to
charitable institutions, official and private, from 189B
to 1908 have netted 161,330,354.38 pesetas ($32,266,-
000) for the State, from taxes on inheritances and
tnmsfers of real estate, which gives a total annual
average of 17,925,596.04 pesetas ($3,585,000), an an-
nual average of .96 pesetas (nearly 18 cents) for each
mfaabitant. Chronokwioally the charitable founda-
tions may be classifieaaa follows:

FOTODATIOKS.

OENTUHf .

,xv

XVI

xvn

XVllI

XIX

XX

6

4

6

4

2

2

4

S

4

5

5

6

FortheSiok

6

3

2

2

4

4

Eoonomia and 8o-
fllal

1

1

1

3

3

2

2

3

6

6

6

For dowrtea and

8

6

6

3

1

1

(Hie fiforea in tUa table are aymboliea), repreeesttnc onir tba
pt^Mrtioiato nanbata <rf tin iNiimn duM.)

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L INTEKIOB or THE CATHEDRAL. 2. THE BAFTIBTERT. S. THE CAMPANILE, RESTORED XT jeBNTDBT. 1

*. DiocLGnAN's PALACE Digitized by vjOO^lC'

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191

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From the foregoine table the change in the nature
oi the duuitable wonts may be noted according to the
variouB eooohs. Those ol a distinctly pious nature
reMdied Uie maximum point from the ^teenth to
the (Sixteenth centuries and decreased rapid^ in the
following centuries; with those deaHi^ with 8ocial<
economic problems exactly the contrary was the case.
This is a natural consequence of the politico-social
character of the respective periods. Similar is the
development of the foundations for the benefit of
women askd similar causes serve to expliUn it. On the
other hand, oharitiea having for Ihek object the relict
of the flick and poor are not subject to decided varia-
tions, doubtless because this special fonn of need is
eoostant. Grouped according to their objecta, the
foundations established down to the present are as

_ _ Attivt, Inoperatite.

For tiM Poor 797 716

For tbo 8iek 096 714

SoeUl and Monoraie 120 65

Eduoatiotul.... 7Jt7 US

Dowrin Ukd peorioita 1153 1069

R«lifioiu 592 309

Ninety-five per cent of the beneficent foundations in
Spain have had their mainspring in charity, have been
sust^ed by Christian sentiments, and have suffered
from the animositar of Badicals ox all Btamps. The
four hundred and forty-two official charitable institu-
tions (provincial or municipal) are attended by re-
ligious communities or by associations of women.
In one hundred and eleven of these institutions these
services are rendered eratuitously; and in two hun-
dred and eighty-eiKht tney receive a peseta (about 19
cents) daily for food and ten pesetas a month for cloUi-
iug. All the private institutions are attended by
reugiouB communities and many of them supported
by them as wdl. The organuationB through which
charities are opiated are a Protectorate and Pro-
vincial and Municipal Committees. To the Pro-
tectorate, directed by the minister of the Interior and
the president of the Council, pertain the functions of
dasufyiug, creating, enlarging, or modifying the
various charitable institutions, tiie distribution of
surplus funds, the authorization of representatives
of the institutions to have recourse to courts of justice
and to sell property, the appointment and suspension,
dissolution and reorganization of committees Qunlas) ,
authorization of transfers of scrip in the puluic debt,
approval of statements and accounts, etc. The
Juntas, as subordinate organs, have only to co-operate
with the protectorate, acting as agents and distributors
of the property of the various institutions.

Radical and sweeping reforms were introduced and
earned through by Seilor La Cierva. He bc^an by
reorganizing the protectorate, giving it a more nu-
merous and betto' qualified personnel, creating the
''Junta Superior de Beneficencia" to assist the Pro-
tectorate, and constituting a special bureau for the
management of expenditures, hquidations, and sav-
ings ^ected by it m favour of the charitable institu-
tions. Another measure was tiie formation of
ardiives, provincial and municipal, with correspond-
ing indexes, giviufi a great deal of correct, Uioi^
incomplete, statistics, to serve as a basis for the knowl-
edge of the work done in behalf of charity, the num-
ber, capital, and patronage of Uie various charitable
institutions. In this way the Protectorate is ably
assisted in the performance of its important duties.
Further measures were also prescribed which com-
pleted the reform.

R^igion, Morality, Cwtonu. — ^The greatest diver*
«ty in all respects exists in Spain between the in-
bwitants of the various regions; but certain zones may
be marked off in which some characteristics in com-
mon may be observed. Some similarity may be noted
between the regions which were longest under the
■my oC Arab influatoet— Vakooia, Munu, and

Andalusia — and also between those which in more
recent times have come more directly in contact with
foreigners, especially the maritime regions of Galida
and Andalusia, and the most populous centres (rf
commerce.

The Spanish people are as a rule religious, and nat-
urally inclined to the practices of Cauiolic worship.
In their popular festivals secular diversions hold an
equal place with reUgious observances. The morn-
ing is devoted to magnificent church fimctions, and
the afternoon to balls^ bull-fi^ts, and other amuse-
ments, which are earned on into the night. A great
variety ma^ be noted in the charaetn- of ^e popular
diveraons m the diff«ent asctions, while the reUgmua
features are uniform and univosal. In Andalusia
and Murcia the bull-fight still holds first place; in
Valencia the enthusiasm for it is not so great, and
still less in Catalonia, Aragon, and other regions.
In the Basque provinces the favourite SfMrts are pe-
loia. barra, and others Catalonia is much addicted
to oancing, and its popular dances are very various;
here the ancient ana extremely artificial dance of the
Sardanaa, in which a great number of pawms take
part, dancing in the fwm of a great circle, is still the
fashion. Hie name is connected with that of Sardo$
or Cerdanet of Sardinia. In Aragon the iota, where
the partners, man ahd woman, dance facing each
other, but without taking hands, is still popular. In
Andalusia and other provinces they have similar
dances -where the partners do not tfwe hands. But
as a rule more modem dances — the waltz, etc. — are
more eonimon. There are many regions, however,
where the people scarc^ dance at aiU.

There is also great difference in the popular songs
of various sections. In the sections where Arabic
influences have prevailed, singing is very eeneral, but
without chorus, sometimes accompanied oy the Cas-
tanets, sometimes by the guitar. Another instru-
ment very much used is the gaita (bagpipe), a goat-
skin bag filled with air by means of which a kind of
pipe is made to produce a continuous, monotonous
sound. The inhabitants of the Basque provinces are
noted for their good ear and the tunefulness of their
songs, and of dl the Spanish peoples they practice
choral singing most. In Andalusia the aeguidiUaa,
malagueMa, etc. are very popular, some of them, as
the saetas of Seville, being sung in religious processions.
Religious feasts are celebrated with long cnurch func-
tions, solemn Mass, music, and sermons, besides pro-
cessions and pilgrimages. There are processions
which have become widely celebrated, to which the
people of all the surroundi^ district flock, such as the
festivities of Holy Week at Seville and of Our Lady of
the Pillar in Saragossa. The most popular devotion
of the Spaniards is to the Blessed Virgin, the Mother
of God, particularly under her titles of the Immacu-
late Conception, of the Seven Dolours, of Mount Car^
mel, and of the Rosary. Innumerable Spanish women
bear the name of Mary to which is added some dis*
tinguishine title, de la Concepd&n, dd Rosario, del
Carmen, M los IkAoru. Commonly, however, they
are addr^sed only by the particular invocation,
hence the Carmens, Dolores, Rosarioe, Conchas
(Concepci6n), Mercedes, etc. There is scarcely a
town which does not possess a chapel or sanctuary
dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, to which pilgrimages
are made once or more frequently durii^ the yew.
Many of these images are considered miraculous and
are the centres of poetic legends.

The sacraments are much frequented in Spain, es-
pecially in the more cultured sectiopa — Catalonia,
Vfllencia, Navarre, the Basque provinces. Old Castile,
so that the Decree of Pius X with r^iard to daily
communion was weH received and the practice taken
up. All kinds of pious congregations and confrater-

Stiee, both ancient and modem, — such as those of
ouut Cannd, the Rosary^ the Third Orders, eape-

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oiBlly that of St. Francia — are very ynisiy sraread in
Spain. Certain idio^yncrasiea noticeable in the char-
acter of the people in some seetionB may easily be
traced to the inmienee eurciBed by these pious prac-
tices. Neveolheless, impiety, incredulity, and indif-
ferentism are making appreciable progress, mainly
owin^ to the effects m permcious journals, which are
published and circulated with incredible freedom. It
IS difficult to determine to just what decree this prop-
aganda has altered the tf aditionat character of the
Spanish people, and the Catholics of Spain seem not
to agree in estimftttnc the extent to whicn this damage
has extended, some bdieving that it is deep and irre*
mediable, others that it is superficial and could eBBily
be arrested by repreaeive meHuns ettaotod acanut
the agents of pubbc immorality.

of Fwdimind tfa CaikfrlK (I^adc^ti. ISHa}; Wattii, ThtChfutian
Kfearrryn/Spain.ni-liSJi (New York^ 1894); Wabb, Th* Truifi
about Spatn (LoimIdb, ISIl;; Hkbbbrt, JflcprMijoM afSjMui
(New Vorlc, ISftfl); BotWWL. £fl guMitan rilfffi^m m ffwuna
in KlutfM. ni (PMia, lttl7), &i-i7'. D'EUbllt. Utroie Snic
tKtrW y<ttk. I&IQ) ; Thf Rauiiim in Spain in UubUrt ltrr„ CXUI>
(LaDflaia> JKtj, 273-64; SmptuM, Spain Tb-Daif in Tlie CaA^
al\e World {3»pt.. ISia), SOl^lSr BviFHUs ^pain andlheCKureh

in iiwAiirt Rtt.. cxLvrr 37a-«4: buuk. /ner-

waianat In Oiiblin Ret.. CXLVl (lAlO); AwAa GrPairiJia V
XttaAMisa d» EtpaKa, par in Dineetim Qtiurat del Intt\tviit
OaanriAeo ^ Sttvditlico (^{Bd^i<], IBSffi; VlbiKln-A t Pieila ami
n 1^ Rap*, t Deloado, Qt^lagia v nvttAittari^ ITuHo" Qilad-
rid. ISdO); LjiFuurrz. IHmI. Om.dtBtfi. (Madrid. L&61>r Ptvft
BliLUHM, Anuario- Ed. dt Sap. (Mulrid, luennm
GconKAnco t EaTAOwnca, C«nm de Paiilaei6n de Sip. (Aiwind,
1807); Idi;m, Cm»o B-eolorrte ff™. (MwWd. IWKli Oebh4ii»t,
Hi-l.Ofti. ilt B'p. (BuwIoDA, a.d.j: RhalAcas. di la nvmnnA,
£^>ri. (.Vn. iJe £bj). (Madrid, LVBCQt Hmuhx, HiH.GiiH.'it B*if.

9tw (Msdnil, ISwn.

Ram6n Ruie Auado.

Spanish Languaob and Literatdbb. — Spanirii,
a Romance language, that is, one of the modem
spoken forms of Latin, is the speech of the larger
Mirt of the Iberian or most weetorly pwiinwila of
Europe. It belongs to the more central part of the
re^on: Portuguese is spoken in the weston part,
Basque in the Pyrenees district and adjacent terri-
tory, and Catalan in the east. By colonial opera-
tions Spanish has been carried to the Western Hemi-
sphere, and over 40,000,000 of persons use it in South
America (where Bracil and the Guianas are the most
important tracts escaping its sway), in Central
Ammca, Mexico, Cuba, Porto lUoo, and sporadi-
cally in southmn parts <h the Umted States, such as
Texas, California, New Mexico, and places near by.
As the official language it has loi^; previuled in the
PhiUppines, although it has been far from supplanting
the native dialects, for the reason that the Catholic
missionaries, to whom the civilization of the islands
is due, set themselves the task of learning the native
Oriental dialects, rather than the easier one of teaching
the inhabitants their own Spanish idiom. In tibe
earliest period of Spanish geographical ei^loralion
the language was carried to the Cananes. The
expulsion, from 1492 on, of the Spanish-speaking
Arabs and Jews has led to the extension of Spanish
dialects to various parts of Northern Africa, to Turkey,
and to other places. On the whole, no fewer than
60,000,000 of persons use Spanish as their native
language in widely separated parts of the umverse.
In the New Wcvld the Indian languages have reacted
somewhat upon the Spanish voowtmry.

As a medium of literary expresaon Spanish as-
serted itself first in the tw^th centuiy: it had been
ax or seven centuries in the process of evolution out
of Latin. Now, while we properly call it a modem
spoken form of Latin, we must recognize the fact
that it does not represent the highly-refined lan^^uage
of such clasffic Latin writers as Veml or Cicero.
Quite on the contrary, it is the natural development
<n the common, every-day Latin of tiie masses in
Italy and, in particular, ol the «eeob used by the

Latin soldim and oolooists who, as a result of the
Roman oonquest, settled in a part of the Ibeiian
Penineula. This Latin, geno^dly called Vulgar
Latin (and sometimes tamed, less accurately, Low
Latin), is no lees respectable in point of antiquity
than the noble Latin of our classics. Latin auuutt*
like Plautus, who introduce popular characters to
our notice, make them exhibit m their diction features
that the modem Romance languages have perpet-
uated. It was, of course, the severance of r^ationa
with Italy, incident upon the invasion of the barb^
rian tribes and the fall of impair Rome, that led to
the independoit development of the various Romance
tongues (Spanidi, Portuguese, French, ProveitQal,
etc.) out of Vulgar Latin. The more important ele-
ments of differentiation between this latter and classic
Latin were these: phonologically, it made princqtles
of voweT quaUty and sylltibic stress superior to the
classic distinction of quantitatbn; morphologically,
it tended greatly toward amplification, since it ig-
nored many of tiie claanc flexional variations; syn-
tactically, its analytical methods prevuled over the
complicated system of word-order which the el^orate
classic inflexions made possible. These dUTerenccs
are all reflected amply in Spanish. There is little
need of concerning oneself with the Iberian and Celtic
languages current in Spain before the time of the
Roman colonization. So entire was the romanisa-
tion oi the land that they vanished wholb'r except
for some few and very doubtful survhrals in the len-
eon. The groundworic of the Spanish vocabulary
is Vulgar Latin, with certain historical and literary
additions from clasuc Latin, Germanic, Arabic,
French, Italian, and, in a sliahter degree, from the
East and West Indian and other languages.

Vulgar Latin possessed these accented voweb:
a ( = Lat. and d); open e ( = Lat. ^ and ae); close e
( = Lat. i, {, and oe); close t ( = Lat. {); open o
( = Lat. 6) ; cbse o ( = Lat. 0 and ft) ; the diphth<mg
au; and close u ( = Lat. fi). In the transiticm into
Spanish, the open vowels (whether in a free or a pro-
tected position) became the diphthongs ie and ue
respectively (as in piedra, "stone^'; fuerte, "strong").
An adjoining palatal sound coiud, however, pre-
vent the diphthongization. In general a and the
close vowels nuuntained themselves in Spanish
(padre, "father"; aeda. "silk" from Lat. aSta: lid,
"contest" from Lat. lis, Ittem; kora, "hour , (u,
"thou"): the diphthong au became close o {aurum,
Span, oro) : but a neignbouring palatal could close
the V. L. a to e (lecAe, "milk" from lac, lacte), tiie
V. L. close e to t {cirio, "wax taper", Lat. eSreum,
whose e in hiatus before the u provided the modifying
palatal force), and the V. L. close o to u. For the sul>
stantive (noun and adjective) it should be said that a
V. L. fOTm corresponding to the Latin accusative case
was the baas of the Spimiah wwd.

The history of the V. L. unaccented vowels passing
into Spanish varied according to the position of the
vowel m the word; in the initial syllable it was mot«
likely to be preserved; in the medial position or at
the end (i. e. m the last syllable of the word) it oft«i
disappeared or underwent some modification. IX»*
tinctions of quality were unimportant for the V. L.
unaccented e and o in Spain, so that we are now con-
cerned with but five vowels sounds, a, e, i, o, ai^ «
(all of wMch tended to be cloee in value) andwitii the
V. L. diphthong au (which became close o in Spanish).
At the end of a word these sounds were reauced m
Spanish to tiiree, a, e. o, in the really popular pro-
nunciation: unaccentea final i and u are found now
only in Spanish words of a more or less learned tvpe
(as in crisis and tritm). Here a and o have provea to
be quite tenacious: e has disappeared except After
oertun consonantal sounds which Spanish does not
tolerate as final. In the first nrllable of a word, ui^
woented a was tinated usualBr as it wae tvaatod

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vnder fhe aooent; « remauied unkaa doaed to < by a
following palatal or labial element of the aoomted
syllable (as mnmierUe, "seed", Lat. tement, semin-
tem; igwA, "equal", Lat. amaLia-em, V. L. tqualtTn);
igaamJ^ was preserved, ont throi^^ dissimilation

from accented Lat.
{ it sometimes be-
came e (vicinu9,
-urn, Span, imano);
o remamed and V.
L. ou became o,
but a preceding or
following palatal
(Lat. jocari, V. L.
■ioeare, Spaa.jugar,
"to Pli^y": tior-
munaum. Span.
durmiendo, "sleep-
ing") oould dose
the 0 to u and by
dissimilation from
a followii^ ac-
cented 0 the unac-
cented 0 could be-
come e {formSgu*'
um, Span, hermow,
"beautiful"). In
the medial position
a as a rule remained (anas, an/Uem, Span, dnade,
"duck"); the other vowels w^ lost in the popular
pronunciation, but in certain cases, of doubtful popu-
Ur orie^, they appear to have beui kept in order to
IHcaent the juxti^xmtaon of consonants not easily pro*
iioimoedtofEether(Iacrlma,Span.Id9rim(h" In
a great variety of cases anak^ has intoiered wiui the
steictly phcmological development the Latin vowels
into Spuiish. I^ter borrowmgs have conformed either
not at all, or only in part, to the laws of popular
^velopment.

For the greater part the syllable entitled to the
tftress in Latio has retained it m Spaniah: in the verb
4X)niugation, however, no few exceptions are eo-
oountered. These are chiefly due to the operation
of analogy: hence the disloGation d the aooent in
the let and 2nd persons plural of imperative tenses
(omafiOmus, but Span, amdbamoa, to accord with
amdba, amdbaa, amd&an). For obviously convenient
purposes the Spanish Academy has devised a system
of written accents. Ordinarily the mere aspect of
the word is a sufficient index to the place of the syl-
lable stress, since, properly, words ending in a vowel
or in n or « stress the second laat syllable, while those
ending in a consonant (except n or a) stress the last
Callable: all words violating these two leading prin-
ciples and all stressing any syllable exc^t the last
or second last require uie written accent (e. g. amigo,
"friend": talvd, "health"; aman, "Oiey love";
BoKU, "thou bearest": but bonf, "bashaw": hvitped,
"guest"; naci6n, "nation"; tnterfa, "mtereat";
A«A/ano, "orphan").

Eooepting such notable eases as g (befote s w i)
and e (before « or t^, theT.L. consonants were praeti-
ocDy those of classic Latin. As for the vowete, so for
the V. L. consonants, their lot in Spanish bemg de-
pOTdent upon their bein^ in the imtial, the medial,
or ^e final position, Jjx the initial pontion th^
resisted chuige to a large degree; in the medial posi-
tion they mmplified, if double, and in general they
(Uqilaysd a tendency to adi^t themselves to ttw
fliuroimding vooafie conditions <e. g. snigle voiodesa
eonaononts virioed, certain voiced oonsonants wers
idbaozbed, etc.); in the final position thdr enunciation
■ometimea became so weak as to lead to tiidr dis-
^ipearanoe. While the modem Spanish vowels
have preserved much of the sonority of their Latin
(wig^nals, the consonants have grewy weakened in
the force and predsion of their utteranoe; even
XIV.— 13

fined and eorefiil speakers often fdl now to iwo-
nounce the intervocalic d of the past participial end-
ing- in amado, eto., which for uiem bmlome amao
(or amau), eto. At the beginning of the words these
V. L. consonants remain: p, b,t,d,c (before a, o, u, or
r), g (beSon a, o, u, or r), 7, r, m, n, s, p (as in poort,
from WbU, tanto from Umhm, dor from dorei,
eadena from catena, eto). While in tiu Old l^anish
period, i. e. down to the fifteentti century, the initial
p remained the stop or explodve (like l^lnigliffh b) that
it was in Latin, it has become in more recent times a
bilabial spirant and as such is now co-equal with the
Spanish V, which early gained this value both ini-
tially and medially. Still, if pronounced with empha-
sis in the initial pocdtion and everywhere after m and
n, the 6 and v both have the stop sound. The d,
too, initially, metUalty, and at tiie ead <rf the word,
has lost much of its e]qdonve energy and become prac-
tically a spirant; in fact in the final position it is sel-
dom heard in popular pronunciation. The initial r
has a well-roiled trill of the tongue and is equivalent
to the intervocalic rr, while the final r like the medial
single r or r after a consonant (except n, s, I) has a
feebler sound^ even this latter, however, is stronger
than the ordmaiy English r. Latin initial h was
valueless in V. L. and U8ua% was not written in Old
Spanish (Lat. AoUre, O. Sp. aver, modem Aaber); its
appearance in the modem speech is due to an unnec-
essary etymological restoration.

A characteristic change in really popular words is
that of Latin initial / (except before I, r and ue) into
a strong aspirate A sound, still incorrectly denoted by
/ in the Old Spanish period. Later on k was sub-
stituted in writiiu; for this aspirate /, and still later,
like the or^nal lAt. A, this one lost all sound (Lat.
femm, O. Sp. fierro, inodem kierro). There is,
no real reason for supponng, as has been done, that
this transformation of Xat. J was the result of an Ibe-
rian or Celto-Iberian inability to pronouDce initial
/. Before r and ve (from Lat. 6) and also, in quite a
number of cases not well understood before any
sound, the/ remains, as in Latin, a labio-deutal spi-
rant (En^ish f). Vfbaa followed by I the history of
/ was like that of e

S: the result
[ three was a

and
for ai

palatalized I which
soon b^an to be
represented by U
(approximate to It
inEn^ish "filial":
fiamma. Span. Ud-
tna, damare, Span.
Uamar, ete.) . There
are cases tn the re-
tention of the / and
piflor, planta, ete.) .
Bdore e or i,g had
already in V. L.,
like Lat. j and like
Lat. d before an e
or an t in hiatus,
the value of y: in
all cases this y dis-
appeared before
unaccented e and i
(gemumus-wn, O.
Sp. ervumo, mod-
em hermano with

meaninglesB h, eUs,), before an accented « or t or the
other unaccented or accented vowels the y might
remun (oener, generum. Span. yemo;jacet; Span, vocv,
ete.) or become in O. Sp. &j (English j sound) which
in the modem speech has developed into a velar
sound (jam, magia, Span, jamda). Before e (Lat, e, a,
tr) and t the e had already begun to assibilate in Latin
itadf ; in O. Sp. it yidded the voioeleas dental sibilant

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8?AIN

e (pronounced U) : in modem CutDun this sound baa
become tbe li^>ea one (aa in " thin"), and ia written
e before e or i (centum, Span, dento: civiiiu, cwitatem.
Span, ciudad). In Andalusia and la^jely in Coloniu
Spanish the sound is now that of a voiceless a. The

Lat. combination
fu ceased in Span-
ish to have its u
pronounced before
e and t, and the
spelling with u ia
only convrational
(gu«Tn,Span. guimt
etc.), Defore unac-
cented a and o the
u disappeared ab-
solutely (guattuor-
decim, Span, cat-
oree; quoino[do\.
Spw. como, treated
as unaccented in
the sentence); be-
fore accented a the
u retains its value
as a w, and the
combination isnow
■written cu {miando.
Span, cuatido). To
every Latin word
b^inning with« +
a consonant Span-
ish has prefixed an e [aaibo. Span, escribo).

In the medial (intervocauc) position double p, t,
and c (before o, o, u,) simplified (cavpa, Span, capa,
etc.) ; but single p, t, and c voiced to o, d, and o (lupa,
Span, ioba, etc.); and this vijicing also occurred before
r (eapra, Span, cobra, etc.). If t or u in hiatus 0- e.,
a semi-consonant) followed the p, I, e, ttie voic-
ing did not occur (sapuil, Span, ae-pa; aapui, O. Sp.
tope, modem stipe). Between vowels b and g h&ve
usually been kept, the former as a bilabial spirant:
in more popular treatment d has disappeared {aedere,
O. Sp. seer, modem aer), but there are many instances
of its retention {sudare, Span, sudor, etc.). After Lat.
i the V disappeared (rimia-um, Span. Ho), but in most
other oases it remuned as a Inlamal apiraot equal in
Vahie to originally mtervocalio b (novua^m. Span,
nvevo). As m the iniUal position, o diafq>pearea be-
fore e and i {regina. Span. rHna) and remiuned before
the other vowas (neqare. Span, negctr, etc.). While
mn^le I, n, and r remamed unchanged, the double r re-
mamed as a very strongly-triUed sound (like initial
angle r) and double n and I ordinarily palatalized to
the written ft and U (witii sounds wproximate to
those of in English "canyon" and ft in "filial").
Ia Latin the int«*voca]ic a was vcnceless (Ei^Ush a of
"ease"); in Spamah it voiced earl;^ to the sound of
^^Ush z, but this z unvoiced again to the sharply
hissmg 8 in modem Spanish. If double, the Lat. aa con-
tinued to be so written in O. Sp., and remains a voice-
less nngle 8 in modem Spanish, which tolerates no
double consonantal sounds except ii^ rare cases, those
of ee and nn. Spanish (and alrrady V. L.) developed
new abUant sounds out of intervocalic ( ande+irU.e.
e or i in "hiatus"). For iy, O. Sp, had a voiced dz
sound denoted by z (raHo, raiioTum, Span. raz«n) and
tot cy either that same sound or the corxeepondinfE
Tt^odees one of te denoted by O. Sp. f (V, L. capicia,
O. Sp. eabefa) and modem z (cabeia). The Lat. in-
ttfvocafic c followed by e or i, likewise produced the
voiced dz sound, written z in O. Sp. and now written
e or f (in the final pontion) with the lisped sound A
ivnix, crucem, erueea. Span, cnis, ctucm).

Hiere are a eeai many otiier medial omuonaat
oombinations. Notable are the changes of c( to c&
(pronouuoed as in Ti!"e^"'^ "churdb , twr, noetem,
EVMUi.iwcA«),of I+oonsonanttou + ooDsonaoi (attar.

alierum., Span, afro though X autro X autro) or to a
palatalisatKm of the consonant (ynultum. Span, mucho,
with eh like that in English "church^'), of ly to j
(fiUia, Span, e^a) of ny to paJatalixed n (written ft;
cunsua-um, Span, cufto etc.). The variations in the
cases of consonant combinations containing I have not
yet been propo'ly studied. Of the final consonants
usual in LEttin a and n remain, ihe former especial^
aa a sign of the plural of substantives and of verbu
inflexion; (, d, and e were lost {amat. Span, ama;
amarU, aman; eat, Span. e»; ad, Span, a; nee, Span. nt).

It is in its phonological development that Spanidi
dijfereotiates itself most from the related Romance
languages: in its morpholcMpcal and syntactical de-
velopment it is more closely akin to them and the
problema that arise belong in general to comparative
Romance Philology. Therefore much leas attention
need be devoted to them in an individual account of
Spanish. As in general Romance, so in Spanish the
I^tin declensions are reduced practically to tiiree,
corresponding to the Latin first, second, and tiiird;
the neuter gender disappears In the noun (the Latin
neuters usually figurii^ in the second declenjnon as
Spanish mascuHnes) and remains only in the demon-
strative pronoun {eato, eao, aqueJlo) and the article
(/o) ; for nouns and adjectives the only case and num-
ber distinctions left are those corresponding to the
Lat. accusative singular and accusative plural, with
retraitdons of the nominative (vocative) and other
cases in only learned formations {THoa from Deus,
Carlos from Carohu) or in petref actions [as in jwvea.
"Thursday" from Jovia {diea) ; ogafio "this year
from hoc anno, eto.]. The pronoun has preserved
more of the Latin cases {ego, V. L. X eo, Span, yo; acc.
me, Span, me; nw'At, Span, mi, etc.).

The passive uid d^mnent voices of Latin have dis-
appeared and are usuulv replaced byperiphrases (e. g.
a reflexive formation d Ubro ae lee^liber liffitur or by a
combination of the verb "to be" or some equivalent
auxiliary with the past participle of the main verb).
The four regular conjugations of Latin have been re-
duced to three, which parallel the Lat. first, second,
and fourth, and practically to two, since the second
and the fourth diner in amy four forms. A peculiap-
ity of the language ia
the appearance of a
number of so-called
radical-changing
verbs, which, reg-
ular as to their
tense and personal
ending, show a
variation between
ie and us in the
accented root syl-
lable and e (upon
occasion t) and o
(upon occasion v)
in that same syllsr
ble unaccented
(aienlo, aentir, «n-
(atno8, etc.). There
are many insular
(strong) verbs. Of
the indioative
tenses, the present , . . ^

abides; while the future has been supplantfed by a
periphrasis consisting of the infinitive of the mau
verb + the present (or endings of the present)
indicative of haber Lat. Aofcere iamar + he, "to
love" + "I have", whemce amar^, "I shall love").
In like manner a conditional (past future) has bMak
formed by ad(Ung the endings of the imperfeot m-
dicative of haber to the infinitive of the main verb
(amor + [Aa61to, whoice amarla, "I should Urre").
The Lat. perfect indicative has become a nmple pret-
orite in ordiucy use and a new perfect has been pnr*

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PsDBo Cau)eb6n dx i> Baxca

duced by combininif; the present indicative of kabeo
with the past participle of the verb in question {ami
from amavi, " I loved he amado from Aobeo amtUum,

"I have loved").
The future perfect
has ooalesced widt
the i»«eent perfect
of the subjunctive
to form the future
(or hypothetical)
subjunctive, which
tense, however, is
now little used in
spoken language.

Of the Latin im-
perative only the
second singularand
plural present have
remained (ama,
Lat. ama; amad.
Lat. avuite), ana
these are of re-
stricted servioe:
their place is gena>
ally taken in polite
usage by forms de-
rived from the present subjunctive. To go with these
latter there has oeen devised a new pronoun of ceremo-
nious import, uated^ uatedes (from vuettra merced, " Your
Grace", etc.), which is frequently abridged to Vd.,
Vdt. or V.,VV. It may be said once for all that all
the perfect tenses of the indicative and subjunctive
both are made up of the requisite form of the auxiliary
and the past participle of the principfd verb.
OF the Latin subjunctive tenses the present remains;
the imperfect has vanished wholly; the pluperfect
has become an imperfect in force lamaae, ^'1 should
love", from amavissem, amasKm) ', the perfect has been
spoken of. A second subjunctive in^erfeoi laxgely
interchangeable in use wiui the other is one deimd ■
from the Latin pluperfect indicative (amora, "I
tfbould love", Lat. anuaieram, amaram). Thia sUU has
occasionally its original pluperfect (or even pret^te)
indicative force. Of the Latin non-finite forms, the
infinitive, the gerund (with uninfiected present parti-
cipial use) and the past participle (originally passive,
but in Spanish also active) atone survive. In tt^ per- ■
feet tenses which it forms the ^ast participle is in- .
variable: when employed adjectively it agrees with
the word to which it r^ers in both gender and number.
The Latin present participle (in ana, anient, etc.)
has become a mere adjective in Spanish.

A further peculiarity of Spanish is its poesesffion of
two verbs "to have", (ener and Aofter, of wluch the lat-
ter can appear only as the auxiliary of perfect tenses or
as the impersonal verb (hay, "there is", "there are",
AoUa, "tn^was", "therewue", eto.)aDdof twoverbs
"to be", ser and esUtr, winch are likewise kept apart
in their uses (<«r indicates permanency and estor only
transiency when they predicate a quality; esiar alone
can be employed where phyucal situation is concerned ;
etc.). A striking syntactical fact in Spanish is the
employment of the preposition, 6 "to", or "at", be-
fore the noun (or any pronoun except the oonjimotive '
personal pronoun) denoting a defimte personal object
(veo al hmbn, "I see the man"). The word-ord^ is
rather lax as compared with tliatexiBting in the sister^
laz^uages.

Ijtbratubb. — ^As has been stated above, Spanish
literature proporly so-called began in the twelfth cen-
tuiT. Of course Latin documents written in Spain
and running through the Middle Ages from the fifth
century on show, here and there, words which
are obviously no longer. Latin and have assumed a
Spanish aepeiot, but tiaese chartm, deeds of gift, and
like documoits have no literary valod. None at-
taohfls atbM> to the KnKuisUoaUy {ntenatiiic Old

Spanidi fosses of the deventh century, once preserved
in the Monastery of Santo Domingo de Silos at Burgos,
and now at the British Museum in London. But in
the epic "Poona del Cid" and in the dramatic "Auto
de loe reyes ma^os" of the twelfth century we find
Spanish appropriated to tiie purposes of real uterature.
It is not absolutely certain which of these two compo-
sitions antedates uie other; each is preserved in but a
single MS. and in each case the MS. is defective. The
little auto, or play, of "The Ma^an Kii^" seems
to have been based on an earlier liturgical Latin play
written in France, and is certainly not the work of an
apprentice hand, for in (Uction and versification it
snows no httie akill on the part of him who wrote it.
In dnunslie technic it manes an improvement upon
the methods discernible in the group of Franco-Latin
plays to which it is related. It deals of course with
the viat of the Three Wise Men to the stable of the
Child Jesufl at Bethlehem, but the MS. breaks off at
the point where they quit Herod. Thus in Spain, as
in ancient Greece and as in the other lands of Modem
Europe, the drama, in its inception, has close affilia-
taons with reiii^ouB worship. Curiously enoi^, we
have no further absolutely certain recoros of a written
Spanish plav imtil the fifteenth century. We are cer-
tain, nevertheless, that plays were constantly acted in
Spanish during thb long interval, fdr the law-books
^eak of the presence of actors on the soil and brand
some of them, especially those producing juegos de
escamio (a kind « force), as infamous.

All the evidence tends to place the date of composi-
tion of the "Foema del Od" (also called "Gesta de
Myo Od" or "Cantaree de Myo Cid") at about the
middle of the twelfth century. The fourteenth-cen-
tury MS. contuning it is in a deplorably garbled con-
dition, having folios missing here and there and show-
ing lines of very uneven length aa well as assonating
rhymes frequently imperfect.* The chances are that
it was written at first in regularly framed assonance
verses of fourteen to sixteen syllables — each breaking
normally into half-lines of seven to eight syllables,
such as now form the usual romance or ballad line —
and that these verses constituted stanzas or louses <A
irregular length,
such as we find in
the Old French
"Chanson de Ro-
land" and other
dum»on$ de aeste.
The hero celebrat-
ed in the poem was
the dou^ty war-
rior Rodngo (Ruy)
Dial de Bivar, who
died in 1099 and
whom the Arabs
styled Ctdtf— "My
Lord". He had
been exiled from
his native Castile
and, after serving
now this and now
that Moorish king-
ling in his wars
against his neigh-
bours, Rodrigo had
been able to take Valencia from the infidels and estab-
lish himself there as au independent ruler. In the
3700 and more lines of the "Poema" ahhoufdi the his-
torical element is large, the figure of the Cid is highly
idealiied; he is no longer fractious with respect to his
monarch, Alfonso of Castile, as history shows him to
have been, and when he has achieved independence he
still avouches himself an adherent of that monarch.
A f^reat deal is made in the " Poems" of certain unhis-
toncai marriages of the Cid's dauiditers to fictitious
Infantes ol Carrion, who desert tb«r hridfle but are

AauvrfK Mobeto t Cabana

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tttcr decnded after being defeated in the bts by the

Cid'fl cnampimu. He poon bre»tliee throupiout

tlte Bpirit of war; battle scenes are always deecrflbed

with great seat and

■■HH^^^^^T^V^ViPl vanouB oon-

^^^^j^^^^^V^ML XjCj in his victorioUH

^^^^^^ff M^* v Pi'oS'^ throu^
P ^^^WSir^i J \ Moordom are enu-
V ^^BmM^*^tt^k 1 merated fnltv. To
I ^^^^V^>P ^^^^B 1 the tlifalemtii cen-
tury there maybe
ascribed anouer
epic poem treating
ot the Cid. Hub,
also preserved in a
single late and gar-
bled MS., is ciOled
by Bcholan the
"Crteiea rimada"
or tlie "Rodrioo".
It deals with wnol-
ly imaginary ex-

filoits ofthe youtb-
ul Cid. Here we
find the germs of
the story at Rodrigo and Ximena which grew into the
plot irf Ot^Uta de Castro's Golden-Age play, "Las
Mocedades dd Cid", and passed thenoe to Pierre
Comeille's famous french tragi-comedy, "Le Cid"
(1636). Hie original metrical and rhvming sdieme
of the Rodrigo was probably that wnich we have
assumed for the "Poema del Cid".

Another and earlier Castilian hero is the protago-
nist of a thirteenth-oentury epic poem, the"Poemade
Fem^ Gonz^ez", found in a defective fifteenth-cen-
tury MS. As we have it, this " Poema" seems to be
a redaction, made by a monk of the monastery of Ar-
lanza, of an older popular epic. It is in the verse fonn
called cuadema via, i. e. monorhymed quatrains of
Alexandrines, a form much utilised by the didactio
writers of the thirteenth century, when the Alexandrine
was imported from France. The adventures of the
battlesome tenth-centuiy Count FemAn Gons^es^ in
conflict with Moor and Christian and especially with
the hated suzerain, the Kiiu; of Leon, an described
in detaU. The latter part oTtlw poem is nuanng, but
we have the whole of its story narrated in an exceed-
ii^y important document, the *'06nica general"
(or "Crdnica de Espafta") of Alfonso X (thirteenth
century).

This ostensibly historical compilation became, in
the form given to it by Alfonso and his assistants and
in the later redactions made of it, a veritable store-
bouse of Old Spanish epic poetry. Dealing with hia>
twical or legendary figures, the "Cr^kiica" will give
what is regarded as the true record of fact in connex-
ion with them and then proceeds to tell i^utt the min-
strels U^tglaret) sing about them, thus providingus
with the matter of a number of lost poems. The
"Cr6nica" is in prose, but in the portions concerned
with the accoimts attributed by it to the minstrels it
has been discovered that the seeming proee will, in
places, readUy break up into assonanoed varaee of the
epic type. So. while the " Poema dd Cid ", the " Rod-
rigo " and the " FemtUi Gonz^ez " are the only monu-
ments of Old Spanish epic verse preserved in compo-
sitbns of any length, the "Cr6nica general" has
snatches of other epic poems whose plots it has taken
over into its prose. InterestiM among these is the
account which it conttuns of the fictitious Bernardo del
Carpio, whose epic legend would appear to have been
a ^[wiish re-fashioning of the atory of the French epic
hero, Roland. On this account some scholars have
assumed that the Old Spanish epic wae modelled from
tbe inception on the French epopee; but it is probable
that there were Spanish epios antedating the paktd

of FVeneh influenoe (e. g. the Feni^ Gonx^).
Wench inflnenoe aided dmibtleas in the artisUc de-
velopment of the later Spanidi epic l^ends. Ele-
ments of fact have been discovered in the Leyenda
or "L^nd of the Infantes of Lara", whose tranc
deaths, as well as the revenge wrought for them by
their Moorish half-brother, are described in the
"Cr6nica general". The brilliant Spanidi savant,
Mentodei Pidal, has succeeded in re-casting in vetse
fonn an appreciable part of the "Cr6nica" narrative,
Ihvbabty once made tJie subject of poetic tif«atment
were Roderick the Goth and the foreign hero, Charie-
magncj who had had much to do with Spain; the
"Ordmea" has no little to say of them. Before leav-
ing this matter it is meet to advert to the theory once
exploited that the Spanish epic was the outgrowth of
of short epico-lyric songs of the type of certain of the
extant ballads {romancM) some of which deal with the
horoes celebrated in the mios. But it has been
shown that the ballads hardlv go back of the four^
teenth centuir and that the oldest among them w^
derived, in aU likelihood, from episodes in the ejHc
poem or were based upon the chronicle fU3counts.

In the thirteenth century a considerable amount of
religious and didactic verse appeared. Now we meet
with the first Spanish poet known to us by name, the
priest Gonzalo de B4rceo, who was active during the
Bret half <tf the omtury. Adopting the cuadema via
as his verse fwm, he wrote several lives of Saints
("Tida de Sto. Domingo de Silos", "E^toria de S.
MilUn ", etc.), a series of homely but mteresting nanu-
ti<His of miraclee performed by the Blessed Virgin
(Milagros de Nueetra Sefiora), and other devout docu-
ments. In all of these he speaks in plain terms with
the express purpose of reaching the common man. Of
late there has been ascribed to him, but not with cer-
tainty, a lengthv poem m cuadema via, the "Libro de
Alexandre", which Iwinjp^ together many of the
ancient and medieval stories about the Macedonian
warrior. A number of the writings of this period re-
flect, more or less faithfully, French or Provengal
modeb. They include the "Libro de Apolonio",
which may primarily have been of Byzantine arigm,
the " Vid& de Santa Maifa E^ipeiaqua" (dealing mth
the notorious sin-
ner and later fady
hemutee8,St.Mary
of Egypt), the
"BookoftheThree
Kings of the East"
(erroneously so
called, and better
termed the "Leg-
end of the Good
Thief": the MS.
has no Castilian
title), and the "Dis-
puta del Alma yel
Cuerpo" (a form
of the f reouent me-
dieval debates be-
tween body and
soul). Doubtless
also borrowed from
Gallic sources is a
"Debate del Agua y el Vino", which is combmed
with a more lyncal emnporition, the "Raite frtta
d'Amor".

Prose composition on any large scale is poeteriOT to
thatof verse. Apart frmnt^e^'FueroJuzgo" (1241:
a Castilian version (tf the old Gothic laws) and some
minor doeumoits, no notable works in proee appeared
before the advent of Alfonso X (1220-84), who began
to reign in 12S2. An unwise rtil^, he was a great
scholar and patron of scholarship, so much so as to be
called el Sdmo (the Learned) and he made his Court a
great oentre of seiaitifie and Utmry activity. gath»>

1

FutMAJiPO DM Hsuau

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197

8FAIM

ing about him schoUn, Ofaristian, Arabio, and Hebvew,
of whom he made use in hit vast Idboura. Hieaa he
engaged in the compilation of hit hjstorioal, legal, and a»-

tronomieal worfta,
tfnling with them
and taking especial
pains to refine the
literary forma. We
have already epo-
ken eomeiraat of
hiB"Cr6nioadeEs-
pafia" (more com-
monly known as
the '^Oteica gen-
eral"), in which he
SGU^t, using all
available earlica"
histOTical treatises,
to make a record of
tin hiatoiy of hie
own land down to
his time. He thus
inaugurated a se-
ries of Spanish
chronicles whicii
were continued un-
interruptedly for
several omturies
after hkn. Anotlitf
CBrtoisive historical
document is the
"Grande y genwal historia", which he seems to have
intended to oe a summary of the world's history; it
remains unedited. In the "Siete partidas", so styled
because of the seven sections into which it is divided,
be codified all laws previously prcnnujgated in the land,
adding thereto philosophical oisquiBitions on the need
of those laws and on multifarious matters of human
interest. For aBtix)noiny he had a particular affection,
as the extant Alphonsine Tables and other woks d«anon-
strate. Apparently he indited no verse in Castilian;
he has left us some "Cautigas de Sta. Maria", written
in Galician-Portuguese, in which at the time other
Caatilians and Leonese also composed lyric vase.

His example was followed 1^ his son and suooeesOT
Sancho IV, who had put tc^thra- the didactic "Cas-
tigoe de D. Sancho", as a primer of general instnio-
tion for his own son. To Sancho's reign (12S4-96)
or later belongs the "Gran Conquista de Ultaamar",
which adds to matter derived from William of Tyre's
narrative of a crusade fabulous and romanesciue ele>
ments of possible French and Provencal derivation.
This work paved the way for narrative prose fiction in
Spanish. In fact then came ere long the first original
novd in Spanish, the "Caballero Cifar". Some prose
Castilian versions of OrientaJ aphoristic and like di-
dactic material were followed by the fruitful labours of
Alfonso X's nephew, Juan Manuel (1282-1348). In
spite of much time spent upon the battle-field or in
administrative pursuits, Juan Manuel found the
leisure to write or dictate about a doaen different
treatises, whose interest is chiefly didactic, e. r.
the*"ybro de la casa" (on falconry)) the "Ubro del
caballero y del escudero" (a catechism of chivalrous
behaviour), etc. Some of these are not now disoover-
aUe. His masterpiece is the framework of talcs, the
"Conde Lucanor'^ (or "Libro de Patronio"). The
fliories told here by him are of various provenience.
Oriental, and Occidental, and some reflect his own
experience. Two of them contain the essentials of the
I^ot of "The Taming of the Shrew". A collection
of songs which, like Alfonso, he prabaUy wrote in
GaHcian, has passed from view.

Returning now to follow down the course of SpaiuBh
poetry we encounteo' in ^e fourteentii oeotiny, and in
the fint half of it,a real poet, Juan Rini.ai€qpriest of
nu. & wM a bwi oleiw and bto IniDop fciB^

long in prison for his misdeeds. As a poet he was Uie
fint to strike in ^wnish the true lyrical and subjective
note, revelling unbludiinglyhis own inner man in his
scabrous "liDro de buen amor", which is in part an
account of his lubricous love adventures. He was
amanof some reading, as his use of Ovidian or Pseudo-
Ovidian matter and of French fableavx, dita, etc.,
idiows. His rhymes and metres are varied according
to his subject-matter and his mood. Rodrigo Y^fies's
"Poenw de Alfonso Onceno", a sort of chronicle of
AifoDBO XI's deeds, may be only a verrion from the
Oalioan. TheRafabiBemTob's'^Froverbiosmorales",
a collection of rhymed maxims, is not devoid of grace.
In the second half of the century there stands forth
Pedro L6pes de Avala, statesman, satirical poet, and
historian, who died Grand Chuicdlor of Castile, after
serving four succeesive monarchs whose exploits he
chronicled in his prose "Cr6nicae de los reyes de Cas-
tilla". Hispoetiealworkisthe*'Rimado(^palacio",
which is lAaeAy a satirical arraignment of the society
ci his time, and ue^ul as a^cture of living manners
of the poiod. Bendes his "Cr6mcas" he wrote other
proee works and made versions of Latin oompoations.
The fifteenth century is, throughout its first half,

Jre-eminentb' an age of court poetry. At the Court of
uan II of Castile (1419-54) hundreds of poetasters
dabbled in veise; a few really gifted spirits succeeded
occaoonally in writing poetry. There was much de-
bating on love and kindred themes, and, foUowing up
Prorei^al processes, the debating took often the Htrm
»rf venofied plea, repHcstion, rejoinder, sur-rejoinder,
etc. Akmg with this arid, proven^alizing, love specu-
lation, we find two other factors of importance in the
literature of the period: (1) an aU^onzing tendency,
which continued, ^orally in a pedestrian manner, the
allegorical methods of the ItaUans Dante, Petrarch,
and BoccaociOj and, doubtless, also of the " Roman de
la Row" and similar French worics, and (2) a humanis-
tic endeavour, which manifests itself especially by the
rendering into Castilian of noted classical documents
of Latin antiquity. The occasional pieces of the
court poetiEers will be found re|Hreeentea fully enough
in the collection
made by the king's
physician, Juan
Baena,inhi8 "Can*
cionero". In ga>
eral it is safe to say
that the countless
p«lUd, amorous effu-
sions of the court
poets transfer to
the Castilian Court'
the earlier Gali-
cian apin^ of the
conventionalised
Proven^ manner.
And not only did
Uie Caatilians, gath-
ered about their
king, Juan II, trifle
thus with the poetic
muse: the Aragon-
ese and the Castil-
iui nobles who fol-
lowed the

lese arms to the domination of
Naples and Sicily engaged in the same practice, and
their futilities are embalmed in the "Canoionero de
Stdfiiga", prepared at the Aragoneee Court in Naples.

At the opening of the century, one man, Ennque
de Villena, related to the ro^^al houses of both Castile
and Aragon, calls for particular attention. He did
much to propagate the Provencal style of poetry, but
at ibfi same tune he was a forerunner of the Spanish
Humanists, for he made a vernon of the .£neid^and
be dsdared hii love of allegory by writing his "Dooe
inbajos da H^roaks" and his love for tiiejtalians tnr

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Atamo lanA t Ahmoh

tranelating Dante. Francisco Imperial, a sekm of a
Genoese family settled in Spain, did much to .spread
the Danteeque evangel. A friend of Villena ana, like

him^ a lover of
Latin antiquity—
thoufi^ he read no
Latin himself, he
was a patron of
those who did — and
a venerator of the
great ItaUan poets,
whom he imitated^
was the Marqute
de Santillana, Iftigo
LtSpei de Mendoea
(1398-1458). He
was the first to
write in Spanish
sonnets oopymg the
Italian stnictinre: in
this respect his ex-
ample was not fol-
lowed. Not only
did he allegorUe in
verse lees tedious
than that of most
oontemporaries, but he showed an unwonted eclecti-
cism by imitating tfaepopular songs of the mountams
and pastoral folk. His interest m the literature <a
the people is avouched also by a collection of their
rhymed proverbs which he made. Not the least ad-
mirable (rf his productioDB is a little prose letter,
"Carta al condeetable de Portugal", in which he pro-
Tnded ihe fbst account of the history of Spanish Utera-
ture ever committed to writing. Anotho-. luminary
of the age was Juan de Mena (1411-66), the royal
historiographer, to whom we are indebted espeoially
for the ''Laberinto", in which he not only indulged his
allegorising propensities but also makes obvious his
devotion to l^e ancient Spanish Latin poet Lucaa.
At times Mena soars to real poetic hdghts.

The inevitableness <A death bad oigaged the attra-
iion of the plastic and pictorial artist and the UiUra^-
tear to no sh^t extent during the later Middle Ages:
the French " Danse Macabre shows what a hold this
melancholy idea had tfUcea upon thinking minds.
One of the most finished examples of literary treat-
ment of the subject is the Spanish " Dansa de la
muerte", which is of the ea^ fifteeu^ century. It
surpassee in poetic vuour the rYench model whidi it is
said to have followed. A not unworthy historian is
Fem&n P^rez de Gusmto, author of the "Mar de
historias", who evinces no mean power as a portrayer
of character in his "Generaciones y sembUmsas", in
which he describes famous persona^ of lus time.
The prose satire in all ite virulence w represented by
the ''Corbacho" of the archpriest of Talavera, Marti-
nes de Toledo (died about 1470), an invective upon
womankind. Two noteworthy satires of the second
hEdf of the century are the anonymous "Coplas del
provincial" and "Coplas de MingoRevulgo", setting
forth administrative vices and the wroiws done to the
people at laive. The renascenoe of the Spanish drama
IS now forewadowed in some pieces of Q6mez Man-
rique, whose nephew, Jorge Manrique (1440-78),
gained enduring fame by his sweet and mournful
"Coplas" on the deatii ol his father, which Lot^d-
low Dae sldlfully rendoed into Eo^ish verse. An
event of transcendent importance throughout the
civilized worid was the establishment at tfiiB time of
the printing-press; it was set up in Spain in 1474.

Of an lands Spun has the richest supply of ballads
(romances) ; no fewer than 2000 are printed by Durin
in his "Romanoero general". We have reason to sup-
pose that tiiey b^an to be written in tiie fourteenth
oentiuy, but the earUest extant seem to date from the
fifteenth oentmy. The great majority, however, am

ct the nxteenth and seventerath centuries. While
the eariio- among them are anonymous, the later ones
are often by wdl-known writers and are cleariy arti-
fioial in diaiacter. Tomrds the end of the caitury
there tfptttnd in print the first great modem novd^
the " Anutdis de G»ila", which soon b^ot many other
novels of chivalry like unto itsdf , recountii^ the ex-
ploits of other Amadises, of Palmerins, etc. llie
vogue of the pn^ny of the first "Amadia" — ^which
certainly existed m a more primitive form back in the
fourteenth century and has been claimed, against the
greater likelihood, fw Portuguese literature — became
a veritable plagae, reachii^ down into tiie opening of
the seveateenth eentury, when the success of the
"Don Quixote" gave it its death stroke. Over
against the idealism of the povels of chivalry there
stands already, at the close of the fifteenth century,
the crass reaUsm of the "Celestina" (or Tra^come-
dia de Calisto y Melibea), a novel of illicit love to
whidi the author, presumably Fernando de Hojas,
gave a somewhat dramatic form. The work influ-
enced later dramatic [HtKluction and has decided gracee
of style. With the "Egkims" of Juan del Enoina
(about 146^1633), the old sacred drama, already
timidly attoupted by G6mez de Manrique, reappears
without showing any clear advance over we ancient
"Auto de los reyee maggs". Ihioina also essayed
the farce.

Soon after the dawn of the sixteenth century there
commences ihe most glorious period in Spain's polit-
ical history, that reprnented by the expansion of her
fwagn dmninicm during the reigns of Isabella and
Ferdinand, Charles V, and PhUip II. Wealth flowed
in from the transatlantic colonies and provided the
means lot developing the arts on a grandiose scale.
The litersiry art keeps pace with the others, and there
now ensues what the Spaniards call the sigto de oro,
the Golden Age of their literature, which extends
even through the seventeenth century despite the
political, social, and economic decay which that cen-
tury so obviously shows. A dependence imon Italr
and its Renaissance literary methods manifests itneu
in practically every f<Nin of litenury cimiposition.
Italian verse^orms
(the hendecaay lia-
ble, the octave, the
sonnetftheconsone,
etc.) are natural-
iced definitive^by
Juan Boac&tt
(about 1490-1542)
andGarcilaso dela
Vega (1503-86),
who inaugurate an
Italianising lyric'
movement, which
triumphs over all
opposition. After
them the great
poeta use the im-
ported Italian
measures no less
frequently than the
native ones. Con-
temporary ItaliaD-
ates are the Portu-
gese SA de Miranda, Cetina, Acufia, and the verea-
tile Hurtado de Mendosa; of but little effect was the
reactionary movement of Castillejo and Silvestre.
What the nascent drama of Spain in the sixteenth
century owes to stimulus from the Italian drama has
not yet been made out fully. Encina had been in
Italy; Torres Naharro (died about 1530^ published hia
"Pn^aladia", a ecrflection of dramatic piec8B,atNa|te
(thm an AragoDeee Court), in 1617. With him the
puneti&o, or point of hraonr, is already an important
annwtie ma*/ . In Lope de RuedM«bout 1510-65)

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we see a genuinely dramatic Bpirit; he waa an actor,
playwright, and uieatrical manager and understooa
fuliqr hem to appeal to a popular audience, as be clearly
did m bis ptuoa, or comic interludes, dealing with popu-
lar types. After him the dramatists became I^ion
in number ; it would be tedious and futile to enumerate
them all ; only the more prominent and BOecegsful need
mcage our attention.

Juan de la Cuera (about 1550-1609) brings historical
and le^ndary subjects upon the boards: Cervantes
(1547-1616), contrary to the real bent of his genius,
seeks dramatic laurels; Lope de (1562-1635),
Tirso de Molina (Gabriel T6liez, 1571-1668), CaldenSn
(1600-81), Guillta de Castro (1569-1631), Ruiz de Al-
aro6n (about 1581-1639), Rojas Zorrilla {about 1590-
1660), and Moreto (1618-1669) bring imperishable
fame to the Spanish theatre and make it one of the
most marvellously origin^ and fascinating in the his-
ttny of the world. Love of the Catholic reli^on and
i^rification of its practices, blind loyalty to the mon-
arch and exaltation of the feeling called the point of
bcmour, are among the leading characteristics animat-
iDf the thousands <aS plays oomposedby theseand lesser
HnritB. Far the inoividual moits and defects of the
cmief wrHen n^mnoe may be had to the separate
artides dealing with than. To us not the least at-
tractive oaU^ry the playe is that dealing with
living manners of the time (ctmadiaa de capa y e»pada),
in Uie production of which Lope de Vega was the most
successful. The form of the religious play called the
auUt saeramental (Eucharisticplay) was carried to the
height tji its pafection by OddwSn. It should be
MuJ that ^is enramoUB dramatic ou^ut is almost
imrariabhr in rent, and every single fiSxy interweaves
in its ma!k»-Qp a oonnderable number of the possible
measures. It was in this century, too, that FVancisco
de Gusman wrote his "Triimfoe moriilee" and "Flor
de sentencias de sabios" (1557).

Of the prose compositions of the age, the novel and
tale are the most brilliant. The novels of chivalrv
ctmtinue to be written down to the end of the sixteenui
eentury, but already at the end of the first quarts of
that period they encounter a formidable rival in. the
extremidly realistic novel of roguery (novela picareaca)
or picaroon romance, the first and greatest example
wluch is the "Lazarillo de Tormes" which some
scholars would deny to Hurtado de Mendoza, ah%ady
mentioned as an Italianate. This record of the kna-
vish deeds and peregrinations of a social outcast is
paralleled at about 1602 by the "Guzm&n de Alfa>
■ehe" of Mateo Alemto (about 154S-1609), after
nUch come the account of the female ronie contained
in the "Plcara Justina" (1605) of the Toledan phy-
sician L6pez de Ubeda, the "Busc6n" (aiao called
Pablo, el Gran Tacafio, about 1608) of Quevedo— the
aeoond best of its kind — and the " Marcos de Obre-
gte" (1618) of Vicente E^inel. As the novel of
roguery continued to be written, the element of ad-
venturous travel became more prominent in it. Thero
wwe many tate-tellns dealing with a matter-of-fact
wofld nevn so good as it ought to be: notable
among them were Timoneda, whose anecdotes come
hom Italian models. Sabs Barbadillo, Castillo Sol6r-
sano, and Maria de Zayas, all of whom are greatiy
Borpassed by Cervantes in his "Novelas eiemplares,
to say naught of the "Don Quixote" (1605-15: see
CsxvANTH Saavsdra). Eveu more idealistic than
the novel of chivalry is the pastoral romance, which, in
the mke of the Italifui Sannassaro's "Arcadia" and
the FortugiHse Ribdro's imitation of it, makes its first
and best appearance in Spanish in the "Diana"
(about 1558) of Jorge de Montemayor (or Montemdr,
■noe he was a Portuguese by biitfa). Two sequels
were written, that of Gil Polo being of much merit:
in fmeral, however, the pastfffal romance waa a
faaUonaUe pastime and bad no popular appeal.
Cervantes with bis "Galatea" and Li^ de Ve«a with

his "Arcadia" are two of the many attempting this
ultra-conventionalised Uterary fcnm. There is one
worthy representative of the historical novel, the
"Guerras civiles de Granada" of Piret de Hita.

In phiUwopbical speculation Uie ^>attiuds, though
active enough, at least in the sixteenth century,
have not shown great initiative in dealing with
modem problems. Mystidnn,^ nevertheless, has in-
formed some of their best thinking q>irits, several
of whom used both prose and verse. Noteworthy
among them are the iUustrious St. Theresa (1515-82),
St. John of the Cross (1542-91), Luis de Granada
(c. 1504-88), and the noble poet and prose-writer,
Luis de Le6n (1527-91). Luis de Le6n was of Sala-
manea, at whose univermty be taught: at Seville an
exodlent poet was Fernando de Horera (about 1534-
97), whose martial odes and sonnets, celebrating
Lepanto and Don John of Austria, are illustrative <m
his muse. The best lyricists of this a^e, besides Leto
and Herrera, are Fr^cisco de Rioja (15^-1650),
Rodrigo Oaro (1573-1647), and Francisco de Aldana,
caUed ov his contemporaries el dioirw. Several efforts
are made now to revive the epic: while Lope de Vega
and Barahona de Soto vie with the Italifuis Ariosto
and Tasao to but little purpose, Alonso de Brdlla
(1533-94) alone, out of those celebrating reeeant or
current heroic happenings, achieves real success. His
"Araucana" turns upon the Spanish campaigns
against the Araucanian Indians m South America.
Besides the epic poem of ErclUa, there are three more
worthy of mention: the "Bernardo" of B. de Bal-
buena (1568-1627), the "Monserrat" of Oistdbal de
Viru^ (lfi4»-16I6), and the "Cristiada" of Diego de
Hojeda (d. 1611), who won by his work the title itf
'"nie Spanish Elopstock". Pedro de la Cerda y
Granada and Francisco de Enciao Monz6n are also
authors of two epic peons on the life of Christ. The
series of chronicles inaugurated back in the thirteenth
century continues into the Golden Age, and in the
work of the Jesuit Juan de Mariana (1637-1623) the
digni^ of real history-writing is achieved. He wrote
his "Historia de Espafia" in Latin and ^en trani^
lated it into excellent Spanish. We find also excel-
lent historians of this period in Alonso de Ovalle
(1610-88), Martin de Roa (1561-1637), Luis de Gua-
man (1543-1605), Jos^ de Acosta (1539-1600), whose
"Historia natunu y moral de las Indias" has been
highly praised by A. Humbolt: Antonio de SoUs
(1610-88), author (rf the famous "Historia de Nueva
Espafia", Gonzalo de Illescas (d. 1569), who wrote a
"Historia Pontifiical", and Pedro de Rivadeneira
(1526-1611), whose ''Historia del Cisma de IngU-
terra" was composed from most authentic docu-
ments. Care must be taken not to rctfard as real
histoiy the " Marco Aurelio con el reloj de principes"
(1529), and the "D^cada de los C^es" (1539) of
the Bishop Antonio de Guevara (died 1545). His
"Epistolas familiares" (1539) and the "Marco Au-
rdio" (Dial of Princes) passed through a French ver-
sion into En^ish: without good reason the rise of
eu[dkuiam in En^and has been attributed to imitar
tion of the style of these works of Guevara.

Vices of style wero, however, to become all too,
prcHninent and general in Spanish literature of the
seventeenth c^ury and to pervade verse and prose
slike. The poetG^ngora (1561-1627) gave currency
to the literaiy excesses of style (bombast, obscu-
rity, exuberance of tropes and metaphors, etc.)
wmch is called Culteranism, or, after him, Gon-
gprism, and th^ q>read to all forms of compoei-
tion. To Gongoriam above all other things may be
ascribed the wretched decay in letters which en-
sued upon tjie end of the seventeenth century: this
canker-worm ate into the heart of literature and
brought about its corruption. While even the great
Lope de Vega and Cervantes (the many works of ooth

of Uiese are treated in extmto in thSLartMi^^c

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200

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with them), the masters of the whole age, yielded to
the blandishments of Gongorism, the sturdy spirit
Quevedo fought it strenuously. His satires (Saefios,
1627) and other writiiuB, his political treatises ("Po-
liticadeDios", 1628^ "Marco Bruto"^ 1644; etc.). and
his multitudinous brief compodtions m veree are fairly
free from the Culteranistic taint. On the other hand
he practised conceptism, anotbor r^rettable exoees
resultiiw from overmuch playing with ccnio^ts or
philosophical ideas. A regular code of the principles
of conceptism was prepared by the Jesuit Graci^
(1601-58) in his "Agudeza y arte de mgenio" (1648);
other notable writings of his are the "ahoe" and the
"Critic6n". As has been intimated, Danish Uto^
tuni, infected with Gongorism, fell to a very low level
at the end of the Golden Age.

Early in this period the Argensola brothers,
BartoIom6 Juan and Lupercio, flourished. The lat-
tea- (d. 1613) produced three tragedies ("^bela",
"FUis", and ''Alejandra") y/idch Cervantes makes
one of his characters in "Don Quijote" commend
highly; Bartolom6 Juan, a priest (d. 1631), is brat
known by his "Historia de la conquista de las Islas
Molucas'' and other worits of contemporary history.
Jcrdnimo Zurita y Castro (1512-80), called "the
Tacitus of Spain", spent thirty years in preparing his
"Anales". During the fifteenth century, too, the
religious orders in Spaon produced a vast amotmt of
devotional and ecclesiolopcal writing which deserves,
in many cases, to rank with the most enduring monu-
ments of Spanish Literature. The list of religious
writers includes Jos^ de SigQensa, a lEeronymit*
(1540-1606), of whose history of his own order a
fVendi critic said it made him r^ret that Si^ensa
had not undertaken to write tbia history of Spain.
The Dominican Alonso' de Cabrera (154&-05) is con-
sidered to be the greatest preacher of Spain, which
fact is tested by his numerous sermons and by his
famous funeral oration on Philip 11. In oratory
B. Juan de Avila (1502-69), the Augustinian Juan
Marquez (1564-1621), the Franciscan GiU>riel de
Toro, the Jesuit Florencia and the Archbi^p of Va*
lencia Sto. Tomis de Villanueva rank very faieb. Also
worthy of mention is tJie Jesuit Juan Hneoa (15S7-
1637), who has left, besides a panegyric on Dofia
Luisa de Caravajal, two masterly discourses on the
Immaculate Conception. Another Juan Pineda, a
Friar Minor, was the author of copious commentaries
and of such Spanish devotional works as "Agricul-
tura Christiana" (1589). Two oUter Jesuits, Luis de
la Palma and Juan Eusebio de Nieremberg, nave left
works in Spanish which are still esteemed as gems of
spiritual literature: the former, "Historia de la Sa^
gradaPasitfn" (1624); the latter, among others, the
nunous treatise " De la diferenda entre lo temporal
y lo etemo" (1640). The "Eiercioio de perfeccidn y
virtudea cristianas of Alonso Rodriguez (1526-1616)
and the "Conquista del reino de Dios" of Fray Juan
de loa A^eles (d. 1595) rank among the tQost classic
works of Danish literature. The wntings cn Ven. Luis
de la Puoite (1654-1624), (see Lapuentb, Luis db),
€i Mal6n de Chaide (15^1592), Domiogo Garcia,
and many other ascetic authors are also of much lit-
erary vame.

In the first half of the ei^teenth century — a period
much troubled by the political turmoil resulting upon
the establishment of the Bourbons on the throne of
Spain — writers still abounded, but not a genius, not
even a man of average talent, was to be found among
them. The ssthetic sense had be«i mined by Gon-
gorism. To reform the taste of both writers and the
public was the task which Ignacio de Lusto (1702-64)
set himself in his "Po^tica", published in 1737. Here
he argued for order and restraint and, addressing
himseu especially to dramatic writers, urged the adop-
tion d the laws of F^ch classicism, the three unities,
1^ the reel. The doctrinee thus pMdwd t:^ him

wtfe taken up by others (Nasarre, Montiano, ete.)
and, desmte some objection, they eventually -pre-
vailed. While they were applied with some felicity
in the plays of the elder Moratln (Nioolfb Femtodes
de M., 1737-80) and of Jove Llanos (1744-1811), it
was only in the pieces, eepeci^y the prose plays,
"El eafi" and "Et sf de bs nifias" (1806), ^ the
youngtf Moratfn (Leandro Femdndes de M., 1760-

1828) that their triumph was made absolute, for he
realty gained popular favour. A refinement of the
poetic sense and a decided partiality for classicism is
apparent in the lyrics of the memb^ of tiie Salaman^
can School, whose head was Mel^ndes Vald^ (1754—
1817); they included also Cienfuegos, Di^ Gonz^es,
and Iglesias. French influence extends to the tw»
vene fabulists, Iriarte (1750-91) and Samaniego
(1746-1801); thev were familiar with La Fontaine as
wen as the Phfedrus and the English fabulist Gay.
An admirable figure is the Benedictine FeiJ6o (172il-

1829) , who, with the essays contained in his "Teatro*
crltico" and "Cartas eruditas y curioeas", sought to-
disseminate through Spain a knowledge of the ad-
vances made in the natural sciences. The name of '
Feii6o suggests that of his great contemporary Joa6'
Rodriguez (1777), a man of great talent and htnary
skill, and also that of the famous Dominican FralicisoO'
Alvarado (1756-1814), commonly called d fiUi^o'
rondo. The Jesuit Isls (1703-81) attracts nofeioe by
the improvement of the pidpit oratm^ of the time
which he brou^t about tlirough the medium of his^
satirical novel, the "Pray Gerundio" (1758). Lda.
made a ^anish version of the picaroon romance, "Gil
Bias", ofuhe Frenchman Le S^. In the writings of
the young c^oer, Joe^ de Cadidso (1741-82), tbere m
exhibiteathe workii^;s cS a charming edectie aeose:
his "Noches lugubres" were in«)iI^sd by Youni^*
"Nig^t Thouf^ta", his "Cartas Mairuecas" repeat
prettily the scheme of Montesquieu's "Lettres per-
sanes'' and Goldsmith's "Citisen of the World'*.
Alone among the dramatists of the latter half <rf the
century Ram<Sn de la Cruz (1731-94) shows a fondness
for the older native dramatic tradition, (pving new life
to the old paao ^interlude) in his "nametes". Tbe
last jHut of tlie eiriiteenth century, during iHiich tbe
Jesuits were exiled by Charles III, was a flourishing
literary period for them. Among those who dmem
mention are: Est^ban de Arteaga (1747-99), who, ac-
cording to Menendes y Pelayo, was the b^ critic of
(esthetics in his time; Juan Andres (1740-1812), who
wrote the first history of universal literature, Lorenso
Hervis y Panduro (1735-1809), founder of modem
phflol<«ieal science, Francisco Masdoo, authra ot a
comproiensiTe "ntstoria critica de Entafia". An
excellent poet was Juan Clfmaco Salazar (1744-1816),
whose "Hardoque" is one of the best Spanish plays
of that century. The Augustinian Enrique Fiorei
began to publish in 1747 his monumental historical
work entitled "Espafia Sagrada"; in the mean time
(1768-1785) the two brothers Rafael and Pedro
Rodrigues Mohedano gave to Spain a literary history
in ten vt^umes of the first centuries of her Roman
civflization. Many other capable men devoted their
labours to historical research, such as Andrte Bunrid*
Perez Bayer, Sarmiento, Rafael Floranes, and An-
tonio C^pmany (1742-1813).

In the early years of the nineteenth century Frenoh
influence remains predominant in the world of letters.
Quintana (1772-1857) and the d«io Gallego (1777-
1853), even in the very heroic odes in which vbey voice
the Spanish patriotic protest against the invamon of
the Napoleonic power, remain trae to Frenoh daan-
cist principles. In his various compositions Quintana
is essentially a Rationalist of the type of the French
encyclopedist of the eighteenth century. A nowinc
tendency to break through the shackles of Freoon
olaasiciBm ismanif eet already in the literary endeavours
qf tbe men who fteined irtuht is uBuaUy oaUed the S0I199I

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4f Serine: tlie leaden among them were tiBta,Arioaa,
R^oso, and Blanco (known as Blanoo White in Eng-
land, whither he went later as an apostate priest;.
Under the despotic rule of Fernando Vll many
Liberals had fled the land. Going to Enghmd and
France they had there become acquainted with the
Romantio movement already on foot in those regions,
ant^ when the death of the tyrant in 1833 permitted
tbeir return, they preached the Romantic evangel to
thdr countrymen, some ot whom, even though they
had stayed at home, had already learned somewhat
of the Romantic method. With his "Conjuracidn de
Venecia" (1834) Martinez de la Rosa (1787-1862)
shows Romantic tendencies alreadjr appearing upon
the boards, althoii^ in most of hispieces (Edipo, etc.)
he remains a classicist. Manuel Cabanyee (1808-33)
and Monroy (1837-61) two of the greatest ^ts of
this period, also remained classicists even amidst the
Romantic tendencies. The Romantic triumph was
really achieved by the Duque de Rivas (1791-1865),
who won the victory all along the line for it, in his
play, "Don Alvaro" (1835), his narrative poem,
^'EI moro exp^ito" (1833) and his lyrical "Faro de
Malta". The obtest poets of the Spanish Romantio
movement are Espronceda (1809-42), in whom the re-
volt against classic tradition is complete, and Zoirilla
(1817-93). The former is noted for bis "Diablo
mundo", a treatment of the Faust theme, his "Estu-
diante de Salamanca", reviving the Don Juan story,
and a series of anarchical lyrics: the latter displays
the Romanticist's liking for the things of the Middle
4ges in his "Leyendas" and has provided one of the
most famous and popular of modem Spanish plays in
his "Don Juan Tenorio".

Towards the middle of the nineteenth century
Romanticism began to wear away and to yield in

fj&in, as elsewhere, to a new movement of Realism,
ven during the Romantic ferment the dramatist
Bret6n de los Herreros (1796-1873) had remained un-
affected and sought fame simply as a painter of man-
ners, while the Cuban playwright and poetess, Ger-
trudis de Avellaneda (1814-73), oscillated between
Oaasiciam and Romanticism. In the plays of Tam-
«roy Baus (1829-%) and Abelardo L6pez de Ayala
(1829-79) Realism and [wychology take the upper
hand: both assail the Positivism and Materialism of
the time. In both the lyrics and the prose of Gustavo
Adolfo B^cQuer (1837-70) there comes to view the
mournful subjectivity of the Teutonic north whence
his ancestors had come. The essay, written with a
particular attention to the customs and manners of
tbe diQT, had flourished in the first half and about the
middle of the century. Mariano 3ob6 de lam. (Fl-

Saro, 1809-37), Est^banez Galder6n (1799-1867) and
lesonero Romanoa (1803-82) with their character
sketches and their pictures of daily happenings had
paved the way for the novel of manners, which became
an actuality in the stqries written by Femfin Caballero
(pseudonym for CecUia Bohl de Faber; 1796-1877).
Her stories ("Ija Gaviota"; "Clemencia"; etc.) are,
so to speak, moral geogn^ihies of Southern Spain,
llie growth of the novel has been the particular pride
of ^HUiish literature of the nineteenth oentui^: it
contmuee to be a gratifying spectacle still. The novel
of manners, started by the authoressFemin Caballero,
has been treated with skill by Joe& Maria de Pereda
a334-95), Luis Coloma (b. 1851), Maria Pardo Bazdn
(bom 1851), Antonio de Tnieba (1819-89), Pedro
Antonio de Alarc6n (1833-91), and the humourist
Vital A» (b. 1861). The historical novd has been
cultivated with success by F. Navarro Villostada
(1818-1895) in his "Amaya" and by Luis Coloma in
his "Reina Martir" and "Jeromin". Am63 Esca^
lante (1831-1902^ has also attempted this branch of
fiction. Most of these show more or less of an in-
clination to indulge in naturalistio methods of the
SVeneh atda without, however, deeoending to the

extremal of the Zolaeeque method. While theM
story-tellera belong to the reiJistic eatery, Juan
Valera (1824r-1905) has been c<u)sistenUy an idealistic.
However high his principles, his "OHuendador MeiH
doza" and ^'Pepita Jimtoes" by no means evideiice
hi^ moral spirit in their author.

Not lees than the development of fiction has been
the advance of oratory, history, and bellea-lettree in
modem Spain, and to such an extrat that since the
Golden Age there has been neiUier such an abuiKlanee
nor such exoellenoe. With such men as Donoso y
Cortia (1809-53), Aparisi y Guiiarro (1815-72),
C^dido Nocedal (1821-85), and Ram6n Nocedal
(1842-1907), political oratory has been raised to a
high standard maintained at present by LarCierva.
Vaaquez Mella. Maura, and Senante. As sacrea
orators those deserving mention are: Jos^ Vinuesa
(1848-1903), Juan Maria SoUl (b. 1863). and the
Piarist Calasans Rabaza. In tiie field of religious lit-
eratur© lasting fame has been acquired by Donoso
Cc^Ue, author of an "Ensayo sobre el Catolicismo,
el Liberalismo y el Socialismo", Jaime Balmes (1810-
48), whose "Protestantismo comparado con el Cato-
licismo " poesessea all the charm of literary style, Fran-
cisco Mateoe-Gago (1827-1890), Adolfo de Qaravana,
Manuel Orti y Lara and D. F. SardA y Salvany.
Tom&s Camara, Antonio OomeUaa y Cluet and Jom
Mendive, in works as complete and sound in their
learning and philosophy as they are cumulative in
arguments, have refuted the doctrines M Mr. WiUiam
Drapper introduced into Spain by the iireligious
philosopher Sahner6n. Historical and critical re-
search has been carried on by such writers as Antonio
CavaniUer (1805-1864), Modesto and Vicente La
Fuente, who rsc^metively have written the most com-
prehensive "Historia de Espafia" and "Historia
ecleai^tica de Espafia". Foremost in archeology
were Aureliano Fernandez Guerra (1816-94), Joe6
Marfa Quadrado (1819-96), Pedro de Madraio (181&-
98), Pablo Piferrer (1818^), who have been buo
oeeded by Eduardo de Hinojosa, Antonio Paz y Melia,
Fidel Fita, and many others whose discoveries have
brou^t light to bear on many obscure facts in the
histwy <rf Spam. laterary research has been «z-
tended by the most ei^utble men, such as by Laverde
Ruiz (1840-90) to whom a great part (tf the preeoat
Uterary movement in Spain is to be attributed, J.
Amador de los Rios (1818-78), author of a mast^ly
"Historia de la literatura espa&ola", also M. MilA y
Fontanals, L. A. Cueto, Gonzalez FedrosOj Alfonso
Durdn^ and Adolfo de Castro have won a high name
in critunam by Hieir valuable worira on literary inve^
tigatitm. Of livii^ critics rarticular mmtion should
be made of M. Menendez y Pelayo, Manuel Serrano y
Sans, and Ram6n Menendez y Pidal, who cMnbiue
literary graces with the methods of true scientific
research. Juan Mir y Noguera (b. 1840) is one of the
most prolific and remarkable writers m the present
day. During the second half of the nineteenth cen-
tury, high rank among the lyric poets was attained by
Vicente W. Queral (1836-18^), J. CoU y Vetri
(d. 1876), Federico Balart (1835-1903), Ram de Viu
(d. 1907), Joa& Selgas (1824-82), known as the poet a£
the flow^ as J. M, Gabriel y Galiln (1870-1905) is
the poet of the fields. Nuftez de Aroe (1834-1903) is
also a lyricist of inspiration and author of the beet
historical drama of the period ("El Haz de lefia",
dulling with the Don Carlos tradition).

The literature of Spain has been greatly enriched by
the modem Renaissance of the Catalan literature.
Hk Renajasaace period indudee Moesen Jadnto
Verdaguer (1843-1902), author of "Idilis y cants
mistics", "Patria", "Canim)", and "Allanti(to", and
perhaps the fp^ateet poet of modem Spain; Francisco
Cases y Amig6, Jaime Colell, Joan Maragall (1860-
1912), Rubi6 y Ore, author of " Lo Gaiter del Uobre-
gat", and M. Costa y Llobera, who has written both

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BPAIK

in Spanish and Catalan such wotIcb as "Poeefaa Ifri-
ea8''^"HoracianeB" and "ViaionsdePakstina". The
Inspired compositions of Teodoro Llorrente (1830-
1911) axe wTitt^ both in Spanish and in hia native
ValeiHnaii dialect.

Lkirat7AOPs — B*.iaT, Die ipnnuch* Spmeha so GaflBER, Grand-

iJUnMaii itttipontieAaf £fem«Riarbuch (HeidelbefR. ^VW) ■. JxiLu,
Jpwpi..0I" iiiifiiii'miiM 'i i/l (liiad od., L«i|jiiK, l<.-<»ji: ll.tVhi^bN,
BpVnm» &nm. (Halle, 1810); faitn. Old .■iinni^l'. Remixngf
fBOfton. 1911): Dt^. Oram, dtr rojiviii. Sprachtn, (^irii (id., 1^70-

■ 72: ah the Frennh tc); Metek-Ludke, Gravri. dff rsfftSf . 3p"ielttn.

JLeiiiUB, laSO — ,<if. tbo Fntaeh tr.l; Bd-tiO-CBBBVO. l/ramilfiWl
< la IdtvW castcuaiiar vaiiiuua tu-licJ-sa in the /icnuTiMi. tlte 2ni«-
fSr rotfianiiehm Spriictirn. ere., tho jBu/I. Aiirpani^iTie. the Reiut
lU*t)0)liVn<tt ■th" Oullttra m^-'iltTTta, Mitlfn PkUcloffij, ihe Modtm.
iMHIfW4it Si^fl, OK., th* fJriiFJi jj[ih7B- for njt3 Is h -apeak in|5 atudenta
by IlAMati-, IJ'in.-j A.vi> Fi>i,L>, 1 ! \K.''T;it. ftf.. ^'-nn; f>f wbtcb aivfl
e*!-(?nsif^ liihliiij;:rB.|-]hii>fl,

Ll^Ell^TT^B^;. — Uaiat, D-ia ijiariUikv !.iU. iaGR&BEk. Qnindri^a
lin- romafi- FMul,, il (SfraaburK, ISfl"), i, 3S3 eqq.; Ticknob.
fl'iflf, Span. LUerritnre (Gtli od.. EoaCon, 185Sl cf. the Oeriiinn
and Sparii'lj tr fi-jT i~ijrr>--L'tifin;i tkni! n/fititmos); RtKfi, Span.

ILLOfeUTii-K^.i.M. yVi.-I. ■/ .Sj.'.jn. /.i.'c.-.Lfurf ll^uiJun, IM-H. Netlef
pn tlia Spaoiah. uul MpeciuUy Lhe FrtiiK'U tr,: liiLter liiui a
onAnWjblbS?^^ J>rfci9 <.rhl.:l. .If i.l hU. r^^juipn.

{nail, IBWt%aw«mras6lliriM«i above.

J. D. M. FoBD.

Spanish- Amxbican LrriiiuTnRB, the literature iiro-
duced by the Spanish-epeaking peoples of Mexico,
Central America, Cuba and adjacent islanda, and of
ScAith America with the notable exceptiona tx Braxil
(whose speech is Portuguese) and the Gnianaa. In
the main the methods and the ideals of the Spanish-
American writers, whether those of Uie colonial
period or those of the period which has elapsed since
the various American states achieved their indepen-
dence, have not differed radically from those of Spain,
the motherland. In spite of the acerbity due to
poUtical differences, the Spanish-American colonies
and republics have never forgotten that they are <rf
1^ same race, the same rehnon, and the same speech
88 the Spaniards. Quite unlike the setUers of North
America, the colonists who came from Uie latin
countries of Southern Europe made no organized
attempt to extirpate the aborigines, and the latter
still remain to the extent of millions in number.
Some of the aboriginal races stiU maintain their lan-
guages, more or less interlarded with Spanish words,
but the intdleetual developmoit oven to them has
been limited. The Hta^ture m the indigenous
Indian population, mixed or pure, is Spanish no less
than that of the desc^dants of the Spanish colonists.
Naturally, in the colonial period, when the work of
discovery, exploration, and aettl^ent was being
carried on, the literwy output was not very great;
yet it comrares favourably, to say the least, with the
output in French and Bntidi North America.

In the early times ai the colonies no few Spaniards,
whom chance or an adventurous spirit broimit to the
new world, wrote their most notable works there.
Among the number is one of considerable worth,
Alonso de Ercilla (1533-04), the author of an epic
poem, "La Araucana". This deals with the conflicts
between the Araucanian Indians and the invading
Spaniards, and has the honour of being the first dia-
tmguished piece of belles-lettres produced in the New
WoHd, antedating by far any ccnnparable works
mitten in North America. Just as men gf Spanish
birtii composed their prose or verse document in
America, so, also, certain American-bom colonials

EEissed over to the motherland and, writing and pub-
shing there, added lustre to the history of the liter-
ature of the Iberian Peninsula. A good example is
Juan Ruiz de Alarcdn, one of the most admired of
Spanish dramatists of the aiglo de oro, whose play,
"Ta verdad sospechoaa", furnished Comeine wiu
the inspiration and the material for hia "Menteur",
vlixoh in its turn is the cornerstone of the claisdo

comedy of France. Hie printing press was set up in
the new regions in 1539, eighty years before the Pfl-
rrims reached Massadiusetts, and about 1550 Cbailes
V signed the decree establishing the University of
Mexioo. To some among the explorers we are in-
dited for accounts of their journey of discovny
and conquest. These writing of scientific and his-
torical interest were followed in later generations by
others treating mainly of botanical and astronomical
subjects, to the studv of which the impetus was givoi
by the labours, on the soil, ol noted foreignora such
as the Spanish botanist Jok Celestino Mutis (1732-
1808), the FrenchmeB La Condamine, de Jussieu etc.,
and, of course, the great German Alexander Humboldt.

As might be expected, Gongorism. the plaguecrf the
Uterature of the motherland, infected the compositions
of the seventeenth and the early eighteenth centuries
in America. That neo-Gassicism, which Luzan and
his followers established in Spain, was echoed by this
or that poet of the Western world. In the revolu-
tionary period patriotic verse flourished, being gov-
erned chiefiy by the models provided bjr the Si^iaids
Quintana and Gall^, who, with their heroic odes,
had voiced the peninsiila protests against the Napo-
leonic invasion. In terms nardly less passionate than
theirs the insurgent Spfuiish colonists celebrated their
struggle against the domination from over the aea.
The rom5tntic movement, following in the wake of
neo-CIassicism, had owed its great success in Euro-
pean lands to its evocation of traditions ot the medie-
val past. Naturally, none such existed fw the
colonists of the newly-found lands, and it is rather
with respect to matters of external form than those
of substance that romanticism found a reflex in the
Spanish-American literature. In general, it may be
said that, of the various genres, it is the lyric that had
received the greatest development in the Spanish-
American regions. The novel has been written with
more or lem success by an occasional gifted spirit;
the drama has not fared equally well. For a more
detailed consideration of the aubject with which we
are concerned it seems best to deal with it according
to the geographical divisions marked by the existing
states.

Mexico. — ^This was formerly the Viceroyalty <rf New
Spain. It was the colony most favoured by the
Spanish administration and in it culture struck its
deepest roots. Hers was set up the first printing
press, and here was founded, as has been said, the frst
university, which, authorized by the Emperor Chariea
V, began its useful career in 1553. The first bojA
was sent from the press in 1540' during the six-
teenth century over a hundred works were published
in Mexico. A number of Andalusian poets visited
Mexico during the sixteenth and seventeenth centu-
ries and influenced its literary productions. Among
them were Di^ Mejfa (sixteenth century), who,
shipwredced on the coast of San Salvador, made there
his CastiUan version of the elegies of Ovid ; Gutierre
de Cetina (1520-60); Mateo Alemdn, the well-known
author of the picaroon novel, "Guzmin de Alfa-
rache", who published in Mexico, in 1609, his "Orto-
grafia castellana"; and possibly Juan de la Cueva,
the first thorourfi-going dramatist, actor, and stage
manager of the Spanish-speaking world. At Mexico
City were was promoted m 1583 a poetical tonmar
roent (certamm portico) of the kind so much favoured
in Latin Europe; about three hundred prasons pre-

Diego Martinez de Eibcra in equal terms with those
in \mich he praises the Mexican Francisco de Terra-
zas, a contemporary of whom he says "tiene el nom-
breae&y alUtanconocido". Various occasional lynct
81^ an unfinished epic, "Nuevo Mundo y ConquiB*
tft", constitute the known work of Tenasas. xbe

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"Ptfwrino Indiano" of Aotonio Saavedra OiutnAn,
printed at Madrid in 1599, gives in its twenW cftntoe
A very pedestrian account « the oonqueet as the r©-
gion. Apparently the earlieet speeimenB td the drama
actually written in Mexico are those otmtiUQed in the
"Coloquios eepirituales y Poesfas aagradas" (MF Hei^
n&n Gonz&les de E^va, pubtiBhed in 1610, yeats
after the death of the author, who may have ben
an Andalusian by birth. His plays are little reli-
sious pieces of the category of the aula and seem to
nave been written between 1567 and 1600. It may
be remarked that from the very b^pnning of the
Spanish rule it had been the custom to peiKirm the
little rdmous pieces called autos (two of the autos of
hope de Vega had been translated into the Indian
dialect callra Nahuatl), and the Jesuits, yrho ooo-
stantly fostered scenic perform anoes in ooauexion
with the work of higher edueati&n admitustered by
them, did their best to develop an interest In die
drama. Certainly a Spaniard by birth, but trained
in Mexico and raised to the episcopacy aa Bishw
d Porto Rico, Bernardo de Balbuena (1568-1627)
exhibits in his verse a love for both Spain and his
adoi^ted land, minelin^ therewith many reminiscences
of his reading of classic poetry; he celebrates eqw-
cially the beauty of external nature m Us little poem
"La Grandeza Nfexicana" (Mexico, 1604 uid I860:
Madrid, 1821-2; New York, 1828), which eUcited
praise from the Spani^ poet and critic Qu in tana and
which, in the opinion of Men^ndes y Pelayo, is the
poem from which we should date the birth of Spanish-
American poetry properly so called. His chia work
is "El Bernardo' , an epic showing the influence of
the Latin otic poets and also of Ariosto. A Mexican
by birth, Juan Ruiz de Alamte's (d. 1639) litenuy
activity belongs to the history ctf die literature «
Spain, where he passed the greater part (tf his life
and died. His dramas are teomicaUy to be reckoned
among the best in the Spanish classic repertoire.

Gongorism infected the compositionB of the Jesuit
Matfaa Bocanw'a, known chiefly for his "Canci6n al
desengafio". Carlos de SigQenza y G^ngora (164fr-
1700) was a scholar of importance who pat forth
documents dealing with matters cf mathoni^oal,
philosophical^ and antiquarian interest. Amoiw his
writings is his "Elogio iftnebre de sor Juana In& de
la Cruz", praising the virtues of one of the most dis-
tinguished of the authoresses in Spanish that either
the Old World or the New World has produced, un-
equal thot^h her genius was in its manifestations.
B^ore becoming a nun she was Juana In^ de Asbaje
(1651-91), noted for both her beauty and her learning
at the viceregal Court. To her earUer career belong
her love lyrics and the still popular redondiUia cham-
pioning the cause of woman against her detracts,
man. Some of her verses are devout and mystical in
character; an auto sacramental (El divino Narciso)
and little comedy (Los empefios ae una casa) deserve
particular mention. Gongorism, which mars certain
of the writings of Sor In^ de la Cruz^ continued to
exert its baneful influence during the first half of the
eighteenth century. Some of the pedestrian poets of
the period are Miguel de Reyna Zeballoe, author of
"La elocuencia del silencio" (Madrid, 1738), and
Francisco Ruiz de LeAn, whose "Hemandla" (1755)
is hardly more than a versification of the "Conquista
de M^co" of Soils. The "Poesfas sagradas y pro-
fanas" (Puebla, 1832) of the cleric Joi^ Joa6 Sar-
torio (1745-1828) are mostly translations. On a
higher j>lane than any versifier since the time of Inte
de la Cnu stands the Franciscan Manuel de Navar-
rete (1768-1809), who reflects in his "Entretenimien-
tos porticos" (Mexioo, 1823) the manner of Cien-
fuegos, Oi^o Uons&lez, and other members of the
Sal&mancan School. The events of the revolutionaiy
war wwe sung by mediocre poets, sudb aa Antne
Qnintana Roo (17^-1861), who ms the President ot

the Oougreas which made the first declaration of ind»<
ptodence; Manuel S&ncfaes de Tagle (1782-1847):
Franoisoo Ortega (1793-1849) ; and Joaqutn Maria del
Castillo (1781-1878). The priest Anastasio Maria
Ochoa (1783-1833) translated poems from Latin,
fVeoch, and Italian, and produced some original com-
positions of a satirical and humorous nature ("Po^
Bias", New York, 1828; also two plays). More re-
markable for his dramas than for his lyrics is Manuel
Eduardo de Gorostiza (1789-1861, "Teatro original",
Paris, 1822; and "Teatro escogido", Bruesels, 1825).
His pbys are chiefly oomedies of
eiaJfy the "Indulgencia paratodos" and "Contigo pan
yceDolla"),and,navingDeen written during his sojourn
m Spain, form a kind of transition between the meth-
ods of the younger Moratfn and Brette de k>s Hwreros.

Throuc^ imitation of Espronceda, ZoriUa, and other
Spanish romanticists, the movement of romanticism
ejptmi from Europe to Mexico. It has its representa-
tives already in the lyric poets and dramatists,
Ignado Rodriguez Galvto (1816-42; "Obras",
Mexioo, 1851; his verse "Profecfas de Guarimoc" is
the masterpiece of Mexican romanticism), and Fer-
n^ez Calder6n (1809-46; "Poeslas", Mexioo, 1844
and 1849). Eclectic restraint, with a tendoicy to-
wardsclaasici8m,as well asgreat Catholic ferTour,actu-
atee the works of two writers who are among the most
careful in f<HTn that Mexioo has had. These are Job6
Joaquin Pesado (1801-61), who is the best known
Mexican poet, and the physician Manuel Carpio
(1791-1860). Pesado traJDyslated from Latin (the
"Song of Songs", the "Psalms", etc., from the Vul-
j^te), Italian, and French, succeeding best in his ver-
taon of the Fmtaa. In his oompositton entitled "Las
Azteeas" he is suppoeed to have put into Spanish cer-
tain Aztec legends; like Macphmon in his dealing
with Celtic tradition, Pesado doubtless added to the
native legends matter of his own invention, but he
certainly showed skill in doing this ("Poestas origi-
nales y traducciones", Mexico, 1839, 1849,and 1886).
In his narrative and descriptive verse Carpio treats
generally of Biblical subjects. An admiro- and imi-
tator of the Spanish mystic and poet Luis de Leon
was Alejandro Anut^ (1821-83). Materialism and
so-called liboalism inspire the verse of Ignacio Rand-
res (1818-79) and Manuel Acufia (1849-73) while
eroticism prevails in the effusions of Ignacio M. Alta-
mirano (1834-93) and Manuel Maria Flores (1840-
85). Juan de Dios Peza (1852-1910) devoted himself
to the task of embalming in verse, which is not always
as correct as it might be, manv of the popular tradi-
tfons oi lus country ("Poesfas completas". Puis,
1891-2). He is perhaps the most read Mexican poet
of the second half of the nineteenth century. Some
hifluence of the French school of Pamassiens may be
detected m the "Poesfas" (Paris, 1909) of Manuel
Gutierrez Najera (d. 1888).

Psru. — ^The position of pre-eminence occupied by
Mexico in the Spuiisb part of the northern continent
was held by Peru in the earUer history of the civilisf^
tion of South America. But a gradual loss of terri-
tory and of political importance has greatly weakened
the place of Pmi among the Spanish-American ststes;-
and though Peru was once the heart of a great na-
tive Inca Empire, and Spanish governors ruled the
greater part of South America from within its bounds
during the colonial periods, its standing in the world of
American politics and letters is to-day one of no great
prestige. From the earliest poiod of the settlement
there c^tes little of value. In the sixteenth century
thCTC comes to view Garcilasso de la Vega (1540-1616),
sunuuned the Inca, as he was of native origin on the
side of his mother, a princess of the Inca race. He
wrote in good Spanish prose his "Florida", an ac-
count of the discovery of that r^ion, and his "Com-
entarioB realee", deahng with the nistory of Pen and
blen^ng muoh l^eodary and fietitioiu matter with a

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204

statement of real events. During the golden age of
Spanish letters both Cervantee and Lope de Vaga
praise a number of Peruvian poets. Aji unknown
poetess of Huanuoo, writing under the name of
Amarilis, produced in her verses, addressed to hope
de Vega and praising him, the b^ poetical compoei-
tions of the earl^ colonial time in Peru. Lope re-
roonded with hie epistle, "Belardo i Amarilia".
Another anonvrnous poetess of this period wrote in
terzarima a "Discurso en toor de la poesla" in which
she records the names of contemporary Peruvian poets.
An Andalusian colouring was given to composition in
Peru during the latter part of the sixteenth century
and the early years of the sevmteenth by the presetioe
on her soil of certain Spanish writers hailing eqweially
from Seville; among tnese were Diego Mexfa, Diego
de Ojeda, and Luis de Belmonte.

Gongorism penetrated into Peru as everywhere else
in the SpanisE-speaking world, and found a defmder
there in the person of Juan de Eepinoea Medrano.
An impetus was given to poetical compoaitimi hy a
Vicooy of Peru, the Msrqu^ de Castdl-doS'Rias
(d. 1710), who had gatbenngs at his palace every
Monday evening at which the invited litUratettn
would recite their poems. A number of these poems
appeared in the volume styled "Flor de Academias".
A conspicuous member of the coterie thus ftnmed was
Luis ^tonio de Oviedo-Herrera, the author of two
long religious poems. A poem. "Lima fundada", and
several dnumas. espeoially "Rodoguna" an adapta-
tion of Gontalle's nench play, are to be put to the
credit of Pedro de Peralta Bamuevo (1695-1743),
who combined with his activity in the field of belles-
lettres much labour in the world of scholarship, win-
ning renown as an historian and also as a geometri-
cian and jurisconsult. Pablo Antonio de Olavide
(1725-1803) was a Peruvian who went to the mother-
land and played a leading part in the Court of
Qiartes in) to whom he sugsested certain afprioultiwal
reforms. To litwature be contributed the prose doc-
ument, "El Evangelic en triunfo in which, as a good
Catholic, he makes amends for earlier indiscretions.

As a result of later geogn^ihical divisioDs, Olmedo,
one of the very greatest of Spanish-American writers,
became eventually a citisen of Ecuador and he will
therefore be considered in connexion with the litera-
ture of that state. Mariano Mdgar (1719-1814;
■hot by Uie SpMuards) attracted some attention by
his endeavour to rroroduce in Spanish the mint at
the yoropf, a lyric form of the native Qulchua or
language of the Incas. in importance to Olme-

do as a poet among those bom in the land is FeUpe
Pardo y Aliaga (180&^). Trained in Spain by
Alberto Lista, ne shared the conservative and classic
feelings of that poet and teaohw. His political
satires and his comedies of manners are 'clever and
interesting. Of the nature of the modem g^nero
eHeo are the little farces of Manu^ Ascensio Segura
(1805-71). With much imitation of E^ronceda and
Zorilla and with considerable echoing of the majiner
of Lamartine and of Victor Hugo, there was inaugu-
rated about 1848 a romantic movement. The leader
in this was a Spaniard from Santandv, Fernando
Velarde, around whom fathered a number of young
enthusiasts. These copied Velude's own method as
well as those of the great foreign romanticists.
Amon^; them were: Manuel Castillo (1814-70) of
Arequipa; Manuel Nicole Corpancho (1830-63),
who met an untimely fate by shipwreck; Carlos
Augusto Salaverry (1830-91); Manud Adolfo Garcia
(1829-83), the author of a noted ode to Bolivar;
Clement Althaus (1835-91); and Constantino Carras-
co (1841-~87), who put into ^>anish verse the native
Quichua drama, "Ollanta^". With respect to the
original play in Quichua it was long thought to be
entirely of native origin, but now the critics tend to
believe that it is an imitation of the Spanish Alnairifftl

dnma written in the Quiohua langna^ by a SpaniBh
misnonary in the region. In an artificial way Qui-
chua vMse is still ewtivated m Peru and Ecuaoor.
Allied in spirit to the foregoing romanticists is Ricardo
Pabna, who owes his fame to his prose, "TradioioiMS
penianas", rather than to his verse. The more re*
oeot writcra have undergone in no dight measure the
influence of French deouientiBm ana symbolism; a
good examplsof them is Jos€ S. Chocano (1867-1900).

Scuttdor, — ^This r^on belonged to the Vioeroyalty
of Pearu until 1721. Thereafter it was governed from
Bogota until 1824, when Southern Ecuador was
annexed to Uia first Colombia. In 1830 it became a
BBpanXe state. The first collraes were established
in Ecuador about the middle of we sixteenth century
by the Franoiacans for the natives, and by the Jesuits,
as elsewhere in America, for the sons of Spaniards.
Some ohronitdes by clerical writers and other explore
were written dunng the earlier ook)Di&l perioa, but
no poetical writing appeared before the seventeenth
century. The Jesuit Jacinto de Evia, a native of
Guiqraquil, ^b-
Ikhed at Madrid
inl675a"Rami-
llete de varias
flores po^ticas"
etc., containing a
numbN* of Gon-
goiistio oomposi-
tiens due to nim-
setf and to two
othor versifiers, a
Jesuit from Sev-
ille, Antonio
Bastidas, and a
native of Bogota,
Henumdo Dom-
teguea Canai^.
The best verses
of the eighteenth
oentuiy were ool-
lectea by the
priest Juan Ve-
lasoo (b, 1727; d. in Italv. 1819) and published in six
volumes with the title of " Colecci6n de poesias becha
por un ockwo en la ciudad de Faenza". These
volumes contuued poems by Bautista A^guirre of
Gu^raquil, Joa6 Qroico (b. 1773; author of an epio,
"La oonquista de Mencvoa'^ which is not without
its aracend pase^es), Ramon VieMsas and others,
ehimy Jesuits. The Jesuits spared no effort to pro-
mote literary culture here and elsewhere in Spanish-
America during the whole period down to 1767. The
expulsion of them in that year, causing as it did the
closing of Beveral collies, impeded greatly the work
of claasical education. To scientific study an incen-
tive had been given already hy the advmt into the Iwd
of certain French and Spanish scholars who came to
measure a degree of the earth's surface at the equator.
A still further impetus to inquiry and research was
given by the arrival of Humboldt in 1801. By 1779
the native doctor and sun^n, Francisco Eugenio de
Santa Cnu y Eepejo (1740-96), had written his
" Nuevo Luciano ", assailing the prevailing educational
and economic e^stems and repeating id^ which the
Benedictine Feij6o had aJreaay put forth in Spain.

As has been said above, Ecuador has giveai to
SpanishrAmerioa one of her most gifted poets, Joe6
Joaquin de Oknedo of Guayaquil (1780-1847). Out
of aU the Spanish-American poetical writers there can
be ranked with him only two others, the Venezuelan
Bello and the Cuban Horedia. Guayaquil was still
part of Peru when Olmedo was bom, but ne identified
nimself rathra with the fortunes of Ecuador when his
native place was permanently incorporated into that
state. In form and spirit, which are semi-classicali
Olmedo rsminds us oi the Spanii^ poet QuintaiUy

Jos* CBLasfiHo Huns

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whose artistic exoellenoe aad lyrie grandikxraenoe jie
Beans to parallel. The bulk of his preserved verse is
not great, but it is marked bya hnc perfection liatb-
erto unsiupassed in the New World. His masterpiece
is the patriotic poem, "La victoria de Junln", which
celebrates Bolivar's decisive victny over Ihb Span-
iards on 0 August, 1824. Its diction m pure, its versi-
fication harmonioua, and its imagery beautiful, al-
though at times rather forced and oveMrrought.
Other notewortlqr poems of Olmedo are the "Cuito
al G«neTal Florea", praising a revolutionary general
whom he later on assails in bitter terms, and "A un
ami^o en el nacimiento de su primog^nito in which
he g^vee expression to his phiiosopbical meditations.
After reaching middle life ne inoduced nothing, and
when he became silent no inq>ired poet appeared to
take his place. Gabriel Garcia M<nfiiio (1831-75),
a sturdy Catholic, wrote some satireB; Juan Lemi
Mera (1832-94), a literary Iu3t(»ian and a critic of
force as be evincee in his "Ojeada hist^rico-crftica
aobre, la poesia ecuatoriana" (2nd ed., Barcelona,
1893),producedapopularnovel, "Cumand^", besides
his "Poeslas" (2nd ed., Barcelona, 1893) and a
volume of "Cantares del pud>lo". This latter has,
in addition to songs in Spuush, a few in the Quiohua
lani^uage. Mention may be made of a few more
recent poets, such as Vicente Piedrahita, Luis Cordero,
Quitttiliano Sinchez, and Ronigio Crespo y Toral.

Colombia. — The United States of Colombia was
formerly known as New Granada. In 1819, soon
after the beginning of the revolution, a state called
Colombia was eetieiolished, but this was later divided
into three independent countries, Venezuela, New
Chanada. and Ecuador. In 1861 New Granada as-
sumed the name Colombia; recently Colombia has
lost the mrt of the territory running up on the Isth-
mus of Panama. It is generally admitted that the
literary production of Colombia (including the older
New Granada) has exceeded that of any other
Spanish-American country. Mentedes y Pelayo, tiw
Spanish critic, has called its euutal, Bo^tA, ''the
Athens of America". During the colonial period,
however, New Granada prowoed but few hterary
works. The meet important among them is the
verse chronicle or pseudo-epic of the Spaniard Juan
de Castellanoe (b. 1552) which, because of its 150,000
lines, has the doubtful honour of being the longest
poem in Spanish. Largely woeaic in characta, it
does reveal poetic flights ana it is valuable for the
li^t which it tiirows upon ib» lives of the early
colonists. Its first three parts, entitled "El^Ias a»
warones ilustres de Indias" (of these only the first
was published in 1589), are to be found in the " Biblio-
teca de autores espafioles" (vol. IV): the fourth part
is published in two volumes of the "Escritores oute-
Ufljios" as the "Historia del Nuevo Reino de Gra-
nada". The seventeenth century, too, was far from
fertile. Thwe appeared posthumously im 1600^ at
Madrid, a long epic poem, replete with Gongonsm,
aJid coming from the pen of Hernando Domingues
Camarso, already mentioned m cMinexton with
£via's ^'Ramillete". It is called the "Poema heroico
de San Ignacio de Loyola" and treats, of course, of the
career of the illustrious founder of the Jesuit Ord^.

Early in the eighteenth century a nun, Sor Fran-
eisoa Josefa de la Conce(>ci6n (d. 1742), wrote an
account of her life and spiritual «q>eriencee reflecting
the mysticism of St. Teresa. About 1738 the print-
ing press was brought to Colombia by the Jesuits,
and there ensued a great intellectual awakening.
Many collies and universities had already been
founded, ftulowing the first of them est^lidked in
1554. The famous Spanish botanist Jos6 Celeetino
Mutis ioak^ in 1762, the chair ot mathematics and
astronomy m the C>>legio del Kosario, mi th«re he
trained mai^ scientists, not^^ EVandsoo J<m6 de
Oaldas (1771-1810; Aot by ^ Spuiaids). An

astronomical observatory was soon established aqd it
was the first in America. As has already been said,
the advent of Humboldt in 1801 fostered scientific
ressareh. In 1777 a public library was founded and
in 1^' a theatre. Prominent among the works
pnblidied in the secuid half of the eighteenth century
are the "Lamentacumes de Pubto" of Canon Josd
Marfa Gruesso (1779-1835) and several compositions
of Jos£ Marfa Salasar (1785-1828), including his
"Placer p<iblieo de Santa F^"^ his "Colombiada",
and his Spanish verse translation of the "Art po6-
tiqiM" of Boileau. During; the revolutionary period
two poets of note made theur appearance. They were
Jo86 FemAndes Madrid (d. 1830J, whose lyrics paise
BoUvar and show hate for Spam, and Luis Vargas
Tejada ^802-29), whose pa&wtie verse was tlirected
against B<dlvar. The four most raominent poets of
Cxilombia are J. E. Caro. Aiboleda, Ortiz, and Gu-
ti£iTea Gonsdlex. Juan Eus^io Caro (1817-53) sang
(tf God, love, and l%>erty with great fervour and his
poems evince (Bogota, 1873) no little philosophical
meditaUm. He underwent the influence first of
Quintana and then of Byron. Under the stress ot
romanticiam and throi^ his knowledge of English
proMdy be sou^t to mtroduce into Spanish verse
writing certain metrical changes that have not found
favour with the critics in the njotherifUid.

JuUo Aiboleda (1817-61) was a friend of Caro and,
like him, a representative of the most polished and
aristocratic t^>e of Colombian writers of the first
half - of the nineteenth century ("Poesfas", New
York, 1883). Assassinated before he could assume the
office d Piveident of the Republic to which he had
been elected, he left in a fragmentary state his epic
poem, "Gonx^llo de Oy6n". which, if completed,
might have been the most (mtinguished work of its
class f»oduoed in Spanish-America. Absolutely
Cathohc in the expression of his religious feeling;,
3ob6 Joaquin Ortis (1814-92) favoured the romantic
movemeait without eeasins to bepartly neo-dassio.
Qregorio Gutilrrei GonMUes (1820-72), jurisconsult
and poet, has no inconsiderable amount of senti-
mentalism in his verse of a lyric nature. His best
work is the Cieoi^c "Memona sobre el cultivo del
msJa en ^tioquia", which is concerned wilh the
rustic labours of the country-folk of his native Colom-
bian region of Antioquia. Of lesser poets of the first
half of the century there may be cited : Manuel Maria
Madiedo (b. 1815); Genndn Guti^rrei de Pifiwes
(1816-72^: Joaquin Pablo Bosada (1825-80) ; Rieardo
CarrasquiUa (b. 1827); Jo86 Manuel Marroquln (b.

1827) , notable as a humorist: Jos6 Maria Samper (b.

1828) ; Joe6 Maria Vergara (1831-72), noted for his
Catholic devoutness; RaSael Pombo (b. 1833); Diego
Fall5n (b. 1834) ; Jorge Isaacs (1837-95). better known
for his popular novel, "Maria". In tne second half
of the nineteenth coitury the most eminent man of
letters has been Miguel Antonk> Caro (b. 1834), a
son of J. E. Caro. He has winked fm classieal idttds
in literature, and his translation of Yirtpi ranks hi^
among the Spanish versions. Of the many writers
of the ck)eing years of the century we ma^ point out:
Diogenes Ameta (b~ 1848), Ignacio Guti^es Ponce
(b. 1850), Joe£ Rivas Groot (b. 1864), and the
authoress Agripina Montee del Valle.

Veneruela.— Thk state, the old Captain-^neralcy
of Caraoas. has the hmiour of having nven to Spanish-
America the great lib«ator, Simim Bolfvar, uid the
eminent man of letters, Andr^ Bello. The jgrowth
of literary culture in uie re^on was slow, m part
because pwitioally and otherwise it was overshadowed
by the neighboiiring district of New Granada, to
wnidi for a while it was subject, and in part because
Uie heterogKieous nature of its population, with a
prep(Hiderance of native Indian ana negro dements,
urgdy laddut civilisation, retarded the course of
events. The Cokgio de SanU Rosaymnjpqiided ftt
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Caracas in 1696; it became a university in 1721.
According to some aocounta the printing press was
not eet up in Venesuela until after the b^inning of
the nineteenth century. But ah%ady her great man
in the world of scholarahip and letters had made his
appearance: Andr^ Bello was bom at Caracas in
1781, two yeara before Bolivar. He early began to
teach the humanities and philosophy. In 1810 he
was sent to London, on a mission to the British
Government, which the rebellious colonies desired to
gain over to their interests. He remained there
nineteen years, devoting himself in part to literary
pursuits and founding two reviewH, the "Biblioteca
americana" and the ''Repertorio americaoo". Then
he left England to pass the rest of his life in Chite,
theGovemment of which had called him to a post in
the ministry of foreign affairs. He reorganized the
University of Chile, of which he was made rector, and
he did great aervice to the land by preparing an edi-
tion of its Civil Code. He died in 1865. In 1881
the Government began to publish his "Obras ootn-
pletas". His most finished literary produotion is
tibe masterly " Silva & la agrlcultura de h Zona T4hn-
da", a Georgic celebrating the beauties of extonal
nature in tropical America and urgit^ his fellow-citi-
zens to eneage in agricultural pursuits. As a result
of this wonE Bello ranka high amoi^ the imitators of
Vii^; in the purity of its Spanish diction it has never
been surpassed; in poetic force it is on the whole
evenly maintained. A leading place among his othcf
poetical compositions is occupied by the sonnet "A
la victoria de Bail6n". His versions <^ the "Orlando
innamorato" of Boiardo, and (rf different poems of
Byron and Hugo (especially of the "Pn&re pour
tons" of the last-named) are much admired. Not his
least title to the admuation and gratitude of the
SpaniA-speaking peoples is his "GramAtica caste-
liana", first published at Santiago de Chile in 1847,
still the most important of all Spanish grammars, es-
pecially in the revised form of it prepared by R. J.
Cuervo. For his investigations into Spanish proeody
and for lus scholarly edition of the old Spanish Poema
del Cid" he will always be TMn«nbened favourably.

The names of the more recent Venezuelan authors
pale greatly in the l^ht of Hello's. Rafael Maria
Baralt (1810-60), who prepared an "Historia de la
Repablica de Venezuela" and a useful "Diccionario
de galicismos", passed over to Spain, where he was
made a member of the Academy. Like him then
also went to Spain, where he rose to the position of a
graeral in the army, Antonio Roe de Olano (1802-
87) ; Roe de Olano found time to produce some roman-
tic writings, particularly his ^'Poeelas" (Madrid,
1886) and several novels. Among the minor writers
belong: Jos6 Heriberto Garcia de Quevedo (1819-71),
Abigail Lozano (1821-66), Jos6 Antonio Maitfn
(1804-74), Eloy Escobar (1824-89). and Jos* Ram6n
Y^pez (1822-81). As verse trandators there have
gained attention Jos^ P6rei Bonalde (1846-92), with
a version of Heine, and Miguel Sadies Peequera,
widi one of part of Moore's ''Lalla Rookh".

Chile. — A predominance of the practical sense over
the imagination has greatly hindered the development
of belles-lettres in Chile, which from first to last has
been one of the least disturbed politically among the
South American states and has been able to pursue
rather calmly an even tenor of way. A profound re-
spect for science and the didactic arts seems charac-
teristic of the people of Chile. The histwy of real
literature in the land be^ns with the epic, "La Arau-
cana",of Alonso de Ercilla in the sixteenth century,
but that work, since it was completed by its author m
Spain, is usually treated under the head of the litera-
ture of Spain. On the model of Ercilla's poem a
Chilian, Pedro de Ofta, began, but did not fini^
although it has 16,000 lines, hia "Anmoo domado**
(Lima, 1596), in virtue of whieh he i> ^ first natin

author in Chile. To the life and customs of the Arau-
oanian Indians, already treated by Ercilla and Ofi&
Francisco NOfiez de Pineda (1607-82) devoted himself
in his poems and above all in his "Cautiverio feliz".

Much history writii^ of a serious nature followed
these early attempts at an epic rendering oi actual
histwioal happenings, and no poets of greater im-
portance than Ofia and Niofiez de Pineda appeared
during colonial times. On the other hand, periodical
literature flouHshed. In 1820 a theatre was set up
for the purpose of providing an espejo de virlud y vido,
i. e. for purely didactic ends. The dramatic litera-
ture provided thca^ore was of slight account. Among
the dramatists was Camilo Henrfquez (1769-1825),
whose pieces represent the pedantic tendencies. Some
stimulus to general culture and to the study of the
humanitiee, philosophy, and law was ^eo by the
oixning to S^tiago in 1828 of the Spanish litiirtUeur
Joa6 Joaquin de Mora, and of the Venezuelan Audr^
Bello in 1829. In 18^ there was started the periodi-
cal "El Semanario de Santiago", in the mam^ement
ot which there collaborated many young men of let-
ters; it led to the establishment of other litera^
journab. In 1843 the Univ««ty of Santiago de
Chile was inaugurated officially with Bello as its
rector. In the fifth decade of the nineteenth cen-
tury the French and Spanish dramas of romantic im-
port invaded the theatre. The writers of the middle
and second half of the centiiry have not been pre-
oninent in ability as regards literary creation. These
may be listed, however: Dofia Mercedes Marin del
Solar (1810-66); Hermdgenes de Irisani, for bis verse
translations of French and Italian poets; Eusebk)
Lillo; Guitlermo Blest Gana; Eduardo de la Baira,
both poet and prosodist; etc. Among th^ culti-
vating the novel is Alberto Bleat Gana. Of the
scholars engaged in historical study and publicatnn
durino; the nineteenth century the more notable are:
Joa6 Victoriuia Lastarria (1817-88); Miguel Luis de
AmuiUUegui (1828-88); Benjamin Vieufia Maekoioa
(1831-86); and 3ob6 Toribio Medina.

Argeruina Bepublic. — Literary culture dev^ped
later in Argentina than in most of the other states for
the obvious reason that it was colonized later than the
others. From the colonial period there comes but one
work deserving of mention, and its literary value is
scant; it is the "Argentina y conquista de la Plata"
(1602) of the Spaniard Martin del Baroo Centenera.
Mudi pabiotie verse of mediocre value was called
forth 1^ the British attack upon Buenos Aires in tiie
first decade of the nineteenth century. During the
revolutionary period there came to the fore a number
of neo-classicists such as: Vicente Ldpez Planes (1784-
1856), who wrote the Ai^entina national hymn; Es-
teban Luca (1786-1824); and Juan Cnu Varela
(1794-1839), who was both a lyric poet and a drama-
ti^. The first great poet of the Argentine Republic
was Est^Mn Ecbevenia (1805-81), who vu educated
at the Untversitr of Paris and, returning thence in
1830, introduced romanticism directly from Fruice.
Of his various comi>ositionB "La cautiva" is full of
local colour and distinctively American. Ventura de
la V^a (1807-65) was born in Buenos Aires, but he
spent most of his life in Spain and his admirable
dramas are claimed by the mother country. To the
authors of the earlier period of independence there
bdcmg: Juan Maria Guti^res (1809-78), a good litei^
ary cntic; Claudio Mamerto Cuenca (1812-66); and
Job6 Marmol (1818-71 ); who produced some vrase and
also the best of Argentine novels, his "Amalta". Id
the laiiguap;e of the gauehos or oow-boys of the Rio de
la Plata district, there has been publi^ed by Jbe^
Femindez a collection of songs in "romances", en-
titled "Martin Piecro" (1872). These are very pop-
ular. In the seoond hidf of the nineteenth century
the poets of prime importance have been Andrade and
Obligado. 01c«Brio Tietor An^«^ 118$^), tbe
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SPALATO-ICACABSCA

author of "Prometeo" and "Atlantida", is one of the
foremost of the recent poets of South America and

Cbably the best poet that the Argentine Republic
yet produced. For ^>oetic technic he harks back
to Victor Hugo; his philosophy is that of modern
uogress; everywhere nis verse is zedolent of patriotic
lerveni^. The "AtUntida" is a hymn to the future
of the Latin race in America. Occasional incorrect-
ness of diction mars his works. Rafael Obligado

(1852 ) is more correct and elegant than Andrade,

but he is not equal to him in inspiration. He delights
in poetical descriptions of the beauties of nature and
in the legendary tales of his native land.

To the literary activity of Uruguay it is hardly
necessary to devote a separate section, nnce geo-
grapbioal continuity and other circumstances have
bound up the history of the two lands. However,
motion should be made of several writers as pectil-
iarly Uruguayan. Bartolom^ Hidalgo with his Dia-
h^oa entre Chano y Contreras" (1^) really b»an
the popular gaucho literature of the region of the Rio
de la Plata. Francisco AcuiSa Figueroa (1790-1862)
vrote in pure Spanish and, though his orwinal lyrics
do not soar to any poetical heights, he hadscmie suo>
oess in hia versions of Bibli(^ songs and odes of
Horace. Many poets of modest power were prompted
to indite poems when the romantic wave struck the
land. A celebrity of recent times is Juan Zorrilla San
Martin, the author of the epic poem "Tabar6"
(Montevideo, 1888), which in certain respects has
been compared to the famous Brazilian epic composi-
tion of Araujo Porto-Ale^^. A novelist of the more
immediate period is Carlw Maria Ramirez, the author
of "Los amores de Marta".

Central Amerim. — Scant is the output of the terri-
tio^ eidled Central America, and for this climatic and
pobtical considerations may easily be alleged. The
Republic of Guatemala has surpassed the other Cen-
tral American states in literaiy energy. The literary
pioneer here is the Jesuit Rafael Landfvar, who, ex-
pelled from Spain by the cruel edict of 1767, came to
the New Wwld and there anticipated Hello's Geoigic
oompodtion with his Latin "Rusticatio Mexicana"
which in diction and terms of description presents
prajsewOTthy pictures of Central-American rustic life
as he saw it. The Guatemalan Jos^ Batres y Mon-
tllfar (1809-44) tried his hand at narrative verse,
emulating both the Italian C^ti and the Englishman
Byron. Romantic sentimentalism prevails in the
lyrica of Juan Di^;uez. The most interestingfigure
aoMDg the Central-American men of letters is Kub^
Dario (b. 1864), a Nicaroguan who has lived much
abroad and has cosmopolite and eclectic principles.
He is on artist botb in prose and in verse and has
already his disciples among the Spanish-American
writers of the present generation.

Cu&a. — In the Island d (Duba the development
mvea. to literature In Spanish has been late but bril-
wnt. Nothing cultural of real importance and de-
serving record occurred before the eighteenth century
wboi,!^ a Bull of Innocent XIII, tbe University of
Havana was established in 1721. A printing-press
had been set up at Santiago de Cuba as early as 1608,
but its activity was short-lived; it was re-establi^ed
1792. At about this latter date periodical literap
tore b^an. Properly speaking, the two first poets in
Cuba are Manuel de Zequeira y Arango (1760-1846),
who cultivated both the bucoho and the heroic ode,
and Manuel Justo de Rubalcava (1760-1805), whose
brie worth was proclaimed in Spain by Lista and in
France and England by several critics. Oiba's greats
est poet and the peer of Bello and Olmedo is Joe6
Marfa Heredia (1803-39). Exiled because of his
aasooiation with the party hostile to the Spanish rule,
be spent a Inief period in the United States and went
to Mexico, where he rose to a place of ore&t impor-
U&oe in the judiciary. Despite the brevity of his life

his verse is itnperiahable. A gentle melancholy per-
vades lus lyrics, which are full of love for his native
isle, forbidden to him. A keen sympathy with the
. moods of external nature is clear in some of his writ-
ings, e. g. his poems "En una tonpestad", "Niag-
ara , and "Al Sol", and makes him akin to the
romanticists. The American landscape inspires also
his beautiful "En el Teocalli de Cholula^', which
records as well the perishability of all the handiwork
of man. His language and verse, although not at all
jnroeccable, are in genera] satisfactory; the expression
of nis thought, free as it is from tui^dity, appeals
iuevitably.

After Heredia six other Cuban poets of decided
worth require notice; they are Avellaneda, PUUudo,
MilanSs, Moidive, Luoces, and Zenea. Gertxudis
CkSmez de Avellaneda (1814-73) went to Spain about
her twentieth year and there produced the lyrics,
dramas, and novels that have made her justly famous
throughout the Spanish-speaking territory. So great
was her vogue in Spain that she was elected to mem-
bership in the Spanish Academy in which, however,
she was prevented from taking her seat because it
was dtscovered that the r^ulations forbade h«
entrance. Her career belonos to the history d Span-
ish literature. FUcido is the pseudonym d[ Gabriel
de la Concepci6n Vald^ (180&-44), a mulatto who
triumphed over the rigours of fate, which deprived
his youth of most of the advantages of education,
and succeeded in composing verse which, if often
incorrect in the preserved form, still bears the impress
of i^uB. His best remembered lyric is the "Ple-
gana & Dioe", written while he was imder sentence
m death iat complicity in a conspiracy against the
Spanish govanment in which he really had no part.
Soft, melancholy struns or stirring patriotic notes
resound throughout the verse of the other four poets
mentioned: Joa£ Jacinto Milon^ (1814r-63); Rafael
Maria Mendive (1847-86); Joaqulh Lorenzo Luacea
(1826-67); and Juan Clemente Zenea (1832-71).
Milangs attempted the drama with some degree of
good fortune. 'XhB novel has been cultivated more
or less felicitously by Cirilo Villaverde ("Cecilia
Vald^s", 1838-1882) and Ram6n Meza. A literary
critic of undoubted distinction is Enrique Pifieyro,
whose essays are received with acclaim in Europe and
everywhere. By way of record it may be said that
Porto Rico and Santo Domingo have not yet pro-
duced writers comparable to those listed for tne otha
lands. In our own days, however, Josfi Gautia
Benftez of Porto Rico and Fabio Fialloa of Santo
Domingo have met with praise for their verse.

Mbnendsz r PsLATO, Atdoloaia dt Potto* Hitvano-AmmeaiuM

8 Madrid. 1893-96), sahotioDB with oritieftl iDtroduetiotu: Bukco
AXcfA, £a Uteraivra 4tpaHola m d awlo, XIX, pt. iii (Madrid,
1890: VAURiA,Car(iuam«na»i<M (1889-90): HiLU, AordM Ct»-
bantu (Bostoo, 1901) ; DieeUntario meicio^ia> hitvano-avurieoM;
M-wmotavmo, Diewmario kitUrico v bioirdfico M Ptnk (IJnu,
187'!) ; GinrBBBEz, AmerieavoHica (Valparaiso, 1846} ; Hebrska,
UUnUvra eevatoriana (I860): Mesa, Oieada hitUric^-erUiea
tobrt to potsia teaaloriatM (Snd ed., Barcelona, 1893); Carets.
BterilorM eapaA«lM t hiepaniMimerieatiot (Madrid, 1884); Vab-
OAXK, Hitoria (U la UUntum <n ^u«iia Granada (BocotA, 1867);
Afisz, Parnate eolombiano (Bogota, 1886-87); Ibaka, Antologta
eohmbiarta (Parii, 189S); BK Souza, Biblioteea tiigpana-amerieana
letmtrional (Sactiaso, ISSff); Laoouaooiobx, America liKraris

gJuenoa Aires. 1883); Camim. Svanith-Amm-iean Ltieraam in
aOolie Unitertitv BuJMm (May. 1011). 41^-17. _

J. I>. M. FOSD.

Spalato-Hacarsc* (Salona), Diocebe of (Spala-
TENSis ET Macabscensis), suffrsgan of Zara. Salona
is the most sacred ground in the Austrian monarchy,
where Htus the pupil of St. Paul preached, where the
foIlowerB of Jesus Christ first shed their blood as mar-
tyrs, and where beautifi^ examples of baolicas and
other eariy ChrisUan sculpture have been discovered.
Byzantine art spread under Justinian I to the shores
of the Adriatic Gulf, the l^tistery in SaJona dating^
from this period. Forty-seven bifiiiops of Satona are
known; flwcbiw IIJ le mentioned.in the.tr--*"
' " Digitized by vj* '* '

BPALDmO

208

SPALDZmi

bookoCSt. AuKiiBtine'B"I>eOvitfl,teDd"; an epiatle
from Gelasim I is addressed to Honorius; Honorius
III conducted & tmiod in 630; Natalia at a Council
in 590, unjustly depoeed hia archdeacon Honoratus,
but Gregory the Great took the latter'a part. In 639
Salona waa destroyed by the Slavs. In 647 the city of
SpiJato began to ariae from the ruin (tf Salona, and
after an interr^um of eleven yeara its arehbiahopa
tocdc over the territory of the arehbiahopa of Salona.
Chit of l^e long series of ita aeventy-oine arehbiahopa
may be mesitifmed St. Rayner (d. 1 180), and the unfor-
tunate Marcus Antonius de Dtnninis, imo was deprived
of hia office after having filled it for fourteen years and
died an apostate at Rome in 1624; Thomas, who re-
signed hia office voluntarily (thirteenth century), is
the author of a his-
tory of the bishops of
Salona andSiMiato.

The Gregorian re-
form decrees were
discussed at synods
in Dalmatia as early
as 1075 and executed
in 1111 by Arch-
bishop Ascentius.
At the great proviit-
dal qynod m St.
Andrew's Church in
1185, Archbishop
FetruB VII excom-
municated the here-
tics and all who had
taken possession of
church property. He
also prescribed the
ibily dianting of the
Office of the Blessed
Vir^. IntheCoun-
cU of 1292. John VII,
Primate of Dalmatia,
threatened to puniah
all bishops who int^
f ered wiui other dio-
ceses, ^th the death

of Archtnsbop Lelius (1807) began anotiier

IntetT^num which lasted twenty-three yeara. Hie
Church in Dalmatia was then reorganizea^ Macarsca
united with Spalato, and the latter as a simple bish-
opric made suoject to Zara. Paul Miossich was ap-
pointed first bishop of the new diooeee in 1830.
The See of Spalato-Macarsca numbws 199,800

Ths Pusu dbi. Dooif o, Spauio
The OiMt Court of the Psl»o» of DkwIetUs. built a. d. 300. The Af
Mdeihom theewUartMMrtBinedazuiirfttof KrohMBprinclDc dlreetly from
oolonmirithoat mUldstnn

(1850). The diooeee, which then numbered
30,000 Catholics, was well provided with schools for
girls, but there were comparatively few sdiools for
boya. To supply this need and to recruit the olersy,
Bishop %>aldmg, shortly alter the dedication of the
cathedral in 1852, went to Europe and secured the
services of the Xaverian Brothers who came to Louis-
ville in 1854. During his visit to Betgiimi, the bishop
conceived the idea offounding the American College
at Louvain which, mainly through his efforts, was
opened in 1867. Much of his time was devoted to
lectures and controversial writings in defence of the
Church, especially against the I^ow-Nothing move-
ment and the common school system from which re-
ligious instruction was excluded. He had already

Sublished "Evi-
_ ences of Catholic-
ity", a series lec-
tures ddivered in
1844-5, and the
"Life, limes and
Character of Bene-
dict Joseph Flaget"
(Louisville, 1852):
these were followed
by his "Miscel-
lanea" (1853) and
his "History of the
Protestant Reforma-
tion" (1860) in which
he enlarged his
"Review of D'Au-
bign^'s 'History of
the Reformation'",
published in 1840.
He also lectured at
the Smithsonian In-
stitute, Washington,
and in Baltimore,
New York, Brook-
lyn, and other cities.

In 1864, on the
death (tf Archbishop
Kenrick, Bishop
the See of Balti-

aucceeded him in
more. Here he oivanized the St. Vincent de Paul
Society, founded the House of the Good Shepherd
and St. Maiy's Industrial School, and completed the
cathedral. In October, 1866, the Second Plenaiv
Council assembled at Baltimore; Archbishop Spald-
ing arranged the details and presided over the aelib-
Catholica; 231 aecular priests; 91 male leligioaa in erations. He had previously suggested the idea d a
15 stations; and 125 nuns in 9 stationa. Catholic university, and it was chiefly due to his

_ eflfortfi that the project was endorsed by the council.

In 1867 he a«un visited Rome and took part in the
celebration of the centenary of St. Peter's martyrdom.
As the American College in Rome was in need of

FAmuTi, lUirricunt taemm, I-III (Venio*. I7S1): Tnona.
Umum. (la*, mwid., i, 18, IS, 72. 113, 115, 161, ^«].,364.
SS8, 877. 419, 443, 49S. 640-48. 038 aq.. 651 ; JKmwm. Hwtgarim,
I, 400, 031. 788: IL 874; Oams. Mt ffmh, 419-31.

COuarnN WoLnoBUBn.

Bpaldlnir, Mabtin John, seventh Archbishop of
Baltimore, B. BardatownjEentucW, 23 May, 1810; d.,
at Baltimore, 7 Feb., 1872. His torbeaza came from
England and settled in Maryland about the middle
of the seventeenth century; his nandfaUier removed
to Kentucky in 1790. Martin Spaldix^ entered St.
Manr's Coll^, Lebanon, Kentudcy, in 1821, taudit
mathematics there at the age of fourteen, was gradu-
ated in 1826, and studied philosophy uid theology
dtiring four years in the semmaiy at Bardstown. ui
1830 he entfo^d the Propamnda, Rome, where after a
brilliant course he was oraained 13 Aiw., 1834, and
received the doctorate in tibeolonr at tiae close of a
public defence of 256 theses. Upon his return to
Bardstown, he became pastor of the cathedral tod
editor the "Catholic Advocate", founded in 1835.
After the transfer of the see to Louisville, he was ap-
pointed vicar-general (1844), coadjutor cum jure to
Bkbop Flaget (1S4S), and Bialup of Louisville

funds, Archbishop Spaldinff issued an appeal, which
resulted in placing the coUege on a sound financial
basis. His labours in behalf of reU^^on and the
Bweading fit Cathdic itvLth. were mceesant. In
1868 he consecrated Bishop Becker for the See of Wir
mington and Bishop Gibbons for the Vicariate Apos-
tolic of North Carolina. Within one year (1868-9)
he administered confirmation a hundred fimea, one
eighth of the recipients being converts. He wel-
comed ibe Little Sisters of the Poor to Baltimore
(1869), invited Father Herbert Vau^an to evangelixe
the negroes (1871), and aided FaUier Hecker in estab-
lishing the Cjathoue Publication Elociety of New Yoric.
At the Vatican Council he was a member d the Cud-
mission on Faith and of the Conmuasion on "Posta-
lata" which had to examine aH Uie matters mopceei
for deliberation before they were presented to the
councfl. He waa a strong supporter of the doctrine
ct papal mf allibility and be drew up a poOulatum m
wludi he favoured a definition by ko^^&ja in ptd-

Digitized by

SFALLADZAia

200

8PABTA

MAKTnr JoBM SPAunra
Anhbidu>p of Bftltlmon

to an explicit aiSnnAtioii of the dcwma. Im-
mediately after the final vote on infallibuity, Arch-
bishop Spalding addressed a pastoral letter to the
eUajsf and laity of his an^idiocese, in which he set the
aetwo ol the oounoil in the proper light and cleared

away numerous misrep-
resentations. Shortly
after his return to
Amoica he 8i>oke at
Fhilad^>hia in defence
of the temporal power
of the pope, and on 18
June, 1871, he commem-
orated with fitting obser-
vance the jubilee of the
elevation of Pi\is IX to
the papal chair, the lost
notable celebration in
which he took part.
Archbishop Spalding
was a fine representative
of the type of men who
organized and developed
the Church in the
United States. To a strong faith he added sincere

Siety and tender devotion, to scholarship a high
egree of administrative ability, and to his leal for
Omkolidsm a loyal interest in the welfare of his coun-
try. He aijoyed the esteem of those who were fore-
most in Church and State, and his death was the
oocaaion of tributes from all classes of his fellow-
eitiwns. His c<Hnplete works were published at
Baltinum in several editions.

J. L, apumMO, Tlu ti/e cf tilt Mott Rtt. M. J. Spaldint. D.D,
(N«w York ftod Baitimon, 1873); Clabxb. Livs 0/ ths De-
eaated BUioft, lU (Nor Tock, 1888); ArtM»M 0/ Ou CaOudni
CBdIimon). ^

Loots O Donovan.

SpaUaiiMlilf Laxzabo, a distingiushed ^ght-
eenth-century scientist, b. at Scandiano in Modena,
Italy, 10 January, 1729; d. at Pavia, 12 February,
1799. His early education was recdved at the Jesuit
College of RegDO. His scientifio career bepan at the
Univendty of Bologna under the inq)iration of his
cousin, Laura Bassi, the famous woman profeasot
of natural t^ulosophy and mathematics. He gave
up the Btuffir law and was ordained a priest; at
tweaty-five he became pnrfeesor of lofl^i metaphysics,
and Greek in the Univeruty oS Reggio. Bia favourite
authors were Homer, Demosthenes, and St. Basil,
and his work attracted so much attention that he
was offered chairs at Coimbra ^Portugal), Parma, and
Ceoena (Italy). He preferred a chair at Modena
(1760) and devoted all bis spare time to natural
science. His work here brou^t offers of profeesor-
■hqps at other Italian univerrities and from the Aoad-
en^ <d St. Petersburg. In 17^ at the penonal solici-
tation of the Empieae Maria Thenaa, he aooeiited the
chair of natural history in the Univera^ ot Pavia
which was then being reorganised. He greatly
enriched tiie museum here by eoUeotions made in
journeys in Switserland and along the Mediterranean.
After the death of Vallisneri, whose ohur at Padua
had been the centre of interest in the natural eeienoes,
SpaManiani was invited to take it, but the Ausbrian
airaiorities doubled his salaiy and gave him a Img-
leave of absence for a seieBtino expaaition in Turiray
to retain him. His home-coming was an ovation.
He continued to make scientific journeys and spedal
studies of Vesuvius and the volcanoes of Sicily and
of the Lipari Islands. Bis contributions to every
phase of physical science are valuable, but it was in
biology that his work counted for most; his Btudios
in regeneration are still dastde. He showed enwri-
msutalfy that many ^mjnjftiir Uke tbe Hsard and the
eaaSir^ accidental injured, n^Boente importiBt
parts o< tiudr bodies; the land saad xegMntes enn i
ZIV^14

From » Portnit 1^ 0. B. Btuani

its head. It was afterwards ehown that this does
not contain the brain, but it does contain eyes, mouth,
tongue, and teeth, and these are all regenerated.
SpaUanzani made a long series of interesting experi-
ments on artificial fecundation. His most important
work is "Dissertasioni di fisica animale e vegetale"
(Modena, 1780). Hia researches were so much ap-
preciated that he was made a member of academies
and learned aodeties in Loodon, Madrid, Stockholm^
UpsahLGdttingen, Holland, Lyons, Bologna, Milan,,
Sien^ Turin, Padua, Mantua, Geneva, and Berlin..
The uniyorrity of Fans, then the most impintant of'
universities for the sciences, tempted him to come as
a profeasor. His personal character was charming
and he made many friends. His biological work
brought him into
controversies with
Needham and
Buffon over spon-
taneous genera-
tion, and with
John Hunter over
digestion. He
came off victo-
rious in both con-
teets but with
such gentle cour-
tesy as not to
offend, thoi^ his
opponents m the
taste of the time
Indulged in per*
sonaiities. His
family were de-
voted to him, and
his sister Mari-
anne herself be-
came a distin-
guished naturalist

while hdping him. He was devoutly rehgious, and
as Senebur says, "he perceived with firmness his
end i^proaching and endeavoured by his piety and
his fattn to edify those who surroundra him."

SsmCBisa in Minoirt on RupiraUtm (Londoa, 1804); Edin-
bur^ Medioal Jomal, 1807: TointDBS in Bxptrimmta on (JU
CftviifaHM (/Ae Bbcd (Umaoa. 1801).

Jaues J. Waish.

Spartai & celebrated town of the Pebponnesus,
mentioned several times under this name or under
that of LacedsmoB in the Bible (I Mach., xU, 3-23;
xiv. 16-23; xv, 23; II Mach., v, 9). Letters were
"^wngr^ between Onias I, high priest of the Jews,
and Anus I, Kiiw of Sparta, about the years 309 or
300 B. 0. (I Mach., xii. 7-8, 19-23; Joaephus, "Ant.
Jud.", XU, iv, 10). Arius, who sou^t to maintain
the ind^eodenee of his country against the Syrian
aucecosare erf Alexander by creating a diversion against
tiiem in Palestine, pretended to have found a writing
relative to tiie Spartans, showing that they themselves
and the Jews were two peoples— brothers both descend-
ing from Abraham. This assertion has little founda-
tion, atthou^ perhaps there bad been such a tradi-
tion. Ijnter Jonathan wished to renew this friendship
with the Spartans and sent them a letter by the
dd^satea Numenius, scm of Antiochu^ and Antipater,
BM of Jaaon, reoalling to them that we therefore at
all times without ceasing, both in our feedvals, and
other days, wherein it is convenient, remember you
in the sacrifices that we offer" (I Mach., xii, 2, 5-18;
Joeephus, "Ant. Jud.", Xm, v, 8). After Jonathan's
deatn the Spartans renewed with his brother Simon
the frioidship and alliance which they had concluded
previously and sent him a letter on this subject by
the same Numenius and Antipater who had under-
taktt the first embassy (I Mach., xiv, 16-23).

AtthoaiA the relationship <rf the two peoples ma^T
wall be ofiM in queetion,U0re is no^owf^that ths

Digitized by

SPEAK

210

SPBCKBAOHU

documents are not authentic — eToytfaing indiestes
the contnuy, as the coexistoioe o{ tba Kins Anus
and tiie hupi-priest Onias, and the fact that under
Jonathan we Bible does not ^>eak of kin^ of Sparta,
as in fact the last tyrant Nabis died in 192 b. c.
We see again towards the year 170 b. c. the high
priest Jason took advantage of the bonds of rdation-
of the Jews with Spi^ta to take refuge there —
where he died (II Mach., t, 9). In 139 b. c. the
Romans addressed to Sparta, and likewise to other
kiiuEdoms and cities a circular in fovour of the Jews
(IMach., XV, 23) ; this would seem to prove that there
was already a Jewifdi community establi^ed in this
city. The belief in the consanguini^ of the two
peoples existed even in the time of Josephus (Bel.
Jud., I( xxvi, 1), and Sparta participated in the
generosities of Herod the Great (Bel. Jud., I, xxi, 11),
perhaps because he had there a Jewish community.

Christianity was introduced into Sparta at an
early date. Euaebius (SiBt. ecel.. IV, zxiii) reports
tJiat under Mareus Aurelhu, 1h» Bidiap of Oormth,
Deaia, wrote to the Lacedemonians a letter iriiidii is
"a catechism of orthodoxy and which has peace and
unity for its object". Le Quien (Oriens uirist., II,
189-^) mentions filter bishops, among them Hosiua
in 458, Theodosius in 681, Theocletus m 898, finally
the metropolitan Chrysanthus, who must l^ve be-
come a Catholic in tiie seventeenth ooituiy. In the
.be^bnii^ aufbagan <rf Corinth, then oi ntns, the
see was made a metropolis in 1082 and numbered
several suffragan bishoprics, of which there were three
in the fifteenth century (Gelser, "Ungedruckte . . .
Texte der Notiti» episcopatuum", ^). In 1833,
after the Peloponnesus had been included in the King-
dom of Greece, Sparta was reduced to the rank of a
simple bishopric; it remains the same to-day ^ but
the see is called Monembasia and Sp^ta. The bishop
re^es at l^iarta and exercises his jurisdiction ova
all the district of this name. When the region fell
into the power of the Franks. Honorius III established
there in 1217 a Latin see yndch by degrees beciame a
titular and finally disappeared ^ubert_''Hiw. cath.
med.ievi",I,302; 11,188; 111,234). Theoil^num-
b»B to-day 5000 inhabitants.

pALMSB. Db anatolonm mu SpartiaKi alam Jvdtti HMfom
ifK iMHim AetmAir wr<M (Dmutadt, 1S28).

8. VailbA.

Spear, Tbb Holt. See Laxtob, Tsb HcOfr.

Speur and Natis, Fust or tbb. See Pasbioh
OmoBs.

Si»ecies, in scholastic terminol*^, tiie necessary
determinant of every c(^nitive process. Few scho-
lastic doctrines have been more frequently misondeiv
stood, misrepresented, and ridiculed than that of tJie
speetes intentwnalea. And yet few are more obvious
and uimbjectionable, although we are no longer
accustomed to them. While using different terms,
modem psychology offers an explanation of knowledge
which, in its essential features, is idoitical with tiiat
which was proposed by the great ttuntos <tf the
Middle Ages.

Knowledn is essentially the unitHi of an object
with the mind. As the cognitive prooeas takes place
in l^e mind, it followa that the known object must in
smne manner be present in the mind. "Cognitio
contingit secundum quod cognitum est in cog-
noscente" (St. Thomas, "Contra gentiles", II, e.
borvii and xcviii). Any cc^mtive faculty is mdeter-
mined, or in jMtmtia in. two ways: (1) as we have no
innate ideas, it is at first a mere aptitude to acijuire
knowledge, a power which is not always exercised;
Q) the same faculty is capable of knowing many
tilings. Thus the eye can perceive any colour:
the ear, any sound; the intelleet, any oonoeptual
relation, etc. To pass from this state of twirfold
indetorminatum to a onoorate and detetmbied aet «l

Imowled^ the faeulfy needs a complement, a deter- .
minbg winoiple, or actus (jBoa Actus et Pomnu).
It must oe "mformed". or acted upon, by its object.
For this reason all Acuities of knowled^ were called
passive, not in tiie sense that the mind is mere^
passive in its cognitive process, but in the sense that
it must first be acted upon, and thrace be enabled to
exercise its own ct^nitive activit;^. In other words,
knowledge is not a spontaneousactivity springing from
the mind alone, but a reaction in reqmnse to an
extenial stimulation.

The "species", frequently also called /orma, is Uw
determinant of the mmd in the process of knowled^
It partakes of the nature both of the object from which
it prooeeds, and of the faculty in which it is received,
for^ as the scholastic axiom expresses is: "Quidquid
recipitur per modum recipioitis recipitur. And
more speafically: "Cognitum est in cognoscente
secundum modum cc^^ioacentis" (St. Thomas,
"Summa theol.", I, Q. xu^ art. 4). Hence the speetss
impreasa is tlie modification ci tiie faculty by the
action of the object. The tpeciea expreuaa is the re-
action of the mind as a cognitive process. The former
is imprrased in the faculty which it determines, and
corresponds to the passive phase of knowledge which
is a necessary condition but is not yet actual knowl-
edge. The latter is the active response of the faculty,
tiie cognitive process itself by i^ch the mind reachea
the <^ject. The species must not be oonoeived as a
substitute for the object, but as a mere medium (tf
knowledge. The mind reaches the object directly and
immediately, not the species. The species is not that
which is known, "id quod ctMnoscitur", but that by
which the object is Imown. id quo obieetum ochf-
noecitur" (St. Thomas, "Summa theol.^', I, Q. xu,
art. 9; Q.xiv,art.5; Q. Ixxxv, art. 2; "DeVeritate",
Q. X, art. 8, ad ^lo-etc.). The object as acting on
«ie &oulty, and the faculty as acted on by the object,
are one and the same reality. Actio and pawto are
the same thing with two aspects or phases. Heoce
there is no need of a bridge to pass from the subject
to the object. The question: how can the mind know
extramental objects? has no meaning when knowledge
is conceived as the vital union of uie known object
with the knowing mind.

This general function of the species applies to both
sensitive or organic and intellectual or spiritud
faculties <tf knowledge. Hie ipectst ssTuibtlis is not
an efflux from the object, not a physical miniature
61 it — a view which was accepted by some int^
preters of Aristotle, but which the great scholastics,
with St. Thomas, reject. It ia a modification of the
seam organ by the action of the object. It is some-
times called material because it results from tiie
activity of material objects, and is a modification of a
material organ. Sometimes also it is called inten-
tional^ or even spiritual, because it is not In itsdf a
material representation, and is not received in physical
matter, but in an oi^^ which is animated by the
soul. In other words, It is psychophysical. The species
inUiligibUM is the determinant oi the intellectual act
of knowledge. It is daborated from the data of the
senses by a qwcial activity of the intelleet (inteKeetus
agem), and received in the intellsefui pofisiu or
powibtiia vdiioh didts the act itself of knowledge (see
Intbluect).

BouXQCAES, DoetriM de la emnoMMinM ^aprit 8L TKomat
d'AttUM. (Paru, 1877); Kledtokm, Di* Philotophit dtr Vormtt
(Muoster, 1867}; Iobeutobe, iJaOs eorwetnta inMltUmU
(Rome, 1873); Mabse, PweMlMy (N«w York ud London,
leiO); PiicB, JtuHiiaiatm smeMoffjca (Freiburg, 1897);

C. A. DOBBAT.

toetiMMwhar, Jooar, a Tyrolean patriot of 1809, b.
at Qnadenwald, nesr Hall, in the IVroL 13 July, 1767;
d. at Hall, 28 Mardi, 1820. ShMckbaeher was the scm
ol a peaaaat and qwDt his youth in roaming, and he did
iiotlmtozMdaiidiniteantaiatcr^iinte. Attba

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8PK0in.4TION

211

spBCin^rnOH

age of twelve he was a poacher and was oftm invcrfved
in fights with the customs offiona. When a little
older, he worked in the impwial sali-nuDea.at Hall.
On 10 Feb., 1794, he mamed Maria Sehmiederer vi
Judenstein, and in this way came into poesenion of
her farm and house. At the beginning of the war with
France he became one of the volunteers who sn^t
to defend the fatherland: his first encounter with the
enemy took place at the bloody skirmish near Spingea
on 2 April, 1797. He was a fine sharp-ehooter and
one of the most zealous of the Tyrolean patriots. In
1805 he fought under Lieutenant-Colonet Swinburne
against Marshal Ney, but wan obliged like the other
patriots to accept the cession of the Tyrol to Bavaria
m 1806. When in 1808 the Archduke Johnentned
into n^tiations with Andreas Hcrfer for regaining
the Tyrolt Speckbacher soon became one of the most
trusted fnends of Hofer and courageously supported
the latter- in preparing for the Btru^le for bberty.
With the entrance of the Austrian army into the Pus-
tertal in the month of April, 1809, began the heroic
struggle of the Tyrolese. Speckbadier took a promi-
nent part in the three ^orts to free the oountiy from
tiie yc^e of Napoleon. He showed himself to be not
only a daring ^hter, but above all a cautious, unteni-
fied strategist. In this year, according to his own
diaiy , he t^k part in thirty-six battles and skirmishes.
'On 12 April, 1809, he surprised the city of Hall early
in the morning, made the garrison prisoners, and pre-
vented the flight of the French into the valley of the
lower Inn. On 31 May he commanded the left
wing of the battle of Mount Isel, and fou^t victori-
ous near Hall and Volders. He conducted the siege
<^^e castle of Kufstein (23 June-16 July). Here
he gave countless proofs of personal courage, built
batteries, destroyed the mills and boats, burnt the
dty, captured the train of provisions, and made his
way as a spy into the castle. From 4 Aug. to 11
Aug. he was most of the time the commander in the
battles between Sterzii^ and Franz ensfeete a^dnst
Marshal Lefebvre. He forced the marshal to retire and
wiih £h>{er and Haspinger commanded at the famous
third battle of Mount Isel (13 and 15 Auj^ust). After
the enemy had been driven away, he and his m3n forced
their way into the mountains of Salzburg, and stimu-
lated there the defence of the country; on 25 Sept.
he defeated the allied French and Bavarians at Lofer
and with great loss fell back on Reichenhall. On 16
Oct. he was surprised at Melleck 1^ a superior force
of the enemy and was obfi^ to retu«; his young son
Andreas was taken prisoner, and he himself was
severely wounded. At Waidring on 17 Oct. and at
Volders on 23 Oct. he was able to maintun himself
a^nst the foe, escaped capture once more in a skir-
mish on 2^ Oct., and captured a battalion of the en<
emy. After ihe last and unsuccessful fight on Mount
Isel on 1 Nov., he wished to continue the struggle,
but was obhged to abandon ^e unequal contest.
He was proscribed, and a reward of five hundred
florins was offered to anyone who would deliver him
alive or dead.

Speckbacher spent the entire winter in the Tyrolese
mountains, sometimes hid among friends at lonely
farms, sometimes hid in Alpine huts and always
hunted by enemies. He was betrayed only once, but
he saved himself this time bv a daring flight and hid
himself until Jan., 1810, in tne clefts m the rocks, be-
in^ often near death from hunger. His wife and four
etvudren were also t^Uged to s^ safety by flight and
to Idde in the mountains. Speckbachoi's last niding-
^aoe was near the summit of a high mountun in the
Toldertal, where the only person who came to him was
his faiUiful servant George Zoppel, who brought him
food. On 14 March he was severely injured by an
avalanche which overwhelmed him. He was broi^t
by friends to his farm at Judenstdn, where Boppel
hid hun in the stable undo- the floor until 2 May.

When Boareely vnH Speckbacher fled amid great dan-
gers through the nnsgau and Styria to Vienna, where
he mui wvmly received by the Emperor Francis L
The emperor premited him with a chain of honour
and a pennon. The emperor's plan to settle the
Tyrolean refugees in Hungary could not be carried
out and in 1811 Speckbacher was made the superin-
tendent at an estate near linz given by the ruler to
Hofer's son. Speckbacher's wife, who nad be^ im-
prisoned thirteen weeks at Munich'however, remained
on the farm in the Tyrol. In the autumn of 1813
Speckbacher returned to the Tyrol as a major of the
Tyio\ea6 volunteers in the imperial army under Gen-
eral Femw. He shared with these troopB in the gai^
risonin^ of Southern T;^ against the ^ench «id is
maintaming theee garrisons against the enemy. On
12 Sept., however, the Bavarian government at Inn^
bruck once more set a price, 1000 florins, on lus head,
and it was not until the summer of 1814 that ^>eck-
bacher was able to return home unmolested. A srear
later he received a second gold chun of honour, and in
1816 at the time of the national demonstration he re-
ceived the personal notice <^ the emperor. He joy-
fully met his son, who had been well educated at
Munich, and lookra forward to a peaceful old age, but
t^e hardships he had und^gone forced him to sell Ids
farm and Toom to Hall, where he died after a short
illness.

He was first buried at Hall, but in the summer of
1852, at the command of the Emperor FTancia
Joseph I, bis remuns were transferred to the Court
church at Innsbruck, where they were placed by
th(we of Hofer and Has^iger. In 1908 a bronse
statue was erected to nim at Hall. His widow
received a pension from the emperor of 500 florins
and a supplementary sum for the education of bar
cldldren. She died in 1846. Speckbacher's eldest
son Andreas only hved to the age of thirty-seven
years. After conpleting his studies as a mininit
ennneer he went to the iron works at MariaBeU
and Eiseners in Styria, received podtions at I^D-
ersee, Brixl^, and Jenbach in the Tyrol, where he
did much to uwrove the methods of mininjg ore. He
married Aloisia Mayr and died in 1S34. His sons and
his brother died at an early age, and the family is ex-
tinct in the male line. Speckbacher was one of the
most striking of the men who shared in the struggle
for freedom m the Tyrol. His character is well ex-
pressed in his ^itaph: "In war wild but also human,
m peace quiet and faithful to the laws, he was as
Boli&er, subject, and man worthy of honour and love".

HiBN, TiroU BrhOmnff 1809 (Innsbruck, 1910); Mais, 8jmk-
haclur, «wM Tiiroto- HaidnofAidUe (Innabruok. 1904) ; DoiUMia,
SjMdUKtdUr, dtr Mann wm Sinn. Sehau*piel in ftmj Aktm
(Kemptan, 1009), from the drmmatio trilogy Der TyroUr Frti-
Antttomnn; ton Scal*, Jom/ Spedebatiter.dtr Jfann von JIAm.
FoUmcAompM wttr ^hMmi (Biixen. 1005).

BxraiUCB VON WdBMDtB.

Kpaeolittoa, a term used with reference to busmeas
transactions to signify the investing of money at a risk
<tf Ion on tJie chance of unusual gain. The word is
commonly used only when the risk of loss is f^eater
than ordmaiy business methods and prudence war-
rant. A coal merchant who sees grounds for thinking
tiiat the ooming winter will be severCj and that there
will be a general strike among coal mmers, shows en-
toprise if he lays in a huge stock of coal with the
eroeotation ot retuping more tium usual jaiM from its
sale. He incurs the ordinary risks of bunness, he does
not speculate. But if a man thinks, on triviiu indica-
tions, that tJiere is going to be a great development in
the opening up of a new country, and buys la^e tracts
of prairie lana in the district on the chance of its rising
r«>idly in value, he would be said to speculate in land.
More specifically, speculation is used to designate deal-
ings in httuies aad options on the Exchanges, eq)e-
eoa^^entlto parties to the transaction do not intend
any efifoctive trnuteeneaitf oommoditiesM- aeouii^
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212

SraCVLATZON

bat only the payment of difTeraneos betwem moking-
up iKioee ana those agreed on. Such time4Mrgauu
are umTeiBally practised nowadays on the world's
Exchanges, and the volume of bxismess done in them
vastly surpasses that where effective tranter of securi-
ties or commodities is contemplated. The transac-
tions may vwy indefinitely in character between bona
fide and perfectly lawful buvipg and selling, on the one
hand, and the merest punming or Iwtting on Aitura
prices, on the other.

SoEoe of the ordinary types of suob operationa are
the ffdlowiog. A speculator buys at the current nte
a thousand dollars' worth of stock for the acooimt at
the end of the month. When ike day for settlement
arrives, if the price has risen, he is paid the difference
between the price at which he bought and tiie making-
up price. If the price is lower, the q>eoulBtor loses
and pays we differraoe to the broker. In the slang of
the Exchange, this is a "future", or "time-bargain",
or a deal in "differences"; and one who speoulatce for
the rise of pric^ is called a "bull", while one who
speculates for the fall is called a "bear". When the
operator loses, he may prefer to extend the tiriie of
settling the account to the next settling day. This
may be done by arrangement with the broker, and the
Ixansaction is known as "carrying over". A specu-
lator mur purchase at a fixed rate the right to receive
or to refuse a certain amount o! a certain stock or
o<»nmodity at a future date. This is called an "ot>-
tbn". If he purchases the right either to sell or to
buy, it is a "put and call", or a "double option Of
course no objection can be raised against such con-
tracts as thesewhenthey are entered into by merchants
or others with a view to the effective transfer of what
is bought and sold. A merchant or manufacturer re-
(juires a constant and^ steady BUK>ty of what he deals
in so as to be able to conduct his business. Effective
dealings in "futures" and "options" guarantee the
steady supply which is needal, and that at fixed
rates settled beforehand. Such busmess methods
benefit the dealer and the public as well. They ensure
a constant suraily of conunodities at medium rates.
But the speciuator does not intend effective transfer.
His buying and selling are fictitious; he only pockets
his differences if he wins, and pays th^ if he loses.
His methods give rise to serious moral, economic, and
political questions, which have been the subject of
much discussion.

There is no great moral harm in the practices which
have been mentioned if they are considered singly by
themselves and in the abstract. Without incurring
fia reproach of great moral obliquity I may buy a
thousand dollars'^ worth of stock at the current rate
from a broker when neither buyer nor seller intends
effective transfer of the stock, but merely the payment
of differences when the settlii^ day arrives. In eesen-
tials the transaction is a bet as to what the price of the
stock will be on settling day. And if the buyer and
the seller have the free disposal of the money which is
staked on the bet, and there is no &aud, unfau- dealing.
m other evil adjuncts or effects of the transactioa, the
bet will not be morally wrong. (See Betting; Gam-
BLiNO.) However, betting and gambling an ahnost
always dangerous pastimes and often mortdW wrong.
Just in the same way speculatbn tends to develop a
passion which frequently leads to the ruin 'jf a specu-
lator and his family. The hope of bee oming rich
qmckly and without the drudgay of labour distracts
a man from pursuing the path of honest -work. The
specuMon even if he succeeds, produce- inothmg; he
reaps the frmt of the toil of others, he is u parasite who
hves by preymg on the community. Moreover, m
practice, the event on which the bet is ^laid by <Hie -wbo
speculates in futures is seldom left to the operation of
natural causes. When laree sums of money are at
stake the temptation to influence t*iie ootose of vnnm
becones almost iirenstible. HenoD^fieneandftt*

guent contests betweoi "bulls" and "bears" on ^
Exchanges. Cliques of one party, interested to facing
^Mut a rise in [uioes, buy the stock in order that the
increased demand may produce the effect desired.
Often the buying is merely fictitious, but this fact is
not known to the outside world. The purchases are
published, industriously commented upon by the v^al
financial press, puffs and mendacious reports are in-
serted in the papers in order to raise theprice of the
stock and attract moneyed investors. The opposite
IMTty adopts the contruy, but equally immoral, tac-
tics. They indul^ in real or fictitious sales and do all
they can to depreciate the stock in their favour by fsir
or loul means. Great financiers with command of
large sums of money can and do influence the markets
almost as they please, and the small speculator ia
usually swallowed up by them. Wealthy financiers
and gigantic syndicates can often buy or obtain effec-
tive control over all the available supply of some stodc
or commodity and then charge monopoly prices. Such
"rings", or "comers", even when they do not succeed
entirely aeeording to the intention the operator,
produce wideqiread inconveniraee, hardship, and
ruin. The result is that in practice speculation de*
serves all the evil reputation iriiich attaches to the
word.

Speculation indeed has its defenders and advocates^
especially among brokers and jobbers, who claim that
it equalizes prices and prevents the fluctuations which
would othmvise be mevitable. Some affirm that
spetnilative dealings have little ^preciable effect on
buying and selling for transfer. In volume and num-
ber speculative transactions are very much larger than
those for effective transfer, but the two are conducted
separately and to a neat extent between different
puties. It is asserted that the speculative market is
to a large extent separate and distinct from the real
market. These two STRvnents in favour of speculfr*
tive dealings mutually destroy each other. If specula-
tive dealings equalize prices, it cannot be true that they
have little appreciable effect on the markets. As the
result of ibs speculation depends on the actu^ market
price of the security or commodity in question at the
time agreed upon, it cannot be said that speculative
transactions are indq>end^t of effective buying and
selUng for transfer. It is patent that the various
devices to which "bulls" and "bears" have recourse
do produce some effect. The acute and experienced
men who devote th^nselves to speculative business,
and who frequently have recourse to the methods de-
scribed above in order to influence the market in their
favour, would be the last people in the world to expend
uselesaiy time, effort, and money. The contentioo,
then, (» ptoducen and consumers that speculation has
a disasmnis effect on real business transactions seeott
to be wdl groimded. They maintain that speculators
denaturalize prices. These should be related, and
are naturally r^ulated, by the varying costs of pro-
duotion and by the.mutuu interaction of supply and
demand^ but me artificial dealings of speculators tend
to fix prices without reference to those natural factors.
Hence, producers and consumers are robbed by clever
men, who manipulate the markets in tiieir own inte^
eets, prcduce nothing, perform no usefid social aervioe,
and are parasites on commerce. In Germany the
Exchange Law of June, 1896, forbade gambling in
options and futures in agriculturalproduce, and uta
a severe struggle with the Berlin Exchange the Gov'
ei nment succeeded in maintaining the law. A similar
la^ V was passed in Austria in January, 1903. America
ami Great Britain as yet have no special laws oo the
mvttv, though more measures than one have been
pr^'osed to Congress. Hie great difficulty of distin-
guish ing between transactions for effective delivery
and iL'ere time-baigains, and the ease with which posi-
tive Uwraon the mattOT could be evaded, have checked
^ ^ntlfln^y to poaitiTe kgidatran^ In England.Uie

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213

odsting laws aeaiitst gambling and fraud hare been
found sufficiently ^ective to provide a remedy fw
cases of special importance.

Ahtoinb in Dictionnair« d* Thiellocit CoAMqua (Puis, 1906),
a. t. Bvitne {Jeux <U) ; Beantb, Let prandu ligM lU VScontmU
FMUqm (Louvftin, 1908); BedttiatiUcal Rmimo. XXXII (N«ir
ToA, 1905), 2: iNOAix AND Wiraus, Th» atodt Exchaagu

T. SUTUt.

Spadallml, Nicola, priest, theologian, and phi~
ksopher, b. at Bronte m the Province of Catania,
Sicify, 6 December, 1740; d. at Rome, 2ft November,
1795. He studied in the seminary of Monreale, then
the most flourishing in Sicily, was ordained priest,
and appointed [^feasor of philosophy and math-
ematics, and later oS Uieology. At the same time he
oultiTated the arts q$ poetiy, musio, and [nintti^.
Disgusted at the opposition stirred up by certain
theok^cal theses, which were branded as heretical
at Palermo but approved at Rome, he withdrew from
Monreale to Rome (1773 or 1774), where for ten years
he led a life of penury but of fruitful study and labour.
However, he always retained hia affection for the
seminary of Monreale. In 1784 he obtained from
Fius VI a benefice in ^e Vatican Basilica, and then
ceased the efforts he had made for years to obtain a
ehair in the Universities of Pisa, Pavia, and Turin.
His first published work was "Analisi dell' Esame
critico di Fr^t" ("Examen critique des apologies
de la religion chr^tienne", a work wrongly attributed
to fWret, really written by Naigeon), Rome, 1778.
In 1779 he published "Ragionamento sopra l arte di
govemare" and "RaKionamento sull' influenza della
religione cristiana BUUa society civile". In 1784 he
issued, also at Rome, his "Confutazione di Gibbon"
in which he combats the thesis of the English historian
who blames Clu^ianity for the downfalTof the Roman
Empire. In it, as in the Apology against Fr^ret, he
shows especially the benefits con^rred by the Christian
religion on the social and political order, inasmuch as
Christianity is most powerful bulwark against
dewotism.

In 1791 appeared his principal work. "I diritti dell'
Qomo'' also at Rome; this was evidently intended
as a Catholic answer to the proolamati<m of iJbe
"Rightanf Man", made in France in 1789, ii^ch was
the signal for the French Revolution. Notwithstand-
ing the hearty reception given to this work by Pius VI
who said, "For a Ions while rulers have been asking
quid est papa. Your Dook will teaeh Hum quid «rt
popidiis , a storm of criticism and rrfutrtim burst
on-the head of its author. Govemmoats took notice
of it and (e. g. Piedmont) forbade its circulation.
Hie controvnsy continued even after Spedaliwi's
death. In his book, except in certain details, the
writer only expressed in the language of the eighteentii
century the teaching of the scholastic doctors on the
populfu" origin of political sovereigaty, a doctrine
commonly taudit from St. Thomas to Suares and
BelUu-mine, which does not exclude the Irvine origin
of tJie same sovereignty. Spedalieri's tibesis could not
move acceptable to the absolutism of princes and the
cWtesian doctrines then in voga% wbioh dkl not
admit the existence of a natural moral law but made
all depend on the arbitrary Will of God; much lesa
could it please tihe legalists. On the otha hand, it is
easy to understand how his theory m^t ^ve rise to a
fesr that it was too favourable to the ideas of the
revolutionaries. Spedalieri was wrongly claimed by
the Liberals as one of theirs, and if some of Uiem
accuse him <rf a want of loyalty when he wishes to
ocmciliate d^nocracy and a Divine sanction of the
BOiUal order, it is because they do not understand the
true nature of democracy or of the sayii^ that all
authority comes from God. The controversies idwut
Spedalieri were renewed on the occawwt d the oen*
twaiy of his deaUi. Sh(u^ before bis dmsMe he

oomi^eted a "Storia deile Fidudi PonUne", a book
^us VI ordered him to write and whidi was published
by his Intimate friend Nicolai, in the work "De
bonifioamenti delle terre pontine" (Rome, 1800).
His death was attributed to poison; a modem writer
has not hesitated to la^ the bbane on the Jesuits,
forgettaD|[ that 8pedali«ri'B enemies were the bittmit
adversaries of the Jesuits.

Nksih^, Laudatio Ifiettai SptdaHtH (Rome, 179S); Chibau.
Nieota SfdaUtri. PtMHciMa * H fvnttatof* dd mc XVIIX
(CMteUo. 1H»); I»uf, L'AnttSpadaUari (Turin, 1909): Idbh,
m prima emtMorioMlo wurta ilN. SpMitH (Rmm, 1899).

U. BsNiain.

8pS6, Friedrich von, poet, opponent of trials for
witchcraft, b. at Kaiserswerth on the Rhine, 25 Feb-
ruary, 1S91 ; d. at Trier, 7 August, 1685. On finishing
his early education at Cologne, he entered the Society
of Jesus in 1610, and^ter prolonged studies and ac-
tivity as a teacher at Trier, Fulda, Wtirzburg, Speyer,
Worms, and Mainz, was ordained priest in 1622. He
became professor at the Univereity of Paderbom in
1624; from 1626 he taught at Speyer, Wesel, Trier,
and Cologne, and was preacher at Paderbom, Cologne,
and Hildesheim. An attempt to assassinate him was
made at Peine in 1629. He resumed his activit}; as

Erofessor and priest at Paderbom and later at Co-
igne, and in 1633 removed to Trier. Diiring the
storming of Trier by the imperial forces in March,
1635, he distinguished himself in the care of the suffer-
ing, and died soon afterwards from the results of an
infection contracted in a hospital. He was one of the
noblest and most attractive figures of the awful era of
the Thirty Years' War. HisBterary activity belongs
to the last years of his life, the details of which are
little known. Two of hia works were not published
until after his death: "Goldenes Tugendbuch"
(Golden Book <A Virtues), a book of devotion highly

})rized by Leibniz^ and the "Tmtznacbtigall", a col>
ection of fifty to sixty sacred songs, which, though not
free from the weakn^ses of the day, take a prominent
place among religious ^rics of the seventeenth cen-
tury, and nave been in recent times repeatedly
printed and revised. But the assumption that the
author in this work applied the metrical principle in-
dependent of Opitz, is at least doubtful. His principal
work, through which he obtained a well-deserved and
world-wide reputation, is the "Cautio Criminalia",
written in adxairable Latin. It is an arraignment of
trial for witchcraft, based upon his own awful ex-
periences probably principally in Westphalia, for the
traditional assumption that he acted for a long time as
"witch confessor in WOrzburg has no documentaiy
authority. This work was printed in 1631 at Rintein
without Spec's name or permission, although he was
doubtlessly widely known as its author. He does not
advocate the immediate abolition of trials for witch-
craft, but describes in thrilling language and with cut-
ting sarcasm the horrible abuses in the prevsilii^ l^ai
proceedings, particularly the inhuman use (tf the radc.
He demands measures of reform, such as a new G^
man imperial law on the subject, liability to damages
on the part of the judges, etc., which, if they had b^n
oonscientiouriy carried out, would have quickly put an
end to the persecution of witches. Many a genera
tion passed oefore witch burning ceased in G^nnany,
the caasno land of these outrages; but at all events the
"Cautio Crimimdis" brought about its abi^tion in a
nundier <k places, especisJ^ at Mains, and led the
way to its gra^iiU suppression. The moral impres-
sion created by its putuication was very great. £ren
in the seventeenth century a number of new editions
and German trandations appeared, Protestants also
eagerly assisting in promoting its circulation. Among
the members of Spec's order his treatise seems to have
uaaally found a favourable reception, although it was
publisbed without <^oial saintiaii, and its pi^ca-
tioB lad to & otnrespandewM betweoi the general of

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214

SPKYlR

the Jeauits, the provincial of the order on the Lower
Rhine, and Spee himself. The general wished more
exact information as to how the printing took place
and expressed the suqiicion that ^>ee, even if he, per-
haps, aid not directly cause it, at least aUowed it, and
wrote him a mild rebuke.

The earlier literature is eDumerated by Cabdaons, FritdriA
8pM in FrankfwUr SMfpentdtM BroaekOrm, V, pt. 4 <1884),
■re th« first exact analyas of the CatUio is siven. Sinee

tbeo much new material has appeared in the publications of
pubUsbed by the OdiTMceseUwhaft (1000); Diiil, FritHriek Sjtee

m Sammlunff Autontehw AtUnuM, aeoond etUtion roviaed by
DuBB (1901). Valuable artidee by Duhr have appeared in the
HUtori*ehMJakrbwAdtrG»r«aoe»elUehaft (1900), 328 sqq.; (1906),
327 sqq. For a good bibttocrapby see tne introduction to the
UtcM ^tlm of a« TnOKu^Mg^ by Wattnocs anT), zzxrU

HXBHANN GaBDAUNB.

8pMd, John, VENsaABLS, English mart^, exe-
cuted at Duriuun, 4 Fthl, for asmsung the
TcuOTable martyr John Boste (q. v.), whom he used
to escort from one Catholic house to another. He
died with constancy, despising the inducements of-
fered to brii^ him to conformity. With lum was
condemned Mrs. Grace Claxton, wife of William
Claxton, of the Waterhouse, in the parish of Brance-
peth, Durham, at whcwe house Boste was taken and
probably Speed also. She was, however, reprieved
on bdng found to be with child.

Chaixonrb, Afunoaory Prieitt, I. no. 100, ad finem; PoLUBK,
AiffKsA Jforfvrs lS8i~t&0S (Lradon. 1908), 339.

John B. WAnnwBioBT.

Spells. See SxTPUBsnTKUf.

SpflQOar, The Hon. George (in rdision, XoNATins
or St. Paul.), PasBi^mist, b. at the Admiralty, Lon-
don, 21 Dec., 1709; d. at Carsturs, Scotland, 1 Oct..
1864. He was the yotmgest son of the second Earl
Spencer and Lavinia, daughter of Sir Charles Bing-
ham. From Eton he went to Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, received Anriican orders, 13 June. 1824, and
became chaplain to Bishop Blomfield of Chester, and
shortly afterwards rector of Brington, Northampton-
shire. In 1830 he became a CaUtoUc and w^t to
Rome for his ecclesiastical studies, bang ordained
priest there, 26 May, 1832. He returned to En^^d
Bred with zeal for its conversion and laboured mces-
santly to procure the prayers of Catholics on the Con-
tinent for that intention. From 1832 to 1839 he
worked as priest at West Bromwich, building the
church at his own cost; then he was professor at Os-
cott till 1846, when he entered the Passionist novitiate.
He was professed at Aston Hall in January, 1848. He
spent the rest of his life in arduous missionary labours
as a true apostle for the conversion of Ei^and, He
translated the life of Blessed Paul of the Crota (Lon-
don, 1860) and published many sermons.

A Short Account of At ConwfTtvm oftfit Ron. and Sw. G, Sptn~
eer, wnttan by himself (Cath. Tnst. Tracts, London, no date) ;
Dkvim Lt/e of Falhtr Ignatiu* of St. Paul. Pauionitt (Dublin,
1866); OiUAW, BM. Dik. Bug, Catk.; Porgbll, Ambntt Phil-
Kpps d« hUlM,

Edwin Bubton.

Spenser, John (olios Hatcliffe and TtbrWhit),
b. in Lincolnshire, 1601; d. at Grafton, 1671. He
was converted while a student at Cambridge, and en-
tered the Society of Jesus in 1627. After &ving pro-
fessed moral Oieoloey at lidgej 1642. and also having
served the arduous "Camp Mission'', he returned to
England and partook. Whitsuntide, 1667, in a oonfw-
ence, much spoken of at the time, with two Anglican
divines, Dr. Peter Gunning and Dr. John Pearson,
afterward Bishops of Ely and Chester. All the dis-

Sutants, induding Spenser's Catholic colleague, Dr.
ohn Lenthall, M J>., were Cambridge men, and may
have known one another. An account of usb confer-
ence was published in Paris, 1668, under the title,
"Scihism Unmasked' J [Kobably by Spenso-, He also
wrote: ''[]liir^-^]QiieBtioDspropouiidedtotheDoe-

torsoftheRefonnedReligbn" (Paris, 1667); *'Seruh
ture Mistaken" (London, 1660); and otho- boota
which won him a high name as a controversialist. At
tiie time of his death he was chaplain to Uie Earl of
Shrewsbury.

FoLKT. Raeordt of the En^iA Prorinet, S.J. (1884). n, IM;
OiLLOw, DM. Diet. Eng. Cath.. b. v,

J. H. POLLKK.

Spenser, Wnxuif, Venebablb, English martyr,
b. at Ghiwum, Yorkshire; executed at York, 21
September. 1589. His maternal uncle, William Horn,
who signed for the Rectory of Corawell, Oxfordshire,
in 1569, sent him in 1573 to Trinity College, Oxford,
where he became Fellow in 1679 and M.A. in 1580.
There, convinced of the truth of CatboUdsm, he used
his petition to influence his pui>ib in that mreetion;
but he delayed his reconduation till 1582, when,
witii four other Trinity men (John Appletree, B.A.,
already a priest; Willitun Warford, M.A. and Fellow,
afterwards a Jesuit; Anthony ShiriCT, M.A. and Fel-
low, afterwards a priest; and John Fixer, B.A., aftcr-
wards a priest), he embarked from the Isle of Wight,
and landed near Cherbourg, arriving at Reims, 2
November. Received into tne Church five lata',
he was ordained sub-deacon and deacon at Laon Yf/
the bishop, Valentine Douglas, 7 April, 1583, and
priest at Reims by the Cardinal Archbishop de Guise,
24 September, and was sent on the mission 29 August,
1584. He effected the reconciliation of his parents
and his uncle (the latter was living as a Catholic
priest in 1503), and afterwards voluntarily immured
nimself in York Castle to help theprisooers there.
He was condemned under 27 Elizabeth, c. 2, merely for
bdng a priest. With him suffered a layman, Robert
Hardesty, who had ^vm him shelter.

Pollen, AOm of the Ettgli»h Martyrt (London, 1891), 273-S;
Sngluk Martyr* 1684-1803 (London, J00», 34, Sfi: Knox.
i>ma|f iKarict (London, 1878); and, for William Horn, sss
Out, Stuabethan, Cltrm (O^ord, 189S), 119; and Public Record
Office, 8. P. Dom. Add. Btit., j£xXU, 64.

John B. Wainswhioht.

Speyer, Diocese or (Spira), in Bavaria. The
dty dates back to the stron^old of Noviomagus, in
the territory of the German tribe of the Nemetes, on
the left baUE of the Rhine, In the course of time a
Roman municipality (Colonta Nem^um) develqwd
out of this
stronghold; in
451 the munid-
pality was en-
tirely destroyed
byAttila. From
its ashes arose a
new dty, Spira
orSpeyer. Chris-
tiamty found en-
trance into the
dty in the time
of the Romans.
The first bishop,
Jesse (JesduB^
is mentioned in
the Acts of the
Synods of Sar-
dioa (343) and of

Cologne (346), but his historidty is not quite certain.
On.the other hand there is positive proof of Bishop
Hilderich who attmded tiie Synod of ^uis hdd in 614.
Since his episcopate the succeedon <rf bishops has been
unbroken. In 748 Spfeyer was made suffragan of
Mainz; and in 1030 the first stone of the present
Romanesque Cathedral of Our Lady was laid; it was
intended to be the mausoleum of the Salian em-
perors. In the struggle over investitures. Bishops
Husmann (1073-90) and Johann I (1090-1104) up-
beld the Empevor Henry IV and died under the ban
of tlw Chureh. In 1146 St. Bernard preached ths

Bmu. or m Ctrr or Bmwm

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SPnUIAllR

Crusade at Sbeyer and won Ring Conrad III to the
cause. Besides the four Salian emperors, Philip of
Swabia, Rudolph of Hababurg, and the rival longs,
Adolph of Nassau and Albert of Austria, are auo
buiied in the cathedral. A lay brothoiiood, the
Twelve Brothers of Prayer, prayed without intermis-
aion in the cathedral, for the repoae of the souls of
these kings. Among the later oishops Matthias of
Bamung (1464-78) should be especiaUy mentioned
for his reforming the clergy and people, and bringing
new life into the diocese.

At the time of the Refonnation several Diets were
faddatSpeyuvthemost important being in 1626 and
1529. ui 1620 the condition ai poUticalufairs enabled
the l^ateBtaats to secure the nuativdy favourable de-
cision that each constituent state should act in refer-
oiee to ^e matters oontained in the Edict of Wonns
(1521) asit could an-
swer to God and the
emperor. But the
sotioD taken in 1520
was more decided:
the Edict of Wonna
was to be executed,
and the eccleeiaBtical
innovations were to
be abolished. Against
this the Evangelical
constituents pro-
tested. Bv the Ref-
onnation ue diocese
lost two thirds of its
cbUTcheB and bene-
fices. Bishop Eber-
hard von Dienheim
(1581-1610) sought
to introduce the re*
forms ordered by tha
Council of Trent in
tine remaining terri-
tory. The gains tem-
porarily acquired
during the Thirty
Yean War were nearly all loet 1^ the Treaty of
Westidialia (1648). The diocese suffered greatly dur-
ing tne predatory wars of Louis XIV of France, and
in 1680 the city and cathedral were burned. In 1794
the catiiedr^, vdiich had been restored at great ex-
pense, was once more ravaged by the lawless soldiery
of the French Revolution. In 1801 that put of wb
diooeseon the left bank of the Rhine had to be ceded
to Maiual in 1815 the diocese was assigned to Bavaria;
in 1817 it received new boundaries in the Bavarian
Concordat and was made suffragan of the new metro-
politan Bamberg. By the liberality of King Louis I
of Bavaria, the cathedral was suitably oeoo rated
(1846-63), the fresooee being done by Schraudolph.
The ana <rf the diooese corresponds to that of the
Bavarian Palatinate of the Rhine. Dr. Michael
Faulhaber, fonneriy a ptotemar at Uw University of
8traiA>urg, was appointed bishoii in 1010. The dio-
oese has 12 detmeries, 235 parishes, 6 curacies, 86
chaplaincies and vicarships, 377 secular cle^, and
10 regular d^gy. The Catholic population is 413,-
481; the Protestant population is about 500,000.
The diooese has also 1 Dominican monastery {Ofofir-
sbeim), 1 Capuchin monastery (St. Ingbert), audlOO
houses for nuns.

Bmumo, GtM4. dtr BUehH/t «u Sp^utr nA^ Urkwtdenlmch
(4 voU.. Haini, 18JS-54); Idem, Nni^rt Oeteh. der Bitehdft cu
Smmt wmr, 1867): GmaSL, D*r Xouaniom nt Spain-, l-III

KUMINS LOlTLSA.

j^Myer, JoaAHN and Wbndbun vow, German
printers in Venice fnnn 1468 to 1477. Tliey were
amooc tlte fizst of those whov alter 1462, left Mains
lor Italy to faitroduoe tbva the art ol idling bo<^.

We have scant knowledge of their lives. Duy came
ori^nally from Speyor (capital of the Bavarian pa-
latmate) . Earlv m 1460-61 Johann appears in Mams
as a "goldsmiui" — it was there, no doubt, that he
leamea the art of printing bodes. In 1468, with his
wife, children, and brother Wenddin, he set out for
Vemce. The establishment c& dieir printing house,
the first in Venice, took place under the most favour-
able auspices. The Venetian Senate extended a
cordial welcome to Johann, and granted him a full

Bogtin Id lOSO; dwtnred by Freaeb SokUeiy in 17M; FMtowd in th«

Dei" (1470) Johann died, and Wendelin completed
it. The latter assumed control of the business after
the death <& Johann and carried it on succemf uUy until
1477. About 1472 he associated with him Uie Ger-
man printer, Johatm
von Kfiln. Together
they issued seven
works. Besides their
n^t skill as printers,
their extraordinary
industry is worthy (n
note. Before Johann
d ied, f our great woiks
had been issued: two
editions of Cicero;
Pliny; and one vol-
ume of Livy. Tb"
"De Civitate Dei"
had been begun.
Within seven months
ei^t hundred vol-
umes were printed.

From 1470 to 1477
Wendelin issued over
seventy great works
(Italian and Roman
classics. Fathers of
the Church, jurists,
ete.) . Johann printed
in an antique type
modelled after the best Italian manuscript writ-
ing, beautiful, and carefully cut. It is decidedly
superior to the later antique type, which deteri-
orated through desire to save space, and it is
almost equal to the beautiful type of Jenson. Jo-
hann's dear type and his entire technical execution
are suroriungly perfect. In addition to this first
type, Wendelin used five newly cut types of exquis-
ite workm^shm, among them three slender Gothic
models, probab^ reduced to save space. His work
showed the same correctneas of text, oeauty of print-
ing, and evenness that had characterized Johann's.
The latter was the first printer to number the leaves
with Arabic figures, and was also the first who used the
colon and interro^tion point. . In Wendelin's books
appeared for the first time the so called catch- words
{Kutioden), that is to say he printed on the lower
margin of each page the first word of the page following.

Dknis, Snlfratfium pro J. d« Spira (Vienna. 1794); Brown,
Vtnttian Printinff Pre— (London, 1891); ONtuNlA. AH dt Pim~
primeriiA VeniM (Vralos, ISSS-A); Habtwiq and OTHns, PmI-
mArift WM SOOJakr. CabwMoff* wh Jekaim Ovtmbeni (Mmini,

SbmnucH W. Waluu.

SpUlmamif Joseph, authcff, b. at Zug, Switserland,
22 April, 1S42: d. at Luxemburg, 20 February, 1905.
He attended the primary school and gymnasium of bis
native town, but leeble health necessitated his leaving
his studies and devoting himself to his father's busi-
ness. At the age of sixteen he resumed his interrupted
studies at the Jesuit college of Feldkirch. Having
entered the Jesuit novitiate atGorheim (1862), he was
sent, during the Franco-Prussian War (1870), to
Fnnoe, to nurse tiie dck. Two years later, whoi his

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216

ordw was buuflhed f rom Gennany, he went to Enduid
to complete his theolopcal studi^ and in 1874 was
oTdaiaed priest. The life work of SpiUmann, vho had
already shown his poetical gift in his contribuUona to
" Der Hausfreund (a calendar published by Father
Pachtler in 1872), was clearly marked out for him.
He was appointed collaborator on the "Stimmea aus
Maria-Laach" (founded in 1S71) and the "Katho-
lische Missionen" (founded in 1873).

Spillmann's fruitful literary activity resulted chiefly
from his connexion with these periodicals, eope-
cially the "Katholische Missionen . vidcb he edited
from 1880 to 1890. From his ''Beilagen fflr die
Ju§end"grew seven portly volumes <^"Rei8d>ilder",
while twenty-one booklets, "Aus femen Landern",
owe thdrori^n to the same source; these oonnsted <x
«difyiiw and tastefully illustrated stories for theyoimg,
with whom they have become favourites, as uie nu-
merous editions and translations prove. His compre-
hensive "Geschichte der Katholikenrerfolgung in
Engjland von 1535-1681 " began with articles in the
"Stimmen aus Maria-Laach", was continued in the
supplements to this periodical, and was oomplcted in
five large volumes. For the calendar^ the "Haus-
freund , which was given up in 1881, Spillmaim wrote
many stories ; these were afterwards collected under the
title "Wolkenund Sonnenschetn", eight prettystories
for the young which have been frequently republished
and trEuisIated into other languages. Smllmann also
wrote seven lon^r romances, the first (Die Wunder-
bhmie von Woxmdon) appearing in 1893; and the last
(Der dchwarxe Schunucner) ten years later: tfa^ are
writtra in the style of his favourite authors, Sir Wuter
; Scott and Charles Dickens. An eighth romance was
^sketched, but a serious illness prevented its oomple-
-,tion. Spillmann's importance arises chiefly from his
works for the young.

In addition to too necrolociea in various newap^ten and pariod-
loabt aea BkimaAaTHm In ^immm ant Maria-Laaeli, LXIX,
i-28.

N. Sghxxd.

ApiiUk, Alfonso db, Spanish Franciscan, date ct
bath unluiQwn; d. about 1491. A convert from Juda-
isDvlic for niany years superior of the house of
stuoiea of the Friars Aimor at Salamanca, and in 1491
was created Bishop of Thermopylffi in Greece. He
was a man of great learning and attained considerable
renown as a preacher, but his chief title to fame is the
work entitle! "Fortalitium Fidei" which Mariana
(lib. XXII "De rebus ^span.". c. xlvi) describes as
"opus eruditimi, splendido titiuo, voce barbara, et
divmarum rerum cognitione prgestanti". As u>-
pears from the text, tnis work was written in 1468,
but it was added to by the author at different times
up to the year 1485. The first edition was issued
about 1464-76; the edition published at Nuremberg
in 1485 begins thus: "Indpit prohemium Fortalitu
Fidei conscriptiun per auendam Doctorem eximiimi
ordinis minorum anno MCCXX3LIX in partibus occi-
dentis." The fact that the "Fortalitium Fidei" ap-
peared anonymously gave rise to some difference of
opinion as to its autnor^iip. The reason why ihe
mrk is included in the "Scnptores O.F." is that om
edition of it appeared under the auspices of Qulielmus
Totani, O. P., for its author was undoubtedly a Fran-
ciscan, as Echard himself notes (Script. Ord. Pned.,
ed. 1721, II, 61), and modem scholars are practically
unanimous m attributing it to Alfonso de Spina. The
"Fortalitium Fidei" desJs with the different kinds of
armour to be used by preachers and others in their
warfare against the enemies of the Qiristian religion.
It is divided into five books, the first directed against
those who deny the Divimty of Christ, the second
Against heretics, the third against the Jews, and the
fourth against the Mohammedans, while the fifth book
^treats of the battle to be waged against the Gates of
Bell. In tids last book the author dwdb at length

upon the demons and their hatred of men, the powers
they have over men and the diminution tn these
powers, owing to the victory of Christ oa the CroM^
the final conaitu>D of the demons, etc.

Besides the "Fortalititun", Alfonso de Spina pub-
lished at least three other works: (1) Sermonea de
Nomine Jesu Vinntiduos, issued about 1454 (errone-
ously confounded with the "Fortalitiimi" by Chidin);
(2) "Sermones plures de excellentia nostrae fidd",
preached in 1450; (3) a treatise on fortune, dedicated
to John, King of Castile (1404-54).

Waddiko, MtitaUt wtiiurum, od afk 14St, XXXI; Ism,
Seriptortt ord. mtn. (Bone, 1906), 14; Sbakalba, Supplwmmttum,
pt. I (Smoa. 1«0B}. 29-80; HtnrEB, Nowumdat4>r, II (IMS),
1019.

Paschal Robinson,

SpiBa, BAtrroxomao, Scholastic theologian, b.
at Pisa about 1475; d. at Rome, 1546. He Jomed
the Dominican Order at Pisa about 1494. Having
taught for many years in the schools of his order,
he was appointed (1536) by the Venetian Senate to
the chair of theology at Padua. Be was also for a
time soeius of the masterfeneral of his ordo-, and
prior provincial of the Holy Land. In July, 1642, he
was made Master of the Sacred Palace by Paul III,
and diuiog the four years that he discharged the duties
of that office he rendered great services to Uie Holy
See and to the Fathers of the Council of Trent, re-
rarding many difficult and mooted queetions. From
the year 1518 Spina was engaged in a heated con-
troversy wiih his famous confrrae. Cardinal Cajetan.
Still more harsh was his opposition to Ambrose
Catharinus, whom he denounced as guilty of heresy
to Paul HI about the b^inning of the y«6x 1546.
The most important of Spina's works are: "Tutela
Veritatis de Immortalitate Anims contra Petrum
Pomponattum" and "Flagellum in Tree Libros
Apologis Pomponatii de Immortalitate Animee",
both published in 1518. Of special interest are also
"Tractatua de Stringibus et Lamiis" (Venice, 1523),
and "Apolo^ Tree adversus Joaan. Franc. Pon-
cinibium JunspNitum" (Venice, 1525). These last
two works were also published at Rome in 1576. In
his treatise "De Conoeptione B. Maris Virg."
(Venice, 1533), Spina opposed the doctrine of the
Immaculate (jonception.

AUTA T Amoma. MonumiUa DomiHtean"; pro imwtae, etut-
«nL (LotmOn, 1669). 4 •«.; Eohabd, Senpl. Ord. Prttd., II,
lifSsq.; Honaa, JftHMMlater.

Cbas. J. Gallan.

Splnola, C^HRiaroPHEB Rotas oe, Bishopof Wioio^
Neustadt, d. of a noble Spanish family, near Roer-
mond in Gelderiand in 1626: d. at Wiener-Neuatadt,
12 March, 1605. Educated at Cologne, he entered
the Franciscan Order at that place and for some time
taught philoeophy and theology. Going to Spain, he
was made provincial of his order and in 1661 accom-
panied Margaret Theresa, the first wife of Emperor
Leopold L to Vienna, ^ere he became <me of theem-
tmor's influential diplomats. He waa appointed titu-
lar Bishop of Knin in Dalmatia in 16w and Bidwp
of Wiener-Neustadt, 19 January, 1686. In his en-
deavours to bring about a reunion between Protes-
tants and the Catholic Church he had tiie support
of Leopold I. His negotiations with well-loiown
Protestant theokwianSj such as Molanus, Cidlistus,
Leibnis, etc., ana various Protestant omirts, eroe-
etal^ Bxaiyva and Brandenbiug, wen eaeoun^ed oy
Innocent XI, and in 1083 led to a conference of
Protestant theologians to whom Spinola submitted
his plan of reunion. The plan was apparently ap-
proved by the Protestant theolc^ians, but Irench
influence and Spinola's too libenu concessions in-
duced Innocent XI to take no action. On 20
Matdi, 1691, the emperor appointed Sfnnoia com-
musary-flucral of tbe momnent far eocHmmUmi
mmioD m AuNrifr>HiuifH7. The axtraoe ntinm

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tPJUUZA

Bknu ifUoh he nov made to tbe Protcatanta of

AaBtaia-Htmsaiy, audi aa CommuniMi tuider both
nedes, freedom tor ptwe^ to mairy, Mass in the
Goman language, aiu aumoiaon ot ib» Tridrntine
decrees vtam a new ooanea waa hdd, worn rejected
by Rome.

laUnnmB. Spinaieu Uniontbettrtbu^tn in Bratuianimra In
MarkUdu FortdMO^ XX (Bariin, 1887); Kuwl, i>«r FrMm»-
aim dM LMftnii nir iFMdcrNrfHugMiv <br QOmtnten ekriitUehm
Rfrcfcy g^dnbon, l«Ot); KmOitur iiO^. /)«wtadU Mv.,

MicHASL On.

Spinon (o'EsFiNoeA, Dbspinoca), Bbnudict, b.
at Amsterdam, 24 Nor., 1632; d. at The Hague, 21
Feb., 1677. He bekmged to a fami^ Jewnh Toex-
ohanta ef modmte meana, and waa orifmally called
Barach, a name that he lata- trandated mto ite Latb

equiTalent Bene-
dict. Hia father's
name waa Mi-
chael, his motiiar,
Mioluel's BBOond
wife, was called
Hana Debora.
In IMl Micdiael
maniad a third
wife vrba waa
named HeetO'de
Espinosa. The
family probab^
had scnae con-
nexion with tbe
little town <rf Ea-
pino in SpauUh
Galioia, au with
the celebrated
Manano famOy
there called E»-

&inosa. (The
[arranofl were
Spanish Jews
compelled to con-
form outwudly
to Chriatianity.)
Baruch attracted attratiui in the school for Por-
tugwee Jews at Amsterdam by his talents and
amlkation to study. He made rapid progress in
Hwrew and the study of the Tahnud, and his
teachers, especially Halrni Saul Levi Morteira, had
the greatest hopes of his future. It was intoided
that lie should beo(»ne a rabbi. The subtle methods
of the teaehers U iho Tahnud nndoidytedly trained
Ida inteUecfc and led it particalaily to reaaeming by
analogy. The moral teaching of the Hanada lutd a
great and permanent influence upon bss code of
Eving. However, the difficulties in regard to tbe
S<srh>tureB, which be deduced from what he read,
iiia& a stronger impression upon him than their
solutions. Thus he was a troublesome and critical
pupil, although at the same time a modest one. He
road and deqi»aed the Cabalists; yet traces of their
influMioe are recognisable in his ^AilosoiAy; mentitm
should here be pailiGularly made of the hoA called
"Zohar" and of Herrera's work "Porta coeli". He
studied industriously the Jewish writers on the idulos*
of religion, eq>eciaUy Maimonidee, QerBonides,
Otaadai KrMkas, and Ibn Eara, and later adopted
nnicfa from them. The writings of the Arabian
pliiloBOpher Al Farabi and of his commoitator Ismail
show striking simibritiee, even in theamaHeat detaOa.
with the latw aystem of Spinosa. Tbsn are also
dear svideneea of cmnexion betwsm the atraon
work of Ibn Tofafl, the story of "Haa Ibo Joktaa^,
■od the eoDoq)tion8 of Spinosa.

About 1651 ^inosa, unable to see his way dearl^r,
seenoa for a short time to have abandoned metwhym*
«■! alndiea, aad to bvve foos^t a hard batUe with U*

BamMOT Srmosa

Sim at this time he waa lodrad uptm with
suspicion by orthodox Jews. He now devoted him-
sea to the natural philosophy of Descartes. Coming,
back in this way to metaphysics, he complet^ over-
came the scepticism, and, resuming his first studiee,.
benn to lay the foundation of his new system. Ibei
plmosophy of Descartee aided him in recasting the
notions which he had jtreviouslv acquired. After
the death of hia father m 1664, Spinoza was almost
ccHnpIetely cast off by his family and, having no
means, tfuight in the private Humanistic school of
the ex-Jeauit and freethinker Frans van den Enden.
Here he perfected himself in Latin and continued bis
philosophical investigations by the study of St.
Augustme, the Stoics, Scholasticism (in a somewhat
superficial manner), the philoeophy of the Renaissance
and that oi some modem writers, especially of Hobbes.
His later payehology shows extraordinary aimilaiitiee
with the teachinss m Marcus Mard and of Qlisaon.

Spinoza now frequented almost exclusively the so-
ciety of Quristians, i. e. of the free-thinking sort, and
especially of Mennonites. His lifelong friendfAiips^ as
known from his letters, date in part from this period.
In 1656 he was formally expelled from the Jewish
community and soon afterwards from AmstCTdam.
A Bomewuit legendary attack upon his life is said to
have been made about this time. He never became a
Christian. He now b^an to dictate in Latin some of
Ijie principles of his philosophy to a company of pu^la
at (>uderkerk near Amsterdam. A Dutch translation
of this dictation exists in two mantMcripts which were
discovered in 1863 and 1861 by Frie(hich Muller, a
Dutch bookseller. The translation as found in these
manuscripts had been largely revised, had notes that-
were traceable, however, to Spinoza himself, and had!
been aomewhat unddlfuUy handled by an editor..
Since tbe disoovery the manuscripts have been pub-'
lished a number of^ timee both in the original text and',
in translations. The characteristics of the later sys-
tem of the "Ethics" are evident in this "Korte Ver-
handeUng van God, de Mensch, en deeselos Wel-
stand". But neither the doctrine of the one and only
Divine substance, nor the hidier unity of "exten-
sion" and "thouffht" intheinmitte and tlie finite, nor
tiie instinct of sw-f>reservation, is clearly expressed in
it. Spinosa, obliged to seek some other means of
support, be&une a very skilful grinder of lenses; his
work oonmianded good prices. About 1660 he re-
tired to the village of Rijnsbiirg near Leyden. The
little house in which he lived still stands, and has been
bought by admirers of the philosopherj it contains a
finelibrary. Hexe Spinosa devoted himself to a re-
vision of the "Korte Verhandeling" which was never
omipleted. The result of these labours was an im-
portant unfinished treatise "De intellectus emenda-
tione", with preparations for bis ereat work, the
"Ethics", and the development of the "geometrical
method". While at Rijnsbuig he was greatly stim-
ulated in his work by the reports of the lectures of the
professors of philosophy of Levden (amoi^ whom
shoi^ be included Creuuncx), which were brou^t to
Iiim by students of the university. While at this vil-
lage he also became acquainted with the celebrated
Stensen, and had here a pupil named Casearius, whom
he instructed in the Cartesian philosophy. In 1663
Spinoza publi^ed a book under his own name called
"Renati dee Cartes principiorum philosophise Pars I
et II, more geometrico demonstratfe", and a supple-
ment to this undor the title, "Cogitatametaphvmca".
Tike work does not ^ ve Spinosa'a own phikwophy , but
glimpaea of his views may be found in it.

while at Rijnabui^ Spinoza also tat^t by corre-
spondence some young fnends at Amsterdam who had
formed a Spinosa club. In the spring of 1663 he
moved to Toorborg, near The H^e. His acquaint-
ance with adiolara and statennen mcreased. He was
witty, was eateamed m a grwt Biblical eritio and

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SPINOZA

218

SPINOZA

mathematiciao, and had the reputation of poflseasiiig a
fine political sense. Jan de Witt and Tan Beunin^en
held him in high r^ard. Huygens intwested hun-
aelf in Spinosa'a lenaee. Great eiqwetationB wiere w-
meaaed of his philosophy by Heinrich Oktoiburg oi
Bremen, who had viatted Spinoza at Bijnsbui;^ and
now, in connexion with Robert Boyle, waa active in
London as the secretary of the Ro;y'aI Society, and by
the learned Ludwig Meyer. Wmle living at Voor-
b\irg Spinoza worked hard on a lengthy treatise to
which he lat^eave the title of "Tractatus theologico-
poUticus". & drew largely for this work from the
Arabian and Jewish philoaoi^ of religion and from
the old rabbinical oKgeas. But his main sources
were early, little-known Jewish heretics and obscure
Christian writers of his own time, especially Peyrdre'a
"Systema theolo^cum ex Fneadamitajrum bypo-
thesi" (1655). Spinoza's political views were largely
inspired by Jan de Witt and his friends; the same
opinions are to be found in the writings of other.
Dutch political writers of the same periodj e. g. van
Hove. Spinosa, however, in publishing ba treatise,
had special aims in view. It was intended to estab-
lish and enlarge the eccleaiastieal and political princi-
ples of Jan de Witt and at the same time to l^d the
way to the publication of his own philosophy. Ac-
cording to Spinoza the Holy Scriptures of the Old
Testament are not without error and are not inspired
in the strict sense. They do not teach us with cer-
tainty as to the nature of God and His characteristics,
but only concerning obedience to God, piety, and love.
Consequently the text of tiie Bible can never oome
into conflict with philosophy and civil law. But, ac-
cording to Spinoza, the Imutations of philosophy and
law are also clearly defined. As it is only in the
State that justice and law, injustice and transgression
are conceivable, the individual, in order to be able to
live according to reason, must surrender his rights to
the community. Then, too, he must obey the govern-
ment in everything, even gainst his reason and con-
viction, unless a command contradicts universal feel-
ing, as the murder of parents. Freedom of thinking
and speaking, however, cannot be forbidden by the
State; if it has the power to do this, the right, indeed,
cannot be denied it, but the prohibition would be dis-
advantageous to it, because its own existence would
be endangered by such tyranny. No man can ever
act according to nis oonvictu>ns, if a law of the State
stands in the way. Thus Spinosa upholds only a
partial freedom of consci^ce. On the other hand the
government has the right to supervise the external
practice of religion. It is easy to understand that the
Church councils and synods of Holland took energetic
measures against this work, which appeared anony-
mously in 1670. Up to 1676 at least thirty-seven cfe-
cisions or edicts against the work had appeared.

From 1670 Spinoza lived at The Hague, at first in
the Vcrkade, then not far from this spot in the Favil-
ioensgracht, near the monument erected in 1880.
Both hous^ are still in existence, but the latter, in
which Spinoza died, has latoly been completely re-
built. The philosopher laboured with zeal on his
great work: m order to be independent and undis-
turbed in elaborating his system of philosophy he de-
clined a call to a professorship at Heidelberg. His
plan to publish his system of ethics in 1675 failed,
owing to the opposition of his enemies. Originally
Spinoza seems to have had the intention to found a
kmd of philosophical world-religion. He believed
' that the basic ideas of his view of tne world were to be
found among the old Hebrews, in Christ, and in St.
Paul. In his opinion this philosophy, without the
Holy Scriptures, sufficed for the truly wise. In order
to understand nis oonowtion of the original Chrift'
tianity it must be remembered that his acquaintance
from the beginning had been among ktitudinarian
Christians, who emi^kasiied themoralufe, not dogma,

that, with many of his Christian friends, he regarded
tbe Antitrinitariuia as the most genuine ChristiaoB,
that he found traoee ctf his philosophy in the writings
of Christian mystios, and finally tEat among the first
writings which had introduced him to Christianiiy
had been Hobbes's books " De oive " and " Leviathan '\
Towards the end of hie life Spinoza had bitter dis-
appointments, which, however, seldom .disturbed
his stoical composure. He lived tranquilly at The
Hiuue in the midst of his work, his correspondence,
andhis friends. He began an exceedingly interesting
political treatise in whidk he did not change his earlier
views but rather eazried them fin>ther. He ^so wrote
a diort treatise on the rainbow, and a Hebrew gram-
mar, and^ as it aeema, translated tlie Pentat«ueh. He
was a victim to the disease from which his family
suffered, consumption, and this waa aggravated by his
work in grinding lenses. He died peacefully, in the
{wesenoe of a physician who was a friend. Even the
other people in the house did not know he was dying.
The little he left was, as it were, a mirror of his life.
£^iinosa was a very frugal and imiielfiffh man. He
dedined all monQr and pensions that he did not abso-
Intdy requite. His way of living could not be aim-
pier; it waa only for^books that he spent relatively
large sums. The virtues which he most hi^y pnzea
and consistently practised were control of the feelings,
equability spirit, love of country, loyalty and in-
dustry, moderation and love of tm truth. In so-
ciety he was animated and witty: he enioyed being
akme, and yet was kindly di^xMed towards his fellow'
men. VBian with God, as he oonoeived <Kf the Deity,
i. e. as a thinking and infinite, necessarily existing,
immanent cause of all existence, and love for this
Being were to him the highest of all things. He was
immovably oonvinoed that his was the true phi-
losophy, oould scaroely understand any view that
denated from his own. was hard and unjust in his
j u(^ment8 of other thinkers^ was not easily approached
with objections, and was mcapable of apiveciat^
with historical objectivity othor vieWB of uie world.

In 1677 his literary remains were published under
the title "B. D. S. Opera posthuma". In this publi-
cation were included his system <^ ethics, the unfin-
idied political tractate, the treatise "De emendations
intellectus", letters to and from him, and lastly his
compendium of Hebrew grammar. The Dutch
translation of the same year has great critical value.
The tractate on the rainbow was first published
anonymously in Dutch at Tka Hague in lw7. The
problems added im the calculus of probabilities are
not by Spinoza. The philosopher Beems to have
destroyed his translation oi the Pentateuch; the
Spani^ apology which he drew up when expdled
from the synagogue has not, so far, been found.

It is imposfflole to describe in a short article the
Spinozistic system as a whole. For it is just the rigidly
unified, minute construction tsi that system and the
labyrinth of ita thought proceasee that are of impor-
tance for the history of philoecohy as an origmal
creation. On the other hand, the elements, baaea,
and individual results are neither new nor ortepbal.
Spinoza's view of the world is so constructed that
the final results can bo reached with equal logic from
ite «)i8temological and psychological assumptions,
and from its ethical and metaphysical axioma The
view of Spinozism held by the present writer, which
frequently varies from the views fcwma-ly held, can
merely be indicated in what follows.

According to Spinoza there are no universal notions.
Only that is thinkable which actually exists or will
exist at some time. Further, only the neoessary is
thinkable. Existence and necesuty, however, cannot
be deduced from the nature of finite things; we must
thwef«e oonoeiv« of a Being (God) neoeanrily
e^iUag and neoenarflr acting, from wUoh all dee
f olIowB of neoeasity. TliiB Being is ^ U^e jumt hut
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219

smozk

the first prinoiple in the manner of mathematical
entities; me things oome from it by mathematical
sequence^ for onl^ in this way, says the philosopher,
can the immutability of the arst principle be main-
tained, only thua is a relation of the in&nite to the
finite Ukinkable; and only id Hob way is the unity of
nature preeerved, without fveaxi^ tne substance of
God wiUL that of finite things. Yet the axiom "God=
Nature" is valid because the things necessarily
following from the Being of God belong in some way
to God. Onlv the Beuxg of God is independent;
Spinoza calls this Beine alone substance. All thinra
(modi) must be founded in the attributes of God.
This is one approach to Spinozism.

Another is the following: Spinosa observed in
nature, on the one side, only systems motion and
rest which were derived from one another in an end-
less series causes and effects; on the other side,
running exactly parallel to these, but not influenced
by them, a senee of ideas. These systems of motion
and ideas cannot be understood of themselves alone,
but only with the aid of the notions of extension ana
thweht, and these two notions contain in themselves
the eharaeteristic of infinity. Thus we are broudit
to a neoeesarily existing Being on whom all other
beings must depend in their existence and nature,
liie facts of experience, as conditio sine tma rum, lead
us to the knowled^ that the change which we observe
can onlf be explamed by an instinct of self-preserva-
tion existing m all thin^, which constitutes their
individual nature. This instinct, then, is the relative
factor in the scientific construction of ethics and
pcdiUcs. Tha Absolute, which cDrreaponds to it and
establishes it, ocniBists of the immanoitly working,
countless attributes of the universalsubstuuM. This
is the second approach to Spinozism.

We now come to a third: Scepticism is completely
overcome only when the idea is nothing else than the
objective side of the process of movement which is
identical with it under another point of view. Onlv
th&i does the succession of things fully coincide with
the suecessitm of ideas. Thus truth and eertainW
are tin same. Hw fact that there are ill-defined kdA
false ideas can, ac«»rdjtaffly, only be expluned in that
these ideas, so far as they do not prove themselves
to be arbitrary combinations and fictions, are merely
part-knowledge. Such part-knowledge, however, sig-
nifies that the one with such knowledge is in some
sense part of an absolute intelligence. Therefore the
part-cotension identical with and corresponding with
the part-knowled^ is only a part of an infinite and
indivisible cctension. Consequently, in the mfinite
also, extension and, thoi^t are, absolutely considered,
identical; as relauve thm^ they are dinerent. Ap-
plied to ethics this doctrine signifies that ^ood and
evil have meaning only from the point of view of an
incomplete part-knowle^e; applied to politics it
sets up for the individual life the axiom right is
mixht, and ascribes to the State the creation of ri^t.

Lastly, e^cs as a doctrine of Imppiness, wmch
is really Spinoza's starting-point, leads to we same
result. His main question was, now is p^ect hap-

e'ness possible? Now he could only conceive of per-
Bt peace and happiness on the supposition that all
earthly happenings proceed as the necessary conse-
quence of the nature of the absolutely infinite Bein^;
whoever recognises this and rests lovingly in this
knowtedge envoys perfect peace. The aim of life
is to attain this knowled^ cognitio sub specie ceter-
nUaiit. From this opinion, however, it follows
necessarily that the individual acts of knowledge
proceed in some manner from God's own thou^t
(the soul therefore is no substance), that the nature
of the individual soul is an individual instinct towards
perfection (eonaiia in mo esse perseverandi — in order
to preserve the continuity of all self-consciousness),
that erQprooeeds from a laek of adequate knoiriedge,

that the material is only another side of the spiritual,
because otherwise Spinoza would have had to suppose
a second source of evil besides imperfect knowledge.

These statements show also tne way in which
Spinoza can be refuted. It must be shown that God's
imchangeableness does not inv<dve the necessity (rf aU
Divine actioo ; it must be proved that the depradence <tf
the finite upon the infinite does not donand a counter-
relation in the infinite, and that there is a metaphysic
world of pure possibility and universal conceptions.
Further, it must be shown that an objectively true
knowleage is possible, even though the order of ideas
does not run strictly parallel to the order of things,
and though the two orders are not identical. The
poeitiTe ciratradictions of this identity in the finite
must be revealed, and it must be shown that in the
Spinozistic i»ycbol(^ the continuity of self-oon-
eciousness, notwithstanding the instinct of self-
preservation, is destroyed, and that the part-knowl-
edge of Spinoza, with the system of happiness built
upon it, involves an impenetrable mystery and
therefore is untenable as a philosophical view of the
world. Sfxae friends and later admirers of Spinoza
thought th^ could OMobine his philosc^ihy with
Christianity. A hopeless attempt in this directum is
made in the introduction to the "Opera poethuma"
written by Ludwig Meyer. Jarrig Jellis, Spinoca's
friend, also exerted himself to bring Spinozism and
Christianity tM^tiier. More ingenious and profound
but also excee<ungly sophistical is the treatise issued
anonymously in 1684 by Abraham CufTeler, "Speci-
men artis ratiocinandi naturalis et artificialis ad
pantosophiatprincipiamaniKlueeiis". A number <A
writers kave one in doubt as to whether they did not
use Christianity mereljr as a cloak. Others, e. k.
Bredenbui^, and Wittich in his "Anti-Spinosa ,
adopted only individual principles of Spinozism.
When in the second half of tne ei^teenth century the
r^utation of Spinoza was agam revived both in
Germany and France simultaneously, the effort was
once more made to reconcile Spinozism and Chris-
tianity. Menticm mis^t here be made H^den-
reich, Herder, and Sabatier de Castres.

That in the present time Spinoza has again become
very modem is traceable to nme reasons ; his criticism
of the Scriptures, his doctrine of free-thought, nts
theory of the State as Uie source of right, his doctrine
of happiness founded on necessity, his doctrine of
morals dissociated from positive religion, his axiom
Dens sine Natura and the justification of this axiom, his
conception of the identity of thought and movement
in the Absolute, his distinction of absolute and relative
knowledge, finailyhis realism in the theory of knowl-
edge to which many modem philosophers are returning.

The Ubliography prep&rad by tah dsb Linob extends only to
1871. It bw MOD partially supplemented by Gruhwald,
SpinouinDtta^ktwndlfitxiia, 1897), t>y Weo, Kaiabw f9(Leips!g,
1893). which contained the ooUeotlon of work* on Spinoia that
had bmnsoldfor Amerioa,Mtdby the Katoloc "Spinota", No. 598
(Frankfort. 1912). The relatively best but In no way complete
edition of his worka ia that of VAN Vlotek and Land <2nd ed.,
The Uacue, 1895). Of thia publioation the "Etfaiea " alone haa
appeared in a third edition (1905). Engliab tranilationa of Spinoia,
omitting the defective one of Willu, tni Vvuxkioh, Bthit$
(New Yorh, 1894), Hale Whitb and HtiTCHiNBOM BrnuNO
(3rd ed., London, 1899): thiaedition Includes alao the De ftiid-
Itctut uMndatimt; Elwh has edited the chief worka (Loodon,
1883-84), but with the letters freely abridged; Gilunqhah
ROBiWBOM, KorU Vtrhandding (Chicago, 1909), driective,
see below Wolf. An excellent translation into Dutch of all
the works of Spinoaa ia that of MaTTO (Amsterdam, 1897-
1906): the best French translation is that of Appuhm (Pari^
1907-09). the correspondence and the theolo^co-politicat and
the political treatiaea have yet to be published. Among ^«
German tranatations should be mentioned the one made for the
Phitoaophical Library by BXKBca. Bcchknau. and Gkbhabi>t.
An excellent facsimile edition of all the letters was issued by
Mbubk in numbered copies at The Hague. A faesimile of the
notes in handwriting to the tbeologico-politioal treatise was
published by Altkibch in the loumal OH tmd Wut (1901).

FmBiTDKirniAL, Dit LOttntonchichtt SpincHw in QurilmscArv
fUn. UrkmiMk Mid ntdUaMllicAsn NathriOitm (L^ipiig. 1899).
ajod Spinota I.Dm Ltbm Spinosa (Stuttcart, 1904). A quantity of
aew material lain MsnfSliA, SpAwmeii n/pJtruitf (The Hague).
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220

8PIBIT

1886}. The youth tad developmrat o( Spinon la dtmophad in
dMdl by Dmnx-BoBXowsKi. D*r inma* D* Sptrntm. Mm u.
ir<rd«aN0 im Lida$ irattpAOoMqpAA (Mttartar. 1910).
Other biogr^IiiM which also eontMO MpoMUom of »• otUeu

n-Mem ue: Pollock, Sptnoaa, 0u L</'e, and fUlMoal^ (2nd
•d.. London. 1899) ; Wn44», i». d« SpiMM, /fit Lift, Cormpm-
JmM and XiAie. (Znd td.. London, 1870): Kjmo Fmowb,
SviMM* Ltbm. Wirlu vnd LthnJMi «d., HakUDncb. UNI0)i
CjoccHOUD, 5moU de Spinoia (ParU, 1902); BkomcRnca,
SptfMMa (2i>d od.. P»ri«, 1906). Wouf hu kt^,iMlwd M
Encluh tnnalation of th« KorU VtrhaiuMuig, with » life oa
Spinoift (London. 1910). , ^

There ue innumerable preMutatioiu of Sj^DOW'a ttworiea;
among thoae of earlier times the vorka of Bovlumvilubu,
Jacobi, Um two SiowAsn, TrairasLBNauBa, aitd Bomin ai»
very readable. Later works are: Maktinkao, A Sivdv v
SvCnota (2nd od.. London, 1899); Cairo, Spinota (cheap ed.,
London, 1903) ; Joachih, A Stitdu of Ike Bthia of Spwoaa (Oriord,
1901>; Dnir, Bpmon't PotUioal and SthietU PAOoeopkv (Qiaa-
MOW, 1903); FiCTON, Spinota, a Handbook to the Bthie* (London,
1907) iCxMEJimK, Die LehreSptTwaatllSTT)-, Spinota undStUrier-
tmefter (Stuttcart, 1903); Windkiaand in his history of modem
phihMoplqr- Vorr iinportant for Stdnoia'a taaehlDf
K« l3[« am dmOiMem tmd torn VoUcs, I, pi. II (Beriin.
- 1908).

Of other important monographs there oan only be menUoned:
Fdllerton, On Spinotitie Immortality (Philadelphia, 1899);
Dblbos, L€ problimt moral dan* la pkiloiophit dt Spinota (Pans,
1893): WoRiia, La moral* de Spinota (Paris, 1891); Rivacd,
Let notion* d'eitenc* ft d'exittence dan* la phUo*. d* Spinota
(Paris, 1906) ; LioK, Le* UimtaU Cartt*i«n* d* la dotinn* Spina-

JoBL. BeitrOoe tur OeKhiehU d*r PhOotopki* (2 vols., Breslau,
1876), important for the liistory of the development of Spinosa:
Baltxeb, Spinota* Bnlwieklunatoang (Kiel, 1888); Volkelt,
f^nthn*mu* und Tndividttajitmu* im S]/*iem Spinota* (Leipsig,
1872) ; ZoLAwaxt, Da* ProtUm dar Kautalitai bm Spinota (Berne,
1899); Qebharot, Spinota* AMandfunir OW dx* Veih*t»enmQ
de* Yeretande* (Heldelbers, 1905); ZsmcHBL, Erkenntnitlehrt
Spinota* (Leipsig. 1889); Ricbtbr, Dtr WilUntbegrif in dtr
t*hre Spinota* (Leipaig, 1898); Boaow, Die GrundsOps d*r
Ktkennlnittkeorie und Uetaplwtik Spinota* (Beriin, 187A) ;
Bkchss, Dtr Beeriff do* ^Unbutt bm Spinosa (Halle, 1905).
There are also a large number of more or less valuable essays
in the Ren* d* MHaphtf*iqit* *t de Jforafs, from 1900 In the Annie
■^iioeophitu*; alao in the Areki* /Or GmcMcUs d«r PAilMoohie,
in ZeiUehrifl f&r PkUoeophie und philo*ophiaeh* Kritik, in Vi^
M}ahr*iehr\ft /Or inittentehaftliehe Pkiloeophie; also several in
Mind, in Na»orieh*r, in Owi-HoOand, in Tijdtehr. toor Wijeb*-
aterU, in Ren* pkHaeophigu*, in Aiminm aus ifttria-Laaeh,
emonally vol, UQUX. 621 aq., and in the Stvdiln o/Codsdien-
tUg, vieteniduippeUJk en tetUrkundif g^iied, no. 48, 460 sqq.

Stan. Dunin Borkowbki.

Spin (A. S. spir, "a stalk", "shoot"), a tapering
construction, in plan conical, or pyramidal, or octag-
onal, or hexagonal, crowning & steeple or tower, or
BunDOunting a building, and usually devel(^>ed from
the eomice; often pierced by ornamental openii^
and, where there were ribs, enriched with crockets.
Sometimes an open lantern waa interpoeed between
the steeple, tower, or roof and the n>ire. On the Con-
tinent the architects aimed to make the steeple and
spire one, merging them into each other, while in Eng-
land they oi>ealy confeued it was a separate structure
by maskmg its point of origin behind a plain or pierced
parapet, or ornamental battlements. A spire prop-
erly belongs to Pointed architecture and hence has
tiever been fully developed except in Gothjc buildings.
As early as the twelfth century they took on different
forms, and almost everywhere, from the thirteenth to
the sixteenth century, became the terminating con-
struction of every church steeple, tower, or lantern,
and also those of secular buildings, more especially in
Germany and France. Their decorative value was
very great, more particularly in varying and enriching
tiie sky-line (rf the building which they crowned, and
by the numerous variations of forms and variety^ of
types employed. These forms ranged from such sim-
ple examples as that surmotmting the south tower of
Chartres Cathedral to that of Burgos, where the
whole structure is an openwork of tracery. In Eng-
land Norman churches were without spires, but with
tJbfce coming in of Ewly Ekiglish short ones were intro-
duced; Decorated Gothic called for much hiriier ones,
uul the Popendioular still higher. Hie eanier spires
built of timber^ and ihgy wan anragn
BO wtton the Building was roofed with wood.

These early timber spires were, as a rule, not verj-
tall, but later they reached a greater elevation; that
which crowned old St. Paul's in London is said to
have been 027 feet in height. The most k>fty qnraa
now in existence — such as those at Salisbuiy, ODven-
try, and Norwich — are all of
stone. In Central England
there are manv, and in fact
wherever suitaole st<Hie was
eaailv obtainable. In the
north of England, however, in
Scotland, and in Wales among
the mountains the bell-gable
takes tlie place of a spire, no
doubt because the lai^ area
of the thinly populated par-
ishes made it necessary to
keep the bells uncovered, so
that tliey might be more
wi^ly heard. The most
beautiful examples of existing
spires are to be seen at Char-
tres, Reims, Laon, Fr^bu^
Ratisbon, Cologne, Antwerp,
Vienna, Burgos, and Sahs-
buiy. On some of these
building there are several
^ires. m Dumy instances built
at different periods: the south
spire oi Chartres, culminating
in a pinnacle 350 feet above
the ground, was erected in
1175, while the north spire,
with its wex 380 feet above
the grcmnd, was not finished
until 1513. The so-called
roires of the Renaissance and
those built by Sir Chri8t<^h»
Wren are not true spires, but
merely steeples terminating in
a point.

Cabtl Colkman.

Spm*. SeeSpETBR, Dio-,

C»B OF,

Spirit (Lat. tpirUus, epir
rare, "to breathe"; Gk. wpatia,
Satiutp; Ft. esprii; Ger. Geiat.) Spim of tm To-
As these names show, the — ps^rai.

principle of life was often repre-
seotea under the figure of a breath or ur. The breath
is the most davious symptom of life, its cessation the
invariable mark of deaui; invisible and impalpable,
it stands for the unseen mysterious force behind the
vital _ processes. Accordingly we find the word
"spirit ' used in several different but allied —

(1) as signifyioff a living, int^tgent, inoorporeil
being, such as the soul; (2) as the fieir essence ot
breath (the Stoic pneuma) which was supposed to be
the universal vitaJ force; (3) as sonifying some re-
fined form of bodily subetance, a flmd believed to act
as a medium between mind and the grosser matter
of the body. The hypothesis of "^irits" in this
sense was familiar to the Scholastic phy^cists. Al*
bertuB Magnus distinguished ccnpwMu and incor-
poreal spirits, and kitu; aftor the Scholastic age, in
factj down to the end of the ei^teenth century,
"anunal spirits", "vital spirits", "natural spirits'
were acknowledged agencies in all physioloKical
phenomena (cf. Vesalius, Descartes, Harvey, Era*-
mus Darwin, etc.). "Manietic" spirits were em-
ployed by Mesmer in his tbeory in very much the
same wa^ as modem Spiritists invoke the "ether" of
the p^sicists.

In P^oholosr, "^irit" is used (with the adjee-
tive "mrituaP) to dawte all that bekmgs to our
hi^m life ot noson, art, mond^, and xdigion le

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contrasted with the life tjf mere wnse-perccption and
passion. The latter is intrinsically dependent on
matter and conditioned by its laws; the former is
characterized by freedom or the power of self-de-
termination; "spirit" in this sense IS essentially per-
sonal. Hegelianism, indeed, in its doctrines of Subjec-
tive, Objective, and Absolute Spirit, tries to maintain
the cate^ries of spiritual philosophy (freedom,
self-consciousness and the like), in a Monistic frame-
work. But such conceptions demand the recogni-
tion of individual personality as an ultimate fact.

In Theology, the uses of the word are various. In
the New Testament, it signifies sometimes the soul
of man (generally its highest part, e. g., "the spirit is
wiUing'Oi sometnnes the supematuriu action of God
in man, sometimes tho Holy Ghost ("the
vi Truth Whom the worM cannot receive"). The
use of this term to signify the supernatural life of
grace is theexplana.tion of St. Paul's language about the
n>iritual and the carnal man and his enumeration of
uie three elements, spirit, bouI, and body, which gave
occasion to the error of the Trichotomists (I These.,
v,23, Eph., iv, 23).

Matter has generally been conceived as in one sense
or another the limitation of spirit. Hence, finite
roirita were thought to require a body as a principle
of individuation and limitation; only God, the In-
finite Spirit, was free from all admixture of mattw.
Thus, when we find the angels described as iffiinarot
or AfXM, in the writings of the Fathers, this properly
means only that the angels do not possess a gross,
fleshly body; it does not at all imply a nature ab-
solutely immaterial. Such Scripture expressions
as "bread of angds", "th^ shall elune as the angels",
as well as the apparitbns of these heavenly beings,
were adduced as proofs of their corporeality. So
m)eak Sts. Ambrose, Chrysostom, Jeromes Hilary,
Origen, and many other Fathers. Even in Scholastic
times, the degree of immateriality that belongs to
finite spirits was disputed. St. Thomas teaches the
complete simplicity of all spiritual natures, but the
Scotists, by means of theur famous materia prima
pnmo, introduced a real compoeitioa, which thor cm-
caved to be necessaiy to a oeated nature. Ab re-
gards the functions of spirits in the world, and their
active relations to Uie visible order <tf thiI^p, see
GuABOiAN Anoblb and Dkhonologt. Scripture
abounds in instances of their dealing with men,
chiefly in the character of intermediaries between
God and His servants. They are the heralds who
announce his commands, and often too the ministers
who execute His justice. Th^ take a benevdent
interest in the qHritual good ta men (Luke, zv, 10).
For these reasons, the Church permits and encour-
ages devotion to tne angels.

BnxaLET,jiitri*in Worlu,lI. Bm aim bibliosnvUMi Spurr-
oausm; Booih

MlCHASL MaHBB.
JOBBPH BOLLAND.

Spiritism is the name properly givra to the belief
that the living can and do communicate with the
aiurita of the departed, and to the various practices by
which such communication is attempted. It should
be carefully distinguished from Spiritualism (q. v.),
the philosophical doctrine which holds, ingemeraL
that tiiere is a spiritual order d beings no less real
than the material and. in particulur, that the soul of
man is a spiritual substance. Spiritism, moreover,
has taken on a relidous character. It clauns to prove
the preamble of aSt reUgkmSf i. e. the existence of a
■innttuJ wnld, and to establish a world-wide religifm
m idiidi the adherents of the various traditional
faiths, setting their dogmas aside, can unite. If it
has formulated no defimte creed, and if its represents*
tivea differ in their attitudes toward the beliefs of
Obristiani^, tills is simply because Spiritism is ex-
pected to supply a new and fuller revelation which

will either substantiate on a rational basis the

tial Christian dogmas or show that th^ are utterly
unfounded. The knowledge thus acquired wju
naturally affect conduct, the more so because it is
hoped that the discamate spirits, in making known
their condition, will also indicate the means attain-
ing to salvation or rather ttf progreaBing, by a contin-
uous evolution in the other wwld, to a higher plane of
existence and happiness.

Ths Phekomena.— Tlieae are classified as physical
and psychical. The former include: production of
raps and other sounds; movements of oojecta {tables,
chairs) without contact or with contact insufiicieot to
explain the movement: "apports", i. e. apparitions of
c^^ects (e. g. flowers) in a closed room without any
Tisible e^ency to convey them; moulds, i. e. impree*
nons made upon paraiffin and similar substances;
luminous appeu^cra, i. e., vague ^^immerings of light
or faces more or less defined; kmtation, i. e. raiang
of objects from the ground by supposed supemormal
means; materialization or ^>pearance of a spirit in
visible human form; Bpirit-photography, in which the
features or forms of deceased persons appear on the
plate alongwith the likeness od a living; photographed
subject. The psychical, or signifioative, phenomena
are those which express ideas or (wntam messages.
To this class bekmg; table-rapping in answer to ques-
tions; automatic writing; slat^-wntine; trance-speak-
ing: clairvoyance; descriptions of the spirit-world;
and ctHnmunications from the dead.

HiSTOET. — For an account of Spiritistic practices
in antiquity see Nbcrouanct. The modem phase
was ushered in by the exhibitions of mesmerism and
clairvoyance. In its actual form, howeva, Spirit-
ism dates from the year 184S ana from the experir
ences of the Fox famUy at Hydesville, and later at
Rochester, in New York State. Strange "knodc-
ings" wa« heard in the house, pieces of furniture
were moved about as thou^ by invisible hands, and
the noises became so troublesome that sleep was
impossible. At length the "rapper" b^an to answer

Sluestions, and a code of signals was arranged to
aeilitate communication. It was also found tnat to
receive messages special qualifications were needed;
these were possessed by Catherine and MarBaret Fo^l
who are therefore regarded as the first "mediums" c«
modem times. Similar disturbances occurred in
other parts of the countiy, notably at Stratford, Con'
necticut, in the house of Rev. I>t. Phelps, a Pre^y-
terian minister, where the manifestations (1850-51)
WOTe often violent and the spirit-answers blasphemous.
In 1851 the Fox girls were visited in Buffalo by
three physicians who were professors in the university
of that city. As a result of their examination the doc-
tors declared that the "raps" were simply "crackings"
of the knee-joints. But this statement did not lessen
either the popular enthusiasm or the interest of more
serious persons. The subject was taken up by men like
Horace Greeley, Wm. Lloyd Garrison^ Robert Hare,
professor of chemistry in the University of Pennsyl-
Tania, and John Worth Edmonds, a juoge of the Su-
preme Court of New York State. Conspicuous
among the Spiritists was Andrew Jackson Davis,
whose work, ''The Principles of Nature" (1847), dic-
tated by him in trance, contained a theory of the uni-
verse, closely resembling the Swedenborgian. Spirit-
ism also found eunest advocates among clergymen of
various denominations, especially the Universaliata:
it appealed strtmgly to many people who had lost aXl
religious belief in a future life; and it was welcomed
by those who were then agitating the question of a
new social organisation — the pioneers of modem
Socialism. So widespread was the belief in Spirit-
ism that in 1854 Congress was petitioned to appoint
a scientific commission tor the investigation of the
phmomena. Thepetition,whichbore8omel3,000sig-
naturaa, was laid on the table, and no artinn was taken.

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la Europe the ws^ had been prepared for Spirits
ism by the Swedenbo^ian movement and by an epi-
d^ic of tablc-tiiming which spread from the Conti-
nent to England and invaded sH classes of society.
It waa still a fashionable diversion when, in 1S52, two
mediums, Mrs. Hayden and Mrs. Roberts, came from
America to London, and held stances which attracted
the attention of scientists as we\i as popular interest.
Faraday, indeed, in 1853 showed that the table move-
ments were due to muscular action, and Dr. Carpen-
ter gave the same explanation; but many thoughtful
persons, notably amongthe clergy, held to the Spirit-
istic interpretation. This was accepted also by
Robert Owen, the socialist, while Professor De Mor-
gan, the mathematician, in his account of a sitting
with Mrs. Hayden, was satisfied that "somebody or
some spirit was reading his thoughts". The later
development in England was furthered by mediums
who came from America: Iteniel Dungiaa Home
(Hume) in 1855, the Davenport Brothers in 1864, and
Henry Slade in 1876. Among the native mediums,
Rev. William Stainton Moses became prominent in
1S72, Miss Florence Cook in the same year, and Wil-
liam Eglinton in 1886. Spiritism was advocated by
various periodical publications, and defended in nu-
merous works some of which were said to have been
dictated by the sijirits themselveSj e. g. the "Spirit
Teachings" of Stainton Moses, which purport to give
an account of conditions in the other world and form
a sort of Spiritistic theology. During this period also,
scientific opinion on the subject was divided. While
Professors Huxley and Tvndall sharply denounced
Spiritism in practice and theory, Mr. (later Sir Wm.)
Crookes and Dr. Alfred Russeu Wallace r^arded the
phenomena as worthy oi serious investigation. The
same view was expressed in the report which the
Dialectical Society published in 1871 after an inquiry
extending over eighteen months^ and at the Glasgow
meeting of the British Association in 1876 I^fessor
Barrett, F.R.S., concluded bis account of the phenom-
ena he had observed by ui^ing the appointment of
a committee of scientific men for the aystematic in-
vestigation of such phenomena.

The gixnrth of ^iritism on the Continrat was
marked oy similar transitions from popular curiosity
to serious inquiry. As far back as 1787, the Exegetic
and Philanthropic Society of Stockholm, adhering to
the Swedenborgian view, had interpreted the utter-
ances of "magnetized" subjects as messages from
the spirit world. This interpretation gradually won
favour in France and Germany; but it was not until
1848 that Cahagnet published at Paris the first vol-
ume of his " Arcanes de la vie future ddvoil^", con-
taining what purported to be communications from
the dead. The excitement aroused in Paris by t^le-
tuming and rapping led to an investigation by Count
Agfinor de Gasparin, whose conclusion ("Des Tables
toumantes", Paris, 1854) was that the phenomena
or^inated in some physical force of the human body.
Professor Thury of Geneva (" Lee Tables toumantes
1855) concurred in this explanation. Baron de
Guldenstubbe ("La R«alit« des Eiprita", Paris. 1857).
on the oontrary, declared his belief in the reality of
spirit intervention, and M. Rivail, known later as
Allan Kardec, published the "spiritualistic phi-
losophy" in "Le Livre des Esprits" (Paris, 1853),
which became a guide-book to the whole subject.

In Germany also Spiritism was an outgrowtn from
"animal mtugnetism". J. H.Jung in his ' Theorieder
Qeisterkunde" declared that in the state of trance the
Boul is freed from the body, but he regarded the trance
itself as a diseased condition. Among the airiiest
German clairvoyants was Frau Frederica Hauffe, the
"Seeress of Prevorst", whose experiences were related
by Justinus Kemer in "Die Seherin von Prevorst"
(Stattgart, 1829). In its later development Spirit-
ism was represenfi>d in scientific and philosophical

E2 snBimM

circles by men of mmninouie, e. g. Ulrid, Fiehtet Z01I<
ner,Fecnner,anaWm. Weber. The last-named three
conducted (1877-8) a series of experimants with the
American medium Slade at Leipzig. The results
were published in Zollner's "Wissenschaftliche Ab-
handlungen" (cf. Massey, "Transcendental Phys-
ics"_, London, 1880, in which the portions relating to
spintism are translated). Thou^ considered imi>or-
tant at the time, this investigation, owing to lack of
caution and accuracy, cannot be raairdea as a satis-
factory test. (Cf. ' Report of the Seybert Commis-
aoa", Philadelphia, 1887 — , which also contains an
account of an investigation conducted at the Umver*
sity of Pennsylvania with Slade and other mediums.)

The foregoing outline shows that modem Spiritism
within a generation bad passed beyond the limits of a
merely popular movement and had challenged the at-
tention of the scientific world. It had, moreover,
brought about serious divisions amone men of science.
For, those who doiied the existence m a soul distinct
from the organism it was a foregone conclusion that
there could be no such commtmications as the Spirit-
ists claimed. This negative view, of course, is still
taken by all who accept the fundamental ideas of
Materiausm. But apart from any such a priori con-
siderations, the opponents of Spiritism justified their
position by pointing to innumerable cases of fraud
which were brought to light either through closor ex-
amination of the methods employed or throug;h tibe
admissions of the mediums themselves.

In spite, however, of repeated exposure, there oc-
curred phenomena which apparently could not be
ascribed to trickery of any sort. The inexplicable
character of these the sceptics attributed to faulty
observation. The Spiritistic practices were simpqr
set down as a new cn^ter in the lon^ history of oc-
cultism, magic, and popular superstition. On tite
other hand, a certain number of thinkers felt obliged
to confess that, after making due allowance for the
element of fraud, there remained some facts which
called for a more systematic investigation. In 1869
the London Dialectical Society appointed a committee
of thirty-three members "to investigate the phe<
nomena alleged to be spiritual manifestations, and to
report thereon". The committee's report (1871) de-
clares that "motion may be produced in solid bodies
without material contact, by some hitherto unrecog-
nized force operating within an undefined distance
from the human organism, and beyond the range of
muscular action"; and that "this force is frequently
directed by intelligence". In 1882 there was or-
ganized in London the "Society for PEycbieal R^
search" for tiie scientlfie racammation of what its
prospectus terms "drf>atable phenomena". A mo-
tive for investi^tion was supplied by the history <tf
hypnotism, which had been repeatedly ascribed to
quackery and deception. Nevertheless, patient re-
search conducted by rigorous methods had shown
that beneath the error and imposture there lay
a real influence which was to be accounted for, and
which finally was explained on the theory of suReestion.
The progress of &iititism, it was thought, m^t like-
wise yield a renduum of fact deserving acientifie
emanation,

9 The Society for Psychical Research soon counted
among its members distinguished representatives of
science and philosophy in England and America;
numerous associations with similar aims and methods
were organized in various countries. The "Proceed-
ings" of the Society contain detailed reports of in-
vestigations in Spiritism and allied subjects, «id a
voluminous literature, expositor^ and critical, has
been created. Among the most notable works are:
"Phantasms of the Living" hy Gumey, Myers, and
Podmore (London, 1886); F. W. H. Myers, "Human
Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death"
(London, 1903); and Sir OUver Lodge, F. R. 3., "The

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SurvivalofMaD" (New York, 1009). In recent publi- the oranmunications, so radically opposed to what

catipns prominence is given to e]a>eriment8 wiui the would \>6 expected from tboee who nave passed into

mediums Mrs. Piper of Boston Mid Eueivia ^lla^ Um other world and who naturally should be con-

dino of Italy; and important contributions to the Iiter» cemed to impart information on the most eerious sub-

ature have b^n made by Professor Wm. James of jects; the contradictory statements which the spirits

Harvard, Dr. Richard Hodgson of Boston, Professor make regarding their own condition, the relations <^

Charles Richet (University of Paris), Professor Heniy God and man, the fundamental pre(^tB of morality;

^dgwick (CMnbridge University). Professor Th. finally the low moral tone which often pervades these

floumoy (University of Geneva), Professor Morselli messages from spirits who pretend to enlighten man-

(University of Genoa), Professor Cesare Lombroso kind. These deceptions and inconastencies have

(University of Turin), Professor James H. Hyalop been attributed by some authors to the Bubliminal con-

(Columbia University), I^essn* Wm. R. Newbold aeiousness (Tloumoy), by others to spirits of a lower

(University of PenmQrlvania). While some of these ordor, i. e. below the plane of humanity (Stainton

writers TT*ft''"t^i" a critical attitude, others are out- Moses), while a third explanation refers them quite

Bpoken in favour of Spiritism, and a few (Myers, frankly to demonic intervention (Raupert, " Modern

James), lately deceased, arran^ before death to e»- Spiritism", St. Louis, 1904; cf. Grasset, "The Marvels

tiUjlish communication with their surviving associates, beyond Science," tr. Tubeuf, New York, 1910). For

Hypotbe^ses. — To explain the phenomena which the Christian behever this third view acquires special

after careful investigation and exclusion of fraud are significance from the fact that the alleged commimicar

reg^ed as authentic, three hypotheses have been tions antagonize the essential truths of religion such

imposed. The telepathic bynstheais takes as its as the Divinity of Christ, atonement and redonp-

starting-ixunt the so-called subuminal conscjousnees. tion, judgment and future retribution, while they

Tliis, it is claimed, is subject to disintegration in such enrourage agncnticism, pantheism, and a belief in

wise that segments of it may impress another mind reincarnation.

(the percipient) even at a distance. The personality ^ Spiritism indeed claims that it alone furnishes an
is liberated, so to ^eak, from the organism and in- incontestable proof of inunortality, a scientific demoo-
vades iite soul of another. A medium, on this hypo- stration of the future life that far surpasses any phil-
tbesis, would obtain information by thought-trans- osophical deduction of Spiritualism, while it gives the
ferenoe either from the mindset persons present at the death-blow to Materialism. This claim, however,
a^anoe or fmn otiier miuda otmcenung whom the tit- rests upon the validity of the hypothesiB that the
tea know nothing. This view, it is held, would communications come from disembodied spirits; it
eotd with tbe recognized facts <d hypnosis and witb gets no support from the telepathic hypothesis or
the results of e:q)erimental tel^athy; and it would from that of demonic intervention. If either of the
explain what appear to be cases of possession, Simi- latter should be verified the phenomena would be
lar to this is the hypothesis of psychical radiations explained without solving or even raising the problem
which distinguishes in man the material body, the of ouman immortality. If, again, it were shown that
aoul, and an mtermediate principle, the "perispuit". the argument based on the data of normal conscious-
This is a subtle fluid, astral body, which in certain ness and the nature of the soul cannot stand the test
persons (mednuns) can eacwe from the matnial or- oi ozitioism, the same teat would rartainly be fatal
ganism and thus fonn a "double". It also acoom- to a theory drawn from mediumistic utterances which
panies the soul after death and it is the means by are not only the outcome of abnormal conditions, but
which communication is established with the pen- are also open to widely different interpretations,
spirit of the mediums. The Spiritistic hypothesis Even where all suspicion of fraud or collusion is
m^^ntftiTtg that thn <wnT¥mni«iLt.Tfw nm Tp^fmi hwn removed — and _ this is Seldom the case — a critical
disembodied epirita. Ita advocates declare that tel- investigator will cling to the idea that phenomena
epathy is insufficient to account for all the facts, that which now seem inexplicable may eventually, like so
its sphere of influents would have to be enlarged so as, many other tnarvels, oe accoimted for without hav-
to include an the mental states and mraiories of living' ing recourse to the Spiritistic hypothesis. Those
persons, and that even with such extension it would who are convinced, on philosophical grounds, of the
not explain the selective character of the phenomena soul's immortality may say that commumcatioiu
bv which facts relevwt for establidiing the iieraonal from the spirit world,^ if any such there be, go to
identity of tbe departed are discriminated from those strengthen their conviction; but to abandon their
that are irrelevant. Telepath^r at most may be the philosophy and stake all on Spiritism would be more
means by which discamate spirits act upon the minds than hazardous; it would, inmrectly at least, afford
of living persons. For a discussion of the hypotheses a pretext for a more complete rejection of soul and
see Hyalon, "Science and a Future Life" ?Bo6ton, immortality. In other words, if Spiritism were the
1905) i Lodge, "The Surnval of Man "; and Floumoy, sole argument for a future life. Materialism, instead of
"Spiritism and F^chology" (tr. Carrington^ New bdng crushed, would triumph anew as the only poe-
Y<^c, 1911); Grasset, "The Marvels b^^d Science" slble theory for scienoe and common sense.
(New York, 1910). Danoebs. — To this risk ot philosophical error must
For those who admit that the manifestations pro- be added the dangers, mental and moral, which Spirit-
oeed from intelligences other than that of the medium, istic practices involve. Wnatcver the explanation
the next question in order is whether these intelli- offered for the medium's "powers", their exercise
eences are the spirits of the departed or beings that sooner or later brings about a state of passivity which
have never been embodied in human form. The cannot but injure the mind. This is rea^jty intelli-
redly has often been found difficult even by avowed gible in the hypothesis of an invasion by extraneous
beGevera in Spiritism, and some of these have been spirits, since such a possession must weaken and tend
f<iroed to admit the action of extraneous or non-human to efface the normal personality. But similar results
mtelligenoes. This conclusion is baaed on several may be expected if, as the alternate hyi>othesis main-
sorts ca evidence: the difficulty of establishing spirit- tains, a disintegration of the one personality takes
identity, i. e. of ascertaining whether iJie commiml- place. In either case, it is not surprising that the
estor is actually the personality he or'it purports to mental balance should be disturbed, and selfH»)ntrol
be; the love of personation on the part of the spmts impaired or destroyed. Recourse to Spiritism fre-
wmcb leads them to introduce themselves as cel^ quentlyproduces hallucinations and otheraberrations,
rities who once lived on earth, although on closer especialqr in BUbjects who are predisposed to insanity;
questioning they Bhow themselves quite ignorant cd and even those who are otherwise normal expose
ttwse whom they posnute; the trivSal e&racSw of themadrea to ■erare physiGal and mental strain (of.

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^^oDet, "Le roiritiBme dans ses rappprtB aveo la
folic", Paris, 1908). More serious stul is the danger
of moral perversion. If to practise or encourage
deception of any sort is reprehensible, the evil is cer-
tainly greater ^len fraud is resorted to in the inquiry
con(»ming the future life. But apart from any inten-
tion to deceive, the methods employed would undei^
mine the foundations of morality, either by producing
a disint^ration of personality or by invitrng the in-
vasion of an extraneous intelligence. It may be' that
the medium "yields, perhaps, innocently at first to
the promptings of an impulse which may come to him
as from a hi^er power, or that he is moved by an
instinctive compulsion to aid in the devek^ment d
his automatic romance — ^in any case, if he oontinues
to abet and encourage this automatic prompting, it is
not likely that he can long retain both honesty and
sanity unimpaired. The man who looks on at his
hand doing a thing, but acquits himself of responsi-
bility for tne thing done, can hardly claim to be con-
sidered as a mor^ agent; and the step is short to
instigating and repeating a like action m the future,
without the excuse (tf an oTermastering impulse . . .
To attend the stances of a professional medium is per-
haps at worst to countenance a swindle; to watch the
gradual development of innocent automation into
physical mediumship may be to asBiBt at a P«>(wbs ot
moral degeneration" (FodnKUe, "Modem ^oritual-
ism", II, 326 sqq.).

Action of the Chttrch. — As Spiritism has been
cliwely allied with ^e practices of "animal magnet-
ism" and Immotism, these several claasea ut phmom-
ena have also been treated under the same graienl
head in the discussions of theologians and in the decis-
ions of ecclesiastical authority. The Congregation of
the Inquisition, 25 June, 1840, decreed: Where all
error, sorcery and invocation of the demon, imphcit or
explicit, is excluded, the mere use of phvsical means
which are otherwise lawful, is not morally forbidden,

grovided it does not aim at unlawful or evil results,
lut the ^>t)lieation of purely physical principles and
means to tmngs or ^ects Uiat are real^ supernatural,
in order to explain these on phyocal {bounds, is
nothing else than unlawful and tieretical deception".
Thia decision was reiterated on 28 July, 1847, and a
further decree was issued on 30 July, 1856, which,
after mentioning discourses about rehgion, evocation
of departed spints and "other superstitious practices"
of Spiritism, exhorts the bishops to put forth every
^ort for the suppression of these abuses "in ord^
that the flock of the Lord mur be protected against
the enemy, the deposit of faitn safeguarded, and the
faithful preserved from moral corruption." The
Second Plenary Council of Baltimore (1866), while
making due allowance for fraudulent practice in '
Spiritism, declares that some at least of the manifesta-
tions are to be ascribed to Satanic intervention, and
warns the faithful against lending any support to
Spiritism or even, out of curiouty, attending s&moes
(Decreta, nn. 33-41). The council points out, in
parUciUar, the anti-Christian character of Spiritistic
teachings concerning rd^on, and characterizes them
as an attempt to revive paganism and magic. A
decree of the Holy 0£Sce, 30 March, 1898, condemns
Spiritistic practices, even though intercourse with the
demon be excluded and communication sought with
gpod wpaita only. In all these documents the dis-
tinction is clearly drawn between legitimate scientific
investigation imd superstitious abuses. What the
Church condemns in Spiritism is superstition with its
evil consequences for religion and morality. (Cf.
Perrone, "De virtutereligionis", Turin, 1867: Noldin,
"Summa Theol. Moralis^', Innsbruck, 1004, II).

Worka 1^ Cfttholio suthon m marked with ui Mteriik.
Oapbon, llodtm Sjriritfiaiiim; Ai FacU and FanaHeiama (Bo*-
ton, 1855) — the morement in Amerioft; Podiiors, Modtn
BvirltMiitm (London, ISOS)— hMorinl wunrnyilowM. Smiim in
AwdUnl BMwa fNnr Voric IMTl: fttm. NntwaUwMUm

^OaStmtntatantCSvwYoA, 1908} ; * BacwiiBOM, TfuSjM.
R»ppir (BortoD, ISM) in IX of Work* (Dettoit, ISM} ; • Wjmtm.
Dtr apMtkmtu u. iaa Ckriamakvm Qnnabruck, 1881); 'W.
aCBMUl>Ba, Dtr tuiun OtitUrglatibt (Paderbom. ISSSj; Cab-
raMTEB, Mnmerim, Splrilualitn, tte. (Neiw Yotk, 1S89); A. K.
Wallacs, UiratUt and itodem SptnltialttM (London, 1897);
*8oB>iaD, apiritualianM tt apirituwu (Puis, 1898); Imex,
SfirUu tt wiidiuwu (Paris, 1901); Floubmot, Dm Indm i b
vanke Man (Paiia, 1900); •Ootberlxt, Dtr XamoT um 4it
S*tU, n fSnd ed., Maini, 1003); Htslop, Xnigmaa ofFtuducal
Rmmrek (Boston, 1906); Maxwili., Lm jMnimtKn prndkuMt
(Puia. 1906); Benwbtt, SpMtualitn (New York, imhCtM-
niMOTON, Iwnvriealnmiomenao/Sptritualitm (Boston, 1007);
MoKMLu, Ptieeiagia « tpir&itno (Turin, 1908); Lombbooo, tr.
Kbknwt, 4j8«- DmOi^Whotr (BoeU», 1906); * Bnamn i»
Stimmm awtMmo'LaaA, LXII a002rLXI V (1903), LXXVU
(i«»>- Edward A. Pace.

Splzito Santo, Diocese of (Spxritos Sancti),
suffragan of Sfio SebastiSo do Rio de Janeiro, es-
tablished in 1896. Its jurisdiction comprises the
State of Espirito Santo, United States of BraiiJ,
South America, with twenty-e^ht municipalities
and a Catholic population m 1911 of 202,000 mh^i-
tants, 20 secular fxieats and 15 friars. Of Catholic
educational institutions there are, in the city of Vic-
toria, the capital of the state and seat of the biiduq).
a gymrutsio or coll^ of secondary instruction directed
by secular priests and having the same privileges as a
.federal school ; and the Coll^o das Irmas de Gwidade,
for girls, under the direction of the Sisters of Chanter.
At Victoria are also located the "Hospital da Mis-
moordia", in which five Sisters of Charity serve as
nurses, and the Santa CtM, de Miaerioordia. a chari-
table msdtution fonnded in 1545, and hj decree of
1 June, 1606, it was accorded the same privilege^ of the
Santa Casa de Misericordia of Lisbon; an important
annex of this institution is the Orphanato Santa
Luzia, an orphan asylum. There are abo twelve
Catholic associations in Victoria. In other cities
and towns of the diocese there are also various
Catholic schools, charitable institutions, etc. The

S resent biabop is the Rt. Rev. Fernando de Souaa
lonteirq, b. 22 Sept., 1866, raised to the see 1 March,
1002. (See Bbasil.)

JuuAH Morbho-Lacalu.

Splrttit DisamaaniT ot. See DisoBBHiimr <v

SriRiTa.

Spiritual BzerclBei of Saint Ignatius, a short
work composed by St. Ignatius of Loyola and written
oru^iaQy in Spanish.

The Text.— The autogr^h MS. of this "Spiritual
EnroiseB" baa unfortunately been lost. What is at
present called the "autograph" is only a quarto copy
made by a secretary but containing corrections in uie
author's handwritine. It is now reproduced by pho*
totypy (Rome, 1908J. Two Latin translations were
made during the lifetime of St. Ignatius. There now re-
main: (1) the ancient Latin translation, an^iffuavermo
HUina, a literal version probably made by the saint;
(2) a free tjuoslation by Father Frusius, more ele^t
and more in accordance with the style of the pmod,
and generally called the "Vukate". The antiqua
versio is dated b^ the copyist "ftome, 9 July. 1541";
the vulgate version is later than 1541, but earlier than
1548, mien the two verdons were t<^tha' presented
to Paul III for ^proval. The po_pe appointed three
examiners, who prused both versions warmly. Hie
Vulgate, more carefully executed from a literary
point of view, was only chosen for printing; and was
published at Rome on 11 Sg)tember, 1m8^ undw
the simple title: "Exerdtia nmitualia". This priit-
eepa edition was also multiplied by photc^ypy
(Paris, 1910). Be^dm these two Latin transu^
tions there enst two others. One is the still un-
published text left by Bl. Peter Faber to the Csr^
thusiaos of Cologne before 1546; it holds a middle
place between the literal version and the Vulgate.
The second ia a new literal translation by Faditf
Rootiiaan. twenty-fiFst Kimera] nf th(> RnnW-v nf 3mm.

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SPIRITUAL

225

8»X&IT0AL

wtio, on account of the differenaes between the Vul-
gate and the ^uuush autograph, wished to retraiulate
the "ExeroisBB" into Latin, as accurately aa poaubto,
at the same time making use of the vertio anUma.
"Bia intention was not to supplai^ the Vulgate, and he
therefore published the work of Frusius along with his
own in parallel columns (1835).

The Spanish autogrwh text was not printed until
long after the Vulgate, by Bernard de Angelis, secre-
taiyof the Society of Jesus (Rome, 1615); it has often
been republished. The most noteworthy Eujdish ver-
aaoB are: (1) "The Spiritual Exercises of St. ^na-
tiuB. With Ammbfltion of Superiours. At Saint
Omers; Printed Nicolas Joseph Le Febvre." This
trsLDslation bears no date but it can be traced back to
1736; the printer was a lay brother of the Society.
(2) "The ^iritual Exercises of St. Ignatius. Trans-
lated firom the Authorized Latin; with extracts from
.the literal version and notes of the Rev. Father
Bothaan [tic] by Charles Seag^ M.A., to whirh is
prefixed a Preface by the Right Epv. Nicholas Wise-
man, D.D., bishop of Melipotamus'^ [LoDdon, Dol-
man, 1847); whim was republislitxl by Murpiiy at
Baltiowre, about 1850. (3J "The IVxt of the ^ph'^u
ual Exercues of St. Ignatius, trin-l it^:ii froiu
original Spanish", by Father John Morria, K.J., piil>-
bshed by Bums and Oates (LonJon, IHSO). TUi'
reader ch the "Exercises" need mi look for elcgaiiLe
of style. "St. igfioiivB", says F. AjBtraio, "writea in
ooane, inooneot, and laboured Castilian, which only
at times arrests the attention by the energetic pre-
cision and brevity with which certtun thoughts are
esEpresBed." There are outpourings of the soul in
different colloquiee, but theu* affecting int^est does
not lie in words; it is wholly in the keen situation,
created by the author, of the sinner brfore the cruci-
fix,tbe kn^^t before his king, etc.

CoMPoemoN or the E^rciseb. — ^The book ia
composed of documents or spiritual exercises, reduced
to the order most fitted to move the minds of the faith-
ful to piety, as was remarked in the Brief of approval.
We find in this work documents (instructions, admoni-
tions, waznings), exercises (pravers, meditations.
examinatiMi of conscience, and other practices), and
the method acoording to which th^ are airanged.
The sources of the book are the Sacred Scriptures and
the experiences of spiritual life. Ipatius mdeed was
little by little prepared by Divine Providence to write
his book. From 1521 the thoughts which precede
his conversion, the prepress of his repentance, the
taous practices which he embraces at Montserrat and
at Manresa helped to give him a knowledge of as-
ceticism. His book is aworkUved by himself and later
<Hi lived 1^ oUiers under his eyes. But a book so
lived is not ocanposed all at once; it requires to be
retouched, corrected, and added to frequently. These
improvements, which neither Polanco nor Bartoli
hide, are revealed by a simple examination of the
Spanish text, where along with the Castilian there
are found Latin or Italian expressions, together with
Scholastic terms which the writer could not have used
before, at least, the b^inning of his later studies.
Ignatiua himself admitted this to Fathw Luis Gon-
■alea: "I did not compose the Exercises all at once.
When anything resulting from my own experience
seemed to me likely to be of use to others, I took note
of it". Father Nadal, Ignatius's friend and con-
temporary, writes of the final redaction: "After hav-
ing completed his studies, the author united hia first
attempts of the Exercises, made many additions^ put
all in order, and presented his work for the examination
and juf^cment <a the Apostolic See".

It seems probable that the "Exennsea" were com-
pleted while St. Ignatius was attending lectures at the
University of Pans. The copyofBl. Peter Faber,wrifr-
iiea undoubtedly about the time when he followed the
Exercises under Ignatius'* directimi (1533) . ooDtsins all

the essexLtial parts. Moreover, some partd uf Uie book,
bear tlwt data. Such are: the "Rules for the distribU'*
tion oiums", intended for bnieGoed clet^meQ, mas-
ters, or i^ur^tes of the uaiveraity, in which occurs a
citation of the Council of Cartitage, thus leading one
to 8upTKi3e that the yrrker had studied theology; the
"Rulefi for thSnlcang vit}i tin- ChuTch". which appear,
to havr bwiL aiffi^esttd hy tlio rneasurra taken by an
assemlily i>f ilii-ol(!Kinii.s at Vall^iJnliil in l-">27 against
the Er:i3niiat3 of Spain, or by the Faculty of I'ujtH iit<
1535, 1M2. agaioHt the Protestants. The final'
completion of the "Exercises" may be dated fzoq),
1541, vhoit a fair copy of the iisntio anlifua, whitdi ^
Ignatius rs.l]3 "Todoe exemicios briiviter en latin",
r^de. It niiiy be aaked how Dir the work of com-,
pOflitioJi iL... i-ii'ciwl out (during ihv rL;ijdf.iice of the,
saint ai M:;ili("ju. Tliis sptJi.. wln^rc lf;Tiauu^j arrived
in Mai 1 1. 1 '"2, uiu.sL nlway,^ iie coTisiJerixI as thfi
cradle tliL- "Kxcrcistw". The substiince of the.
work d^tea from Mannwa. tgnatiu3 found Ujere thcr
preoiouB metal which for a long time he wrought and i,
polished. "A work," ag Fr, A-struin rightly saya,,
"which contributes throuK^'Jut ^ admirably to
realize (Ik" fimdEunc-iit^^l iiion ^-t njj by iiuthor, ia '
evidenily not iiti invfeiitioii luiiili^ by |i!Lrtfi, nr com-
posed iif piir*i;i;5eB written at \ iun'.'s or undar
varyin}; i.'iri.^Uriistann38," Tlie " I'"xl.t( iHfj*" clearly
bear the murk of Manri<aa. The mind of Jgnatius,
during Iw xvtuement Um% nna lull of n^taiV mem-
ories ahd qf thou^tfl' tflxbs futu^af braifie the double
diaracteriatic of Ea book, the chivnirous note and thfi
march ti>wHr<IJ:i the choice of a st&tc of life. The ideas
of the kiiicbt i\r(- tli'UHi; nf the acrv^ici! due (o a sove-.
reign, of tin' sliainf Mi:it clitigd to thi'treaeflrj of a vasFiaJ,
(first wi'i'k ', iiii'i in t lv kifiBdoiti, tbotte of the cruBade
formed Jifc^in-it thf- intiii£iU, a.m\ nf the. wjnfraBtation
of the Twfi .Stundiirda (aeraind week). ButduringluB
convali%i!ont'i^ at the. caetlo, the Teaa^ olX^ U'veB of !
the sairit-i ^ave a mystical turn tohiv wVabroUBideitBj
thegre^r. dc«da to b^ imitated beiui^rth are poloi^^
those of a, Roland, biit of a tKKniiiic or a Trsaxd^, . ,
To li''l|i h[tn in his outline of evanpelieal tW^
fection. lymlius ;-iTv-i\-<'d :i Hpt'i^i:il :l^si^itu^lcc, ^^oL,
Polanou OiTid KiliinlMii.'jra call thr' unctii<HQ of the AOl]^
GSiDSt. Without thiH grucx', the rompositioii of tiba'
"Exerciser" remains a mystery. HoW OOUld A iWgn
and ignorant suklicr conceive and develop a work so
original, ao useful for the aalvalioii and Ule perfectioti
of soule. It tHM'k which asloniah^ one by the ori^D'ality
of itsmctlioii and the powerful offiicapy of virtueT'
We ought not, however, to conajilcr this Divin'> asaiFiU
anee as a romplHe revelation. Whal St. r>;ri;i(iiid
knew of spiritual waya, he had learned chicQv from
personal experianee and by the grace of (^iw, 791]^'
treated him "as the schoolmaster does a child ft'
doee not mean that he had not the advice of a con-
feasor to guide him, for he w&a directed by John Cha-
nones at Montserrat; nor doea it mean that he had
read nclhinc liimndf, a-^ we know that h(; had books
athanii ■ must therefore corisider the revelation
of the ■ ! ■ ■ -1^^ ", n'il aa a complttefy suypniatural
manifa-':!' n': jf aU lUo tnithe cuiitairud in the work,
but as :i Kind of inspiratiQn, or s;>ecial Divine assist-
ance, wbii.li ]irevented all essential error, and sug-
gested inimy thouj^ts usdul tor tha salvatioa of the
author, am L of readets at all times, Thjs inepiratlon
is the In^^^^ Hiiinissi^ik' as I^iatiua was favoured with

Seat liclit in Divint- iIuubb- Ribftdofldfft, writioe,
>m Rbt'Irid. IS Apri], lilO", Fr CJirfln, rector M
Salamani'!", d^^t ili mi tlu' ^nnLdi-rriil fruits of the
"Exercisi'.'^", fniita forfiseeu and wiJed by God.
Such a result could not be the efT^ct of morely hunajk
veadine and study, and he adda; ^"rh» has oeen tha
gmera opinion of ajU the old fatheiB |l '
of us aU who have Oved and oonvaiiied mfifc^dr 1
fatliffl?'. ; ■ '

^otlter tradition ooooems the parM^ken by tiiff

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Blessed Villain the composing of the "Exerdaes" at
Manresa. It is not based on any written testimony
of the contemporaries of St. Ignatius, thou^ it be-
came univeraal in the seventeenth century. Fossibty
it is fotmded upon earlier oral testimony, and npon a
rerelatioD made in 1600 to the Venerable Marina de
Escobar, and related in tiie " Life of Father Balthazar
Alvarez'*. Thia tradition has often been symbolized
by piuninn^, v<hn rr'pn-^ent IgnatiuB writing {TOOL the
lilcriHtii Viriiin's dKitalion.

Although I^matius had been educated just like the
ordinary kninkts of his time, he was fond of cali-
oraphy and siW] more of reading; his. convalescence at
Loyota eciLbled him to gratify this double inelina-
^Q. We know that he wrote there, in different col-
oured inks, A quarto book of 300 folios in which he
seeni5 to have gathrriMl together ertracts from the
<mly twii liiiLik^ to lie found in the castle, which were
"Tic Flower nf thr Siunts" in Spanish, and "The
U!e of Je&ua Christ'' hy Ludolph of Saxony or the
ObithuaLan, pijblii^hcil in Spanish at AlcaU, 1502 to
IfiOS. "The Fbwcr of the Saints" has left no ap-
pimit truce in the " Ertercises", except an advice to
le&d something similur after the second week. Lu-'
dolph's influencf^ is more noticeable in exu|eBsions,
ascetic principk'ti, ami methodic details. The part
of the ''Exercispg" treating of the life of Christ, is
e^ecia^ indebted to him.

IgDatms, having recovered his health and deter-
mined to lead a hermit's life, left Loyola for Mont-
aectat Ud MaareBa. He ^ent the greater part of
^eyat 1S22 ia Intler town, three leagues distant
from Montaerratr under the direction of his confessor,
Dom John ChanoTiE>s. According to a witness in the
procnis of cimoniKatioii Igqatius went to see Chanones
c-v*'ry Sutiirfiay, ili-inidd moreover have met him or
other Beaedictines at the priory of Manresa, which
was d^refudeat on Mtmtserrat. It is possible that
he received from them a copy of the "Imitation of
Christ" in Spanish, fnr he certainly had that book at
Manresa; they must hrkve given lum also the "Ejer-
citfttorio de ]a vidn. e^jpiritual", of Dom Garcia de
Cieneroa, puhiiaht'ti jit Montserrat in 1600. Riba-
den^ira in nis I'Mtor I0 FY. Gir6n thinks it very prob-
abtt! tfmt iSt. iRnaliu-s was acquainted with this Castil-'
iau work, that he avsiiled himself of it for prayer and
meditatioQ, that Chanones eiqtlained different ports
ta him, and that the title "Exercises" was sue^ted
to him by thf^ "Ejcrritatorio". The Benedictines
made uac of this boi-k for the conversion or edification
of the pilgrjma of Moiitserrat; in fact the tradition of
monaatery rc^lntcs that Chanones comnlunicated it
to hie pepttnit. Th<^ "EJxercises" borrow very little
t_\Iir'Hf^ly fmiii Uii^ "Inutation of Christ". There is,
however, to be noticed a general concordance of its
doctrine ami that of the "Exercises", and an invita-
tion to read it.

' WTas the "Ejercitatorio" more closely followBdT In
tiying to solve this question it is not sufficient to dra^
conclusions from the resemblance of the titles, or to
establish a pandlel with a few details; it is necessary
above all to compare the plans and methods of the two
works. Whilst the "Exercises" consider the word
"week" in its meti^ihorical sense and ^ve liberty to
add er to omit diqrs, the "Ejereitatono" presents a
tnplt series of seven meditattons, one and not several
for each day of the real week. The whole aeries of
twenty-one meditations is exhausted in just three
weeks, which answer to the three Uves: the purgative,
the illuminative, and the unitive. The author seeks
only to raise the "exercitador" gradually to the con-
templative life, whereas St. Ignatius leads the exerci-
tant to determine for himselfthe choice of a state of
Ufe amongst those most pleadng to God. The "Eje)>
dtatorio'^does not mention anything of Uie founda*
tion* i>or of the kingdom, of the particular examina-
tion, of the eleetioiif « ue disoenunait of spirita, nor

of the rules for rightly regulatmg one's food and for
thinking with the Orthodox Church, nor of the three
methods of praying. Only a few counsels of Cisneros
have been adopteaby St. Ignatius in the annotatione
2, 4, 13, 18, 19, 30, and the additions 2, 4. Some
Cisneros's ideas are to be found in the meditatimis <rf
thfe first week. The other weeks of St. Ignatius are
entirely different. Tlie similarities are so reduced in
fact to a very small number.

But the work of Cisneros itself is only a compilation.
Cisneros admits having reproduced passages from Cas-
sian, Bernard, Bonaventure, Gerson etc.; moreover,
he does not gjve the names of the contemporaries
from whom he copied. Amongst otho" books <^sne-
ros read and cc^ied the "De spirituaUbus ascen-
sionibus" of Gerard Zerbolt of Zutphen (1367-98)
and the "Kosetum exercitiorum spiritualium" of
John Mombaer, or Maubumus (d. 1602), who was
also indebted to Gerard. Almost all in Cisaeros that .
pertains to the method of spiritual exercises is ex-
tracted from the "Rosetum". The differmt wa^
of exercising oneself in the contemplation of the life
and passion of Jesus Christ are taken from the "De
spiritualibuB asoensionibus". All Cisneros's borrow-
ings were disclosed by Fr. Watrigant (see bibli-
ography). Zutphen and Mombaer, like Thomas Jk
Kempis, belonged to the Society of the Brothers of
Common Life, founded towards the end of the four-
teenth centu^by Gerard de Orooto and Florence
Radewyns. This society caused a revival of spuitual
life by the pubhcation of numerous ascetic treatiBes,
several of iniich appeared under the title of "Spirit-
ual Exercises"; The Brothers of Common Life, or
the Devoti, devoted themselves also to the reform of
the clergy and monasteries. The Benedictine Con-
gregation of Valladolid, on which Mbnserrat was de-
pendent, had been under the influence of Lewis Baibo,
who was connected with the brothera. We must |
therefore conclude that Ignatius may have mofited
br the result of Zutphen's and Maumimus's laboun
whilst he read Cisneros or listened to Cbanones's ex-
planations at Manresa. Later, when he understood
Latin, during his studies at the Universities of Aloali
and Paris, or while travelling in Flanders he may him-
self have become acquainted with the works of the
Devoti. A greater analogy is to be noticed between
Zutphen and Ignatius, two practical minds, than be-
tween Loyola and Cisneros.

ORiaiNALnr op thb work. — ^We may therefore
took upon the question of a supposed plagiarism 00
the part of St. I^iatius to the detriment of Cisneros, .
as being definitively settled. This question was
raised by Dom Constantine Cajetan, or rather by some 1
one who assumed his name, in a treatise publimed at '
Venice in 1641: "Dereh^osaS.^natii . . .per 1
patres Benedictines institutione . . . ". The I
Jesuit John Rho answered him in his "Achates" 1
(Lyons, 1644). Both the attack and reply were put *
on the Index, no doubt on account of their excessive
acrimony. Besides, the general assembly of the Con-
pr^ation of Monte Cassino which met at Ravenna
in 1644, by a decree dissociated itself from the ag-
gressor. The quarrel was afterwards renewed on sev-
eral occaaons, chiefly the heterodox, but always
without success. Bene£ctines and Jesuits a^ee to
acknowledge tJiat if St. Ignatius owes anj^ing to
Montserrat, he has retained his entire originality.
Whatever may be s^d about the works he read and
what he borrowed, his book is truly his own. A
writer is never blamed for having previously searched
and studied, if his own work is impressed with hie pe^
Bonahty, and treats the subject from a new point of
view. This has been successfully accomplished tq^^
Ignatius, and with all the; greater moit, as he coiua
jKit change anything of the traditional truths of Chn»>
tianity, or pretend to invent mental prayer.

Ignatiura nigjiuGty uppun-$i, first mriit is flu

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seleetioa and ooordinatkm of his materiat. To seleet
some of the great buUis of rdigion, to drire tiiem
deep^ into the heart, vntil man woroughfy impressed
faUs at the Lord's feet, rayinit ont like another Saul
" Draoine, quid me vis facere?", such is the geaiius, the
Bsoetie character, <A St. Ignatius. But to bring about
this rcfiuh it vaa necessary for the selected truths to
be linked t<^ether in a logical Boies and animated by^ a
progresMTe movement. The methodic order and ir-
resistible deduction of the "ExerciBes" distinguish
than from a large number of spintual works. Above
an the originality of St. Ignatius is displayed in tiie
care with which he combmes the subjects medi-
tation and ascetic principles, and the minute ad-
vice that guides and moderates, when necessary, the
appUcation of the "Exercises". We find in the an-
notations at the beginning, in the notes strewn here
and there, in the rules for ttie discernment of spirits a
real system of spiritual training, that makes adequate
provision for tlw different states <h soul of the exerci-
tant, and warns him, or rather his director, of what is
most fitting, acconfii^ to the circumstances of the
case*. Nothmg is left to chance. One sees how to
adapt the general progress of the retreat to different
persons, according to their occupation- the degree of
their fervour, and the advantage they derive from the
"Exercises". This art of proportioning spiritual in-
struction to the powers of the soul and to Divine
grace was entiielT new, at least under the predse and
methodic form given to it by St. Ignatius.

DocrKDra or the book. — ^The two words tiuit form
tiie general title of St. Ignatius's book bespeak at
once the soul's action and labour^ and the interior
struggle. The still more explicit title which we find
immediately after the annotations leaves one no
doubt: "Spiritual Exercises to conquer oneself and
rcculate one's life, and to avoid coming to a deter-
mmation thr»"gh any inordinate affectimi ". A
metiiod is here ofoed, which with God's grace teaches
and h^M one to overctune oneself, that is to say one's
unruhr passions, and by gaining control over every
conscious act, to acquire mwanf peace — a method of
aelf-conquest and self-govement. A general idea of
the "Exercises" may beet be gained from Diertins's
aommary: After setting forth the end for n^dt God
created man and all other things, the book, ever oon-
sidoinfE dus truth as the first foundation, leads us in a
short t^e by the way known as the purgative way to
aictknowfedge the udiness of the sins which have
caused us to stray shamefully from the end, and to
eleajiBe our souls from sin. Setting before us the ex-
ample of Christ, our King and Leader, the author then
invites us, in what is termed the illuminative life, to
avoid the devil's standard and to foDow the standard
of this very good and wise Chief, and to imitate His vlr>
tues; indeed he almost forces us to do so by the medi-
tation of the three classes, or mdes, of men (the first
c/t whidi is reluctant to foUow Christ, the second eager
to do so, but with limitations, and the last bent on fol-
lowing Hitt at once, wholly, and always) . These reso-
hitions are strengthened more and more in the third
week, at the dght of Jesus Qirist walking before us
with His cross. Lastly, in the unitive way, iriuoh
eomprisee the fourth week, he enkindles in our hearts
s desire for the gloi^ of Jesus risen, and for His piu'est
love. To ttiis are joined annotations, additions, pre-
hides, colloquies, examinations, modes of election,
rules for rightly r^ulating one's food, for discerning
spirits, for uie scrupulous, for thinking with the Ortho*
TOX Qimch, etc. The whole, if applied in the pre-
scribed OTda'.iKMseeses tiie inoredible strength of lead-
ii^ one to solid virtue and to eternal salvation. The
four wedca have been summed up still more brie% in
as many smtenoee: (1) d^ormata reformare; (2)r»*
fOTmata ooDformare; (8) eonformata oonfirmare;
(4) ocHifiimata transfonnare: that is: (1) to reform
lAat has been deformed by sm; ^tomalMirfiat is

thus reformed conform to the Divine mod^ Jesoa;
(3) to strengthen what thus conforms: (4) to trans-
form \sy lOTO the already strengthened resolutions.

Iliis method of niiritual progress had already been
traced by St. Paul (Hebr., xii, 1-2). It cannot be re-
peated too often that, if St. Igmtius displayed his
originahty in uniting and co-orcUnating the materials
of his book, he did not compose the matter itself. He
doived it from the ever open treasury of the CaUiohtt
Church, from Scripture and Tradition, from the B^Ie
anid the Fathers. The Gospd is the manw <tf ue
''Eiffireises". The spiritualNy of St. Ignatius id b
constant harmony with the teachings of Chnst and
His Apostles. is the "homo vincat seipsum",

but an echo of the "abneget semstipsum"? And
whence came Loyola's idea of giving us the soldier's
theory a warlike book which contains all the plan <^ a
campaign of man's struggle against himself, if not
from the Saviour's words, which are a dechuation of
war: "Do not think that I came to send peace up<m
earth: I came not to send peace, but ue sffwd"
(Matt., X, 34). The spirituality of the "Exercises"
belongs, therefore, to the active and militant kind.
We must also remark that the work is not a mere book
for reading or a mere manual of devotion; it gives us
in the high sense of the word a psychologic^ and ped-
agc^c method. Mr. Orby Shipley, a convert from
Protestantism to Catholicism, jud^ them rightly,
when he said in the preface dt his edition (Londim,
1870): "This tr«itise is not so much a mwiual as a
method — and a method the value, the extraordinary
power, of ^idiich does not appear at first sight. One
of its great marvels consists in the fact that it has
done so very much by such very simple means . . .
They are no mere theoretical oompositions, but they
have been framed upon the closest study of the liu<
man mind; . . . th^ enter into its several emo-
tions, encounter its numberless difficulties, and probe
to their very depths its several springs of thought and
action".

To obtain the desired result St. Ignatius uses only
a few words, but these are so selected as to make a
deep impression on the mind and, if seriouBly medi-
tated on by the exercitant and fostered in his soul,
will soon develop into powerful thou^ts and become
a source of great spiritual enlightenment and oonsfr*
queutiy of earnest energetic resolutions. Howevw,
t»iou{^ l3ie method of St. Ignatius leaves the exierd-
tant to think for himself, the author does not intern)
that the latter should use it without guidance. He
places the " Book of Exercises " in the hands of a di-
rector, and ^trusts him with applying it to the exerci-
tant.' He teaches him how to guide a soul in the
dioioe of a state of life and in the wm^ of 8elf-4eform.
The annotations, iritieh provide a kenr to the "Exer-
cises", are intended m(»re especially for the director.
The great«r part of them — the second, mxth, seventh,
ei^tn, ninth, tenth, tw^fth, thirteenth, fourteenth,
fifteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, a total of twelve
out of twenty—is written for "el que da kw Exerci-
cios" (the person who gives the exercises). The fif-
teenth advises him to proceed with jp'eat discretion,
BO as not to interfere between the &eator and the
creature, and to abstain especially in the case of a r»>
treat of election, from any suggestion remrdingr the
determination to be taken, even should it be, stnotly
speaking, for the veiy best. This advice shows how
falsely some critics of the Exercises represent them as
bringing undue influenoe to bear on the will, with a
view to enslaving or paralyring it. From tails also
wpears the absurdity of Mullers thesis in "Les <wi>
l^ies de la Oon^iBgole de Jteus" (Paris, 1898), in
he strives to show the McAiainmedan origin of
the Exercises and of the Society of Jesus. In this
way, thorefore, the director in oomplianoe with the
aouKH's desire respects the soul's freedom, a freedom
ahMKty regulated ey tbe aottmityjttjtlw CSiurofa, of

Digitized by

lAidi he is t2ke representative. He abo ooDnders
the seal's capacity; the Exercises contain in them-
aelvee matters useful to all, but taken alt<^ther they
may not be suitable to every one. The eighteenth
umotation forbids them to be given indiscriminatelv,
without considering who the exercitant is. Fioall^
to sum up, all St. [^[natius's spirituality lies in tradi-
tional Catholic instruction, in a method f avoundile to
penmal activity, and in the imputanoe of prudeat
direction.

The commentators who have atten^ted to explain
and penetrate the doctrine of the "Exercises are
theonste who consider either the entire book or cer-
tain parts of it, and show the book's order and con-
nexion and when nec^sary justify the thou^t.
Several of them, not satisfiea with suophr discussing
tiie methodj deal also with the practice. Those whose
names we give here belong to tiie Society of Jesus, but
they cUd not write solely for thar (»wr: axteoith
eentury — ^AiduUe Oagliardi; sevoiteenth century —
Francisco Suarez, Antoine Le Gaudier, Luis de la
Palma, Giovanni Bucellani, Tobias Lohner, Ignatius
Di^ins: d^teenth oeatiuy — Claude Judde, Jean-
joeeph Petitdidier, Baltaaar de Moucada, Peter Fer-
rusola; nineteenth century — Johann Philipp Root-
haaa, Pierre Jenneaseaux^ Antoine Denis, Marin de
Bcnrkeve, Jaime Nonell, James Clare. Ftans de Hum-
melauer, Jaime Guti^rroi.

CRinCiaM UNVATOnHABLB AND Favouubul — ^We
refer the reader to Diertins's narration of the "pers&*
euticHu" to which the "Exercises" were subjected
during the lifetime of St. Ignatius. He counts no less
than twdve. The first attacks may be attributed to
the surprise felt b^ ecclesiastics at the sight of a lay-
man treating of qiiritual matters, before having made
his theological studies; the oQuaa arose from some
difficulty m inteipr^atifm or from erroneous judg-
ments as to the meaning of the text. These nulev-
<4ent or over-seidous censurers were answered by
Nadal and Suarez, who were justified by the approba-
tion of the Holy See. The attacks of the present day
are generally unscientific, inspired by^ i^jasion, and
made without any [ureliminary examination ot the
question. When the adversary's mind oonceivee a
caricature ot the "Exmises" either because he has
not read them, or because Mare reading them he has
been influenced by the erroneous statements of other
hostile critics, the attack ai^)eai8 legitimate; in re-
alty it will be found to refer to something that is not
in the "Exercises". Besides the attacks by their
mutual opposition destroy one another. The " Exer-
cises" cannot have, simultaneously, a maohiaveDian
sod an anodyne character, or be in the cknida
and yet crawl upon the soiL Long ago they were,
and tXHday are, charged with bong a clever machinery
desthied to strike and move the imaginatifHU and
finsllythrou^ hallucination iHnduceeostaaea. Miclh-
elet and Qumet in their too famous lectures revived
this calumny, which has been answered by Fr. Cahour
in his pao^let: "I>es j^suites par un j^uite". To
this charge of charlantanry one reply will suffice, the
answer made by a young religbus, Rodrigo de Men-
ea&s, on bdng asked whewer he had not beoi favoured
with any kmd of vision: "Yes, I witnessed a very af-
fecting sic^t, the state of my soul, the nothingness of
diis wOTld and the misfortime of losing God for ever".

This sii^t, if it can move a sinner to conversion, is
not one ukely to cause a steady mind to wander.
And yet W. James moatioos, as the culminating point
of the "Exercises", "a half-hallucinated monoide-
ism" ("L'Exp^ence religieuae", Paris, 1006, p.
34fi}. Certain critics have r^«pached the "Exc^
eises" with favouring private inspiratiim, in the
Proteelant sense, and with opening a path to illu-
minism. This criticism was emphasized in the be-
■inaing by Thomas de Fedrodw, O.P.. and artwe
bom an moaaam inteiptetatioa of the fiftesath

annotation, m wluch St. Ignatius adnsea the dinetcr

not to substitute his own views for those God may
have upon the e^tercitant. There is no question of
leaving him an exa^erated liberty which might draw
him beyond the limits laid down by the Church. We
therefore see that some find in Ignatius's method
iUuminism, hallucination, and phantasmagoria; others
see in it nothing daasling, but rather dulness and in-
sipidity. "Thoe are pec^>le, " said the Abb6 GueUe,
"wbo consider this book a masterpiece, and othas
find it but very ordinazy" ("Histoire dee JSsuites",
Paris, 185S, 1, 12). This chaise appears again undu
a different form, — the "Exercises" afford but a
scanty method, "a Japanese culture of counterfeited
dwarfish trees*' (Huysmans, "En Route", Paris,
1896, p. 398). Finalfy, some Cathohcs see in it aniy
a book for befpnners, a retreat for the time of conver-
non, and a smtable meana to guide (me's first steps in
the wav of perfection. A Protestant clenyman,
Rev. Mr. Carter, observes, on the oontirary, that the
method is rather wide and free, since "oae of the first
rules laid down by St. Ignatius for the director of a
retreat is, that he is to adapt the Exercises to the age,
the capacity, the strength of the person about to per-
form them'' ("Retreats with notes of addresses",
London, 1893. p. xxv).

The praise bsfltowed on the "Enonnses " far exceeds
tiie adverse criticism. As they are considraed a school
of sanctity, it is interesting to know what the ssints
thought of them. The practice of Saints Philip Ro-
molo Neri, Charles Borromeo, Francis de Sales, and
A^honsusLigoori is more eloquent testimony in favour
of the "Exerdsee" than anytiiing they have written;
and it will be sufficient to recaJl the words of St.
Leonard of Port-Maurice: "During these heydays we
must exercise ourselves in the Divine art oa maldng
secure the great in^xntant affaire^ our salvation. As
Qod has inspired the glorious founder of the illustrious
Society of Jesus with this precious art, we have but to
follow the method laid down by him m his admirable
book of the Exercises. " Since the u>probation given
by Paul III in 1548, the "Exercises'' have often been
favoured by the sovereign pontiffs; the praises they
have bestowed ou them are mfngli^ with recommen-
dations of xetveats, the nsa^ ctt which, accordingto
St. Francis ds Saks, was revived by St. Ignatius. We
need mention onhr Alexaodet VII, Clement XU, Ben-
edict XIV, Clement XIIL and Pius IX. AH their
eulogies have been resumed by Leo XIII in his Brief
of 8 Februar^f, 1900: "The unportance of St. Igna-
tius's book with regard to the eternal welfare of souls
has been proved by an experience of three centuries
and by the evidence of tlwee remarkable men, who,
during this lapee of time, have distinguished them-
sdves in the ascetic pathsof life or in the practice of
sanctity."

Mgr Camus. Bishop <tf Belley, calls the "'Emo-
oises" a "Gokien book, of pure ^Id, more precious
than either gold or topaz" ("Direction k rOraison
mentale", Lyons, 1623, c. xix, p. 167): Mgr FreppeL
"A book that I should call the work ch a man w
genius, if it were not that of a saint, a wonderful book,
which, with the 'Imitatifai Chnst', is peih^ at
all bouES written by man the one which gains the
most souls to God" {" Disoours-Panigwiques
Paris, 1882, II, 36, 37); and Cardinal Wiseman:
"Thcdre are many books from which the read^ ii
taught to expect much; but which, perused, yield
him but little lurofit. loose are few and most pre-
cious, which, at first sight, and on slender acquamt-
aocej seem to contain but httle; but the more thqr are
studied, the more instruction, the mcne solid baoefit
thcybestow: niueh are like a soil that looks bare and
unadorned, but whidi contains beneath its surface
rich treasures that must be digged out and drawn from
a great depth. To liiis seoond class I know no booc
that 80 juny bekmgs as the littlevQrk berepasentsd

Digitized by VjOOglC

SMRraUAZAM

to the piAfa'e" (Preface to W. ed. of the " Exerdses "
bySec^, Loodon, 1847, p. id). Janasen sstb: "TfaiB
little book, considered by the Proteatanta themaelvQa
aa a firat class psycholc^cal masterpiece, has been
for the GfflnuaD nation, and towards the huttory of its
faith and civilization, one of the most inqx>rtatit
writings of modern times. ... It has worked such
extraordinary influence over souls, that no other
ascetic work may be compared to it'' (" L'AUemagne
et ]A Rtfonne", Fr. ed., IV, 402).

Non-CaUioIics also praise it. "The Spiritual Ex-
eraBea"f according to Macanlay, "is a manual of
conversion, proposmg a plan of interior discipUne,
by means of which, in neither more nor lees than four
weeks, the metamorphosis of a sinner into a faithful
servant of Christ is realised, step by step" (" Edin-
burgdi Review November, 1842, p. 29). More re-
cently, the Canon Charka Bodington, pratsinK the
Jeemt miaBionaikfl,ao lavish of th^ sweat and mood,
really "wcnthy of hearty admiration and respect",
added: "Probably the noble and devotional side of
the lives of these mnarkable men has been largely
sustained by the use of the method of the spirituu
exercises left to them by thek* founder" ("Books of
Devotion" London, 1903, p. 130). Finally, a ^rt
time ago Karl Eotl (see bibliography), & G^man, de-
clared the "Bxsrcisea" to be a masterpiece of peda-
gogy, which instead of annihilating peraonality sttves
to elevate the spirit. The Positivist P. Lafltte, m the
lectures delivered by him at the CoMge de France,
declares: "These iStercises are to my mind a real
masterpiece of poUtical and moral wisdom and merit
careful study. . . . The destination of these Exer-
cises is to so organise the mond life of the individnal
that by a prolonsed, solitary, andpersonid labour be
himseS realises the most perfect balance of the mind"
C'Revueoecidraitale", 1 May. 1894, p. 309).

Monianeiaa hiitoriea, 8. Ji (Madrid, 18U}; SoMMsaroosu
AN. de la Cimpag^ d* Mnu (BnuMb, ISM); AHa SB., VU,
July ;8T0aEX, Die otulUeheL&mnitaFllbtrditgeidUehM t/ebtuurm
matiabon, 1830); DllBTiNB, StiL «MrvManMi tpiritvaiium
(Rome, inZiiW^Ttaatin, La gtniM da nareleia d$ aabU Ignaoi
CAmiBDa, 1^71: DBBOasr. JMraAMMon d FUida dw ntniem
MpirOiuia (Essura. 1006); Babtou-Micsxl, HM. 4t ». bnaet
«s Loyola (Braces, 1893) : Ariuik, HUL de Is eomaaUfa de
Jmde M fa oW^Mb de Bepana (Mftdrid, 1903); Jolt. Somi
Imaee de LnytHa- (Pm, 1890); Binu, Una guMMm tftotafr*
mtraina» XVI* wade m Reeve dee qneat. hiet. (Jwuiw. 1897):
Snuws, De religione, IV, tr. X, IX, v: Clabb, The aeienee ef
Spiritual lAfe amrdwQ to tke apir^mt Bxereieie (N«r York,
IBM); Jakhuk. L'Aatmagne tt la r«br>u, .IV (Ptrio, 1896);
Boll, Die geiel^dten I/bunffM dee ibnoMtu von Lovofa (TaUagen,

Paul Dbbucht.

Splrlttudiam.'— The term "Spiritualism" has been
freguently used during recent years to denote the
behef in the possibility of communication with dis-
embodied spirits^ and the vanOuis devices emplwed
to realise this beltef in practice. The term "Bpuit-
ism" (q. v.), which obtains in Italy, France, and Ger-
many, seems more apt to express this meaning.
Spiritualism, then, suitably stands opposed to Ma-
terialism. We may say in general that Bpirttu^ism
is the doctrine which denies that the contente of the
universe are limited to matter and the properties
and operations of matter. It maintains the exist-
ence of real bdng or bemga (minds, spirits) radically
distinct in nature from matta*. It may take thfe form
of Sjnrttualistic Idealism, which denies the exist-
ence of any real material being outside of tiie inind;
or, whilst defending the reality of ^iritual being, it
may also allow the separate existence of the mat^ial
World. Further. Idealistic Spiritualism may either
take the form oi. Monism (e. g. with Fichte), which
teaches that there exists a single universal mind or
ego of iribich all finite minds are but teannent moods
or Btuee: or it may adopt a plural^ic theory (e.g.
with Berkeley), which resolves the universe into
m Divine Mind together with a multitude of finite
jooinds into which the former infnaea all those ex-
periences that generate the belief in an external,

Independent, material worid. The aeeond or mod-

nate fcnm of Spiritufdism, whilst maintaining tha
existence of spirit, and in particular the human mind
or soul, as a real being distinct from the body, does
not deny the reality of matter. It is, in fact, the
common doctrine of Dualism. However, among
the systems of philosophy whidi adhere to Dualism,
emne conceive the separateness or mutual independ-
ence of soul and body to be greater and others less.
"Vnth some philosophers of the former class, soul and
body seem to have been looked upon as eomplets
beu^ merely accidentally united. For these a main
difficulty is to give a satisfactory account of the in-
ter-action of two beings so radically oppcned in nature.

Historicallyj we find the early Grwk philosoiAers
tending ^nerally towards Materialism. Sense ex>
perience is more impressive than our hicher, raticoukl
ei^isciousness. and sensation is essentially bound up
with the bodily organism. Anaxagoras was the first,
ai:q)arently, among the Greeks to vindicate the pn-
dominance of mind or reason in the universe. It
was, however, rather as a principle of order, to ao-
eount for the arrangement and design evident in
nature as a WholCj than to vindicate the reality of
individual minds distinct from the bodies which they
animate. Plato was virtually the father of western
spirituaSstie piulosi^hy. He esnidiaaiaed the dis-
tmetiott between the irrational or sensuous and the
rational fimctiom of the soul. He will not allow tin
superior elements in knowledge or the higher "parts"
of the soul to be explained away in tmns of the lower.
Both sub^t in continuous mdependence and op-
position. Indeed, the rational soul is related to the
bodv merely as the pilot to the ship or the rider to
his norse. Aristotle fully recogniaed the spirituality
tit the lii^tf rational activity of thou|^t, but ms
treatment M its precise rdation to the indi^uid
human soul is obscure. On the other hand, his con-
ception of the union of soul and body, and of the unity
of the human person, is much superior to l^at of
Plato. Though the future life of the human sotd,
and consequently its capacity for an existence separate
from the body, was one of the most fundamental and
important doctrines of the Ouistian religion, yet
ideas as to the precisMueaningof Roritualibr werenot
at first clear, wid we find serw^ m the eariiest Quis-
tian writers (thou^ maintaining the future existenee
of the soul s^arate from the body), yet conceiving
the soul in a more or less materialistic way (a.
Justin, Irenseua, Tertullian, Clement, etc.). The
Catholic philosophic doctrine of SpirituaUam re-
ceived much of its development from St. Augustine,
the disciple of Platonic phuoso^y, and its completion
from AlbertuA Magnus and St. Thtmias, who pmeoted
the Aristotelian account of the union of soul and
bod^.

Modem Sinritualism, especially of the more ex-
treme type, has its origin in Descartes. Mal^ranche,
and indirectly Berkelejr, who contributed so much
in the sequel to Monistic Ideali»n, are indebted to
Descartes, whilst every form of exa^erated Dualism
which set mind and body in isolation and contrast
teaoes its descent from him. In spite of serious fiuitts
and defects in theor systems, it should be rect^iniMd
that Descartes and Leibnitz contributed much of tin
most effective resistance to the wave of Matffludism
which acquired such strengtii in Europe at the end
of the eighteenth and during the first half of the
nineteenth centuries. In particular, Maine de Biran,
who emphasized the inner activity and spirituality «
the will, followed by Jou&oy and Counn, set up so
vigorous an opposition to the oorrent Materialism as
to wm for their theories the distinetive title oi
"Spiritualism". In Germany, in addition to Kant,
Fionte, and other Monistic tdealists, we find LotSe
and Herbart advocating realistio fwms of Spiritualism.
In Knftland, arnuig the best4mcmQ afhrooMM df

Digitized by VjOOglC

nmxTuuM

280

■fUUTUikUl

Dualistic Spuitualiamj were, in Buoceaaion to the
Scottish School, HamUton aiid Martineau; and of
Catholic writets, Brownson in Amoiea, and W. Q.
Ward in England.

Evmrnmcm fob the Docxsim or SpiBiruALiaii. —
Whilst modem Idealists and writers advocating an
extreme fonn of Spiritualism have frequently fallen
into grievous error in their own positive Bystems,
their critidsma of Materialism and their vindication
of the reality of spiritual being seem to contain much
sound argument and some valuable contributions,
as was indeed to be expected, to this controversy.
(1) Epiatenulogical Proo^. — ^Tfae line of reasoning
adapted by Berkelsy agamst Materialism haa never
met with any real answer from the latter. If we were
oompdled to choose between the two, the most ex-
treme Idealistic Spiritualism would be incomparably
the more logical creed to hold. Mind is more in-
timately known than matter, ideas are more ulti-
mate than molecules. Ext^Tial bodies are only
known in terms of consciousness. To put forward
as a final explanation that thought is merely a motion
or pEoperty of certain bodies, when all bodiea ue, in
the last reeorij, only revealed to ua in terms of our
thinking activity, is just^ stigmatiied by all claues
of Spiritualists as utterly irrational. When the Ma-
terialist or Sensationist reasons out hts doctrine, he is
landed in hopeless absurdity. Materialism is in fact
the answer of the men who do not think, who are ap-
parently quite unaware of the presuppositions which
underlie science. (2) Teleologieal Proqf. — ^The
eontoition, old as Anaxagoras, that Uw order,
adi^itation, and design evidently revealed in ^e uni-
verse postulate a principle distinct from matter for
its explanation is also a valid argiunent for Spirituat-
ism- Matter cannot arrange itself. Yet that there
is arrangement in the universe, and that this pos-
tulates una agency of a prinoipie other than inatter,
18 continually more and more forced upon us by the
utter failure of natural selection to meet the demands
nutde on it during the last half of the |MSt century
to accomplish by the blind, fortuitous action of phys-
ical agents work demanding the highest intelli-
gence. (3) Ethical Proof. — ^Ine denial of spiritual
beings distinct from, and in some sense independent
of, matter inexorably involves the annihilation of
morality. If the mechanical or materialistic theory
of the universe be true, every movement and change
of ea^ particle of matter is the inevitable outcome
trf previouB plw^oal ctniditioiis. There ta no room
anywhere for effective human dioice or purpose in the
worid. Consequently, all those notions which form
tlie constituent elements of man's moral creed —
duty, obligation, reeponsibiUty, merit, desert, and the
rest— are illusions of the imagination. Virtue and
vice, fraud and benevolence are alike the inevitable
outoome of the individual's circumstances, and ul-
timately as truly beyond his control as tne move-
ment of Uie piston is in regard to the steam-engine.
(4) Inefficacy and Utdetmeu Mind in the Ma-
terialist yi«c.— Again, unless the reality of spirit
distinct from, and mdependent of, matter be admitted,
the still more incredible conclusion inexorably follows
that mind, thou^t, consciousness play no really
(^)erative part in the world's history. U mind is not
a real distinct energy, capable of interfering with,
Kuidins, and influencing the movements of matter,
Uien cleariy it has played no real part in the ereor
tinas of ut, literature, or scienoe. Consciouaiiesa
is merely an inefficacious by-product, an epiphenom-
enon wludi has never modified in any^ a^;ree the
movements of matter concerned in the history of the
human race. (5) PsyeJioloffieal Proof. — ^The outcome
of M the main theses of psychology, empirical and
rationed, in Catholic systems of ^philosophy is the
.flstabU^ment of a Spiritualistic DuaUsm, and the
detcmination of the relations of soul and body.

Analysis of the higher activities of the soul, and
pedally of the operations of intellectual conception,
judgment, reasoning^ and self-conscious reflexion,
proves the faculty of mtellect and the soul to which it
bebnga to be (n a qMritual nature, distinct frmn
matter, and not the outcome of a power inherent in a
bodily organ. At the same time the Scholastic
dootnne, better than any other system, furnishes a
conception of the union of soul and body which ao~
counts for the extrinsic dependence of the spiritual
op^tions of the mind on the oreanism; whilst
maintaining the spiritual nature of the soul, it safe-
guarile the union of soul aiirl hods- h\ jt fdnrfp persnn.

Vakd, MatMnditm und Aanoti^cnim i^x d^uu awl N^w York.
ISWK LjDIi, PWdAitjAu tif Sfind ((New Vork, IM?,"!) ; Bii.iK>tii,
^ouTuioliim* o/ BeKr/ (Laniion, 18051; CA^TEl,rl^■. .U-we-iTrtfi.iiTi^i
M SpiriTtialime (BruaselB, Ififi^l; Ftou^NCA. FfiJfrij-j/ o/ Af.i!«Ti(i(-
iim in Nv"if*<uh CtTzi. [iSSSi, xih Balmf.i), Fui^ln'^f^t,,! Phi-
Ifiiirjihy itr,, NVw York, ISOG); ^Antm, 5/irr,ifn!inPn. i,r. Jii-;t.s
[.Fi1in1>iirph, J.S.'i.Ti; Feihheh, Lej^wft nnil Phil fl^'m.nVi.f '[■"ilin-

MlCDABL MaRBB.
JOBBPH B(«XAMD.

ft^ittuls, a general term denoting sevezal groups
of Friars Minor, existing in the second half of the
thirtemth and Uie beginning of the fourteenth cen-
turies, who, in owosition to the main body of the order,
pretended to observe the Rule of St. Francis in its
primitive severity. The derivation of the name is
not quite dear. Homo »jnrUutdis in the Middle
Ai^signified a profound^ religious and ascetic man,
almost in the same aeoae aa it occurs in I Cor., ii,
15; Gal., vi, 1. In this sense the word is commonly
used in the thirteenth century. See examples in
"Archiv" of Ehrle-Denifle, III, 600. In its limited
application to the friars Minor, according to some it
owes its origin to the Rule of St. Francis, where it
is said: "Wheresoever there are brothers who see and
know that they are not able to observe the rule ^iri^
.ually they ou^t to, and can recur to their ministers".
Quite recently. Father Balthasar, O.F.M., traces it
with some probability to the terminology of Joach-
imism. Joachim in fact styles the "EvangeUum mta-
num" as the spiritual Gowel, whose understanding is
given through the spiritual intellect of spiritual men
who are to preach it (Archiv, I, 53-55). To ue
present writer it would seem that the name was given
by the people, with whom the Spiritual, on account
of tiieir austeri^ were generally in favour. In fact
in a doeomeait m 1316 quoted by E!hrie, "Archiv",
ill, 601, the Spirituals themselves deny that they
have ever sought the name of Spirituals, and declare
that they want no other name than that of Friars
Minor imposed by St. Francis. Moreover, we have
also a direct testunony, hitherto overlooked, in the
"Vita prima" of Clement V, in which it is reoOTded
that "some called them [the Spirituals! Sarabaitea
and exoommunicated, but by the people they are
oaUed Spirituals" (Balusiua "Vit. Pap. Aven.",
Paris, 1603, I, 19). From this it is clear that t^
name Spirituals is taken in its general sense, when
applied by the people to the above-mentioned grotqis
of Friars Minor.

The origin of the Spirituals is not lees a subject
for controversy than their name. If we are to believe
Angelo Clareno's "Chronicle of the seven tribular
tions" the spiritual tendency in opposition to the
laraer observance of the community is as old as the
order itsdf. Before modon* historians began the
history of the Spirituals (1274), Angelo had already
told of four persecutions of friars, under Elias, even
in the v&ry lifetime of St. Francis himself, and that
of BL John of Parma imder Crescentius in the
lifetime of St. Bonaventure. It must be admitted
that the spiritual tendency existed shortly after the
dflstb of at. I^aofiia (1226^ Novwthfllew, it euM(

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be denied that Spiritualism iwieAred fir«t in those
places where the first zealous companions of Si.
Francis Gved, such as central Ittdy. There is no
doubt that Angelo Claroio, Ubertin of Caaaale, and
others who entered the order shortly after 1260
came in contact with some of those men or their
disciples, for in their writings these authors con-
stantly refer to the companions of St. Francis and
especially to the works of Brother Leo. To under-
stand and appreciate the movement of the Spirituals,
we have above all to consider the Order of Friars
Minor in its general aspect in the second half of
the thirteenth centuiy, and here we are for-ed to
admit a certain development, perhaps not clearly
foreseen by St. Francis when wiitmg the Rule of 1223.
WhUst the founder does not appear to have attached
very much importance to the scientific studies of his
order (see chap, x in the Rule of 1223), it was, however,
impossible for such a lai^ moral body as his order
to Keep aloof from the great speculative and scien-
tific movements of the tiiirteenth century. Moreover,
sovereign ^ntiffs had bestowed' on the Mendicants
many privileges to enable them to work with more
fruit for the benefit of souls and the service of the
Church. Tbm, convents of larger dimensions, which
in the time of St. Francis were mostly poor her-
mitages, were being built in the towns, and beside
them sprang up churches.

Attendance at the universities and life in towils
required certain modifications in the life of the friars,
perhaps somewhat different from what it may have
been m St. Francis's time. The doubts that aroas
amongst the friars about the observance of the rule
were generally settled by the soyereigti ,pontiffa
with a view of meeting new conditions, aud attlie
same time safeguarding the letter of the ride. Whilst
the greater part of the order followed without reluc-
tance this natiual and logical evolution, some more
aealous friars, to whom e^^ry development seemed a
departure from the first ideal of St. Francis, were
strongly opposed to it. A similiar movement had
taken place in the Order of St. Dominic, at the same
time and in the same region, i. e. that of the Roman
Province, which comprised, besides Rome itself, the
Marches, Umbria, and Tuscany. Here, towards the
end of the thirteenth and in the b^nnin^ of the
fourteentii centuries, a reform party had arisen who
aimed at a return to the iHimttivo aimpUeity. The
point was discussed in several genraal and provincial
dhapters, at last in the provincial chapter atTodi
(1310). Here (1) the innocence of the zealous friars
was asserted, and the discussion of contro^enial
points forbidden; (2) the name SpiritnaU, as a
name engendering discord, was not permitted. At
the general chapter of the Order of Preachers at
Florence (1321), the Master-Creneral Heroeus Nata-
bis confirmed the decrees of Todi, and the whole

?[ue8tion seems to have been dranitively settled
see bibliography).
Before eutermg on the history of the different
croups of the Franciscan Spirituals, we must
determine the points which are characteristic of all
of them: (1) Literal observance of the Rule and
Teetament of St. Francis. (2) An overrated apprecia-
tion of the same rule, and especially of the Francis-
can poverty. Basing their interpretation on the
words of their rule Jchap. I), "the rule and life of
the Minor brothers is this, namely^ to observe the
holy Gospel", they considered their .rule identical
with the Gospel, and as the pope, they reasoned
further, cannot dispense from the Gospel, so he can-
not dispense from, or even explain, tne rule in any
other than a literal sense. Consequently they re-
fused the authentic papal interpretations. (3) Joachim-
ism. It was the great error of the Spiritu^ to
otMnbine thdr argunients in favour of reform with
tibe idMS of JoacbimiBm. Holsapfel (B^mdbucii,

p. 41) goes so far as to say that their poverty waf
only to cover Joachimism, which was the true aim of
the Spirituals. Tbia is certainty eKagKenited, for
Joachimism existed in the order before the spiritual
movement was arawrait. PeriiapB it is more just to
presume that tne ideas of Joachimism, promising
a bett^ near future, were resorted to by theSptritua!^
more as a help and a consol&tion in their manifold
haidahipa and persecutions. It is certain at any rate
thatj in the great intellectual contest between the
&)intuals andthe community at Avignon (1310-12),
the object (rf the Spirituahst contention was not
JoachJmiam, but the real observance of poverty, and
of l^e rule in general. However Joachimism was
widely spread amongst the ZelanH, and was most
prejudicial to their cause. To their grievances with
regajd to the observance of the rule the community
replied by accusing them of heresy^, taking the proof
of their assertion from the writings of the gr6at
Spiritual. Olivi.

. According to the time and plabt'ei o^pa we have
to distinguish three distinct aoapt oi SpfrituAls:
(1) the oldest, those of the Marches of Ancona^ $boat
1274; (2) the Spirituals id Provenee, Ftance, under
Olivi fd. 1298); (3) the Tuscan poup, about 1300.

(1) The SpirUuaU of the Marc'ies ard thosw im to
whose fate we are best informed owing lo ihe Fad
that Ai^elo Clareno, author cf "iristoria Beptem
"nribulationum" and "Epistola excusatoria", be-
longed to them, and after the death of Petcn alkm
Libaratufl, of Macerata. 1307, became their leao^.,
(On their history see Fraticblli.) They w*tO iw*
communicated by John XXII by the Bull
Homana et imiversalis Eodesia", dated fiwo,
30 Dec., 1317; they oontinued to sidafL '
theFraticelli.

^) The Pmnrire oj Spirilmla were led by Pierre-
Jean OUvi. To tliLs Kroup is due the great pjrooesa
between the ScHxituab aoA the Co mm unity at thft
Papal Court at Avignon (1310-12). Then are
er^ versions as to what conatituted the exact cause.
Clareno (Archiv, II, 129) tells us that Arnold of VII-
lanueva, the n-iniirkable liiy thoolo^an, went in
Charles II of f?i<'i!y, ai;d inrriitrii kiuc to tiritr
to the miniflter-Ki-noral of tSm unk-r, GutidisjilviiB of
Valleboa, reqUL'^^tmc Liiii tis iksi^t from intcrrerencp
wili the Spirituul.1 of Pnix cric-L'. MejuiwhLle, Arnold
paw Clement V personally, and, .cq~ the .JPWP'
al's advice, Uh.' ptif^e Aummonod tlu»- heUB 'w die
Spirituals m Pr<^v™cf: Rajtnond Ganfredi, Gllido
of Mirepoix, B.irt|]ulo[Dew Sjcardi, and otherB, w
also UbCTtin of C!ji.-4:ilo From Italy, commanding them
to report upon nil r>l>-^'.:r'.':irn.vs were not in ac-

cordance with til'' rill ' VTi irluT v^^rsiim \n given by
Raymond of Fi'":;--:i-'', i>i-'" ;;;-i'i'r-t:''ri(.r:i.l of the i>nliT
fArchiv, ni, lb), Uid by lioUAKc^tLa uf B<ugiUuo
(Archiv, lU, 36). Thev relate that the citizens of
Narboime (1300) appealed publicly in favour of the
Spirituals, and particularly the memory of Olivi.
The two versions can very well be combined as they
do not exclude each other, and are both in themselves
very probable. E^le (Archiv, II, 360) and Balthasar
(Annutstrdt, 264), however, are inclined to believe
that King Robert, who suooeeded to his father, Charles
II, in May, 1300, was the one to whom Arnold applied
for protection of the Spirituals. Be this as it may,
Clement V on 14 April, 1310, promulgated the Bull
"Dudum ad apostolatus" (Boll. Franc., V, 66) which
was very favourable to the SfHrituats convoked to the
Papal Court. They obtained full immunity for the
time of the process between them and the oommunit^,
and through the same Bull was instituted a commis-
sion of cardinals and theotogians to hear 4nd examine
both parties. It is unnenBessary to go into the details
of this discussion, which lasted three yean, and 'in
which bitter words were said on botii aides; it will
suffice to point out the remit.

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The great aim of the Spirituals had been to obtain
authorized separation from the order; for, said Uber^
tin (Archiv, III, 87), "there wiU never be peace in the
Order until leave is given to those who want it, to
obserra the Rule literally". The Commiuiity on the
contrary was opposed to that plan, and oontmued to
discredit their opponents by insiBttng on the real or
pretended errors in the doctrine of Olivi. In 1312 two
papal decretals put a term to the mama diteeptatio:
''Fidei oatholicse fundamento" (Bull. Franc., V) and
"Exivi de Paradiso" (Bull. Franc. V, I) condenming
some errors of Olivi. The second enjoined stricter
oWrvanoB of the rule. Clement V exhorted the
Frenofa SpiritualB, wh<> dicing the piDcesH had with-
drawn from the oommimity, ia return to their con-
venla, and even Went no far a» tn rJppoee some supe*
rifira. rt-h-j hail trealed thsm unfairly (Archiv, 11, 140:
lil). The Spiritual?) wi-nl lo ihe convents of
Bpzicru, NrirliiMifiE', ;iri(t (\i.r' ^l^^-'>lme. But when
Clement ^n i (Jk' niiii.i.'si.'.'r ^cn. ml , Alexand^ of
Alexan-lria, h;Lililiiil f 13H), tbe tui ijjit harsh superiors
were rcstor-.!'! [1313). The Spirjlu:Js now took a
.desperftte sttip, in poaa^sunA tnerrtflelves by force of
the conTents of B>rzierB and Narbonne, frcHD whidi
they cjecteil Ilip RrJaxufi. ThcTCMpfm they were ex-
communicfit^fi by WLlliiiiii nf A^l.n^, custM of Nar-
boonc (Archiv, I, 544; TI, UOj. Tlie Spirituals ap-
pealed to the Gfinenil ('lKk]i|(-r of Naples in 1316
(Aichiv, II, 159], Ji'lin ^Xll who was less favour-
able lo the ZcLinli ihim his prcdecesanr, cited them to
Ilia court (Bull. Franc, V. 118; 130] in 1317 and had
Qumi BwbsHd beforB « commi&tion, with the result
thi^ teadera' HMm irnpri^ncd, and the others
detained in rrrnvrnt?'. The BuB "Quorumdam
flxigit",i:^l7(Biill. Fr^iPir , V, I28)»wflsintendedtoput
aiipnH lo Tlit'qiji^si iiri AfftT smiipi^xplanatioDSof the
riil> 1 \v ]>ti]ic iviijiiiiifil 1 fk ni uiihIi j- !>h<'dience and pain
of i^wijiiiinuniiMtioii jj;lv<- p:irticularities and

to aubntit t.i ordrrs of i.lic nniii^ber general, and
concluded by sayiug ''erKil ia povertyj but greater ia
obedience". Twenty-Bve of tne detained Spirituals
utterly refused to accept the BiiH and wpre therefore
puibefort thp incjuifsifor-. :\}\n Mji-i^iT-lfiJ in ronvcrting
tiWaty-Ofxe of them, mI:;!-! il; ' i-i^T »itlirr-;. ri'fusing
toc^beyukd torecogitki- tlif jirLui^ipli' of pji.fjiil luithcii^
on the Franciscan Kuk', wtre haiidcJ uvcr to the
cifil power, 7 May, 1318, Jiml bumBi aa licrffirri m
Marseillefi (see sentence of the intjuisitm MicImeE
Mo^achi in "Miaoellaiiea" ofBaluziua-Manfli, Lui^ca,

^'^^^^K^irihiaU of Tuscany, Appear in 1309 (spc
FKATrrFir.i.iV .\fH'r (h^^ir ni^ht to SjclIv, J'thn XXH
dirfc;.,-.E rlirju, ".M ,I;iti., 1318, _th£? Hiiir'Gluri-

osjarii [v-i:l''-^iiitii" iliiill. IVjinc, Vh !.i7) hy ivlilrh they
wcri' t'it(:oriiitmrii'':iTCil. Tliv mo\'emt?nt of thr Spirit-
uals failL-d obtain lla uiiii; it even led through the
.nrpTS of its leaders, to schiam aad horeay. HowevcVi
UlrijEaal {or stricter obsarvonRe of the rule oombbfqa
' ii^a fi^ qiAisjsraon to au^uHity shorty after reviv^
^^li^llmt C^aerfftat oooveatB and w tbe order to
S^.lge^apwity.

feinili, ffuUnrium rriinriionnum. V (Rotii!.', 18ftS^; Ebri^'b
fandHin^ n'nl urirkji \a AfthirfOr LMeralar uml KitfKrm/r.ifhxi-lilf,
iMV (Iw-rlin nr..l FrciJiUTR, 18S5-B8J: Ris* »K NA%-[K,n,,
SUtoi" liff fi-S'iT<lui!t (PariH, IS09fr nALTHdmit, fp>-;fnVfif. .j>i
A,rmultttrr\lf» ia\ f rti'ijittanrrwcien ('i' mm K'-<<:ii I'n-'inf
(Manit«r, 1911) 7 Hmi.ii'i'itu /lurcdbiith <lri < ,frrf.i<-fiii .i'j
Pronriflfron^nWcn* (Freibure. UMl'.li . ^d-fHl; I.ikt.. , .1 U'reii.^irttj ,
1,")— rUitL. E 'i'riiinrnli.t lu! ii iTdiri.ifn Spirilwiliii'l :»iprr prr
cl' mw' f'l-of. {ft'i. ri'J*'' ■■lii'fin in Ar^hu-tim Ftai>n.'rJHi^rA

wv^an^ff'tr tJ"i. r ju'tp, nn Br^iraii iut Geachichii ii'itatrr Hrf-nrmi-
ilrr-i iiK Hi''-.'!;'-.-- 1.8t(jUj[iirt and Berlin. lOMl, T'.'i:i.'j, Stu^tii
F»,inft« irii i Nnnlpii, 1909) ; Mr««T, Wm the Spiritwil Fratuii-
(OM Ua-n!amsi Her^itat (QMeaco, lOOS), i^nBlpd faoin itw
Annul o/ tAa^'W. XII riW»>, n. 3-4: O^aAvua, mMplHllm^i
Prnncrv i n ntilr .WariA* (;yfMrLii. 10O5>.

r^ri til" IJominifBTi SpiHtiLula SS« MaSETTI, M'!Vnu>ti?nfo rt

mmii OHiwU fVoAMMVM, IT (Bdow, 1800), 137 «|.: ^aoM,

.ArcMi, ato., lU. en. "

LlTABIUS GlIQER.

Bpokan Indians, an important tribe of Saliahan
linguistic stock, closely cognate with the Colville,
Coeur d'A^e, Kalispel, and Flathead, and formerly
holding the country upon Spokane Biva in Eastern
Washington and the adjacent portion of Idaho. They
were Sret noted, under the name of Lartielo, by the
American explorers, Lewis and Clarke, in 1805. At
a later period th^ came into communication with
the traders of the Hudson Bay Company and Amer-
ican Fur Company. In 1839 a Presbyterian mission
was established among the Lower Spokan at Che-
makane, Waahingtoa, and continued until 1849, whoi
it was abandoned in oonsequenee of the massage of
Rev. Marcus Whitman and his companions of the
Presbyterian mission of Waiilatpu among the Cayuse.
TTie Spokan chief, Garry, however,' gave protection
to those at Chemakane until the danger was past. A
Spokan primer, published by the missionaries in
charge in 1842, was one of the earliest books printed
on the Pacific coast.

The Upper Spokan came under the influence of the
Jesuit Fatners De Smet, Point, and their successors,
about 1341, with the result that that portion oif the
tribe is CathoUc. Throughout the Yakimfl war ctf
1856-8 the Spokan remained quiet, chiefly throu^
the effort of the Catholic missionaries. In 1872 those
of Washinjfton, constituting the lai^er body, were
gathered with other cognate tribes upon the Colville
reservation. North-eastern Washington, where they
now reside. Those in Idaho are associated with the
Coeur d'A16ne and are aU Catholic. At Colville the
Lower band is Protestant, while the Upper band,
somewhat smaller in numbers, is Catholic. I^Vom
perhaps 1200 souls a century ago they have declined
(1911) to 600, of whom 96 are on the Coeur d'Alfine
reservation. The rdigious centre for those of CalviUe
is the mission of St. Francis RegiSj^t Ward, Washing-
ton, under Jesuit manaymait. The centre for Cceur
d'Aldne is the Jesuit mission of the Sacred Heart, at
De Smet, Idaho. In language, primitive custom, and
ciharacteristica the Spokan are virtually identical
with the Coeur d'Aldne and Kalispel Indians.

Bakckoft, HiM. of Oreaort (S&n Fnncisoo, 1836-88) : Ideu, HiiL
WiuhinoliM, Idaho and Montana (San Fnaciaoo, 1890) ; Ds Suar,
JfHMoiw (N«w Vori^^l847) ; Bvr. Cath. Ind. Mi— ion*:
Atmwil HtpoTia or Direttor (WaebinstoD) ; Commiantmtr of Ind,
Affair*: Annual iteporU, Mpeoially SivTENa (Waahiogton, ISM)
tad WiNANB (WuhlnctOD. 1870) ; Moonr. WuU Dance AoEMM
iB FwtMiak Ann, lUpL B«r. Amtr. SUutOon, pt II CWtMof
ton, 1889).

James Moonbt.

Spoleto, Archdiocbsb or (Spouitaha), in the
Province of Umbria, Italy. The city is situated on a
spur of Monteluco, which belongs to the Sybilline
Mountains. In the neighbourhood are mai1)le quai^
lies and coal mines; mineral earths are also found, and
in the forests of Monteluco, truffles. The situation of
the city U|>on a steep rock, protected by the mountain,
has made it in all times an important fortress. The
cathedral is an interesting Lombard buildins, begun in
617 by Duke Theudelapius; the campanile belongs to
the t^th century, and the facade of 1207 is adorned
with a large mosaic by Solsernus; the ornaments of
the portal are by Gr^cuious Meloriantiua (twelfth
century). The interior, restored in 1640 by Bernini,
contains frescoes b;y Pinturicchio and' by Fra Filippo
Lippi, who is buried here. Without the city, De-

Smd the Porta dclla Torre (6047), is the anciait
hurch of San Pietro (fifth century), with inter-
esting sculptures of the twelfth century. Not far
away, on the crest of the mountain is the Church of
San Giuliano, where the monastery of San Isacoo
(sixth century) arose. Other chunmes are: II Cro-
cifisso, built on the site and from the materia cX an
andmt temple; San Anaano, beneath wfaidi the

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feimdatioDB anotim temple may be visited: San
Fietro Martire, with frescoee by Spagna: San Filippo,
with four columns of gAen porphyry taken from the
temple of Clitumnus. Among the civic edificee are:
Palazzo Comunale, with a collection of paintings; the
castle of Cardinal Albomos; and near the cathedral
Palazzo Aironi, which is believed to have been the
palace of the dukes of Spoleto. The relics of an-
tiquity include: Porta deUa Fuga; the ruins ctf an
amphitheatre, and of the Ponte Saiwuinario (the
bloody bridfi^); the arch oi Dnisus atuTGennaiuouB.

Spoletium, a city of the Umbrians, received a Ro-
man coloior 241 B. c. In 217 Hannibal, after his
victory at Lake Trasimenus, was repulsed from the
walls of Spoleto. Here, in the CivU Wars, Pompey
and Craasufl (82 b. c.) conquered the troops of Marius,
who, however, found refuge in the city^and were thus
the cause of its punishment. Here JSmilianus was
procLimed emperor (249), and killed three months
Utet. In the Gothic war (537) the city surrendered
to the Byzantine general, Constantine; but in 546 it
was recovered by Totila, and it was not retaken by
the Bysantines until 552, when Narses restored the
fortifications. In 572 Spoleto became the seat of a
Lombard duke, Faroald. He was succeeded by Ari-
ulf, who made frequent expeditions against the Byzan-
tine dominions
(579-92 a^hist
Ravenna; 592
against Rome).
Ariulf was suc-
oeeded by Theu-
delapius, son of
Faroald, then
came Atto (653),
Transemund I
(663), Faroald II
(703), who ruled
conjointly with
his brother Wa-
chilap. Faroald II
had already ciu>-
tured Classe (the
port of Ravenna),
when he was
obliged by Luit-
prand to restore
it. He was de-
posed by his eon
Transemund 11
(724), who also rebelled against King Luitprand
and formed an alliance with Gr^ory III, with
whCm be found refuge in 738. Ildenc, who had
rnilaoed him as duke, was slain b^ Transemund in
7w^ but in 742 Che latter was obliged to become a
eleno by King Luitprand, and the duchy was con-
ferred upon Agiprand (742), who was succeeded by
Theodicme. Under Hildebrand the Dut^ of Spo-
leto was promised to the Holy See by the King of the
Franks, and the duke himself was named by Pope
Adrian (773), but the succeeding dukes were named
by the Prankish emperors. Wini^sus aided Pope
Leo in against his enemies. Among the dukes oi
this epoch are the following: Sioco, who was expelled
because of his hostility to the Franks, but was re-
ceived and made duke at Beneventum; Guide I, who
divided the duchy between his two sons Lambert and
Guide II, the latter receiving the Duchy of Camerino.
Lambert distin^ished himself in the wars against the
Saracens, but disgraced himself by massacres at Rome
in 867; be was afterwards deposed (871), then Kstored
^76), but was a second time excommunicated by
Pope John Vm. In 883 Guido II united under bus
■way the entire dukedom, which from this time was
called the Duchy of Spoleto and (Camerino. After the
death of Oiaries III the Bald (888), Guido had bim-
■df crowned Roman Emperor and King of Italy under

Tna Abcb or Dmvm and Gi
UAjncvB, Spouto

Pope Stephen V (891); Pope Foimoew in 803
also crowned his son Lambert II, who succeeded Ui
father in the dukedom, kingdom, and empire.

Alberico I, Duke of Camerino (897), and afterward^
of Spoleto; married the notorious Maroiia; he was
kOled by the Romans in 024. His son Alberico II made
himself also master of Rome and remained there until
the dectioQ to the papacy of his son John XII. At
this time the Emperor Otto I detached from the Duchy,
of Spoleto the so-called Sabina L^gobardica, which
was oestowed upon the Holy See. In 967 Otto II
united tiie duchy with that m Cu>ua and Benevento, .
which was then niled by Fandolfo Testa di Fmo; *
but after the death of the latter he detached Spoleto,
which wfi^ in 9S9 gr.-\rtpr( to fftjcn. DiiEcp of Tua- .
cany. Tlir >liif-}iy \V!t9 luuicA luth ■I'li^itMny a >>)cond
time in iK^~>t, ivhi'ii GnLi/R v ol I-oir-iint- I'sfMHised
Beatiice, tlic wMoi^" Iluiiif:ir.'. linkf of hpoleto,
and it rein^iintHi ^ until the d(-ath of the-. Cuiintees
Matilda. During tlis <;p[iflioti betnro^iii ^ BNKwy
and the Emperor Henry IV, the latto- liSBua <other
dukes of Fnoleto. After thki< thi' dukixiorn was in the
family of me Weraers (OiiiirniTif o( iTsIiiigen™ Mar-
gravesof Anf:nn.a. In I'n iIi-riL'k Biuburotwia de-
stroyed tin I lly M-p li:iv-iiiK iii^mIi' a ;pri^cm!M' ol Ins am-
bassador lu AimlL'i. In 1 liiS the ciiiprj'ur grive the
duchytotiiiclf \1 01 Ksli : HtTiry \ I ii.vi3;t<id Conrad
of Urslingen with it, upon whose death in 1198 it was
ceded to Pope Innocent III, the cessitm being oon-
firmed by Otto of Brunswick. The latter,, hovever,
in I2(t9 occupied the duchy for himself, makiiig Di-

^Id von Vonbujg duke. In like manner fVeaeridc
in his different treaties with the Holy See acknowl-
edged its sovereignty over the duchy, but when at war
with the papacy he occupied it for the empire, and
was alwava joyfully received by the popnlace (1240).
His son, Moored, on the other hand, did not evjcceed .
in winning the people. The popes maintained at
Spoleto a governor, who was often a cardinal. As
early as the thirteenth century, and more frequentlv
in the fourteenth, Spoleto was mvolved iu wars with
Perugia, Temi, and other cities; in 1324 it was almost
destroyed by the Perugians. In 1319 the struggle be?
tweratheGuelphsaod Ghibellines tore the city. Car-
dinal Albamos -favoured the city for the services
which it rendered in the restoration of the . papal
power, and made it independent of Perug^. At the
beginning of the Great Schism, Pietro di Prato sue- '
ceeded in occupying Spoleto for the anti-pope Clem-
ent VII, but was enj^ed by Boniface DC. Ladis-
laus II, King of Napha, in 1414 endeavoured in v^
to make himself master of the city. Pope Eugeniua
IV named as governor the Abbot of Monte Cassino,
Fi&co Tomacem, who was tyrannical to such aa extrat
that the people besieged him in his castle, and in 1438
summoned the bands of Piccinino to free them. In
1480 Cardinal Vitelleschi ended the tyranny of IHoo
and of the Trinci of Foligno. The former perished in
the Castle of Sant' Angelo. During the fifteenth cen-
tury the city was often at war and_ in rebellion against
the pap^ power. In the campaign of 1860 in Um-
bria, Spoleto was hmucally defended by Colonel
O'&iUy™

Spoleto venerates as ite apostle St. Brictiin, who ia
also venerated in other cities of TJmbria and Tuaeany.
It is difficult to discuss the epoch in which he Uved be-
cause the legend of his life is so full of anachronisms.
The names of other martyrs are also recorded at
Spoleto, like St. Gr^ory the Priest; indeed, the name
Ponte Simguinario is said to record a great massacre
of Christians. Another martyred bishop was St. Sa-
tumius (270), and during the persecution of Diocletian
the mart^dom of St. Savinus, Bishop of Assisi, took
place at ^wleto. The first biriiop of certain date is
Cfecilianus, to whom Pope Liberios wrote a letter in
354. There is record of Bish<» AcbilleB, who duriiy
the conflict betweoi Va^ ^t. BoniCace.uK^ the antic . ,

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SPOLtTO

234

8P0LKTO

dope Eulahua was a viator of the Church of Rome
(418); Bishop Spea (fifth coitunr), who collected the
relics of the martyrs and erected many churches; St.
AmasiuB (d. 489);St. Johannes, killed bv Totila (546).
At the time of Bishop Petrus (573) Spoleto was under
Ariaa rule. It is related that an Arian bishop in
^Ktleto wished to enter the Church of San Pietro,
then the cathedral, by force, but waa stricken with
bliodnees. To Bishop Chrvsanthus (591) St. Qreg-
ory the Great wrote fotu letters, in one of which he
acunMiiBhed him ftot to disoipUne fugitive monks so
tiditly . Other bisht^ were : Adeodatus (about 777) ;
Siguald (827), formerly Abbot of Echternach; Adal-
(1015), who built the new cathedral and the
episcopal residence within the city. After he had de-
Btooyed the city, Barbarossa presented to the cathe-
dral the so-called Madonna of St. Luke, a Byzantine
work with inscriptions of a dialc^e between Mary
and Jesus. Bishop Nicold Portiu who became
biahop in 1228, was transferred m 1236 to the Patri-
archate of Cfflistantinople. Bartolommeo de Bardi,
O.Min. (1320), rendered excellent services as Gov-
ernor of Term. In 1417, on the de&th of Bishop Ja-
copo, who was a partisan of Pope John XXIII, the
clergy wirfied to proceed to the election of a new
pastor but the people prevented them, proclaimi^ as
bishop Nicolft Vivari, the nominee of Gregory Xll.
Again in 1433 the cletgy wished to revive their right
(H deotfaig a bishop, but the intervcsition (tf Eugonius
IV prevented them. Other bishops were: Berardo
Eruoi (1448), afterwards cardinal, who played ain
importiuat part in the government of the church;
Alesstuidro Famese (1555); Alfonso Visconti (1601),
fotmder of the seminary, which was enlat^ed by his
suocessor Maffeo Barberini (1603), aftenrords Pope
Urban.VIII, who ordered the restoration of the cathe-
dral After the death of Cardinal Locatelli (1812),
Napoleon nominated Bishcm Antonio de Longo,
whom Uie canons were unwilling to obev, and were
tiierefore nearly all exOed. In 1820 Spoleto became
a metropolitan see and the ancient Diocese of Norcia
was taken from its territory. Of the archbishops we
should record: Mastai Ferretti (1827-32), afterwards
Pius IX, whose episcopal rule was noteworthy for the
manner in which (1337) he persuaded four thousand
rebels to lay down their arms.

To the Diocese of Sptdeto has been united that (A
Bevagna (Mtenania), an ancient city, which venerates
as first bishop St. Vincent the Martvr; the first bishop
of certain date is Innocentius (487). In the time of
St. Gregory the Great it was very difficult to provide a
bishop for this see, but in 649 and in 844 bishops are
again recorded. Bevagna (Msvania, where, in ancient
days the white bulls destined for the sacrificial altars
were pastured) is situated twenty-two miles south-east
of Perugia, at the oonfluence of the Qitunno and Tu-
pino, and contains 6000 inhabitants. The ancient
cathedral was dedicated to St. Michael. The body
of Blessed James Bianconi is preserved at Bevagna.
Blessed James was bom there in 1220. At sixteen
he was received into the Dominican order at Spoleto.
Aibex his ordination, he devoted his energies espe-
cially to the work of extirpating the heresy of the
Nicolaites from Umbria, ana finally succeeded in con-
verting its chi^ propagator, Ortinellua. Mtex a life
of extraordinary austoit^ James died oni 15 August,
1301. In later times his remains were exposed on
three occasions and were found to be incorrupt-
Numerous miracles were attributed to his intercession
and even to-dav they are of not rare occurrence.
Pope Boniface iX has granted indulgences to aU those
who visit his relics during the first three days of May;
Pope Clement X extended the celebration of his feast
(23 Ai»ust> to the whole Dominican Order (cf.
Jacobilh, "Vita del beato Giacomo da Bevfuma",
FoUpio, 1644; Piem, " Vita del beato Giacbmo Bian-
ooni da Bevagna", Rome, 1729). Another Blessed

James, a Franciscan martyr, who died on 2 Septem-
ber, 1377, is honoured at Bevama (see "Acta SS.",
I Sept., 595-6; "Ann^ domiS^e", VIII, 1808,
pp. 770-94).

Another ancient diocese united with Spoleto is
Trevi. The town of Trevi (in ancient days Trebia),
about four leagues from Spoleto, is situated on the
right bank of the River Clitunno,.on a ru^ed slope at
the extremity of Monte Petino. It is in Umbria and
80 is to be distinguished from the Latin town Trebia.
It was founded probably as early as the fifth century
B. c. Pliny speaks of it as flobridiing and caHs its
inhabitants Trebiates Umbrife populi". There
is evidence to show that the Faith was preached there
before the end of the second century. In a. d. 296
Pope Marcellinus consecrated, as first Bish(^ of Trevi,

Thx Cathbdkal, Broun

Becun, 617i ownpwnle, X C«ntary

£milianus, an Armuiian, who, with his compaiuonv
Hilarian, a monk, and Hermippus and Deni^ waa
martyred on 28 January, 302, under Diocletian. The
body oi ^hnilianus was brmicht to ^loleto and in-
terred there. During: the troubles caused by the bar-
barbarian and internal wars the relics were concealed,
but in 1660 they were discovered in the cathedral.
Up to the year 1050 nine other bishops of Treviare
known from the lists of prelates present at synods in
Rome; they include: Ck)iistantine, in487j Laureutius,
in 499; Propinquus, in 601; Grisua or Pnscus, in 743;
Valerimus, in 769 ;• Paulus m 826; and Crescentius, in
853. About the middle of the ei^ih oentiuy Invi
oame under the temporal dominion of the Church.
In 840 and 381 the city suffered from the Saracen
inroads, and in 915 and 924 from an Hungarian in-
vasion. The Trevans sided with the Guelph party
in their struggles with the Ghibellines. Among the
natives of l^vi the following may be mentioned:
Saints Vincent, Bishop of Bevagna, and Benignus,.
deacon, martyrs; St. Conatantinus, Bishop and patron
of Perugia (feast 29 January) ; Blessed Thomas o£
Naples, hermit of the. Institute of Celestine V; Bene-
detto Valenbl, the learned juriaoonsult; and Vinplioi
Lucatini, canon of St. Geoi^'s Velabra>who founided

Digitized by VjOOglC

236

BPONmR

the allege of Trevi, which was ope&ed in 1674.
Giotta da Venrignano painted a beautifal fnaoo in
tlw Cbunb of the Holy CnMB. In tiie Chardi erf
SiD Martino was a very valuable painting, repre-
HBtiDg "The Coronation of the Blemed Virgin in
Heavoi ", attributed by some to Giovanni Spogna, but
more likely a work of Pietro Vannucd (Perugmo);
it ii now in the Pinaooteca Vannuoci, Perugia.

In the vallej below the town ia the celebrated
diurdi and shnne of Santa Maria delle Lagrune (Our
Udy of the Tears). The story of the miraoulouB
image is briefly this: IHotiUleviod' Antonio jHrho lived
near the road leading from Spoleto to Trevi, had
painted an image of the Madonna and Child on the
outside wall of his house. One day tears were noticed
falling from the eyes of the Madonna. The report -of
this extraoidinaiT phenomenon, which continued for
Bome time, spread, far and wide. Official records of the
occurrence were made by the municipal autlKHitie&
Many oaeee and favonra were obtained Aiouf^
prayer before the picture. A small chapel was
erected in Ai^;ust, 1485, and Mass was daily off^ed
dierein. On 26 July, 1846, Santa Maria delle La«rinie
was chosen patroness of the town. On 27 March,
1487, the large basilica was begun, which on its com-
pletion, 8 March, 1489, was confided to the OUvetans.
A GontemporaiT account of the miraculous oriinn of
the shrine by Fatiier Fraoeesoo Mugnoni, an Ohve-
tan, iriio resided within a riunt dntanoe of d'An>
tauo's house, iB preserved. The basiUea contains
Perudno's "The Adoration of the Magi", and Gio-
wuu ^wgna's "DqxMition fitHO Cross". The
Arme has been enriched with many beautiful
ofr^ings in commemoration of the numerous boiefits
ooofeiml utxm the people of the neigbbouriiood and
Tisiting pilgrims through the intercession of Our
Lady « Tears. Notable amoi^ these is a rc^H-escnta-
tim, in rilvcr relief, of the city oi Fnni givm by its
Bihawtants and netghbooring towns in remembranee
of thdr deliverance trom the plague.

The archbishop. Mgr. Domemco Serafini, a Ben»*
dietiDe of the Congr^tion of Monte Cassino, was
bom at Rome on 3 August, 1852 ; professed at Subiaco
aa 16 June, 1874; ordained priest on 21 Octc^r,
1877; appointed procurator-iseneral of the congr^^
tioD fire years later; in June, 1892, he was elected
abbot-general; <m 19 April, 1900, he was named arch-
bidiop and on 6 May, 1900, consecrated, in succession
to Mgr. Mariano Ekeviro Pagliari (bom at Camerino,
in the Marehea, on 1 1 Septeinber, 1834, and named to
the see on 28 February, 1879). Bpoleto has no suf-
fragan see; it has 172 parishes, with 170 secular and 60
regular tiergy, 92,000 souls, 14 monasteries for men,
UM 11 convents for women, 3 coU^es for boys, and
2 for nrls. ItB seminary serves for southern Umbria.
A C^UioHe weekly and a religious periodical are pub-
liibed here.

CAPPnucn, Le Ckis— ^ lUUia, IV (VmiIm. 1857) : CAHnuo,
IklUHiMeru£8poUla<8p6Ula,ie72)', Buouim. AMrattodoU'
vttim I med«mattatodiSW)Uto{Fo]imo, 1731); B±^sm, Degli edi'
Mi*M^mmmti»lorieimSpoliiU>! Fatteschi, Memarit i*t4>na>-
i^miiidurig^ardamHIattrisMdiiekitee.di SpolM (Bpoloto,
UOl); AmBU-RoTA, SpaUto • dimtomi (Spolsto. IMS) ; Jknmt,
MadU df tanaohanBtdun Bmoghmu SpoUtc (B&le, 1800) ;
MuuMtt, Aleum doeumeM per la tloria dtlU eitta di Temi it
Mto tntritH ed amnelaH in Af«M» Mer. ibU.. XXII (I87S).
)n-41S: aunt, BMa dm eommwu di Spetia dcU ttcolo XII,
tJZP/Jia Atnd. tpcUi. (1879); Piu CASOca, Delia tvxa •
Mb mntudi SpMo (Csroerioo, 1886) ; PiuupoLnn, La rocea di

^I. ZaS; Uank, CoiudUa^ XXIII. 844; Uonixi, lUUia Mcro, X.
Ui'I^DL ibmttoKadcMemiwfnarabilt dt Trtvi (Milui, 1&471:
aUQtu,/riorta(tdla Vmginediae Lanrimt di TVm (Milan. 1721):
Aimn, Hotiaie onHeht • modtrne riagittrdaM Bnaona dtti dear
(Wrii,mceatt*«i»ora«pm^; Oioaoarn, Arm iaiorioo oompendia
wT imiriM mimeelam di Maria dtUa ddU haerimt, MMnito aOa
mTVZlfUlt DWrfa (Tea. 1782). u. Bboohi.

hMOdaatu (db Spondb}, Hbnbi, a convert from
Cdvinttiii, Bidrap of I^miers, and one of the con-
tnaators of Banmius, b. at Maidfon, in the French
O^irtiiMiit of BasMS-Pyr^n^, 6 Januaiy; 1568; d.

at Toulouse, 16 May, 1643. After studjring human*
itiee at the Cahriniat cwege of Orthes, he aoofmpanied
tiie royal ambaasadw to Scotland and, upon hia letuni,
tO(dc up the study of jurinmidenoe. ik 1689 he waa
jurist at the Parliament « Tovrs. Convinced of the
truth of the
Catholic religion
by }k» writings of
Eiellannine and
the instructions
of Duperron^ he
became a Catlio-
lie,21Sept., 1596.
In 1600 he ac-
companied Cardi-
nal de Soordis to
Rome, where he
wag ordained
priest on 7 March,
1606; Ptqie Peni
V then appointed
him reviser of the
briefs of the
PcBuitentiaria.
In 1625 be was
created Bishop of
Pamiers, in which
o^uwity he laboured with great seal for the
preservation (rf Catholieism and oonverted numeroua
Fmteetants. Owing to ill-health he reagned his
diocese in 1639 wd retired to Toulouse. Hu writinga
are: "Lee cimeti^ree saerSs" (Bordeaux, 1596);
"Annales ecolesiastici Cfesaris Baronii in Epitomen
redact!" (Paris, 1612); "Annales sacri a mundi
creabione ad ejusdem redemptionem" (Paris, 1637),
an epitome of the "Annals" of Tomielle; "Annalium
Baronii oont^nuatio ab a. 1197 quo is desinit ad a.
1622" (Paris, 1639).

Fbhok, Vita Spendani ia Utor «ditioiM at tlw lut-uiMd vork;
^g^Die CMiMrfilM mU der R^drmatiom, III (FMburc I860),

* Michael Ott.

Sponior. See Baftisie; Cohiirhatioh.

Spontiiii, Qaspabo Lmoi PAcmco, composer, b.
at Magolati, near Jed, Ancona, 14 Nov., 1774; d.
there, 14 Jan., 1851. He was intMided for the Churoh,
but decided on a
musical career. In
1791 he entered
the Conaervatorio
de' Turchini at
Naples, where he
had Sala, Tritto,
andTarantiiio as
mastm, and soon
diEplagwd his skill
in composition.
Between the years
1796 and 1799 he
had written mx
operaa, which were
duly produced m
Some and FW-
enoe, and in 1800
■ucoeeded Cima-
rosa as Court
composer at
Palermo. In 1803
he settled in Paris, and for a time did not make
any marked impression, but in 1804 his "Milton"
(one4Ust opera) attracted considerable attention,
and -his triumph was assured by the production of
"LaVestale" (15 Dec, 1807) and" Fernando Cortez"
(28 November, 1809). He was appointed conductor
of ItaUan Opera at tiie Oddtm in 1810, and brought
fonrard maiqr notable worics by variouBjCQmpoeerB.,

QASFAao Lthoi PAcmoo Sroimin
hum s fTuirtTOHMFi Miy portnit

Digitized by

oogle

236

W» "Olympic" {lb Dec., 1810) he ngaided aa hfa
beat opex%f yet it waa not a Buoceea at firat. At
length after conmderable revision he again presented
it on 28 Feb.. 1826, when his judgment was finally
endorsed by the public.

Removing in 1820 to Berlin, where he was ap-
pointed chief KapeUmeiater at a salary of 4000 Ulcers
annualW and a yearly benefit concert, he composed
munc rar Moore's "Lalla Rookh", produoed at the
Roval Palace on 27 Jan., 1821. His "Agnee von
Hohenstaufen" got its first hearing on 12 June, 1829.
In 1829 he received the honorary doctorate of Halle
University, and in 1834 he conducted a performance
of his "Vestale" at Hamburg. He visited his native
place in 1835. and journeyed to England in 1838,
returning to FariB, where he was made a member of
the Institute in ike same ^ear. A revised versiou
<rf lus "A^ee" was given in 1837, aSier which he
oeased writing operas. In 1842 he left Berim fw
good (bang succeeded b^ Meyerbera*), and w6nt to
Rome, where many distmctions awaited him. The
pope created him Count of St. Andrea in 1844, in
which year he returned to Paris. That year is mem-
orable for a visit to Dresden, on which occasion Rich-
ard Wagner ROt up bis "Vestale" conducted by the
composer. l<eeling his end approaching he retired
to Magolati in 1850. Although he loomed so lor^
in the first half of the last century, Spontini's muara
is now almost on the top shelves. He was not a very
love^le personality owing to his ^^tism, prifl^
and bad temper, but he was generous to neet^ musi-
cians and at nis death he bequeathed all hia property
for charitable purposes.

Obovk, Diet, of Mifie and Munoiant (newed., London, 190S);
Fbtu, Biographic UnirtTtdla ds* Muneien* (2nd ed.. Paris,
1880-46); Ledcbdb. B«rJtR«r Tonkaiutier-Lexiem (BerBb, 1861);
!«, Aory ef Optra (London, ISOB).

W. H. Qbattan-Flgod.

Sporer, Patritius, moral tbeoloraan, b. at Pas-
sau, Bavaxia: d. there, 29 May, 1683. In 1637 he
entered the Order of FriEO^ Minor in the eonvent of
his native town, which then belonged to ^e religious
Province d Straabu^. He taught tbeok»y iot
many years, obtuned the title of Lector jv»ilaiu»,
and was also the theologian ot the Bishop of Passau.
ftwrw is the author of several worics: (1) "Amor
Dd super omnia" (WOnbuiv, 1662); (2) "Actioniun
hiiii);in:irLiin immediata r^ula Conscientia morahter
explicut^ atc[U(^ ad disputationem publicam expo^
ita" (Wilrzburs, 1060); (3) "Theologia moralis,
decatogolia et sacramentalis'' (3 loUo vols., 1681;
la-editod, Sabburg, 1692; Venice, 1724, 1726, 17&6,
1766). Bomc editions have addiitional notes by K.
Kazenbereer aiid Cb Mayr, two well-known Fnmci*-
can nianuiet^. 'I'hi- latest edition with up-to-date
supph'^menta is h\ Iremeua Bierbaum, O. F. M.
(3 vols. Svo. Piwlerbom, 1897-1901; 2nd ed.. 1901-fi).

Bporer wan om of toe best moralists ot his time
and is much appreciated even to-day. St. Alphonsus
fjguoii often qtiotc-fi him and Lehmkul numben him
MMftugirt the clajigi4-al authors of moral theology.
Hr otber twtimaiues see Preface of Bierbaum's
edition. As to his moral lystem he follows Proba-
bilinn. In ouestions at issue between St. Thomas
Aquinas and Duns Scotus he defends and follows the
latter, as for instance in the question of indiffoent
human actions. Very often also Sporer lays under con-
tribution his own large experience as director of souls,
thus rendering his work all the more useful.

JoAifHM A 8. Amtohio, BibUothm uniwirtm PraTtetaeona, II

Eiid, 1732;, 426: Mwau, OfiA, dtr Framitktmer in Bai/em
iefa. 18M), 227; Hustbb, Mmcndofar, IV (3d «d., lona-
, 1910), »M.

LiVAMTja Oliokl

^>ortelli, C^AB, Venehable, b. at Nola in Ban,
It^y, 29 March, 1702; d. at Pagani, 19 April, 1750.
Hu mother, who died with UtR reqjiutatioa of a saint,

brmn^t Cteaar up witli all «are. He beeame ftcKatoi*

guished law^rcT, uniting the perfection of aChristian life
with the duties of his profession. He was thirty-three
when under the KuidanoeofFr.Falcoia of the"PiiO^
erarii " he joined St. Alphonsus, and was the first den-
cal novice of the saint s institute. He was (Htlained
priest by hia director, now become Bishop of Castdl^
mare. Sportelli was St. Ali^nsus's firat and most
faithful companion. When othwa abandoned l^tn,
Sportelli only dung more closely to him and Uce him*
self was determined, at any cost, to devote his life to
the evangelization of abandoned souls. In this he
succeeded admirably, nor was he less successful in his
work for oriests and rdigious. Sev^ witb himself,
he Was fiul of charity to othera. There was nothing
austere in his virtue: it drew all hearts to him. Hia
union with God was manifest, and although he preached
the great truths witb vehemenoe he repelled no mie.
He waa tlie saint's advisor and helped hun more thao
anyone else to extend the influence of his Institute.
In times of great difficulty he founded the house of
Mater Domini, C^xmele, and the house of Pagani in
which St. Alphonsus lived and died and whoe his
relics repose. He wore himself out working and on his
way to preach a retreat he was struck by apople^ in
a kHiely place. Bandits helped him to reach Pagani,
where after a tedious illness he died on the day he had
foretoAd. Three years and seven months after hia
interment it was decided to transfer his remains to a
place in a newly built cr^t. The coffin was opened
m the presence oi the Bishop of Nocera, Right Rev.
Gerard Volpe, the Abbot of Angri, D . Thomas Cortora,
and otha«. The vestments in which the servant of
God had been clothed turned to dust, while the body
was in perfect preservation, flexible and exhaling a
sweet fra^^ce. The countenance was beautiful and
when a vein was opened blood flowed just as if he were
living. St. Alphonsus wished to take steps at once for
his beatification, but was prevented from doing so by
many difficulties. It was not till 1899 that the cause
was mtroduoed and that ho was declared venerable.

Landi, Ifolitia dm P. SpprUUt: A RcDKMrrOKirr, Campmdi*
deUa vita dd Stna da Deo P. D. Cmot* Sportelli (Avelleno, 1895) ;
IntrodMCtia Cauta.

J. Maonhsr.

Springfield, Diocese or (Campifontis), in Massa-
chusetts, erected in June, 1870. It comprises five
counties of Central and Weetem Massachusetts: Wor-
cester, Hampden, Hampshire, Franklin, and Berk-
shire. Its area js 4320 square miles, a little over half
that of the entire state. According to the census of
1910 the population of the twitory within ibe limita
of the diocese was 843,212. Of tins number 323,122
are Catholics.

Early Hiitory. — Some oi the early Puritans (rf
Central and Western Massachusetts became Catholics .
in a remarkable manner: children taken captive by
French and Indiana at Deerfield and Westboro were
carried to CanMa and there educated in the Catholio
Faith. They married in Canada, and the descend-
ants of some of them attained eminence. Joseph-
Octave Plessts, who in 1806 became Archbishop
Quebec and in a tiying time ruled the Canadian
Church with firmness and prudence, was a grandson
of Martha French, who a little ov^ a century before
had been earned away from the home of her father,
Deacon French of Deerfield. Some Acadians were
quartered at Worcester in 1755, but the last-of them
returned to Canada in 1767. At the time of the Rev-
olutionary War many Irishmen lived in Central and
Western Massachusetts. Some of them must have
been Catholics, but there is no evidence that they con-
tributed in any way to the upbuilding of the future
Church of Springneld. The ^lundations of this
Church were laidBy Irish immJgraDts, who in 1826
and later came to Worcester, to Chicopee (then a part
of Springfidd), and to Pittraeld, to dig canals, to lay

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rftflroads, and to build and operate Autoriee. The
faith of these UDiiiiRrftDta wm nonridied by i^Nwtolio
men, of whom Uw Tomnost was Rev. James Fitton.
He waa ham in Boeton in 18(NS and ordained prieet by
BidMq> Fefiwicfc (1827). After a Aort stav among
the Indians at Eastport, Maine, he was made pastor
at Hartford. His missionarr aeal earned hira into all
parts of New En^and. In Massaohiuetts his labours
extended from "Boston on the east, to Great Barring-
ton in the Berkshire* on the west'. In 1830 he said
Mass in Chicopee. On 7 July, 1834, he laid at Woroes-
ter the foundation of the first churoh which was
built in the territory now ruled by the Bishop of
foringfield. He became pastor of W<»«eeter in 1830.
GDotemporary with the erection of tlie church at
Worcester, Father Fitton purchased land south of
the town, on whi(^ he built a school. This property
be deeded Q.B43) to the Rt. Rev. Benedict J. Fenwick,
Biflhcq) of BosUmi. Bishop Fenwii^ erected upon it
the College of the Holy Cxtm, which he induced the
Jesuits of Maryland to assume chai^ of. l^is was
the first Catholic coll^ in New England. It began
with seventeen students. It has become the largest
of the Catholic colleges of the United States, whose
students all follow a classical course, including Greek.
Its influence is now felt in all parte <^ the American
possessions. The parish at Worcester was oompoeed
mainly of Irish, though it induded also Frendi, Eng-
lish, and Americans. From Worcester Father Fitton
made missionary trips to the towns along the Black-
stone, and to the setldements along the Western Rait-
nmd. Ibis work was continued and developed by
the pastors who succeeded him at WOToester. Of
these the most energetic, as a missionary, was Rev.
Matthew W. Gibeon, who in thirteen years built
diurchea in nine idaeee of Woroester Oocmty and in
ten more eatablisned parishes.

The first resident pastor of Western Massachusetts
was Rev. John D. Brady. In 1841 he assumed charge
<d parish of Chio(^)ee, which extended over four
counties. For four years he shepherded this vast
parish atone. In 1845 Rev. Bernard O'Cavanau^
came to him as an assistant. Rev. Joremiah O'CaJ-
laf^un, the zealous and ^le, if somewhat eccentno,
mwionary of Vermont, had said Mass at I^tafiekl
in 1835 and yearly thereafter tMl 1839. Hiis re*
markable man in his old age foiuided the first Catho-
lic parish in Holyoke. In 1S44 Father Bm^ built
the first church at Pittsfield, of which Rev. Bernard
O'Cavanaugh became pastor in 1848. His sue-
oessor, Rev. Patrick Cuoahy, the "church builder of
the Berkshires", and Rev. William Blenkinsop, who
continued the work of Father Brady in the Connecticut
Valley, i^anized into new parishes and prepared for
further developmoit the Church which was now finnly
established in Western Massachusetts. To this de-
velopment Pius IX contributed when he miade of
Central and Western Massachusetts a diocese with its
see at Springfield.

Biahops.—Rt. Rev. Patrick T. O'Reilly, the first
Bisbc^ of Siningfield, was bom in Cavan, Ireland,
24 Dec., 18^. He came to Boeton in his boyhood.
He Btndied elaadcs at St. Oiarles's Colkns, Mary-
land, theology at St. Mary's Seminary, Baltimore,
and was or&ined in Boston, 16 August, 1857, by
Bishop Bacon of Portland. He served as assistant
to Father Boyoe at St. John's Church, Worcester, till
1862, when he was sent to oi^nize the parish of St.
Joseph's, Boston. In 1864 he returned to Worcester
as pastor of St. John's. There he remained until he
, was appointed Bishop of Springfield (28 June, 1870),
being consecrated 25 S^temb«r of the same year.
He ruled the Diocese of Sprii^eld far twenty-<me
years and a half. During this time its population in-
creased from 90,000 to 200,000; iU fiesta from 43 to
196; its religious women fnHoa 12 to SSI; its parMtes
Inua 43 to 96; its Bohoola from 2 to SO. Krimp

7 sPBxmmiLD

Cariny oonfirmed 77,000 peraons. He dedicated 48
cfaurehe^and laid the ooirner<toiMB of nearly a bui^
dred buudiiKB consecrated either to religion at to
eduoation. Be gave encoun^ment to wwla of
(^aritv. The ho^ital of the Sisters oS Providence at
Holyoke and the ort^an asylums at Holydce and at
Woroest^ were begun during his administration. He
died 28 May, 1892. He was succeeded by the in-esent
(1011) bishop, Rt. Rev. Thomas D. Beaven, D.D.,
who was bom at Springfield, March, 1851. He
studied at Hc^ Cross CoUege and at dw Qnad Sem-
inaiy, Montmal, and was ordahied to the prieBthoodr
18 Dec., 1875. He laboured at Spencer for three
years as assistant and for ten as pastor. In 1888 he
was made pastor of the Church of the H(dy Rosary,
Holyoke. Foiu- years later (31 July) he was ap-
pointed Bishop Of Springfield. He was consecrated
18 Oct., 1892. Bishop Beaven is an organiser. He
has applied to the temporal affairs of tiie Church
sound business winciws. He has devdoped ^
school eyatem of the diocese and made it efficient.
He has encouraged the establishment <rf ]dA sduxds
and academies, and organised and developed the
charitable institutions m his diocese. Bn^tside,
with its infants' home, its orphan asylum, its Beaven-
Kell^ Home for aged men, owes its existence to hvs
inspiration and kuvely to his generosity. During
his administration bospitals have been opened in
Woroester, Springfield, Montague City, ana Adams,
on^un asylums at Holyoke, Wcn^sestar, and Leice»>
ter, a House of the Good Shepherd at Springfield, and
homes for working girls in many places. Springfield
has for years been remarkable among the dioceses of
the country for the number of its vocations to the
priesthood and the religious life. Four of its priests
have become twht^ during the i»eaent admiuistrfr*
tion; Rt. Rev. Thomas J. Conaty, D.D. (Mont^^
and Los Angeles) ; Rt. Rev. Philip J. Gairigan, D.l5.
(Sioux City) ; Rt. Rev. Daniel F. Feehau, D.D. (Fall
River), and Rt. Rev. Jospeh J. Rice, D.D. (Burling-
ton).

Cauaet of Growth. — ^The growth of the Diocese
of Springfield is due largelv to imnugration. The
JxiA were quickly followed oy Canadians, and .these
by Poles and lithuanians. The Italians and the
E^rians eame later. Tliese immi^rattts oame to
Massachusetts to i;et a market for theu* labour. They
prospered and thev descendants are among the most
esteemed oitisens of the commonwealth.

Beligioua Communiiiea. — About 380 religious
women are engaged in charitable work in the diocese.
Most of these are Sisters of Providence. The Sisters
of Mercy (the first religious communi^ to enter the
dioeese) conduct orphan asylums at Worcester and
Leicester, the Qrey Nuns an orphanage at Worcester,
the Little Franciscan Sisters of Mary an old pemle'a
home at Woroester; and the Sistersof the Good Sqep-
herd have a house at Springfield. The educational work
of the diocese requires the services of 750 sisters. The
Sisters of St. Joseph have a normal college in Spring
field, an academy at Chioopee, and high schools m
many parishes. They also do a great part of the
paroehial school wcnk. The Sisters of Notre Dame
oonduot hUdi schools at Woroester, ^wingfidd, Holy-
oke, and Chioopee. Other communities of women
enniged in teaching are: the Sisters <^ Holy Cross
and of the Seven Dolors, Sisters of St. Ann, Sisters of
the Assumption, Sisters of Providence, Faitbful Com-
panions Of Jesus, Sisters of St. Joseph (Hartford),
Presentation Nuns (St. Hyacinth, P. Q.), Presenta-
tion Nuns (Fitchburg, Massaohtisetts), Felician Sia-
tos, Franeuoan Sist^ (Buffalo), and Daughters ei
tlu Hotjr Ghost. The relifpous ordo^ of men rep-
resented in the diocese are: the Jesuits, at Worcester:'
the Fathers of La Salette, at Fitchburg, Ware, and
Westfield; the Franciscans, at Ohicosee and Ho^roke;
tbs Vinontiano, at Sprinsfield; the Fat^of tbs ^

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STBOTT

238

BQiniBB

■omptioo, at Worcesttf; aod the Xawian Brothen,

at Woroeeter and MiUbury.

Statiatica.—O&cialreportB for 1811 give the i<A-
lowing figures: 300 diocesao and 14 regular raieeto
(not incliidinp the Jeijuits at Holy Cross and uiB As-
Bumptioni^L^ of ibi- Apoi$u>lLc Schuol;^ ItIO poriahes;
3S miaauHu wiUi ohurobea tad 10 rtAtiowj
!UteDded by 600 studotta: 4aoadeinieB; eipamdiHl
BidKilUi "iritji 25^600 pupiu; B mphon aayluma; 1 m-
fBAta' homG; 27,000 young people under Catht^
cars; fihosf >tiLlJ«l i& bntam fv toe agadj 3 wofddm

GockI fi^bejihcrii.
Mct'uv: Hij.i.>ri,oflktOaMbt0urA«i MwAulaiKl (Boston.

Bprott (Spratt), Thomas, Venkbabub, Enf^ish
martyr, b. atSkelflmergh, near Kendal, Weetmoreland;
Buffered at Lincoln with Thomas Hunt, 11 July,
1600. Sprott WRS ordained priest from the English
College, Douai, in 1596. was sent on the misBion that
same year, and signed tne letter to the pope, dated 8
November, 1508, m favour of the institution in Eng-
land of the archpriest. Hunt, a native oS NorfolL
was a priest of the Ei^ish College of Seville, and had
been impriBoned at Wisbech, where he had escaped
with five others, some months previously. They were
arrested at the Baracen'a Head, Lincoln, upon the
discovery of the holy oils and two Breviaries in their
mails. When brought to trial, though their being
pricBts was neither proved nor confessed, nor was any
evidence produced, the judge, Sir John Glanville,
directed the jury to find them guilty, which was done.
Hie judge died sixteen da^ i^terwards undn unusual
drcumstancee, as Dr. Worthington (quoted by Bishop
Qialloner) records.

Ckallohbk, MinioHarti PrietU, I (Edinburch. 1877), no*. 118
and 119; Knox, Douay Diarw (Loodon, 187S), 16, 82: Follcm,
Sngtuk Maf^4 1684-1688 in Catk. Rte. Soc. (Londoo. 1908), 384.

John B. WAunEWRioHT.

Squainiih Indtami. — oonsiderable tribe (rf Sali-
flhan hnguistic stock, speaking a distinct language,
holding the territory about Squamish River and Howe
Sound, above Fraser River in South-western British
Columbia. From possibly 2000 souls a century ago
they have dwindled, by smallpox visitation in 1863
and from results of earher dissipation, to 690 in 1890,
and to 306 in 1910, on six small reservations under
the Fraser River agency, viz. Mission or Burrard
Inlet (210), Fidse C>eek, Kapilano Island, Buirard
Inlet No. 3, Squuniflh or Howe Sound, and Seymour
Creek. The Squamish are first mentioned by the
voyager, Vancouver, who met and traded with them
in }.702, but regular contact with the whites dates
from the establishment of the Hudson Bay Company
trading posts in Lower British Columbia (1810-20).
The earliest missionary worker was Father (after-
wards bishop) Modesto Demers, who made a short
missionary visit to the Lowct Fraser in 1841. In
1857 the work of civilization and Christianization was
regularly taken up by the Oblatea^among them
Fathers Casimir Chirouse, lAon Fouquet, and Pierre
Durieu — with such success that the entire tribe is
kng since civilised and almost entire^ Catholic. The
educational work is in oha^e of the Sisters of the Ho^
Infant Jesus at the Squamish Mission, Buirard Inlet,
by whom, accordiiw to tha official report (1910).
"every attention and care possible is bemg bestowoa
on the chiklren". The Indians are described as sub-
nsting by farming, fishing, hunting, lumbering, and
labottringj with ^ood dwellings and stock well cared
for; very industrious and of ^od morals, exoeptit^ a
few intanperates. In this oonnezion HiU-Tout si^:
"Maay oi than faave to-dav* I am told, inug Httla

sums judioiously invested by their ommI frieod anct

^ttritiial director, the late Bishop Durieu, in safe
paying oonoemfl. It is only fair to say, howevo*. that
they deserve to be prosperous. They are probably
the most industrious and orderly band of Indians in
the whole province, aod reflect great credit upon the
Roman mission established in tjheir midst."

In their primitive oondition tlM Squamish resem-
bled, in their leading characteristics, the Sechelt,
Songish, Lillooet, and other Salishan tribes of Southem
British Columbia. They lived chiefly by fishing,
their msin dependence being the salmon. They also
hunted the deer with dogs, driving the deer into the
water and thoe shooting it from canoes. Roots and
wild berries oompleted weir oommissary. Their or*
dinary houses were mormouB oramnunal structures
from 20 to^40 feet in width and from 200 or 300 even
to 600 feet in length, built of cedar planks, each family
having its own separate fire and sleeping platform.
Back from the coast they had also the communal
semi-subterranean round house of the interior tribes.
In household furnishing, badcets, of which they had
a great variety, predominated. Their greatest skill
was displayed in the shaping of their great dug-out
cedar cuumb, of which they had several types. Like
thdr neighbours the tribe was divided mto nobles,
oommons, and ^ves. Chief ship was hereditary, eaclr
village bong independent of Uie others. Polygamy
was common. The dead were buried in boxes or
canoes, laid upon the surface of the ^und, and there
were many peculiar mourning regulations, particularly
as concemeid the widow. Abortion was common and
female infants were deliberately strangled by whole-
sale. A suitor signified his purpose by sitting beside
ttie door of the girl's house for four days and ni^ite
without eatmg or drinking. The "potlatch", or
ceremonial ^t distribution, was the great intertribal
festival; an instance is on record where over 2000 per-
aons sat down to the feast and goods to the value of
15000 were given away. The puberty ordeal for girls
included a K)ur days' complete abstinence from food
or drink, followed by an agomsmg scratching over
the whiue body with thorny brambles. There were
hypnotic dance performances and a barbarous dance
common also to several other tribes, in which the prin-
cipal dancer held in his hands a live dog which he de>
voured piecKneal as he danced. According to their
cosmogony the human race sprang -from a race of
animau with semi-human characteristics, the world
being afterwards made fit for human occupation fay
four broths culture heroes. The best summary in
their mythology and analysis of the langua» is that

given by HiU-Tout. See also LiLLOorr Indiahb,
BCHEiyr Indians, Sonoish Inoianb.

Bit.L'ToDT. Nottt on (A« Skvmie in Rtpt. Brit. Attn, AdwM^
MMTtl Sci. (70th tDe«tiiu[, London, 1900) ; Idem, CMmogonv and
Hittoni ofUie Skuamith in Tram, and Proc. Rou. Canada, t897-98.
Section II. 2iid Mrie«, IV (Montreal, 1898); BAN(»orr, Hitt,
BriL Cotumbia (Sao PrencnBOO. 1887) ; Canada Dtpt. tnd. Agmrt,
Annual Repl. (Ottswa); Mokice, Calkolie Ckmk «• H'ubnt
Canada (2 vols., Toronto, 1910); Vancouteb, Voyage i^ Oi*-
entrv, «te., 1790-B (6 vola., London, 1801).

Jambb Moonbt.

Squien, EtenBERT Goldsmith, army officer and
diplomatist; b. at Madoc, Canada, 20 April, 1850;
d. at London, 19 Oct... 1911. The son of John I.
and Elizabeth Squiers, be was educated at Canandai-
gua Academy, Minnesota Military .Academy, Mary-
und Agricultural School, and Fordham University
(A.M. and LL.D.); in 1877 he became second lieu-
tenant, U. S. Army, and from 1885 to 1800 U. S.
military instructor at St. John's College, Fordham;
he left to join his regiment, the 7th Cavalry, at the
Indian Battle of Woundea Knee, and resigned as
first Ueutenant, 1891. In 1894 he became second
Secretary at the Legation at Berlin, and in 1898 first
at the Lwatitm at Peking, where he and
wm reosnred into the Chiirdi by Anb>

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23d

8TABAT MATER

bUiop Faviff: during the si^ of ihe Lesationa,
IMO, he wu chief of staS under Sir Claude Macdon-
tid, the British Minister to China, who widi de
Qienif the Kuaslan Minister, pronounced "Mr.
AauWn's nefvieea invahttble in keeping people and
U^tlwr in the midst «cageerated racial
f eBliflgs " ; for hia "bravery olid distinnushed senrices "
be was fcomally tbaidcea by the British Qovecumeot
and by Preeidrait McKinley. In 1302 he was ap-
pointed Minister to Cuba; ne resigned in 1905 but
was the next year appointed Minister to Panama^
in both of which offices his tact and firmness and his
CathoUc faith were of immense service to all in solv-
ing many complicated questions of these early days.
He was devoted to his Church, and was r&y chari-
table but unostentatiously so. He helfjed mapy
deserving atudoits to a CathoUc education. Om
of his last acts was to establish at the CathoUc Uni-
versity two burses of $250 each for ten years. Brdcen
in health by eight years in the tropics, he spent the
last two years of his life cruising in EuropeaD waters.
His last words after receiving the last ntes were: "I
am alone with God". His wonderful collection of
antique Chinese porcelain was purchased for him by
Mr. Pethick, the famous otnuioiflBeur. Many were
bought to assiBt Chinese friends. His first wife,
Helen L. Farso (m. 1881. d. 1886), left him four
children, Gladys (Mrs. Roaaseau), Georgia fMrs.
H. Whitman), Fargo (d. 1906), and Helen. In 1889
he married Harriette Bard Woodcock, who siu^ives
him, with thenr sons Herbert 'G., Bard, and Jcha
Aster Squioa.

UoouB, BMnd A* Seim in Pekino (New York]: Mastin,
Siega qf P»ki»e (1900); StUTU, China in CmwUiotu (1901).

JOBK SOULLT.

SqtiUlaee, Diocxsb of (SQtnLUCKNSis), niffragan
of luggio, in Calabria, Southern Italy. The city of
SquiUace, in the civil Province of Cstaozaro, stands
near the Ionian Sea at the base of a hill between the
two branches of the River Akssi, and is a centre of the
wine^ olive, and silk industries; it also possesses lead
and iron mines, and earthenware works. The ancient
Scyllaceum, or Soyiletium, had a haibour, which is
now a manh. Accbrding to CassiodOTus, who was
bom there and died in a monastery founded there by
him, the city was establi^ed by an Athenian col<»iy.
Invasions of Saracens in the ninth and tenth centuries,
a landing of the Turks in 1595, and the earthquake oS
1783 caused its ruin. The diocese possesses the bodice
of many saints, including: St. Achatius, martyr, in the
cathodral; St. John Terrestre, abbot, a contemporary
of St. Nilus in the (then Bamlian) monastery oi Stilo;
and the holy monks Bartolomew, Nicholas, and Bad].
St. Bruno established two Carthusian monasteries
within the limits of the diocese, S. Maria dell' Eremo
and S. Stefano in Nemore, the latter having the leas
rigorous discipline.

The first Imown Bishop of Squillace is Gaud^itius
(465); Zachffius accompanied Pope Vigilius to Con-
stantinople (551); John, previously Bi8h(^ of Lissa, in
DalmatUj having been ^ven out by the baffoaiians,
was transferred hither by St. Gregory ihe Great. ASUr
Bishop Demetrius (870), no bishops are mentioned
until the Norman conquest, after which Count Ro^
erected the cathedral, mto which the Latin Rite was
introduced, while the Greek Rite continued much
longer in the diocese. The series of bi^ps oom-
menccB again with Theodore Mismer (1094). Other
bishops were: Francesco degli Arcen (1418-76); Car-
dinal Enrigo Borfpa (1539) j Cardinal Guglidmo Sii>
leto (1568), who reined in favour of bis nephew,
Marcello (1673), the founder of a monastery for peni-
tent women, and famous for his erudition; Tommaso
(lfi04) and Fabrurio Sirieto (1693); Nicol6 Micheli,
who enlarged the seminary. The territory of Squil-
laoe contains Stilo, the ao<»ent Conailinum. three
taafaapa at which are kuyra, Salnnua (40fi) beipg the

Jwxta

earliest. The diocese contains 59 parishes, with 108
secular and 24 regular priests, 130,000 inhaHtants, 6
convents of men and 1 of nuns.

XJ. Bsmom.

Stabat Mister, the opening words of two compan-
ion hymns, one of which (^abat Mater Dolorosa)
is in litur^cal use, while the other (Stabat Mater
SpecioBa) 18 not. They celebrate the emotions of
Our Lady at the Cross and at the Manger — Cfdvary
and Bethlehem — respectively, and may conve-
niently be differentiated here by the third word (D<k
loro»a, Speeidsa). The SpedoBa contaiiu thtateea
(double) stanzas of rix lines; the Dohnoea, ten.
In other respects the two hymns are in quite perfect
parallelism of phrase throughout, as the first stania
mw serve to -lUustrate.*

cniccui lammosa
ftentim g^dioda

^jfpnMKmi vhicb in Qit^lil> ^^a^ the imita^
tion, wiD be dLSdUHea uud^ n. SpECtosA.

I. The Dolorosa.— The hyran was WfU knowtl
to all cliisaw by ihc end of the tourt4?4''uth century.
Gt-f-r^iiLh StflU", Chnncpllor of (i(:nofi {d, 1420), ra
liiii "' .Viuuik's Gi'iiiii'ii.'^t'ji ". 3p*"akB of it Et.s in iiw by
tin- ri;if;i.'iliiiJla ill liiSS, ;uul oduir hit=toriajiii rn)le i^
ii.-^c l;LH-r in the Barar fi.'iLtur\'. In IVovnur. nhout
lijyy, Lhe " Albati'", or ''Biandii' .saiig il during their
WW days' pioeensioM. "The Church did not ro-
«;£vB the hymn &cfm tfa<)' beretifiBr but the hcreficM
de^Kiiled the Church of the Sequence^' (Daiiiejl,
"Thes^iniH Hymnatogicua ", 11, 140). If the very
(]U<f"tiomible asrriptiiiti tn .Ijnrciponfi da. Todi be tor^
n et, the hymn jiri'l):iMy f"U!i't iIh wny fnun Franofr
tun liini?f^ into Lliut,f nf olhi r n^lip'-ufj bi'dira and
\nu> ]i'ip>jltir uiA^^. Il \>* iouiid in scviial European
(but not EntlialO Mtasidii of the fifu-euth century,
but was not introduced. Into ihe Roman ' Bttovi^iy
and Missal until 1727 (Feast of the SeVen Doloafa
B. V. M,, aflfflgned to Friday after Passion Sunday.
Tht) September feast of iht: swrtie nHitip employs
oOiiT hymns in tli^ nri-vi!\r>- OtllH'f i. In the Hn-vi:try
!l. i'^ nlLvidfii iiitif ttirf?c piirl^i: ;l! V - ■■H(:!li'[[t
ll&ter dolorosii"i at, Matins, "Sancta Mater, iisLiid
agas"; at Lauds, "Virgo virginum prseclara .

The authorship of the hymn has been ascribed to
St. Greaory the Great (d. 604), St. Bernard of Qair-
vaux (d. 1153), Innocent III (d. 1216), St. Bonaven-
ture (d. 1274), Jacopone (d. 1306), Pope John XXII
(d. 1334), Gregory XI (d. 1378). Of these ascrip-
tions, the only probable ones are those to Innocent
III and Jacopone. Benedict XIV rives it withoat

Suestion to tmocent, and quotes three authorities;
lone, in his notes, and Hurter, in his "Life", give
it to uie same great pontiff. Duffield, in his "Latin
Hymn Writers and then* Hymns", rejects with much
poeitivenesB, and Meams, m Julian, "Dictionary of
Hymnology", questions, the ascription. Gregoro-
vius also denies it to the pope of "the great and cold
intellect"; but for a similar reason he might question
the ascription of the Corous Christi hymna, redolent
of devotional warmth and sweetness, to the rigorously
scholastic mind of St. Thomas Aquinas; he adds,
however, a reference to a fourteenth-century mwju-
script contai^ng poems by Jacoptme with an ascrip-
tion to him of the Stabat. The ailment for Jaco-
pone is not satisfactory. While his hymns written
in the Umbrian dialect commanded popularity and
deserved respect, some of the Latin hymns ascribed
to him are certainly not hia, and it is doubtful if he
ever wrote any — or at all events anything better
thai) imitations of — Latin hymns.

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8TADX0K 2

A large literature has grown about the hynmB, Prot-
eatajita sharing with Cathofics a de^, and often
glowingly expressed, admiration for ito pathoe, its
TindncM of description, its devotional sweetnesB
and unction, its combination of easy rhythmic 'flow
vith exquisite double rhyming and fimtmed staniaic
form. Daniel styles it "the queen of seguences"
Oap. dt., V, 69) and devotes much space to its praise
hi, 136-138). Dr. PhiUp Schaff (in " literature and
Fbetty", 191) si^: "The secret (tf the power ot the
'Mater Dolorosa lies in the intenMty of feeling with
which the poet identifies himself with his theme,'
and in the soft, plaintive melody of its Latin rhythm
and ihyme, which cannot be transferred to any
other language." Dr. Ckiles, a phydcian, devot^
a long "Proem" to his own translation, to an esti-
mate of the hymn, and thinks the hymn "powerful
in its pathos beyond almost anythin|E that has ever
been written". , Mingled with Mb praise is much very
strong denunciation m its "Mariolatry." Schaff also
notes the usual Protestant (Ejection, but gently
answers his co-relkionists, concluding with the re-
minder that Catholics "do not pray to Mary as the
giver cif the luemep 'K'sireJ, but only m tihe inter-
codr-r, tKinkidg ili[it s^hc ip rniuv llkt ly to prevail
with her Son thaQ any poor unaided sinoer on earth".
XUb ^eot^on of Prokstanta for the hymn has re-
PfOM in manifold translation. Dean Trench, how-
flnrVt excluded the hymn from his "Sacred Latin
Wonry", and Saintabury, in "The Flourishing of
Koimmce" (p. 77, footnolo), charnfitPTi^pn the exclu-
moa u "a little touch of ort-hodox pnidery'*. There
arc ov^r sixU- tmnsln.! iins intn Fnnlisli u 11 whole or
in p:irtf, Cii.' V'- Dili's bi'iiiK ilu' iiaivcly used in

hynuuus. Amongst the translations are those of D.
F. McCarthy, Aubrey de Vere, and Father Tabb.

Because m its vividly epic and lyric cfaaractco^ the
hymn has received multiform musical setting. There
are four well-known plainsong setting, the authentic
form being found in the Vatican Gradual (1^^)-
Josquin dea Pr^ (fifteenth century) wrote a Stabat
as elaborate as any of his "most highly developed
Masses" (Rockstro). His great effort was distanced
by the immort^izing twain of settings by Palestrina.
Cn Fergolesi's Stabat the German poet Tieck confes-
ses: "Ihad to turn away^ to hide my tears, espe-
cially at the place, 'Vldit suum dulcem natum'".
Haydn's Stabat is considered "a treasury of refined
and graceful melody". Some less familiar names in
the loDg list are Steffani, Clari, Astorga, Winter,
Raimonm, Vito, Lanza. Neukomm. Rossini had
written his "William Tell" before he essayed his
much-abused Stabat. While it is not indeed fitted
for litui^oal use, Father Taunton (History and
Growth (« Church Music, 78-9) defends it; and Rock-
stro, refusing to discuss the question whether its
sensuous beauty befits the theme, thinks that "critics
who judge it harshly, and dilettanti who can listen
to it unmoved. . . . must either be case-hardened
by pedantry, or destitute of all 'ear for music'",
"nie long list may close with DvoMk, who, in his
original musical phrases, illustrated anew the peren-
idu f recess of the theme.

II. Thb Specioba.— An edition of the ItaSan poems
of Jacopone published at Brescia in 1495 contained
both Stabats; but the Speciosa fell into almost com-
plete oblivion until A. F. Ozanam transcribed it from
a fifteenth-century maniiscript in the Biblioth^que
Natjonale for his "Pontes Franciscainfl en Italie au
Treizidme si^le", Paris, 1852. He thought Jacopone
had composed both Stabats at the same time; and,
remaddDKof the Dolonwa that "this incomparable
work would have sufficed for the glory of Jacopone",
he confesses that he gave up the attempt to translate
the Speciosa in verse, and concluded to present both
hymns in rimple prose, because "the untruuslatable
enarm of the language, <^ the melody, and tA Uie old

quahitneas, I fed are mcaping me". Hw An^iean
hymnoh^Bt, Dr. J. M. Neale, introduced the Spe-
ciosa to the Englidi-flpeaking worid ih 1866, and as-
cribed it to Jacopone. Dr. Schaff dissentB: "This
is improb^dile, A poet would hardly write a parody
on a poem of his own." Noting the imfinish<Ml style
and the imperfect rhyme of the Speciosa, Nt^e
thou^t it indicated the work of an ^)i»«ntice shap-
ing hn hand to ibe watk of Latin verse — in which
ease it must have preceded the Dolorosa, whiidi is
a perfect piece of work. Schaff, however, points
out that t^e opening words of the Dolorosa were
borrowed from the Vulgate Latin (John, xix, 25)
"with reference to Mary at the Cross, but not at
the Cradle", and iJflo-that the uxth line, " Pertransivit
gladius", might have suggested the similw line of
the Speciosa, "Pertranavit jubilus", but not vice
TNsa. Coles doubts "a nmultaneous birth, or eveo
a common parentis". In his "Esnqr on JMinor
Rites and Ceremonies" Cardinal Wiseman sdsed
on the parallelism of contrast in the two poems —
mmilari^ of form and phrase, and complete antith-
esis of theme and thought. Finally, it should be
said that the great ruggednees of the Speciosa may
be due to the carelessness of copyists.

K"A!^^E:n, IlfifrAuf rar Orrrk'ii^hte iin-if /,Vi'.-lr7j r-,j i!.r ftHerJm
N\rrh'.',h.,niUL-n, \l (Piderborn, Iii>-102, cm-;- i<-j(1 mE

l>.ilh :<ii<l<.ii' T. iih nri&iiU And mupli ■com.iu.'Dt. llL.\£tY. T'l'.
Tti'} ■'i'.'^'/'il,-, la Amtr. Caih, Qunrlfrly Rn. iJuuubtv. l'JiJ3'i . il,-.
nii'l 1003), 2RI-30B, testr nnd (raii-tau'iii^i, fomuivrir i.ii

Euth "-fJiiri Hni.1 ■■ MnriolHfr^'", and conipBriKOii rif trs. ; CiM.ca,

.V/fi.'.r i.-;/j,-i",>^,ii iNf-tv Vi.rk, isn-i'i, .Ii-IJaN', IhU. '4 /ji/m-nji-JoE'
._>TiJ ,vi . r.r.-,.U.t,, i:«.l7J. Ji.i'-I .j-l, loW, 17[)C. To his pnlhiw
ruiit bl; a(l<led liE^iiJ (a* nN: viO: T.Mjn in Vnihfilit .Vncs INow
Vfik, Apr. 7, 1906Jt /n ^h>- Ahn /-.u nj thf naol; Mr;HENEre io

T!:: Hrarran CEaatoa, Milv 7, ]s^7), jJiViairi i!,/ I'lai/i M<ith«r

fif^.i.rfu fl'jm"-' rtrjj Vm-'if ^«7fi*/!£" i" 1 ^uuniun. hllKH. 1(13, Thr.
M-ih'T m •I'^si ,""mfii.i ifs-oJ: D<jn,-iiios du Etirlii (7iriji(ia/j Hi/mn*
(Nuw Vi.rL, lUUS), 1SJ7. Wi\liiiii bij ll,t< .-n.gj, ,it,r„utij; aaixid.
vi.'rflicm, porhapa by a Ctttlirilir, r.-[jHr.(i.-.l in Tli, Vi:lli6lir Worii
i\pn\t 1870) mm) TSo UK-nrirr^iiu- .Ifii^rinrit r-pf tiiirty yours -[irB-
viNjusly; RrokBTthfaTiiid, io. iiiid teaffzcl, 'Y\w liiicuv it-^uv uf Tha
I'arhciic Wufld han t! tr. illU> OrcuL ti\ M\i! r^xit in

(V.i7i-ij. iSlnuburn. Dec, laiW) BnIlly[l■^ rlt.- rlr!.;,,, ,,f Fh*sti
!.!M.r (iljir ■^P'.'irwn, ISH-S: (Tie fiuJifrflw, 19il-2(li)) ; Si^Lr'r.s.T Jiilds
mhem jo Ani/T. firH Rrz^ica.', XII (ISllfi), 4&.i, L' An-

tioir Jti ' S^iiUx.l'' iij A'itiw dn C^f^tji Pnfnjriin (Mur.. r.nil!,
\f.:^-~ri. tliinku \\v; lULl-hc-r is, in ull pn-liRhjlil.!', .I'lCrpun.', and
tl'ijl l-lji' r>rc i'";'! ij' nut Iji.*. W' pniijulily Ul- witIi hi niniie
liiLiiojuiUi tj|- iti^t liffwiiLh pfutary. J>'l ulmuiit, /,(' ' Si.ih^

Ml!-' .Si-if ivs,',' ill- Jrici'tiiiH' iJ.f Tii-Ji. in I'l iilit Fr;ii,^-i'Ciiiue*

an anooymoua tr. of the Speciota {Jov, ^ tendtr breatl exjundvia).
quoted from The Calholie Afoffonne in The Rotary of the BUuti
Yirfin Mary (London, b. d.), 62. ' Dbktes, Analeeta hymniea
(Leipiuc, 1888 — ), gtrea nuuy poems founded on the I>oloro»a,
«. s. XXIV, 127; 160; 122 (from % Dominican Breviuy, Bfteentb
century) ; see also II, 63. and VIII, 56-56, for illustratians of the
fourteenth to the fifteenth century. Husbnbeth, Miegal for
the U*e d/ At Laitv (new ed., London, 1906), 234-6, ovee Latin
text and new tranaUtion. The Latin text ii in many pUcea
different from that of the Roman Misial (although the preface
declarea that the book "will be found strictly conformable to
the Roman Mitaai, aa used by authority in this country" — sc.
England). The Latin text includes the line, "Inflammatus et
acceosus", which is not in the Roman AfuW text, but is found
in Rossini s, and even in Lmst'a Stabat Mater. For infwmation
ooneeminf the line, of. KxnxM, Hrmbt, opp. tit., or Moita,
LateinUk^ Bipmen dt* MitUtaiter§, tt, 148, at and. The
typical and official text of the Vatiean OraduaU (1908) is the
same as that of the Roman Mieeal,

H. T. HSNRT.

SUdion, Chbistophsb von. See AnoBBirao,

D1OCB8B ov.

Stadler. John Evakobust, a Bavarian hae-
ographer, D. at Paricstetten, in the Diooese of Ratia-
bon, 24 Dec., 1804: d. at Au^urg, 30 Dec., 1S68.
After completing the humaniliee in the ^/mnoMum
of Straubing in 1821, he erttered the Univenity of
Landshut, where, in addition to the philosopbieal and
theological studjies prescribed for candidates to th«
priesthood, he devoted much of his time to the study
of Oriental and modem languages. The year
ce£ne his ordination to the priesthood he spoit at
the duMesan aeimnaiy ot Rsbsbon, yAtfo wmk |1m

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dinotiOB o< the lesroed and nuiUy MkhMl Witt-
mann, .the future ftimfiary Bisht^ of Ratiaboii, he
I^epared himself for the priesthood. After bnitg
onuined priest by Bishop Sailer at RatMxm 22 June,
1827, be was ocoupied a few months in paroohial
work at the little village of Ot^ng in Lower Bavaria,
whereupon he continued his thec^t^cal studiee at
the Georgiauum in Munich in November 1828, and
(Obtained the doctorate in tiieoloK7 in 1829. In 1830
he was "co-operator" at theHoq)ital of theH<dy
Obost at Mumch, in 1831 PritatdoeaU for Old Teeta-
ment exegesis at the Univomty of Munit^ end in
1832 be succeeded Pniggmeyr as rubregma of the
Oeorgianum. In additi<m he was in 1833 appmnted
professor-extraordinary and in 1837 professor-ordi-
nary of exej^esis at the university. In 1838 he became
canon and in 1858 dean at the Cathedral of Augsbui^.
Stadler was well versed in all the teuohea of theolo^,
but he was especially fond (rf finipnstio studies.
Bendes having a perfect mastery cS German, French,
Italian, and En^ish among the modem liuigua^,
he knew Latin, Greekj Hebrew, Syiiac, Arabian.
Persian, Sanskrit, and in his later years he studied
also Spanish and Polish. He is beet known as the
author of "Vollstand^es Heiligen-Ijexikon oder
Lebensgeschiiditen idler Heiligen, Seligen u. a. Met
Orte und allw Jahriiunderte, dwoi Andenkoi in 6er
kath. Kirche gefaert oder sonst gedirt wird" (Augs-
burg, 1858-82). The work is alpnabetioally arran^
and contains more livee than any other work of its
kind. The "Aota Sanctorum" of the BoUandisto,
as far as they were finished, that is, to the end of
October, were condensed into short sketches, but
many new livee were introduced and newly disoovered
data were added to the Uvea contained in the "Acta".
The woric ia mUier papniat than anenttie and from
a critical pmnt of view leaves much to be desired.
In the preparati<m of the first volume Stadler was
asmated by Rev. Fr. J. ^im, while the second and
the third volume contain contributions from several
priests of the Diocese of Augsburg. Stadler died
before the third volume was fini^ed, leaving the
writii^ of the last two volumes to Rev. J. R. Ginal,
pastor of Zusmarshauaen. Other works of Stadler
an: a Hebrew-Latin lexioon (1831); "De identitate
Sapientite Vetezis Testameuti et Vettn Novi Teata-
menti", which served aa his theois for the doctorate
(1829); and "Dissertotio super Joaonem VIU, 2K"
(Munich, 1832).

HSrmarn in Stadlbb's HtUiem-LexiluM, III, fr-lO; Bcbmid,
ChthiiAU du Gmrgiawim* (Munich, 18M), 306, 309; Pk&htl,
QmehichU dtr iMinig-MMeimiHaM-Uniterniat, n (Munich,
1872), 826.

MicBAXLOrr.
Bttft^. See Fbsbbb, Nicholas.

StaliMd Qlass, the popular name for the glass
used in the making of coloured windows. The term
is a misnomer, ae stained glass is only one of the glasses
so employed. It is more the result of a process than
a glass per se, as it is produced by painting upon utv
glMB, Clear or coloured, with the oxide of taxv&, whicn
penetrates the glass when subjected to heat and gives
a yeUow reaction. In built^ng a coloured window a
varie^ of glass can be used, but usually there ia only
one kmd employed, viz.; pot-metal, a riaas that is
coloured throughout its substance while in a molten
state. This is used either dir^rtly or after it has
■been toned, or ornamented^ or made a background
for a figure subject by painting the same upon it
with vitrifiable pifpnents, fused to its surface or in-
corporated with its substance by means of beat.
NevertbxAesB, althoi^ tiie word slained-glam is
inaccurately used, usage haa so fixed its ernnwous
meaning in the public mind that m all nobaUHly
it will continue for all time to be applied m muTiimg
wdouned windows and th^ glasB. .

I. Documentary, and, far mora, runniwirtd
XlV^Xtt

tl BTAIRBD OLA8B

history, demonstrates that glass has been in use from
the mmt remote ages; that the ancients were familiar
with it; moreova, that its origin, or discovery, or
invention is lost in the twiUeht of fables. In many
cases where china and metal are now employed the
ancients used glass: they blew, cast, and out into it
thousMids of objects with which they funiished tombs
and templee, palaces and private houses; and adorned
their persons, their garments, and their buildings.
It is indeed doubtful if there was any branch of the
art of glass-making and the utilisation of its products
that was not known to them, a fact proved by tlie
fragments of innumerable articles found to-day in
countless numbers among the ruins of Egypt, Cbaldea,
Phoenicia, Greece, and Rome. It is true, however,
that the glasing of window openings with glass c^-
not be traced back beyond the year 306 b. c. At
this earty date in the Far East coloured windows were
made by arranging small gem-like pieces of pot-metal
in perforated wooden or stone panete. This kind
of window, still in use in the Onent, found its most
notable development after the advent of Christianity;
but it was not imtil the birth of Gothic architecture,
with its large window-openings, that the full value
of glass ae a transmitter of light and a polychromatic
decorative material was fully appreciated. Gothic
window-openings called for a fiUing strong enough to
keep out the weather, yet transparent enou^ to
admit the light; on the other hand, as, in this form of
architecture, the wall-apaces were necessarily small,
the windows offered the only opportunity for the
deoorator'e art in so far as it depended upon colour.
As glass at that time was to be had only in small
pieoee, the glazier was compelled, in order to fill the
window-openings, to make his lights a mos^c, that
is a combination o£ pieces of glass of various sizes and
colours worked to a given design by placing them in
pixtapodtion. These pieces of glass had to be kept
in place by some other material, and the beat medium
for the piirpbee was found to be lead, applied in strips
made with lateral grooves for the reception of the
edges of the glass.
The early windows were purely ornamental trana-
V parent mwaics; later, when figure subjecta were por-
trayed, the artist, on account of the limitations of
the mostUe method, was mmpelled to use paint in
order to get the proper effect, painting directly upon
the ^lasa with ordinary transparent pigments; out
as this was not durable, when exposed to atmospheric
changes, he protected the ptunted portion by covering
it with another piece of glass which was held in place
by means of leads, and tnus insured its preservation,
at least as long as the superimposed glass remained
intact. This imperfect method was not long in use
before a great discovery waa made at Limc^es in
France, where a Venetian colony of glass-workera
had settled aa early aa the year 079. The new pro-
cess, which revolutionized the art, consisted in paint-
ii^ with metallic pigments which could be fused
into the glass, the painting bdng thus made as lasting
as the glass itself. Not the first, but one of the first,
to employ this permanent process of painting on glass
to any consid^ble extent was the ^reat tweuth-
ooitury promoter of all things ecclesiological, the
Abbot Suger. Recognising the value of the inven-
tion, he caused the windows of the Church of St.
Dcaiis at Paris to be executed in this way, and they
wew 80 successful that picture-windows became there-
after a necessary constituent of every ecclesiastical
edifice.

The oldest painted picture-window that has sur-
vived the action of time is one representinj^ the
Ascension in the cathedral of Le Mans, which is be-
lieved by many antiquarians to be a work of the late
eleventh oenttuy. The glass composing it i$ very
beautiful, more particularly the browns, which are
iteh ill tone, the rubies, wmch are InUliant. stireaked

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STimD CBAM 'V

ftnd studded with eemitke bloba of blaok, and the
blues, which are of a greenish azure hue, while the
general colour treatment ie exl^reiudy oriental. The
arawing of the figures ia most effective, although
simple m line, andfiyzantuie in charactw-, differing
ia this point from tnose at St. Denis, which are
Romanesque. The pftinting is pecniUar in that tiw
hi^ of the figures is rendered in solid blaok, and aot
in lines. Although La Mans was one of the first
places where wiiufows made by the new process were
used, yet it (Ud not become the centre of work; the
city of Cbartres took the lead, tmd became the greait-
est of the schools of medieval glass-painting, and from
it the new art slowly made its wa^ to Germany and
Englaod, keying always ite essential^ French char-
acter. EWi to^y the CSuitres windowa are tba
most beautiful in existence.

At the very be^nning — the eleventh and twelfth
centuries — ^Uiere were two methods of work: one
school of artists freely employed punt in their win-
dows, the other avoided its use, striving to obtain the
result sought by a purely mosajo method, a system
destined to be revived and developed in after ages;
but the former school almost at once gained the
mastery and held it for aght hundred yeara. Exam-
tHea of Hxe early work of these rival bukkA can best
be studied by comparing the painted windows erec-
ted at Le Mans with those at Strasburg, urtiich were
built in accord with mosaic motives. In many of
the first windows the figure subjects were painted
upon small pieces of glass imbedded in a wide orna-
mental border, a large number of these medallions
entering into the composition of a sin^ wimlow, and
each section held in place by an iron armature— «
constructive necesaty. as the window-opaungs were
without mullions. The medallions were aU related
to one another through their colour k^, de|>ictinK
various incidents in the same history or a numberTm
points in a theological proposition. This form of
window^ peculiarly adapted to a single light, con-
tinued m fashion from the twelfth century until the
introduction of tracei^, and in some parts of France
long after the sinjde h^t had gtvoi way to the mid-
lioned window. Contanporaneous with these medals
lion windows there were two other Idnds: the canopy
and Jesse windows. In the first there was a represen-
tation of one or two figures, executed in rich colours
on a coloured or white Kround within borders and
under a low-crowned, rude, and simple canopy, usu-
ally out of proportion to the figure or figures it cov-
ered. The second vaiiety, of pictor^ genefdo^ of the
Redeemer, consisted oi a tree or vine springing from
the recumbent form of Jesse, lying aale^ at the
foot of the window, the branches forming a aeries
of panels, one above another, in which kings and
patriarchs of the royal house of the Lion of Ju^h woe
pictured.

The windows of the twelfth century are admired
on account of their ingenious combinations of colour,
their rich rug-like effects and the brilUancy of the
glass. It was reserved, however, for the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries to see the full unfolding of
the possibilities and inherent beauty of coloured

Slass. Amon^ the most noted of these windows are
he exquisite ]ewel-like ones in the cathedral of Char-
tres, a hundred and forty-three in number, oontwn-
ing no less than one thousand three hundred and
fifty subjects, with over three thousand figures;
there are also some fine examplea to be seen at Reims,
Bourges, Tours, and Poitiers. Hiese magpifieent
windows are only a small portion of the almost incred-
ible number that once existed. The windows of the
thirteenth century are not only more brilhant in
colour, but the colours are more skilfully blended
than in those of the preceding century; at the same
time the drawing of the figures is better the faee*
are oral in form, mors daueately toM^ied, aitVk i»>

12 vasMKD oojum

fined and vigwoua; the eyes have a natural expns-
sion, and the hair is rendered in lines of vatytng
thickness. The compoedtions are nmple and not
over-KTowded, the dr^ieries are broader m treatmsot,

' the ornaments and arehiteotaral details, taUng their
motives mostly from natural obJ«cts» a» well drawn.
The ranga of aubiflOts reproeented behig limited by

, the tmnmount ol^Mt of all eecleaastioal deeorations
the MidycUe Age8> via. lbs instruction of the iUit-
eraita and promotion of piety amon^ the people,
these windows weeent scenes from Biblical hiatoty
and the lives of the swnts, aad symbolic portrayab
of the dogmas of. the Church. In fact thejr were
sermom whidi "reached the heart through the eyes
instead al entering at the ears". But ihdr dtaiiK
ot aubjeots was not made at random; it fdl under the
same nde tilat guided the encrydc^iedias of the time
in thor clasmficati<m of the universe, commendng
with God and the creation of angelic beisgs, aad w
on through, nature, seaeDoe, ethics, and history.
The windovra were indeed poems in glass. "The fint
canto, reflecting the image of God as the Creator, the
Father, and the giver of ell |;ood gifts; the second,
natiue, organic and inorganic; the tUid, sdenee;
the fou^ the moral sense; axtd lastly, the entile
world". Where there were not enoo^ windom in
a church to carry out the complete scheme, one or
more portions were represented.

The windows of the fourteenth centiury show a
stead]^ increase in knowledge of the art, more parti cm-
larly in mattWB of drawing and harmonious use of
colour. The later advance was brou^t about by
the discovery ol the yellow stain, which phtced in
the artiats' hands not (mly various shadee of ycUov,
but also a colour with which iixiy could warm their
yAxte ig^aaa. It also led them to develop a st^le of
class window that first made its appeanmce m the
days df St. Bernard and was used largely by tite
Cbterctans, whose churches were a protest agwut
tiie luxury, the pomp of colour and omam«itatioii,
of those built by rival monastic bodies, particularly
by the art-loving Cluniac jnonka. These pisuUe,
or stippled, windows w«e iriute and black, or nay
and ^y, brown and brown, wanned by the yeUow
stain ana were punt^ upon white or clear ^aes.
Towards the end of the fourteenth century the artists
began to break away from the tutelage of the a^rehi-
tect fmd abandoned the sound rules of the ^reat
school of the thirteenth century, ignoring the nrind-
ple that "all ornament should consist of enricnmeat
of ttiB essentia construction of a building". The
sins of the glass-painters oi the fifteen^ century
were still greater, for it mattered little to them if
thdr windows were out of kev with the architectural
design of the building in wnich they were placed;
thor sole wish seemed to be to make their mirk do
them honour. This abandonment of the fixed canons
of the art, the abuse of its materials, and the exag-
geration of individualism marked the beginning of
the end of good glasswork, the deterioration becom-
ing complete just as a revolution in religiouB tinuriit
was bom into the world which destroyed in its aes-
tractive march not only the glass^ainter's art, bnt
many others, and also wreckM the art treasures of
medieval culture, while it paralysed fw years, in
Northern Europe, ecclesiastical art of every kind.

In the rixteenth centuty the windows were purdy
picrtorial uid wholly divorced from their architectural
surroundit^. At the end of this century uid all
through the next the windows rapidly degenerated,
the art of making them finally passing from the hands
of artists into the preedy grasp o( tradesmen. The
last windows made m which ^ere was etiU some artis-
tic merit are those In the Church of St. John at Gouda
In these the painters introduced landscapes, arcades,
and corridortk uming at absolnto realism and start-
Kns pMVvetiTW, and treatixtt^Uieir glan as ^

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maid eanraa. Ib the seventeenth and eighteenth
oentoriee the uae of paints and enamels beeiune so
eKeeesiTe as to almost do away with pot-metal.
Many of the windows wen made wholly by fnuntitiff
and staining clear glass, and were purely articles m
teade, with a very poor market, which became smaller
from year to year imtil all demand ceased, and the
noble art of placing imageB of beauty between earth
and heaven for the edifioatioo of the people, for the
aloiy of the art, for the love of the beMitilul, and the
honour of God disappeared ffn: a time from off the
face of the earth.

II. Continental .Europe and Great Britun, in
Ha recoil from the black night of unbelief, indifference,
and disorder that wrecked good morals at the end of
the eighterath century and the b<wnning of the
nineteenth, fell back upon the faith ofthe past as its
only anchor of hope. As the Faith revived among
the people it called for a material expreeuon of its
dogmas and history under forms of beauty, c^iening
onoe again the fidd of rehglous art to architects,
painters, and sculptors. All over Europe every
bruich oS art found able leaders — men of enthusiasm,
rare talents, and great enei^. Each one, architect,
painter, and sciilptor, entered upon the work with the
spirit of faith, love, and sacrifice, in their hearts, and
tried to make their art " a frame for the sacred picture
of truth Amid this revival of the major arts, those
idaxsh developed most rabidly were paintiiu; and
ardutecture, and among the handmaidens of the la1>
ter the Raster's art almost at once took a leadj^og
position. To Geruumy belongs the honour of re\iv-
ing coloured windows, although both France and
England have a prior claim, as having produced the
first picture windows subsequent to the French Revo-
hition; but these were notning more than isolated
clfc«ts of individuals, while in Germany associated
artists of ability gave their attention to the matter
and founded a school d glass-punters, and Munich
became the centre of the movement. One of the
greatest efforts of the Munich School is to be seen
m Glasgow Cathedral, where it reached its limit of
excellency. This was indeed a noble effort, but on
the whole a lamentable failure, due to the nature of
^e glass, as well as a lack of knowledge of the re-
quirements of the art &ad of its place as an adjunct
to architecture. The windows are marked by thin-
Hess <tf colour, exaggersted diapered bacl^roundls,
inharmonious borders, and defective blending of
the oolours, while there is a lack of harmony between
the ornaments of the building and its arcbiteoture.

The modem French school of window-makers is
very similar to the German, with even a stronger
te^ency to took upon coloured windows as easel
pictures, with little or no leaning towards medieval
pcooesseB, and without any apparent effort to attun
the inoompard>le beauty of the windows which adorn
the Frou^ cathedrals of the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries. The Enghah school of glassiMinters
are by far tJie most successful, and all beeause thcdr
higjiest aim has been to make their windows good
copies of the best glass of the Middle Ages. Much
of their work is very beautiful, deepty imbued with
a devotional sfurit, and of high artistic merit. The
Amerioao artist in glass, impatient of tradition, caring
very littJe for either the subjects or the symbolism
<rf the past, has attempted to do something new by
using opeA glass, with its limitless oolour field, along
tiie unes of the mosuc system, and build a window
perfect in colour effect. In practice he separates his
lights and darks from one another by carefully stud-
ied lead lines, irhich he endeavours to lose by making
them look like a part of the glass and an essential
oonstituent of tite demgn. At same time he triee
to hd|^ten tin colour vahies of his glass by supers
inqwsug one oolour upon another, seemingly always
*iniii^ in Ruikin'a Return: "Ooknir, to m

perfect, must have a soft outline or a single one; it
cannot have a refined one; and you will never produee
a good window with good figure drawing in it. You
will lose perfection of colour as you give perfection <tf
line. Tiy to put in order and f<Hin the colour of a
piece of opal." So far the American artist in glass
has not been suceessful in making good «iurch
windows, and all because be disr^ards their true pur-

ri, their architectural surroundings, and because
has overestimated the value of coloured glass
as a decorative material, hence saoifiang OTwything
to his window. It is true, however, tiu^be has made
a few good windows, translucent mosaics which in-
deed are great works of art, with wondwful niceties
of fight and shade, with prismatic play of colours,
and admirably harmonious.

In the future, as in the past, the proper field for
fhis art ia nn p^rlr.«i;ij<fical one. It therpiore bp^mvrii
the t^rti&t in glass, il' tie hopes to reach a hiah di-grea
of perfr^ction, to study the principles whiw gfrwu
Christian art, and ever bo bear in ndnd t^t 0»
glauor's art ts but an auxiliary to the architect's.

HiNDHK (tr,), An Euay upon Variout ArU, by Thtophilu*
raiiivS alta fhn/tmx, a Monk of the Elfpntlh Cmluxj/ (Ij^tMiop,
Ivlrl; J,.(aTli««il!, fliataire dt ia ptinttiTe t\cr rtfrt. J'.-i).iri. !i.t
Th..rri,r.i^r,tj sl» Ft^ntt (P«.rin, 1EH31. Fh-Jiilii.ii-;; lE

i'1 Tht Atl of Paintitu/ on QJatf (l>j1i<kin, IS^lHi: GFS^bHT

It. I'lpi.K. T)ie Art of GIm* Paittlirw 1 l^iriijiin. IM-I^j; L^muiii,
Ti'n'tr hf,'!"riri'if. dt ia f^-nlvrt lui vvrr i.l'arifl, lS5ilj; Livr,
!fiM:ir( d, li pntt ur* tur mjti? ti< B^'fiv '.Dcuasela, IStMJ):
iriyMi-.Ti, Itir^fi/j- In CftthldfaU <Su Mann iLe Mana, 1864):
lVi^>(i(,y, ,Li Iniuiru inia the Differrncv oj StffU Ob*ertabie in
.-I ij: >rTif O'friflj! /'iin[j<ip (OsfoFd., l.SOTl; Viollbt-le-di3i;, V-Urarir,
la IMrtiu'iii'iirf T'lisimnf d'arehtlvHurr [PnriH, 1S75); WKarfj.iR,
.1 Hi^itiry uf /JfJtir/n in F.iinlf/i GUiyr iXM^Ann. ISSH; flikt^Me,
ViTri<T3- lie hfonlmoTeney d'J^fonf-m et lif t^hfl.nliUu (PttriB, 1886)!
CiiUKI^^i:. A o/ OliJd lU Thr .Ir. Jj(f,rfr(riiJ /ifcorrJ, II USSS);

X aMl), tht SKOrirf itnriff; XXl iVMi7\. Thr. WiiuioKt o)
G>i-\fht. Thr JtiXfi Tree; TlFf.kNT. Amrrir^in. j^lrf Suprrmr in Cal-
Drfi Oh^^n in Tfit Farwa., XV {N(?w Viirk. \nm]\ Holiujit,
SlJtne'l Gl■^/■f as an Art (Laadoa, ISfHij ; Day, H'iWijtts (LioQiiaD,
1SP7); HtJTWAKf. Ths CitlMnij; Sfointd aSatt Tour* in Aunci

Cabtl CoLnuN.

Stalls, seats in a ohoir, wholly or partly enclosed
on the back and sides, are mentioned from the
eleventh eentuiy. In the earliest times the subaelHa,
usually of stone, of the clersy were placed to the ri^t
and left of the caAedra ofthe Imnop in the apse of
the banUoa. After the numbm of the clergv had
greatly increased they appear to have stood auring
choir service, as is evident fR»o the Rule of St.
Chrodegang and from the statutes of Aachen of ihe
year 816. Even as late as the eleventh century St.
Peter Damien wrote "Contra eedentes in chore".
Those who were weak supported themselves on a
T-shi^wd crutch called recUnatorivm, yriaeh was
Bometunes eoisured, sometimes pomitied, as in
tJie second ' ' Ordo Romanus " . Soon, however,
the forma or formula, seats with backs, appeared
(plan <rf St. Gall of the ninth century), as well as
tne actual aU^i, connected seats in which only arms
s^arated the individual seats, and an architectural
effect was sou^t. The seats, which earlier were fre-
quently movaJble, now became fixed; the sides and
backs were made higher; the ornamentation, rarifp-
nally pictorial, aom became architectural and was
carved. A few examples of titese have been pro-
served in Germany from the Romanesque period. At
Ratzeburg tibere are side-pieces, each Bupp<»ted by
two small columns with base and oi^itaL that are
rounded above like a beam and beautifully broken
in tiie middle by curved fluting. There are also
nnall oolumns on the oldest choir^tall at Xanten:
the face of the back is even more boldly curved, and
fantastio heads completely in the round project
from it. During the Gothic period the architectonic
dement was at times exaf^erated; the mathe-
matical forms of the labyrinths of lines and the
seribhu; are too jejune, and the structure is oftoi
top high and unoomHUtMile. On ^lej^bet baiuLthe

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bakUohinum over the highest row o< seats Hras often
very magnifioent. Germany and France poBsen a
latse number of staUs that are masterpiecea. These
staUa are found on both. sides of the ohoir in the
churobes of monasteries and oollesiate foundations.
The seats On the E^le ode are oalled ehona eAbatit
or pngpontijtiioao tm the Goqid side cftorut prioris
<a deemi. The Uot <rf the asoutdin^ rom has gener-
ally a back wall crowned with artistie decorations.
Hie bade <d each preoeding row aervea the succeeding
one as a prayer-desk; the first row has a projection
built in front of it for the same purpose. On feast
days, for the rake of comfort and ornament, tapea-
tries were hung on the backs of the stiUls, cushkma
kud on the seats, and ruga put under tiie feet. Orna-
mental dedgns or figures carved in the wood dec-
orated both the front and rear faces of the high
backs of all (he stiJls as well as the double arms that
were used boUi when
standing and sitting.
On the arms as well
as in Bubordinate
parts, eq>ecially on
ihe mi»ericordia or
console — against
which, alter the seat
had been turned up,
the cleric could ,BUjp-
port himself whUe
standing — it was not
unusual to carve fan-
tastic figures of ani-
mals or grotesque
devils. C£oir«tall8
of stone, v^iieh are
always colder, ooeur
but rarely (for ex-
ample, at Kaurim la
Bohemia). Among
the oldest still exist-
ing examples of Goth-
ic choir-stalls in
France are those in the Church of Notre-Dam»*
de-la-Roche; eroeciidly rich in thedr omam«i-
tation are tboae m the cathedrab at Amiens, Paris,
Auch, fuod others. Viollet-le-Duc ovee some beauti-
ful exampke in his "Dictionnaire de VArchitecture",
B. V. Stalks. Among examples in Belgium the Church
of St. Geo^de at Louvain shows late Gothic choir^
stalls with statuettes and twenty-^ht reliefe por-
traying the life of Christ, of St. Augustine, and of
St. Gertnide. The most celebrated chotr-etaUs in
Gsnnany are those in Uie Cathedral at Ulm; these
are reproduoed in all their details in " Der Dom
gu Uun" (1872). There are eighty-nine seats with

Sble hood-mouldings and pinnacles, on each seat
ere are two rows (A decorations, on the back and
on the side, repreaen&Uig Christ as the anticipation of
the heathen and the prediction of the prophets, and
in addition thoe is ddineated the foundmg of the
New Covenant. The choir-stalls at DOTdrecht, Hol-
land, belinig to the style of ihe Remussance; they
i^resent on the back the triumph of the Church and
€d the Holy Sacraments; on the opposite side, the
triumphs of Chulee V. There are superb creations
of the same style in Ital^, eapecifdly with inlaid work
oalled tarna, as at Assisi, Siraia, Florence, and Venice
(ef. Kraus. "Geschichte dcr christi. Kuut", II,
685). Modon times have made but few chan^ in
the practical and uiistic form that was fixed m an
earliema.

BendM the Authon Blraady moitkKwd: Run, I>a* ChorQutaU
4MDaiMisuJirjtfn(Dmden, lM7);T»CBUCB.^.Der SUjAan*dt>m
in Wim (VleBna, 1832). A comprahendve trratlM u given by
RuawtSACH, CAotvmMIM d- MUttbdlen in Zntiehr. fOr ekriM.
Arthaol. u. Rmtt. II; ifitt*!. d«r *. fc. CmJrai-XminiMfM m
Wim. Till (Tiana*. 1866) ; GiiLUBAim, AnhiUetyr* du V* au
ZVn* titeb « dM art! flirf m dllMmlMt (Pftrii. 1850-8).

CtaBHAjm unnuiiir.

Caott Btaus nr ns QniaiM or S. Bmno, rboancs

StaDlurotdcAbbCTt an abbey of Benedietine nnn%
midway betwera IvQveni and Worcester, Enc^and.
The abbey and church are dedicated to Otlr Lady of
Consolation, tiie title <^ the ori^nal foundation at Cam-
brai, ^wnidi FlandeiB, IffiUS, effected by tiw Baiedi»>
tine Monks of the Engnsb Cangregation, under wbxm
immediate jurisdiction the eonmiunity has alwam
remained. Of the nine E^u^ish ladies who began the
foimdation, ^len More (Dame Gertrude) was diiaf
foundress becwise of the liberali^ of her father, Oes-
tvae More, great'^iandsonof ^ Thomas More; where-
fore the commmuty has special claims on tiie patron-
age of tfa^ Ueased martyr. Tbe^other ladies were:
Margaret VavaBotir; Anne Morgan; Cathaine Ga»-
ecdgne; Grace and Anne More, oouana of Helen;
Frances Watson; and two lay usters, Mary Hoskins
and Jane Martin. Dame Fnmoes Gawen, one of three
nuns lent by the Beoediotines of Brussels to train the

postulants, governed
as abbess until the
infant communis
was in a poation to
choose one from its
own body. Dame
C^therineGasooigne,
abbess, 1629-1676.
Dom Augustine
Balder, to whom their
spiritual formation
was entrusted, wrote
at the Cambrai AIh
b^, for thor use^
spiritual treatises
which ^ve liim ce-
lebrity. In 1793 the
Frendi revolution-
ists, Beising their
house and prc^)erty,
conveyed tne nuns,
twenty-two in numr
ber, to a prison in
Compidgne. Here^
hardship, four of them

conseouent on __

also tne Very Reverend Dom Augustine Ws
President <A the Anglo-Benedictine Gongr^a-
tkm, who had been arrested in thdr priests' quai*
teA. Subsequentiy they had as f»low-prisonen
the Carmelites (dinoe beatified), vdio were led
tiience to mar^rrdtun in Paris, Julyj 1794. Thtra^
a omilar dea^ awaited the Benedictines tins wm
averted by the downfall of Robennerre, thdr defivei^
ance from jail being effected onhr on 25 April, 1795.
Qad in worn-out secular attire Ion in the Compi^ne
prison by the Carmelite roartyn, they reached Eng-
land in utter destitution, but were charitably lodged
in London for some days. Thence thev proceeded to
Lancashire, where the Very Reverena Dr. Brewer,
President of the Anrio-Benedictine Congregation,
made over to tiiem the Ladies' School beloi^D^ to the
Woolton misdon under his care.

In 1807 tiie community reoMved to Salford Hall,
near Evesham, where by the joint kindness of Its
owner, Mrs. Stanford, and the life-heir, Robert BeHc-
eley, Esq., of Bpetchlv, they lived free of rent, till
able to purchase Stanbrook EUdl, to which tiwy re-
moved in 1838. In 1871 an entir^ new monastic
structure was inan^rated by the consecration of the
abbey-church, designed by Edward Weft^ Pu^.
The starting of this project was m^nly attributable to
the seal and energy of the then Vicariut moniaiivan,
Dom James Lanrenoe Shepherd, the well-known txvoB-
latorof Dom Gu^ranger's "Ann6e Litur^que". The
rest of the abbey building, of which Messrs. Cuthbert
and Peter-Paul Pugin were the wtihitecte, was grad-
ually erected during the abbacy of Lady Gertrude L.
d'Aurillac Dubras, d. 1897. The abbe^, witit its
SKtaivTs froonds, is cnoloMd by tha aanwuoal vafl

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eooolflted tgr the preeent abbeai. Am fomeriy at
Cuibrei, 80 at Stonbrook, the Bolenm oelebrstion of
the Divine Office, strictaess of enclosure, and monaaUo
observance are leading features. Though essentially
devoted to the contemplative life, the nuns receive for
education witiiin the cloister a small number of'
■kuune. The;/ are firis of the tqipar olaases of life,
■nd are fitted for their future pomtHm in sooiety by a
strong tradita<maiy baining on monastic lines aoooird-
ii« to the spirit ctf St. Benedict's Rule. Stai^inx^
Awey has some reputation for ita contributions to
Catholic hterature, as also to the populiuisation of
Gregorian Chant. Lady CeciUa A. Heywood, who
«« blessed abbess in Novembea-, 1897, is the twen-
tieth in sucoeanon from the year ltt29. [See Mora,
HxiiEN (Dame Qebtbcde.)]

Weldox, Ckronoloiiicttl Wol«t * (Stanbrook, 1881); Weld-
BLtxDBLL, /nncr Life and WrittTifft of D. Gertrude More, 2 vols.
<Lowk>D. 1»10); SwBBifvT, Life and Spirit cf Father Bbker
(Urnka. 1861): Con, AmpUftrth Journal (April. 1897} ;
Aleton. DmmMtde Review (Chnstmu, 1906-7): Waooh, Dovm-
tidt Retiew (July, 1900); adBANaBR, {Vie dt). par un Btnt-
•HdU de Soi*eim»» (Puk, IfilO); Billtcocq, BuUetin THmeetriet
it rArdtiemiJrirU de tf. D. do CompauimOi^Bnim. 1907):
Dt Tau U Corrmpmdant (Puis, 1906); WVluoh. Martm of
C^^ftu (LondOD, 1907); Dm CoOmoit, CsmuHUi of Com-

E. B. Wkld-Bluhdsl.

Btanflalct, Wiluam Clabkbon, English punter,
b. at Sunderland, 1793; d. at HMnpetead, near Lon-
don, 1867. He became a sailor, and on one of his
iwimeys to New Guinea made the acquaintance of
Thomas Clarkson, who was strongly intereeted in the

abolition o( the
slave trade; in

firoof of his warm
riendahip with
whom, he added
the nameof Clark-
son to his own,
And thereafter
stated himself
Uilliam Clarkson
Stanfield. He was
disabled in 1816,
and th«i started,
as a scene-painter
in a theatre, much
frequented by sail-
ots, from which he
obtained engage-
ments to the va-
rious other Lon-
don theatres.
Making the ac-
quaintance of
' Douglas Jerrold
aad Captain Marryat, the novelist, he was strongly
rBcoBMnended to take up the painting of panel pictures,
and to bry his chance at an eniibition. He exhibited at
the Society of ^ tish Artists in 1 824, and again in 1827,

C' ig considerable attoation and encouragement,
years later he sent a picture to the Acadmy,
idii^ was favourably reoeiTed, and, gaining a priie
of fifty guineas from the British Institution, he relin-
quished scene-painting and started on a Continental
tour, painting various pictures. From that time he
vas a steady exhibitor at the Academy, sending in
Mariy one hundred and forty pictures to its exhibi-
tiooe. His paintings partook of the character of
iJEoe-paintii^ in their spectacular and stogey effect,
but many of them were very charming, and were
pettly aomired, and stMne of his hart wilfhardly ever
beeioelled aa fine reinreaentationsof sea scenes. P&e-
hape his greatest is the one in the possesuon of Mrs,
Btons; other works (A importance are those painted
for the Marquess of Lansdowne at Bowood, and the
|mr beauttfm exautfiBa m the VtoUHia and Albert
■wwirn. He was a man of tranendous energy* vd

Prom a Pfaotognph

roeauded by hill friends as exmsdbigly ehanninc and
ideasant. A devout Catholic, he spent the latter
part of his hfe in old house at Hampstead, still
standing, and used putly as a library and partly as a
residence. Hia funwal took place in the Catholic
eemeterr at Kensal Ore«i, and a oou^ of yeaia after
hia death there was a UMmiiDrial exhibition df
m the Royal Academy.

Tb&n ia ao work daaUnx with thi« p«intar that bM aajr alalia
for «pMi«l moocnitiou; ooasulb tb« mwncin in the lootti papan of
HMnpsteM, mod in tlw priiioip«I Jounub of the dtgr-

Qmomam Cbabus WnAumoir.

BtanifliM Koatka, Saint, b. ui l^r^qtk.jvo near
Praauysi, Ftdand, about 28 October. 15oO; d. at Roruc
during the night of 14-15 August, i rstiS He t-ntcred
the Somety ch Jesus at Rome, 28 October, 1667, £ind is
said to have foret(dd his death a few days before it oe-
ourrad. His father, John Kostka, was a senator of tlu ,
Kingdom of Poland and Lord of Ziikrotrzym; his
mother was Mar^ret de Drobniy Kryska, the sLst^f
and nieoe <tf the Dukes Palatine of ]M:i!^via and the
aunt vS the oeletM&ted Qiancelloi if Folii.nd, Ve]a
Kryski. The marriage was bleeseil with mv^n chil-
drw, of whom Stanisbs was the s'.Toiid. older
brother Paul survived him long enough to be jiresBnt
at the celebration of the beatmcation of Stanislas in
1606. The two brothers were first taught at home,
the mtin feature of this early education being tba
firmness, even severity, U their trniniuK: its ntfiilta
the exceUeot habits of piety, nnxieaty, tempos
aoce, and submiMon. After this they wf^ro wnt to
Vienna with their tutor to attend thi^ Jesuit college
that had been opened there four years before, reaching
Vienna, 25 July, 1564. Among th'^ i^tudcnts of the
ooUege Stanislas was soon oonspicnous not «nly for
his amiability and cbeerfulnesB of expression, but
also for his religions fervour and angelic piety. This
spirit cA devotion continued to grow during the three
years he remaiped in. Vieima. His brother Paul said
of him (hiring the process of beatification: "He de<
voted himself so completely to spiritual things that
he frequoit^ jeoame unconscious, ciftecially in the
church of the Jesuit Fathera at Vienna. It is true,"
added the witnesB, "that this had h^ipened at home
to my brother at Earter when be was seated at table
with our parepts and other peraona." Among other
practices of devotion he joined while at Vienna the
CoDgr^tion of St. Barbara, to which many students
of the Jesuit college belonged. If the oonndences he
then made to his tutor and later to a fellow-member
(A the Society at Home are to be bdieved, it was Saint
Barbara who brought two angels to him during the
course of a serious illness, in order to ^ve him the
Eudiarist. So much piety, however, did not ^ease
the older brother Paul; hn exasperation led him to
treat with videnoe the innocent Stanislas. The lat-
ter finally lost patience, and one night after Stanislas
had again auffOTod the nars^ comments and blows of
his brother he turned on Paul with the words: "Your
rough treatment will end in my ^ing away new to
return, and you will have to explam my leaving to our
father and mother." Paul's sole reply was to swear
violentiy at him.

Meantime the thought of joining the Sode^ of
Jeeus had already entered the mind of the samtiy
young man. It was six months, however, before he
vKitured to eveak of this to the superiors of the
Society. At Vienna they hesitated to receive him,
fearing the tenqwst that would probably be raised by
hia fa&w against the Society, which had just quieted
a storm that had broken out on account of other ad-
missionB to the Companv. Stani^as quickly grasped
the situation and formea the plan of applying to the
genentd of the Society at Rome. The distance was
five hundred leagues, which had to be made on foot,
without equipment, or guide, Of any other resources

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Sn Skamhlm KonsA,
Tkttu ft portrut prnMrvd at Dl O^iu*
phonen-d'Oxon, I>(n, Fruoa

but the pnearioiu duvHy that init^t be raeemd m
the road. The proqwctire dangera and humOiatione
of such a journey, however, did not alarm his eonrage.
On the morning of the day on wfakh he was to oany
out his projeet he called his rnnnt to him eacty and
told him to notify his brother Ttxi and his tutor hi
die oouree of the morning that be would not be back
that day to dinner. Then he started, takiiw the first
opiwrtunity to ezdiance the drees of a genueman for
that (tf a mendicant, nhioh was the only way to escape

the curiosity of
those he might
meet. , By night-
faU Paul and the
tutor compre-
hended that
islas had turned
from them as he
had threatened.
They were seised
with a fierce anger,
uid as the day was
ended the fugitive
had gained
twenty-four hours
over them. They
started to follow
him, but were not
able to overtake
him; either their
equated horses
refused to go
fartherjor awheel
(rf their carriage
would break, or,
as the tutor frank-
ly declared, they
had m 18 taken the
route, having left the city by a different road from the
one that Stanislas had taken. It is noticeable that
in his testimony Paul gives no ejqduiatioD of his iU^
luck.

Staniabfl stsjved fbr a month at Daimgen, iriMR the
provincial of that time, the Blessed Peter Caniriu^
put the T0un(5 aspirant s vocation to the test by em-

E toying him in the boarding-school. Subsequently
e went on to Rome, where lie arrived 25 October,
1567. As he was greatly exhausted by the journey,
the general of the order, St. Francis Borgia, would
not permit him to enter the novitiate of Saint An-
drew until several days later. During the ten re-
maining months (tf his life, according to the tertt-
mony of the master of novices, Fath«: Giulio Fano,
he was a model imd mirror of rdipoua perfection.
Notwithstanding his very delicate constitution he
did not spare himself the slightest penance ("Monu-
menta hist. Societatis Jesu, Sanctus Franciscus
Borgia", IV, 635). He had such a burning fever in
his cheat that he was often obliged to apply oold
compresses. On the eve of the feast of St. Lawr«ice,
StanisUs felt a mcniat weakness made worse bv a
high fever, and dearly saw that his last hour had
come. He wrote a letter to the Blessed Virgin b^
ging her to call him to .the skies thwe to (^lebrate
with her the e^orious anniversary of her Assumption
(ibid., 636). His confidence in the Blessed Vugin,
which had already brought him many signal favours,
was this time again rewarded: _ on 15 August, to-
wards four in the morning, while he was wrapt in
pious utterances to God, to the saints, and to the
^rgin Mary, his beautiful soul passed to its Creator.
His face shone with the most serene light. The
entire city proclaimed him a saint and pec^le has-
tened from all parts to venerate his remains and to
obtain, if possible, some relics (ibid., 637). The
Holy See ratified the popular verdlot by his beatifioa-
ttoa in 1605; be wai oanonised on 81 Decamher,

1736. St. StaniaUs is one of the popular aamtB of
Poland and many religious mstitutions have dtoma
him as the protector at their novitiates. The repre-
sentations of him in art are very varied; he is some-
timee dmicted receiving Holy Uommunion from the
hands Of angels; sometimes receiving the Infant
Jesus from the hands of the Virgin: or he is dKnrn
in the midst of a battle putting to flight the enemies
of his country. At times be is depicted near a
fountain putting a wet linen cloth on his breast.
He is invoked for palpttatatms ik the heart and for
danfferous cases of iDnen (.Cahier, "Caract^isticiueB
dflsBainta").

This account has been drawn almost excluaivdy
from the depositions of witnesses cited for ^e process
of ciuionisation of Stanislas <ef. Aivhivio deUa Po»'
tulazione generate d. C. d. G., Roma). The accom-
panying portrait is by Scipicme DeLfini and is the cideet
of St. Stanislas in existence. Having probably be«k
painted at Rome the year of his deaUi, perhaps after
death, it may be regarded as the best likoiess. The
face is strikmgly Slavonic, a fact that is not notioe-
able in his other portraits.

livw of Suuiiilfti were written at R~int in thrt rtwr nf hii iV»tli
by Ffthen Fauo uul Wuwcrm (Bnuaels. 18W). The former
ronuanod in maauaoript, but the aubataaot ot both lua bean
tfna in Uter bkwnphiw. Among thoas Iftttar tbe moat eom-
plate tad moat fully bsaed on doeumentwy avidcon ia timt of
UBAWiiniaytniiiMAiBaaaiMUaiia,IX-XTI (1890-1807). BqasDr
worthy of noommandntioD an ths wwkaaSAOtMiin.BAMOU,
Qrubcs, Ooldib, and Muasi.

FuNCD Vah OsnoT.

StaniBlaus of Cracow, Sain^ bishop and mar^^
b. at Ssczepanow (hence called Sicsepanowski),
in the Diocese of Cracow, 26 July. 1030; d. at Cracow,
8 May, 1079; feast on 7 May in Roman Martyrology,
but on 8 May at Cracow, which has a special feast <»
the translation of his relics on 27 September; patnm
of Poland and of the city and Diocese of Cracow;
invoked in battle.- In pictures he ia given the epia-
copal insignia and the sword. Lai^r paintings rep-
resent him in a oourt or kneeling before the altar
and receiving the fatal blow. No contemporary
biograpi^ 4^ the saint is in existence. At the tima
ot his canonisaticm a life appeared written by a
Dominican Vincent(?) (Ao»a May, IL 106) whidi
contains much legendary matter. His psrents^
Belislaus and Bogna, pious and noble Catholics,
gave him a religious education. He made his studies
at Gneeen and Paris(?). After the death of his
parents he distributed tus ample inheritance among
the poOT. Lambert Zula, Bishop of Cracow, ordained
him priest and made him pastor of CzemfaooB near
CracoWj canon and preach^ at the cathedral, and
later, vi car-general. After the death of Lambert be
was elected bishop, but accepted only on explicit
command of Pope Alexander H. He worked with
his wonted energy for his diocese, and inve^hed
against vices among high and low, regardless of
consequences. Bolecuaw U had become King of
Poland. The renown he had gained by his 8ucoes»>
ful wars he now sullied by atrocious cruelty and un-
bridled hist. Moreover the bishop had several
serious disputes with the king about a piece of land
bdonging to the Church which was unjustly claimed
by Boleuaw, and about some nobles, who had Inffc
the king before Kiev and returned to their homes
to ward off various evils threatening their families .
and who were in consequence cruelly treated by the
king. Stanislaus spared neither tears nor prayers
am^ admonitions to bring the Iring to lead a man
CSiristian life. All being in vain, Boleslaw was eac-
oommunioated and the canons of the cathedral were
instructed to discontinue the Divine Offices in oasa
the king should attempt to enter. Stanislaus retired,
to the Qiapel of St. Michael in a suburb of Craoov..
The king was furious and followed the bishc^ witk
his guaras, some of vriiam he sent to kill (he asmt»

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These dared not obey, 00 Boledsw dmr him diirmc
the HoIt Sacrifice. The body was at fitst buriM
in the cnapel, but in 1088 it was transferred to the
cathedral by Bishop Lambert III. St. Stanudaus
TO canonised 1253 by Innocrat IV at Aaedsi.

Bai.kv.bU., list; Gtnaan, Fitjut Ortam VII OOuM-
kMHO, USD. Ml; SL aiamtihm vf Crmeom in Burun.Li>« V
ibaui^II,Mar7.

FBANCIS MUBflBMAS.
8t»nM>W0W, DIOCB8E OF (STAlfISLAOP(HJBNflIB),

of the Greek-Ruthenian Rite, m Galicia, AuBrtirta,
suffragan of Lembei^. The establishment of tb^.
Bee was decided on in May, 1860, but the ^v«S
not carried out till the issuing of the Brirf " De uni-
rerao domittico grege" (26 March, 1886) and the*
inq>erial decreee of 26 December, 1885. The dio-
cese inchdes most of south-eastern Galicia and aD
Bukovina as far as Hatios, which was reserved to-
the metropoUtan mensa of Lembo^. It oomprBe#
the districts of Stanislawow, Kolomyja, and Otem-
iowoe. There are 21 deaneries, 433 churches with,
and 298 without, resident priests, 63 chM>els, 579
■ceular, and 13 regular, priests, 4 Reformed BasUidn,
nmasteries with 22 reBgious, 2 Basifian oonveiits'
with II nunL and 10 convents of the Servaatsof
the Bkawd \^rgin Maiy with 37 nuns. The Ore^
Ratbenian Catholics number 920,000 out of a popu-
lation of 1.387,930, of whom about 5000 belcHig to
the Armenian, and 230,000 to the Latin. Rite. An
ecelesiastio^ seminary was established in 1907,
the clerrar having be«i . trained previously at Lem-
be^ and Vienna. The episcopal town of Stanis-,
Uwow yna founded by Stanislav Poto<^ (d. 1683),
and rebuilt after a disastrous fire in 1868. It B
ritaated on the Bisthritza, 87 miles south-east of
Lemberg, and has a population of 30,410^ mostly'
Jews; it has a beautiful parish church contaming toe
tombs of the Potocki, a Polish and a Rutfaenian gyrrir'
Tumum, a Polish -Ruthenim normal school, 3 hos-
pitals, a Jesuit residence, and convents of the Bisters
of Cluirity and the Servants of the Immaculate Con-
ception. It is a busy manufacturing centre (paper,
lace, tanning, milling, and engineering works).

Tne bidiops of Stanislawow were: ^) Mgi'. Juljan
Peleas, author of the "Geschichte der Imion der
raUi. Eirche mit Rom" (Vienn^ 1878-81), pre-
Tioualy rector of the Greek-Ruthenian Seminary,
Viemia. then archpriest of Lembet^ cathedral, pre-
coniKd on 27 March, 1885; consecrated, 1 Novem-
ber, 1886; enthroned. 10 January, 1888; died 1891.

Mgr. Julian Euilowski, b. at Krolewsld in the
l^ocese of Przemysl, 1 May, 1826, elected titular
Bisbop of Epheatura, 26 June, 1890; transferred to
Stanislawow, 22 September, 1891; held a diocesan'
mod in 1897. (3) Mgr. Count Andrea Alexander
« Sreptyce-Szeptychi, member of a dstinguished
ancient Ruthenian family which joined the Latid
Rite in the eighteenth century, b. at Przylbice, in
the Diocese of Przemysl, 15 July, 1865. embraced
the Ruthenian Rite to enter the Basilian Order,
UxMired energetically to strengthen the spirit of
rrf<ain ammg the monks; was ordamed, 29 August,
1892; accepted the episcopal d^itv onty on the
fomial order of Leo XIH : elected to the see, 19 June,
1899; promoted to the Archdiocese of Lemberg, 17
December, 1900. (4) Mgr. Gregoriufl Chomyszyn,
b.on24 March, 1867-8, elected, 19 April, 1904, and
<till govemiug the diooese.

A. A. MacErlban.

^fltftnler Falls, VicARiATB Apostouc of, hi the Bel-
^ Congo. It is bounded on the east by the meridian
30^ E. long.; on the south by a line rimnins from
«e extreme point of Lake Albert Edward to the con>>
flnencc of the Elila and the Congo, and thenoe t0
BmarKamba on the Lomani; on the west, by. th^
qpit bank of the Lomani to its juneticm wltb tiie

Congo, and iJie Congo to the waitenhed of the Ilim-
biri; on the north by this same watwshed of the Ilim-
biri and the Congo and then the watenhed of the
and Arwimi as far as the mmdian 30° £.
long. The vieuiate has w ana of about 90,000
sqnare miles.

The mission of Stanley Falls was established by the
Fat)^ of the Sacred Heart in 1897. The pioneer
niissKmaries, setting out frcHuAntweip on 6 Jul^, 1897,
settled definitrvely on Christmas ft^owmg at a
spot on the'right bank of the River Congo four miles
below Stanl^rille, and gave to their first foundation,
an orphanage, the name of St. Gabriel. The mission
at that time formed part of the Vicariate of Belgian
Congo. Their work was rapidly crowned with suc-
cess and the mission on, 3 August, 1904, was erected
into a prtf eoture ApostoUc, and on 10 March, 1908,
was made a vicariate Apostolic. In 1901 the Fran-
ciscan Missionary Sisters of Mary come to af^itit tfae
Fathers of the Sacred Heart and settled at St,
GabrieL taking char jje dl a girltt' ori^hanage, a schoolj
and a dispensary; since then th(>y have Riven their
services to the victims of sltpping-^ilGknc-^ij in ihe
quarantine station between tiie mitision uud Htaiilcy-
ville. Four years later another band of the same
Sistm arrived to take care of the ba«pital founded
by the "Compagnie du Checnn de Fer des Grands
Lacs", at, Stanleyville, on the left bank of the rive?;
they are about to establish (O' lober, 1911) a house
at Basoko at the mouth of th'^ AnvintJ. year
(1911) the Little Brothers of Maiy are coming to
StanleyvUle to take care of the State school.

The mission has ten centres: St. Gabriel: Stanley-
ville, right bank; Stanleyville, Mt bank ana railwajr;
Ix^aBQu; Lileke; Basoko; Banalya; Avakubi; Bern.
Each centre spreads out and establishes secondary
posts, with a chapel, dwelling-house for the missionaiy
on, his rounds, and house for the catechist; and posts
01 third ruik, which have a catechist, but no chapel
or house lor the missionary. Each centre has its
primary school, and St. Gabriel has a school for cate-
chists. Most of the natives are fetishists or Moham-
medans; the chief language spoken is Kiahwali| but
there are twenty-five others. The present superior is
Mgr. Qabrielle-tEmile Grison, titular Bishop of Saga*
lasBUs, who resides at St-Gabriel-l^Falls, near Stui-
l«/viUe. The latest annual religious statistics (1910-
11) are: baptisms, 1839; confirmations, 1104; paschal
oommunioDs, 5191; Chrtstians, 7172; catechumens,
10,754; there are approximately 150 posts of second or
tlurd rank. The statistics of 1909 as ^iven in Bat-
tandier,"Annuaire pontificate", are: Chnstaans, 6900;
catechumens, 71 13 ;Teligious (men) , 29, of whom 23 are
priests and 6 lay brokers: churches, 9; chapels, 25;
schools, 9; orphanafi»s, 4; hospitals, 3; nuns, 11.
Stamut, fAa Cbi«ff (LtMtdoo, 18») ; loaii. In Darkut Africa
1890); JoHHafOH, Oaorgt Ortii/rta and tli$ Congo (um-

GaBRIEL GlUffl)H.

Stansel* Vauentin, astronomer, b. at OlmOts,
Moravia, 1621; d. at Bahia, Braril, 18 Deo., 1705.
He entered the Sooiety of Jesus on I Oct.. 1637, and
taught rhetoric and mathematics at Olmfitz and
Pn^ue. After h^ ordination he was, at his own re-

?ue8t, appointed to work on the Jesuit mission in
ndia, and went to Portugal to await an opportunity
of taking ship for his destination. Meantime, he
lectured on astronomy with considerable success at
the coUeBe of Evora. While there, in order to con-
form to the language of the oountiy, he changed his
name to the form "Estancel", in miich form it ap-
pears on ibe titJe pa^ of most of his published works.
Obetacles havnig arisen which prevented his going to
India, he was sent to Brazil, and was attached to the
Jesuit College and Seminary of San Salvador (Bahia),
trhere he flQed the post of professor of moral theoloEy',
and later on that of gaperior. At the same time ne

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ooDtinued his astronomical laboun, tad made ez-
trasive obeOTvations, particulaiiy oo oometa, the re-
sults of which he sent to Europe for pubucation.
HiB cUef works are: "Dioptra geodetioa" (Pracue»
1662 or 1654), "Propositiones etSeomt^iaaK, ave
de luna" (OlmQtz, 1655); "Orbe Asonaiiuf, horo-
aoopio universal" (Ev(^ 1658)^ "Mereunus bn-
ailicus, sive de Cceli et soli braajhensis (£cononua"|
"Zodiacus Divioi Doloris, sive Oationes XII"
(Evora, 1675), "Legatus uranicus ex orbe novo in
veterum, h. e. Observationes American© ooraetarum
facts, conscriptffi et in Guropam miaHe" (Prague,
1683); "UranophiluB ccelestis peregrinus" (Goeat,
1085).

SoHHUvooBi, BtU. itiaC.it J., VII (Bnunla, 1896).

Edward C. Fbii>lifb.

Staii^unt, RicBABD, CathoUo oontroversialist,
historian, and devotional writer, b. at DubliDf 1547;
d. at Brussels, 1618. He was the son of James

Stanyhurst, speaker of the Irish House of Commons
and a leading Dublin Protestant. After leaving his
school at Waterford he went to Univomty CoB^,
Oxford, becoming B.A. in 1568, and then studied uw
in London. At Oxford he had met Bl. Edmund
Campion, and he accompanied the latter on his visit
to Ireland, helping him to collect material lot his
historjr of Irdand. He himself wrote tiie "De-
scription of Irdand" and the "History of £rdand
under Henry VIII", both published in Holinshed's
"Chronicles", 1577. In several ways these works
gave offence to Irish Catholics. In 1579 Stanyhurst's
first wife, Janet Baraewall, died, and he left England
for the Low Countries, irfiere he became a CatSoUc.
At Leyden he published his extraordinary translation
of Virgit's j^eid into English hexameters (1582).
Later he wrote "De rebus in Hibemia gestis" (1584)
and "DeVitaS-Patricu" (1587). In lj»5 he manied
Helen Copley, by whom he had two sons, both after^
wards Jesuits. Subsequently he spoit some years
in Spun as adviser to the Government on Rn^ish
affairs. On the death of his second wife, in 1602, he
became a priest and was appointed chaplain to Arch-
duke Albert, also assisting the Englisn Benedictine
nuns at Brusseb. He published two devotional
works, "Hebdomada Manana" (1609) and "Hebdo-
mada Eucharistiea" (1614). His last wwk mui
"Brevis prsemunitio pro fiitura coneertatione cum
Jacobo Uaserio", in which he replied to the treatise
of his Protestant n^hew, James Ussher, afterwards
Archbi^op of Armagh.

Wood, «d. Buns, Alkma OaonUniM (LoadoD, 181S-m);
SuinON, Lift of Bdmund Camvtm (LoDdoa, 18S7); FOUT,
RtoortU End. Prot., S.J., VII (London. 1883): Wught, J%t
Uuhtr Memoir* (London, 1889); Lu in /Kef. Nat. Biog.. a. v.;
Aaan, tntnOiutiM to hU R*pHnt tfMmvhunet Tr. of Vtrfii
(Lmdn. 18H).

Edwin Bubton.

Stuiia, an Italian word signifying room, chamber,
apartment. In English the term is ohiefly used for
Raphaers celebrated Stanze in the Vatican Palace,
four in number, the walls of which were frescoed by
Raphael and his pupils. The paintings in these
chambers by Raphiiers own hand belong to the most
sublime monuments of Italian art, and rank with
Michelangelo's ceiling frescoes of the Sistine Chapel.
For a description of paintings consult the artides
Rafhaxl; Vatican.

Stapf, Joseph Ambrose, theologian, b. at Fliess
in the valley of the Upper ton in the Tyrol, Austria,
15 August, 1785; d. at Brixen, 10 January, 1844. He
studied at Innsbruck, and obtained the Degree of
Doctor of Theology, and in 1821 became professor
of moral theology at the lyceum at Inn^mick. In
1823 he was made j^eesor of moral theology and
pedagxigy at the senunarv of Brixen, where he was later
a oathedral canon. Bis chief wodc is "llieok)^

moralis in oompendiom redacta" (4 vols., Innsbruck.
1827-30; 6th ed., 1846; 7th ed., 1855); the meritsot
this work oonsist in ite strictly orthodox character,
clear and precise presentation, and practical useful-
ness, f^nin 1830 it was <^cially luade a text-book
for aU eeminanes of Austria. Much used as a tort-
faocA also was a oompwdium this w(»k: "Epitome
theologis moralis publicis pnelectionibus accommo-
data" [2 voU., Innsbruck, 1832 ; 2nd ed., 1842 ; 3rd
ed. revised by J. V. Hofmann (volume I) and Simon
Aiohner (volume II), 1863-65). At a later date
St«^ made a fvee German revision, which showed the
iufluenoe of Hirscher "Die christliche Moral. Als
Antwort auf die Fra^: Was wir thun mOssen, um in
das Roch Gottes emsugehen" [4 vols., Innsbruck,
1841-42; 2nd ed. edited after Stapfs death by J. V.
Hofmann under the title: "Die christliche Sitten-
le^" (Z vols., 1848-49)]. Besides these Stapf
wrote: "Erziehungslehre im Geiste der katholischen
Eirche" (Innsbruck, 1832; 4th ed., 1S46; 5th ed.
edited by J. V. Hofmann* 1854); "Expoutio casuum
mervatorum in diooesi Brixinensi" (Brixen, 1836);
"Der hi. VincenliuB von Paul, darguetoUt in s^em
Leben und Wirkpn" (anonyuiouB, 2 vols., Vienna,
1337); "Bibliabhe Gesf^hkhte ^ AUen una Neuea
Bundes sum Gebraucbe dcrHauptBcindpnindmk.k.
teterreichiscbea StAaten" (1840).

Wdubadh, Biotrrajiltiithu L*iattim ata KaiMrOvum* Oe«<«r-
raiciL ^XXViI {VWink. 1873), IMaq.; Bivrm, N<mmeba«r,

FwDBicH LuroHunv

StapIijIUB, Fbiedricb, theoIt^aOf b. at Osna-.
brilck, 27 Aug., 1512: d. at Ingolstadt, 5 March, 1564.
His father, Ludeke Stapellage, was an official of the
Bishop of Osnabr&ck. Left an orphan at an early
age he came under the care of an unde at Danzig,
wen went to Lithuania and studied at Cracow, after
which he studied theory and philoat^hy at Padua.
About 1536 he went to Witt«abe^,obt^bea the Degree
(tf molester atUvm in 1541 and at Melanchthon'a
recommendation became a tutor in the family of
the Count of Eberstein. In 1546 Duke Albert of
Prussia appointed Staphylus professor of theology
at Uie new Univermty of Kdni^berg, which the duke
had founded in 1544. At this time Staphylus was
still under the influenoe of Luther's opinions, as is
shown by his academic disputation upon the doctrine
of justification, "De justincationis articulo". How-
ever, at his installation as professor he obtwned the
assurance that be need not remain if the duke toler-
ated errors which "might be contrary to the Holy
Scriptures and the pHmiiw(B apoatolica et eathoUag
ecdemoB conammm". This shows that even then
he regarded with su^icion the development of Prot-
estantism. He had at KOnigsberg a violent theologi-
eal dispute with William Goapheus. In 1547-48
he was the first rector elected by the university,
but in 1548 he resigned his professorship,^ because fie
met with enmity, and was dissatisfied with reli|pous
conditions in Prussia. Still he continued to be
one of the oounciUora of the duke. . In 1549 he mar-
ried at Breslau the daughter of John Hess, a reformer
of that pleice.

Returning to K5ni^berg, a new dispute broke out
between him and Omander. The dogmatic disaea-
non» which seemed to bim to make everyttung un-
certain, drove him continually more and more to the
Catholio idea of Tradition and to the demand for the
authoritative exposition of the Scriptures by the
Church. He expressed these views m the treatise
"Synodus sanctorum patrum antiquorum contra
nova dc^pmata Andrea O^andri", which he wrote
at Damug in 1552. A severe illness hastened his
conversion, which took plaoe at Breslau at the end of
1552. After this he fint entered the sendee of the
Bishop of Breslau, for whom be established a school
at Nflian. la 1555 the Emperor Feriinand I up-

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STAPLETON

pointed him a member of the 'impend coancU. At
the IMsputation of Worms ia 15S7 he opposed, as
one <rf the Catholic coUocutors, the once venerated
MelanchthoD. In his "TheoIogiK Martini Lutheri
trimembria etntome" (1558) he severely attaclrad the
]at± of union in Protestautiam, the worship of Luther,
tad religiouB Bubjectivism. The teeatise called forth
1 nombar of answers. In 1560 Duke Albert of Bava-
ria, at the request of Caniaus, apiKiinted Stai>hyluB
pnfeanr of theology at the Bavarian Uni\'erBity of
Ingolstadt after Staphylns had recdved the Degree
of Doctor of Theology and Canon Law in virtue of
a papal dispensation, as be was married. As super-
intendent (curator) he reformed the university.
After this he took an active part in the Catholic
rartoration in Bavaria and Auabia. He drew up
several opinions on reform for the Council of Trent,
u the "Counsel to I^us IV", while he declined to a/o
to the oounci! personally. In 1562 the pope sent h£n
a gift of one hundred gulden, and the emperor raised
him to the nobility. His leanung and eloquence are
frankly acknowledged by his Lutheran fellow-
countryman Hermann Hamelmann. The attempt
is now no longer made to trace his conversion to
mnoenary motives.

SutOTLVB. In ecuua rtlieionit tportim tdiH tibri m tmum
■ofaiMR dittM (lagolitodt, Uli); TaauoanT, CUm^MbiiA
■Mh'aiiigWfllirth dti Bmgatum iVwiiifii. I rad HI

r'l

Sonma, m«HtA iSb^l^iM (Bmlw,

fltetleton, Thbobald, b. in Co. Kilk«digr, Ln-
hnd, but was "Rn^iwh by descent, thou^ not oon-
neded with the Yorkshire StapletooB. Nothing is
known of his career, except that he was a priest Hviag
in Flanders, and that in 1039 he published at Brussela
a book called "Catechismus seu doctrina Christiana
latbo-hibemica", which was the first book in which
Irish was printed in Roman type. His object in pub-
lishing it was to promote the use of Irish in religious
litoature, and to furtiwr diis cbjti^ lie added to the
book an ai^Modix in nineteen sections giving^ ^&c9iy
tions for reading Irish.

MxxuK, Km oMf F<dt of tha frM Frwuitan MmnltHm
(Dublin, 1870) ; Moorb in Diet. JVbt. Biog., s. v.

Edwin Btibton.

Stutleton, Thomas, controversialist, b. at Hen-
field, Sussex, July, 1535; d. at Louvain, 12 Oct., 159S.
He was the son of William Stapleton, one of the
Stapletons of Carlton, Yorkshire. He was educated
at the Free School, Canterbu:7, at Winchester, and
at New Collie, (^ord, \rtiere be became a' fdlaw,
IS Jan., 1553. On Elizabetii's accession he left Eng«-
land rather than conform to the new religion, going
first to Louvain, and afterwards to Paris, to study
Ibeology. In 1563. being in Eiuland, he was sum-
moneoDT the Andean bishop Barlow to repudiate
the pope s authority, but refused and was deprived
of the prebend of Woodhome in Chichester Cathedral,
eonfened on him in 1558. He then retired to Louvain
mtbhis father and other relatives. In 1568 he joined
AQen at Douu and took a great part in founding the
^^i^ah coll^ there, botii by lecturing and by devot-
ing to its support his salary as lecturer in theology 'at
Anchin College.

His talents were so remarkable that he was soon
ippointed public professor of divinity, and canon of
St. Amatus; and together with Allen he completed
the degree of D.D. on 10 July, 1571. In 1684 he
nsgaed these preferments to enter the Society of
Jens, but did not conmlete his nontiate, and returned
to Dquu. Philip II appcnnted him Drofeesor of
Senpture at Louvain in 1S90, to which office a canoory
ID St. Peter's Church was annexed; and'soon after he
WM made defui of Hilverenbeeck in the IMocese bf Bois-
M>aa. The emohimoits of these offices were aO
ytm leBeringnefle— jtousEngBdi Cfttiioliee. Meao-

while his fame as a theologian had spread to Rome and
Pope Qement VIII thou^t so much of his tlwoI<mcat
writings that he caused them to be read aloud at his
table. Twice he invited Stapleton to Rome in vain,
but his offer to make him prothonotary Apostolic in
January, 1597, was accepted. It was generally be-
lieved that he would be created cardinal, a sugcestion
which was disapproved of by Father Agazzan, S. J.,
rector of the English CoU^, and obstacles were put
in the way of his journey to Rome (Eley, "Certame
Briefe Notes", p.
254). He accord-
ingly remdned at
Louvain till his
death in the follow-
ing year. He left
his books and man-
uscripts (now lost)
to the English Col-
le^ at DouEu. An
original painting of '
Stapleton is pre-
served at Douai
Abbffv, Woolhamp-
toa, fWand.

His first works
were translations:
Ven. Bede's "His-
tory of the Church
m England" (Ant-
werp, 1556), the
"Apology of Sta-
phylufl '"(Antwerp,
1565), and Hosius on "TheExpresseWordof God"
(1567). His original works were very numerous: "A
Fortress of tlie Taith" (Antwerp); "A Return of
Untruths" (Antwerp. 1566); "A Counterblast to M.
Home's vain blast" (Louvain, 1567); "Orationes fu-
nebres" (Antwerp, 1577); "Principiorum fidei doctri-
n^um demonstratio" (Paris, 1578); "Speculum pra-
vitatis hffireticte" (Douai, 1580); "De universa
justificationis doctrina" (Paris, 1582); "TresThoma"
(Douai, 1588): "Promptuarium morale" in two parts
(Antwerp, 1591, 1592); "Promptuarium CathoUcum
in Evangelia Dorainicalia" (Cologne,' 1592); "Promp-
tuarium Catholicum in Evangelia Ferialia (Cologne,
1594) and "iSromptuarium Catholicum in Evangelia
Festorum" (Cologne, 1592); "Rclectio scholastica"
(Antwerp, 1592); "Authoritatis Ecclesiasticffl circa
B. Scripturarum approbationem defensio " (Antwerp,
15^); ".^mlogia furo rege Philipix) II" (Constance,
1592), published under the punning psmdonym of
Didjrmus Veridicus Henfildanus, t. e. Thomas the
Stable-toned Itnith-epeaking] Henfieldite. "Antidota
Eivangelica", "Ahtidota Apoatolica contra nostri
Temporia Hieresea" (both at Antwerp, 1595); "Anti-
dota Apostolica in Epistolam Pauli ad Romanes"
(Antwerp, 1595); "Triplicatio inchoata/* ^Antwerp,
1596); Antidota Apostolica in duas Epistolas ad
Cknrintluoa" (Antwerp, 1698) ; "Orationes catechetica"
(Antwerp, 1698); "Vere admiranda, seu de Magai-
tudine Romans Ecdesis" (Antwerp, 1599); "C^
tiones academicse miscellanes" (Antwerp, 1602);
''Oratio academica" {Mainz, 16Ci8). AU his works
were republi^ed in four folio volumes in Paris in
1620. with an autobiography of the author in Latin
verse and Henry Holland's "Vita Thoma Stapletoni '^

1619); Dodo, CAurch Biston/, II (Bnusels vere WolTerhampt
1739-43^; Zxritu'* Dirietorv nijoiidcni, 1813), with eoRravea por-
tnit; OoOPBB,la Diet. Nat. Bioo.. >. v. ; OiuAW, Bibt Diet. Sng.
CotJL, s. T.; Douau Diaries (London. 1878); Leitert and Men^
«rialt of Cardinal AlUn (London, 1882) ; Ehxr, Certains Britft
Nolta (P«rto, 1608); rhmnn-aOL, BfN. Douoinrane (Douai.
183fr-8W; MoLuni^ 2r<Mn^£omfo<^uMela, IMl); Foa-
jKB,' JHumnt OsmMnMt (Onocd, 1891); A Wood, Alhma Oxoni-

«wM (toooon, 181S^.

ESbWIN BVBTOH.

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8TASOWOX4KI

(350

Stmnndiki, Siuon, b. at Stars
ayir, IBBfi: d. atCracow^ lOSQj studied sSCqp^i^
took bis aogTE^ in tbe Univetmtf of Cra£<)^ after
irtiiAb he traveEIed Lh various countiiea of W»t6m

Eumpo. Kf-tuniiTiE, ht-> tianKht philosophy in th<? Uni-
VfiTVil^' 'jf Crucm , tiii'ubcBcarup seLTi-tiir} Ji'f'hod-
kitwiiti, wliriiii h^' ;ir. (inif lanied on hu ix[iH><liliim to
Cbocim. V^'T y 'ir-^ In- iv Liti a tutor to yngni; iiubl^.'-

wea, and aguifi wini <act Europe in this cJipacity
the Betnum Itoniecpoliiki'a md. In 1630 be
WWttdiined OTievt, sod Buoeequcntly becune a taoan
in Crfroow. During the Swemeh air^ge (1055) he ad-
miniflterBd the diocesa for Bbhop Gi^likki, ajid it
became Ids duty toaliow the t-athfilral Ui the Swedish
kuig. When hft poinU^ to thv UntAi i>f Lokictck who,

QufltaTUe rcni£Lrk--'l !h:i' ■.r'>lin f.'iL^JLiuir vV"ii;.i ::'-v--r
rebmi". "&&reiiWaiuK' Kitjt", hi; n^plicd, "fortima
vuiil»tifl,I>efUBicuimte>Ulib'' He died bdi9« ownthH
U.Utf before John. CaBimr'A triumphant reium.

StarowolBld vrrote mc*t abuod^tly and on ever>'
postdble flubieot — lustory, geograph]', kw, stratFgy,
theologyj and polltiis. Hie provmrc nhn fmbrm-fd
litenktutB, for hia "Scriptorum I'lhlutu.^oruni Iltca-
toDtoe" ifl a short biopraphy of I'olisli autliors, with
the titl« of Ihcir works. 'I'hii; h«? wrote during hia
travelfi obrotd, where he piibUc^liciJ it in Latin, to
ioBtruot fcK^nieiB in Polish matters, At the eame
(ime he wroteoooint in PoU&h, chiefly of a monU cbuf-
acter, and many theokwcal treatiBoa; also two ccileo-
tioDB <^ ienDDflfl eatlfeted: "The Lord's Sfitictii&ry"
and "The Ark of the Testument His chief poUtirjiT
worlcB are: an exhortation to jnu doivn thn Tutars;
"The True Kni{;fit "'; ttiul Umf- wirka mtenJml to m-
fonii Polish morftls, with (iiffcront (itlc.-^, and in differ-
ent degrcca of dabomtitm. Last, mud shurtly before
death, afipNied hia famoua though ehort ''Lament
of the dying Mother, Polaad;, over her undutiful hoqb " ;
BOaifiSnlli&'B days to those of MicbieiiriGi, no <'i]i)ri!fv
Voffy BxptgBMon of patnotisin B-ppearbd. Sturn ,- . >|~ki
MTiile rriorr- thjm hixI y books; hut thost^ nK'nlifiiicd i^nf-
(in- 1-1 uivL' )ui irli-:i ■">!" lli<- rxd rit H'f his ]i';irii;iii):, iii-
tdiigeiice, a.-viiiluity, midaeiil for hifi rountry'p ivmiKin'
In the commonwealth, tottering to its faU, ne was one
of the most public-spirited men: ptMnbly there was
not a ungle evil in Poland wluch he did not denounce.
And tibus, though no genius, he is most worthy c£
respect, and is tbe prindpal titurary figure of uioae
times. As a writer, perh^ on account of nis numerous
works, be is neither very correct nor ve^ brilliant; yet
at times (as in tbe Ijament),imder tbe influence of bis
indignation, he rises to heists of thrilling eloqueno^.
As a political writer, he possesses the quality of sound
common sense, and not unfrequcntly succeeds inpomt-
hu out the right means of saving the State. . On the
whole, he is somewhat more of a moralist than of a
politician; at all events, in lus writings, the reform
of morals takes up a larger place than the regmeration
of tiie commonwealth.

TrUKBKt, Annan StarotooUki (Wuaaw, 1874)i WiBBiBOwaxi,
Simtmii ataromOakii Bhnchu* optrum (Wvmw, 1864); BbOcc-
ma, OuA. dtr petmUdiM LOmtur (Lripid& 1901).

S. TiBHOwsn.

stair, EuzA Alleh, b. at Deerfield, Massa-
chusetts, 29 Aug., 1824; d. at Durand. Illinots, 8 Sept^
1001. She was educated at her father's hom6.- On
her father's side she was descended from Dr. Com-
fort Starr of Ashford, County Kent, fhi^Iand,
who settled at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1683,
and, on her mother's side, from the "Allans of the*
Bars", who came from Chelmsford, Essex, Eng-
land. She inherited the love of literature fnnn
her parents, and when thirteen years of age went
to Boston, where she finiahed her studies m 1846.
In Boston she opened a stutfio, but, the climate
nrovins unfavourable to her health, die moved to
Brook^Ti, thence to Philadelphia. She finally ac-

cepted a posilion as teacher in the family of a wealthy
planber at Natchez, MlerasBippi. In 18153 she re-
turned to Bmoklyn hs teacher of drawing in a
bbftrdJng- school. In 1S48 she retuniud to Phila-
didlphia. It was during this visit to her kinsfolk she
met tho Rt. lif.-v. rrnru'is Piitrick Ketirick, afterward
Arf!)l)L.^h'!p of lialtimort'. It was from this suntly
iiu.I Irnriii il f]iijn.linian that the geniks of faith W-
roAdy in her heart retcived thar fij«t activities. After
an incctuaoL atrupsle of nine yeaga JfW was recdved
into the Catliohc Chufich at Bbsna by Bish(^
}1tzpatn:.-k on 2S December, 1854, and made her fitst
ComnHinion on the folbwing Christmaa morning in
the chapel of the Ristera of Qiarity. In 1856 Miss
Starr Ruterod upon a, larger field of labour. In Chi-
eugo she found ncr lift" work. She lalxnired with her
pen, and with the: petjcil illustrattii hi-r books. She
lecturod thjougbout tbe United States, and in the
au^torium of oer home annually gavQ Ik course of tea
lectures upon art and litrerature.

Her piiMLshtHl ti'orks aw-: "Sfin^s of a lifetime";
"Patron Sainta"; " Filgriras ^nd .Shrines"; "Isabella
of entile"; "^"hal we ace"; "O-U- (m Christopher
Columbus"; "ChriBtmfls-tiik-''; "C](ri.>;iian art in our
own up?*'; Tht.' H<:-vc'n DoioUTitil tlie Vii'^nMary
" LitHTJUurc of Chriati-m Art"; "The Tiuee Keys to
the Camera dcUa C^egnatura in the Vatican"; Art
in tbe Chifwo C%unbe9") piibtidied i& the "New
"World "; " Woman'swort In Art^; and "Tbe Three
Archangels and the Guardian Angels in Art". In
recognition of this last work Leo XIII sent to ber
A b^utiful medallion. She was tbe first woman
to reorive the L»tare Medal, which was conferred
on ber in 1865 by the Univerwty of Notre Dame,
Indiana.

. Claude, Ktt» AVmStarr, Pott. AHial and 7ra<Acr «/ ChrUtiun
Art in ^M. WoM, LXVI (Nff» York. 1897). 2(M-«0: Mnaiu,
jnua AOm a»arr fai Cott. IPorU, UESV (Nw York, 1«0S>.
407-13.

James J. McGovbrn.

. StaU and Church.— The Qiurcb and the State
are b>oth perfect societies, that is to say, each esseo-
tiflJly aiming at a common good commensurate with
the nedd m mankind at large and ultimate in a
generic kind of life, and each juridically competent
to pTOvMe all the neeeaaaiy and sufficimt means
tiurieto. .The State is ethically demonstrated to
be such, and the Church has a like demonstration
from tJbie theology of Christian Revelation. By
reason of coexistence on the earth, community <x
subjects, and a need in common oi some of the same
means -of activity, it is inevitable that they should
have mutual relations in the juridical order. To
declare these relations in brief from an ethical view-
point, which is the scope of thepresent article, it
will be necessary to state: I. The basis of thdr
respective rights; II. The range of their respective
iunsdiotions: III. Their mutual corporate relation;
iV. The unipn of Church and State; V. Counter
theories.

I. Thb Basis of Rights. — All rights and duties
on earth come ultimately from God through the
Divine Law, either natural or positive. The chai^

ecter of our natural ri|^ts wd duties is determined
y the purpose to which the Creator shaped the nature
of man, and natural knowledge of them is acquired
by human reason from the aptitudes, tendencies,
and needs of nature. Duties and rights descending
from positive Divine Law are determined by some
additional purpose of God, over and above the exi-
gencies of human nature, and are to be learned only
&om Divine Revelation, either in its eiqiUcit deplara-
tion or its rational content. Man has one ultimate

Eurpose of existence, eternal happiness in a future
fe, but a twofold proximate purpose, one to earn his
title to eternal happiness, the other to attain to &
measure of temporal happiness consistent with thr

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STATE

261

* tTATI

prior proximate puipOBe. The State is a oatural
Butitution, wbose powers, th^^ore, come from the
natural law and are determined by the character of
the natural purpoae of the State pliw whatever linu-
tation God has, because of qualincatioos in the la^
end of man, ordained in the Divine Positive Iaw,
The Church ia a positive institution of Christ the
Son of God^ whoee powers, therefore, are daived
from the Divine Positive I^w and are determined
the nature of the purpose He has assigned to it,
I whatever further oonceesion He has made to
Utate the acoompliahment <tf that purpose. In
any consideration of the mutual relations of CSiurch
and State the above [nopositions are fundttmmtal.

The goal of the State is the temporal happinees of
man, and its proximate purpose the preservation of
external juridical order and tne provision of a reason-
able abundance of means of human development in
the interests of its citizens and their posterity. Man
himself, however, as we have said, has a further goal
of perfect happiness to be realised only after death,
sua consequently a proximate purpose to earn in this
life his title to the same. In the pursuit of this latter
purpose, speaking in the abstract^ he had a natural
right to constitute a social organisation taking over
the worship of God as a charge peculiarly its own.
In the concrete, however, i. e. as a matter of fact,
God by positive law has- vacated this natural right
and established a universal society (the Church} for
Divine worship and the securing of perfect hapjuness
in the heroafjt^. God, furthonxm, has appointed
for man a destiny which cannot be attained oy mere
natural means^ and consequently God has conceded
to man additional means commensurate with this
ultimate purpose, putting these means at the disposal
of man through the ministration of the Church.
Finally, He has determined the form of extonal
public wordiip to be rendered, centring it about a
ncrifice, the efBcacy of which is from itself, being,
as it ia. a repetition of the Sacrifice of Calvary. The

Eal, then, of the Church is the perfect supernatural
ppinesa of man; its proximate purpose, to ssfe-
guard the internal moral order of right and wrong;
and its external manifestation, to care for Divine
worship and minister to man the supernatural means
cS grace. The State, then, ^dats to help man to
tempore happiness, the Church, to eternal. Of
tbeae two purposes the latter is more ultimate, man's
mater ^ood, while the former is not necessary far
ue acquisition of the latter. The dominating proxi-
mate purpose of man must be to earn his title to
eternal salvation: for that, if needs be, he must
rationally sacrifice his temporal happiness. It is
ckar, therefore, that the purpose of tne Church is
her in the order <tf Divine Frovidenoe and ot
iteous human mdeavour than that <rf the State.
i, in ease of direct collision of tiie two, God's
win and man's need require that the guardian tlw
lower purpose should yield. Likewise the argument
for the extension of the powers of the higher society
in a measure into the dmnain of the Iowa will not
hold for such exteiiiBiQn frtnn the lower into the
hieher.

II. The Ranqe of Jubibdiction. — As there are
many distinct States of equal natural right the sub-
jects of each are restoicted m number, and its govern-
ment of them is pnu!tioalbL.<Nmfiiied witmn ^e
Iknits of its own territ(»y. Within this territory it
has full power to govern them, defining their rights
snd in some cases restricting the exercise of t£eee
r^ts. eonferrin^ purely civil rights and inclosing
civil duties, holding its oitisens to a proper condition
<rf pubUc morality, owning propertjr and qualifying
private ownership of the same — all within the exigen-
cies of the civic purpose of presanring utemal juridt-
sal order and promotiag the prospnity <tf the citisens,
wA <nr«r lUl oouiid by the vm^mat of ike JiMae

Law, both natural and positive. In a word, the
State controls its own subjects, in the pursuit of its
own natural end, in all things where a higher right
does not estop it. A higher right will be a rigbt
eastent because of an ulterior or a more essential
destiny of man than the purpoee which civil society
pursues for him. The Church has the right to preach
the Goq>eI everywhere, willing or nillmg any state
authority, and so to secure the rights of its members
among the subjects of any clvU polity whatever.
The Church has t^e right to govern her subjects,
wherever found, declaring fpr mmtnioral right and
wrong, re^icting any such un Of «e# rights as might
jeopardize their eternal welfare, conferring purely ec-
cleoastical rights, acquiruiz and holding property hec-
self,andfirLjH)Wfriii|j li(-rsiinordiniit.(> assfifriatirmstodo
the same— '^Ul wiilim (h*; liruHs uf (ln' n/'iiiirt'iMt'iita of
h^ triple iiiirpow-, us Uiid dovn by ihc Di\ im.- FoyitLve
Law, of iireBsrving the internal onirr of faith and
morals anj its external munift^ist^ti'im, of pruviding
adequate tneane of sanctification for her mpiwhers,
and of caring for Divine woraiupj and ovcl- all bound
by tlie eternal princijiles of integrity and justice,
declared ia the natural und pc^tive Law of GckI.

In fdl juircly tciii|HirjiI ^tilijocl-iiiattpr, eo Umg as it
remains ^in^h. ilif jiiri^tlu'tii.iji iii tha State ovpr ita
own subjcrts iiLandi^ iluI oiiJy mipr>tinjc, tut, as far as
the Church is ooncemed, alone. Purel); tercporal
matter ie that which has a necessary relation of help
or hindrance to m^'s temporal happiness, the ultH
mate end of civil soeiety or the State, in such m96
that it is ill the s&me time indilli^rf^nt in itself as a
help or hindrance to man'ij etFrnal huppineaB. It
is of two kind^:: pn[n:uj:ilY it irKlinU'-i fvll human arts
so relate<3, und t^t (-^infliirily pn^r^ifmiH or cxti^rnal thiiiffs
SB far as they are ins'olved in such. aste. In all
pmrely spiriliuJ. subject-matter, so long as it remains
such, the Juriadiction of the Church over her eccleaiaa-
tical subjects obtaios to the cani|dete exclusioti of
the State; nor is the Church therein juridical^ depen-
dent in any wfiy upon the State fur the exercise of ita
Intimate "powt^rtt. Piirf'ly f;]]iriiu;.il .■^iidjrrt-tn.'itter
is primarily uiaik- up of human ncl^ ncc^^^^arilj' related
as help or himlranue Lu iHsiii's (;1t'rriiil liiipfnTi'-!;^, the

last end uf the Churchi and '^l ihu sums time indiff-
erent in themselvog na a. bdp or hindrance to mm'e
temporal hsppinesa; seconoarily it exteads to all
persons and extamU objects as involved in such acts.
In all subject^^natter not purely spiritual nor purely
temporal, but at the same time both spiritual and
temporal in character, both juriadictiona may enter,
and so entering give occasion to collision, for which
there must be a principle of solution. In case of
direct contradiction, making it impossible for both
huisdictiona to be exercised, the juriadiction of the
Qiurch prevails, and that oiF the State is excluded.
The reason of this is obviotis: both authorities, come
from God in fulfillment of hispurposes in the life <^
man: He cannot contradict Himself; He cannot au-
thorise contradictory powers. His real will and con-
cession of power is determined by the higher purpose
of His Providence and man's need, which is the
eternal happinees of man, the ultimate end of the
Church. In view <^ this end God concedes to her the
onW authority that can odst in the case in point.
' u a case where there is no direct contradiction,
but a possibility of both jurisdictions being exercisea
without hurt to the higher, though neither jurisdic-
tion ia voided, and they both might, absolutely
speaking, be exercised without mutual consultation,
practically there is a clear opening for some adjust-
meat between the two, since both jurisdictions are
interested in avoiding friction. Though concordats
were not devised precisely for this purpoae, they have
in many cases been used for suui adjustment (see
Comcobdat). Consistently with the superiority oi
lUtl purpose, indioatea above, tha judicial deci-

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mnt * 2

sfon as to when a question does or does not involve
spiritual matter, either purely or in part, rests with
the Church. It cannot lie with Ute State, whose
jurisdiction, because of the inferioril^ of its ultimate
end and proximate purpose, has not autdt judidal
faculty in regard to the Babjeet4natter of a juiisdio-
tion which is as far above its own as the ultimate end
and proximate purpose thereof is above that of the
State. In analogous fashion every higho- court is
alwavs judge of its own jurisdiction as against a lower.

All the aBove is matter of principle, argued out as a
question of objective right, and it supposes that the
jurisdiction is to be applied throiigh the respective
subjects oS the same. In point of fact the duty <tf
stdimissiMi in a citi»n of a State to the hiriier juris-
diction of the Chu-ch does not exist where the citisen
is not a subject of tbe Church, toe ova such the
Church claims no ^vemtng power. It may also be
by accident subjectivdy obscured in one who, thon^
in point of right the Church's subject, in good faith
fails, throttgh an erroneous conscience, to recogniee
this fact, and, by consequence, the Church's right and
Iks own duty. Tia oubjeet of the State hu been
made f^y Seu by faumeil law li^ custom; but the
frertuent rebellion, ranUdtied fchrnugh centuries, of
p-cat numbers of the Church's subjects has confused
III \hi? mind of th'' non-Cfttholip worid the notion of
vrh'i Ls hy n vffJpd 1;W a siihji'<>( nf the Church. The
jnri.-li.Mrsiihji'r! i)f ihi' Churrh is every human being
tb;Lt Hm-i vuliilly received the Sacrament of Baptism.
Jhis birth into the Churrh by b^tism is analogous
to the birth within tJbe t^mVwf of a State of the off
spring of one of it^ citiBaOB. However, fliis new^4iora
itiblwt of the 8CaU> can, under certain circumstances,
fooouDcc his aUrciiLiiCG to his nn.rive State and be
accepted aa the mibject of anothrr. Not so one bom
into (he Church by bnptL-;!)!- fur baptism is a sacra-
ment Itaving an ind**lilile chirarler upon the soul,
whidi man cannot remove and so escape legitimate
subjection. Yet, as m a State, a man may be a sub-
ject without full ri^ta of citizenship: may evm, while
remaining a subject, lose those rights oy his own act or
that his parents; so, analogously, not every subject
of the Oiurch is a member thereof, and once a mem-
ber, he may lose the social righta of membership in
the Church without ceasing to be its subject. For
full membership in the Church, besides valid baptism,
one must by union of faith and allegiance be in lellow-
■hip with her, and not be d^rivra of iho rights of
membership by ecclesiaatical censure. Hence, those
validly baptized ChrisMans who live in schism or,
wlwthw by reason of apostasy or of initial education,
profess a faith different from that of the Church, or
are excommunicated therefrom, are not members of
the Church, thou^ as a matter of objective ri^t and
duty they are still her subjects. In practice the
Church, while retaining her right over all subjects,
does not — except in some few matters not of moment
here — insist upon exercising her jurisdiction over any
but her members, as it is clear that she cannot expect
obedience from those Christians tidio, beii^ in f aiui or
government separated from her, see no ri^t in her to
command, ana consequently reco^tze no duty to
obey. Over those who are not b^tized ^e claima no
right to govern, thou^ die has the inddeasible right
to preach the Gospel among them and to endeavour to
win them over to become members of C9irist*8 Church
and so citixeos <^ her ecclesiastical pdity.

m. Mftcal Cobforatb Rbution or Chubch
AND State. — ^Every perfect society must acknowledge
the rights of every other perfect society; must render
to it all duties consequ^t upon such rights; must
respect its autonomy; and may demand the recoff-
nitiou of its own rights and the fulfilment of obS-
gations arinng -Uierefrom. Whether one may also
onnmand Bocb recognition and fulfilmeot is anotlier
question: one does not involn the odw; tiiii%fwi»<

62 ffMtS

stance, the United States may demand its riAta irf
England, but cannot command England to ac^iowl-
edge them, as the United States has no authority over
lAgland or any other nation. Preecinding from this
for the moment, the Church must respect the rij^ta
frf the State to govern its subjects in all pwdy taoa-
poral matters, and, if the subjects of the Stato are
likewise subjects of the Church, must hold the latter
to the fulfilment of their civil duties as an obligation
in conscience. On the other hand, in principle, as a
matter of objective duty, the State is bound to recog-
nise the juridical rights of the Church in all matters
eqpiritua!^ wheth^ purely so or of mixed character, and
ita judicial rif^t to determine the character of mat-
ters of jiirisdiction, in regard, namely, to their spirit-
ual quality. The State, furthermore, is bound to
render due worship to God, aa follows from the same
arinunent from the natural law which proves man's
obligation to external worship, namely, that man
must acknowledge his dependence upon God and ^
subjection to Him in every capacity m which he is so,
dependent, and therefore not omy in his private
capacity as an individual but also in that public,
oorpdrate capacity whereby hevnd his felknr (atiaens
constitute the Stato. Due worship, in the present
economy, is that of the rdigion of Christy entrusted to
the oare of the Church. The State must also protect
the Church in the exercised her functionB. tor the
reason that the State is boimd to protect M tbe rights
of its citizens, and among these their religious ri^ts,
which as a matter of fact would be insecure and fruit-
ksa were not tlie Churdi protected. The St«te is
even under obligatiw to promote the spiritual inter*
esta of the Church; for the State is bound to promote
whatever by reaction naturallv works for the moral
devd.opment of its citizens and consequmtty for the
intemu peace of the community, and in tbe present
condition of human nature that devdoinnent is neces-
sarily dependmt upon the spiritual influence of Uie
Church.

There beh^^ Aea, an obligation upon the State as
Budi, arisii^ out of the Natwal and the Divine Posi-
tive Law, to render public Divine wwship in acaxd-
anoe with the guidance of the Church, in whose charge
Christ has placed the worship due in the present order
of things, an obligation also to protect the Church and
to promote her interests, the Church clearly has a per^
fe<^ right to demand tne fulfilment at these dutiee^
ffince their ne^ect would infringe her right to tbe
benefit prooeeding from the fulfilment.' To have the
further ri^t to command the State in thor regard im-
plies that the Church has a right to impose the obli-
gations of her authority in their re^trd, to exact them
authoritatively from tne State. Now in purc^ tem-
poral matters, while they remain such, the Church,
cannot command the State any more than she can
command the subjects of the State, even though these
are at the same time her own subjects. But in
spiritual and mixed matters calling for corporate
action of the State, the question depends upon
whether the physical persons who make up the moral
personality of the State are themselves subjects of the
Church. In case they are, then the Church has in
consequence jurisdiction therein over the State. Hie
reason is that owing to the supronacy in man's life
puipoeeB of his eternal happiness, man in all his c^
puoitiea, even of a civil nattire, must direct his activi-
ties so that they shall not hindorthia end, and where
action oven in nis official or orvil capacity u neoesBary
for this ultimate jpurpoae be is bound to place tbe ao-
tion: moreover, m ail these activitws so bearing oa.
this end, since they are thereby spiritual matter, every
subject of the Church is under the jurisdiotioii of thie
Church. If, then, the physical persona conatitutiof;
the moral pomn <x the State are the subjects of tho
CSiureh, they are still, in this joint oqmoity, subjeefe
to hat in-like msttsMi namety, In the fulflhneot of all

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oivil duties o{ the State towsrdfl nU^oa an4 Un
Ghurcb. The Churdi, because of the uaelebsness ^
her insistence, or because ctf greater evils to be so
avoided, ro&y waive the exercise ot this jurisdiction;
but in principle it is hers.

In practice we distinffuiah, from a religious point of
view, four kinds of civu autnoritv. First, in a Cath-
olic State, in whidi, name^, tbe physical persons
OMistituUzig the moral perscuiality ot the State are
Catholic, the Cburdt's jurisdiction in matters of her
competency is in every wm^ complete. Sec{mdly, in
a non-Christian State, fm instance that (rf the Turks,
where the constituency is not even b^tiied, the
Churdi claims no jurisoiction over the State as such:
the foundation of such jurisdiction is lacking. Third,
in a Christian but non-Catholic State, where the con-

impossible. Fourth, a muEed State, <me, namely, the
oottstituenta of whose moral personality are neces-
■arily of diverse religioDS^ practically lies outside the
reach of ecclesiastic^ junsoiction, since the affiliation
of some of the constituents could not make a subject
of the Church out of the moral perstmality constitu-
tionally made up of elements not all of which share
sodi affiliation. The subordination here indicated is
nidirect: not t^t the Church does not directly reach
spiritual and mixed matters, but that in their regard
it directly reaches only its immediate subjects and in-
direcUy throu^ them the State which they consti-
tute. Again, me State as such does not in such mat-
ters dimstly act for the supernatural purpose of the
Church (the eternal happiness of its subjects), but for
its own temporal purpose inasmuch as such action wiB
make for their temporal luqipiness; and so it acts for
tlw Church by indirection.

There is no parallel argument to ^ve the State in-
directly jurisdiction over the Church m matters purely
temporal, ^d therefore of the State's sole compe-
tency. The Church is universal and cannot be a
member at subject of any particular State. Even
were there but one universal State in the world, the
Church would not be a member therecrf, for its mem-
bers are not citizens of the State to the extent in
every capacity they must submit their activities for
the purpose of the State, particularly^ not the activi-
ties concerned directly wiUi the higher purpose of
eternal life. Moreover, the CSiurch is not consti-
tuted merely by the exercise of the natural rights of
the jnen who are citizens of the State, but by the
supernatural endowment of Uie Divine Positive Law.
Finallyi the Church in its corporate capacity is not
bound to seek the temporal happiness of ner members
aa.a means to their et^nal welfare, while the State at
such is bound to Divine worshil> and to the protection*
and promotion of the Church in the interests of re-
ligion, because this is a necessary element involved in
t& perfect temporal happiness of the Catholic citizen.
The State, therefore, has not, either in temporal or in
q)iritual things, any authority over the Church as
such, however much it may have in things pur^
tonporal over the members of the Church, who are
subjects of the State. The State can, as was said
above, demand its rights of the Church: it cannot
command them.

IV. Union of Chubch and Statb. — There is some
confusion in the public mind about the meaning of the
union of Church and State. The essential idea of
such union is a condition of affairs where a State recu^
nixee its natural and supernatural relation to the
Church, professes the Faith, and practises the wor-
ship of the Church, protects it, enacts no laws to its
hurt, while, in case ol necessity and at its instance
takiof; all just and requisite civil measures to forward
the Divindy appointed purpose of the Churchr-in ao
ikr aa all thoe make tor the Stato'i. owft cssea-

tiol puipoas, &iB temporal happineiB of its eitiasiia.

That tiuB is in principle the normal and ethically
proper condition for a truly Catholic State should be
evident from the religious obligations of the CatbsHo
State as above deolared. That in practice it has ia
the past sometimes worked evil to both Church and
State, is an accidental effect consequent upon the
frailty and passion of the human insbvments then
ruling in Churchi w in State, ot in both. As a partial
attempt at security against such evil consequences,
the Church has for centuries established concordats
with Cathohc States; but even these have not aJways
saved the situation. For concordats, like all other
agreements, however firm in principle, are in practice
only as strong as the oonscientiousness of those whose
duty it is to observe them. The cousciencetess can
dastrov them at pleasure.' Between the Church and a
oon-Quistiaii or a Christian, but non-Catholic, State
a oondiUon of separation, as meaninga condition of
indiffarence of the State towards the Church, is to be
expected, as the foundation of the specific obl^ations
involved in union are wanting. Such a s^>aratton for
a Catholic State would be criminal, as ignoring the
sacred obligations of the State.

For a State once Catholic and in union with the
Church to declare a separation on the ground that it
has ceased to be Catholic is an action wnich as a mat*
ter of objective right has no standing; for in objective
truth the dutv of the people would be to regain their
lost faith, if they had really lost it, or to live up to it,
if in reality it were not lost. But on the supposition
that the essential constituency of a State tus been
transformed from Catholics to those who, not by
hypocritical pretence, but in the fulness of good faith,
are not CatAolics—a condition easier of supposition
than of realization — the State throujsh such mistaken
ooDscience might seek for separation without sub-
jective fault, provided the B^aration were effected
without the summary dissolution of existing contracts,
without the violation of vested rights of the Church or
its members. It may be noted in passing that in the
recent instances of separation in fnmce and Portug^,
L e. the breaking up of an existing condition oS union
between Church and State, tbe separation has been
effected where the bulk of the people is still Catholic^
has been conducted in violation of ri^ta and con-
tracts both natural and positive, and has resulted, as
it was aimed to do, in an attempt at complete subjec-
tion of the Church and of all civil subjects in the mat-
ters cf religion to the tyranny of administrations
which scoff at all reli^on. That in States whose per-
Bomdity is oonstitutioaaUy made up of every oom-
I>lex»n of religious faith, much of it in its diversity
sincere, there should be a ^vemmental abstention
from any qieoifio denominational worship or profes-
sion of belief, and a geamJ protection and encourage*
ment of the individual in the practice of religion ao>
cording to his own religious principles witJbin the
limits of the Natural Law, or of a general acceptance
of Christianity, seems a practice necessity of wH
times, when wut^ of faith is so widely lacking, and a
modus Vivendi which, if sincerely earned out, aeema to
work as little harm to objective right as can be ex-
pected in a condition of consciences sincerely differing
m the matter of right established by the Divine Posi-
tive Law.

V. CouNTKH THBOBiKa. — The theories opposed to
the Catholic position on the true relations oetween
the Church and State are threefold, differing in lati-
tude c£ n^ation of ecclesiastical right.

A. AbamtUe Liberaliam is the most extreme. Hav-
ing its source in the principles of the French Revolu-
tion and b^inning with those who denied the exist-
ence of God, it naturally takes the position that the
State prescinds from God: the State, it says, is athe-
istic Undertaking, with the elimination of revela-
tion aa4 the Divme Ifodtire Law, to get back to

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purely natural prineiples, it aooepted from RoosBeau
and the Utilitarians the principle that all right comee
from the State, all aatnority from the consentient
wills of the people of the State. The jwedtion logically
followed that the Church has no rights — ^not even the
right to existence — save suoh as are conceded' to it by
the civil power. Hence it is not a perfect society, but
a creature of the State, upon which it depends in all
thii^, wad upon iriiioh it must be direotur subordi-
nate, if it is to be allowed to exist at all. (See Libxr-

AUBM.)

B. Qualified Liberalism, as formulated by Cavour
and Minghetti in Italy at the close of the firat half of
the nineteenth century, does not go so far. While
claiming to admit that the. Chur(m is more or less
a perfect society with foundations in the Divine Posi-
tive Law of Qinstian Revelation, it contends that the
(%uroh and State are disparate m such fashion as to
prosecute their respective ends independently in be-
half of the individiial, having no subordination iriiat-
ever one to the other. Oonsequently, in aD public
affairs the State must prescind from every religious
society, and deal with such either as private associa-
tions existing within the State or as ">rekn corpora-
tions to be treated with accordingly. The axiom of
Uiis newer Liberalism is "A free Church in a free
State", whieh in point of fact means an emasculated
Church with no more freedom than the shifting polih
tics, internal and external, of a State chose to give,
which in the event, as was to be foreseen, amounted to
servitude. (See Italy: PoUUcal and Civil Gotwn*-
menl: (2) Church and State.)

C. The Theory of the RegalistB conceded to the
Church a certain amount of social ri^1| from its Di-
vine Founder, but conditioned the exercise of all social
powers upon the consent of the civil ^vermnent.
litis theory, orwinatit^ with Gallicanism (q. v.),
fvaetically denied the Church to be a perfect society,
inasmuch aa it made its Jurisdiction depend for its
valid exercise upon the civil power. The theory
oradu^ly extended its contentions so far as to make
the CSiurch indirectly subordinate to the State, attr^
uting to the State the authority to foibid the Church
any juridical act that might work to the detriment of
the State and to command the Church in caae of
necessity to put forth h&r full powers to promote the
interests of the State.

ftiT* IX, Bttetftlieal, QuarOa Cvra, and SyUahtu Srromm
(IhKne, 1S64):Lbo XIII, fncvclKol* JmnwrlaU Dai and Savitiif
tia Chrittiana, tr. in Ttu Pap« and Sit PtopU (Londoa, 1910) i
CoBTA-RosBBTTi, Pkitoiopkia Moraii* (Innibruck, 1880); Pai^
KiKBi. D» Romano PmMce (Rome, 1877); HuumsmM, Dt
Bedtna tl Statu (Jtua. 1886] ; CAVAaMii. DtUa Naimra di SocM
Oiuridiea * PiMtita Comp*tmtU aOa CMaa (Rone, 1887);
LiBBRATOKB, La Ckiaaa « to Stato (Naplee, 187^0 ; Labocuts. £«
Parti Lihfrat (Puis, 1804): MiNaHzm, Lo Stato « la CkUta
(Turin, 1878) ; Majkia, De Coneordia Saetrdotii M Jmp«H» (Fnnk-
fort, 1708). — ^The Uat thnt pr«MDt noa-CfttboIic views.

Chables Mackset.

state or Way, PuEOATrvE, Iixuminativb, Uni-
TivE. — The word ataie ia used in various senses by
theologians and spiritual writers. It may be taken
to sign^y a profession or calling in life, as where St.
Paul says, in I Cor., vii, 20: "Let every man abide in
the same calling in which he was t^ed". We have,
in this sense, states of perfection, classified in the
Church as the clerical state, the religious state, and
the secular state: and among religious states, again,
we have those oi the contemplative, the active, ana
the mixed orders. The word is also used in the class-
ification of the degrees or stages of Christian perfec-
tion, or the advancement of souls in the supernatural
l^e of grace during their soioum in the world. This
has re^rence to the practice of all the virtues, both
theological and moral, and to all their acts both ex-
ternal and internal. It includes two elements,
namely our own efforts and the grace of Qod assisting
us. This grace is never wantinjg for those acts which
an poahi^re^ eommanded or nuplred by God, and

the wmk of jperfeotion ^1 proceed according to the
energy and ftielity with which souls corre^mnd to its
aids.

DiviBiON OF THE STATES OR Watb. — It is in the
latter sense we have to understand the word state ia
this article, and, according to the various classes
of souls who aspire to penection in this hfe, the
Fathers and theolofpans distinguish three states or
stages oi pofection. These are the state o£ be^n-
ners, the state of progress, and the state of the pof ect .
These states are also derignated "ways", because
they are the ways of God by which souls are guided
on the road to heaven according to the words of the
Psalmist: "He hath made his ways known to Moses:
his wills to the children of Israel" (Ps. cii, 7). Hence
we have the division of the spiritual life which has
been adopted since the time of the Pseudo-Dionysius,
into the purgative" way, the "ilhmunative' war,
and the "unitive" way. ^ee St. Thoma^ H-U,
Q. cbtxxifi^ a. 4; Suares, "De Religione", TV. VXH,
nb. I, c. xiii.) St. Thomas well explains the reason
for tlus diviuon when he says: "The first duty which
is incumbent on man is to g^ve up sin and resist con-
cupiscence, which are opposed to charity; this belongs
to beginners, in whose hearts charity is to be nureed
and cherished lest it be corrupted. The second duty
of man is to apply his 'energies chiefly to advance in
virtue: this belongs to those who are making progren
and who are principal^ concerned that chanty may
be increased and strengthened in them, llie thira
endeavour and pursuit of man should be to rest in
God and enjoy Him; and this belongs to the per-
fect who desure to be dissolved and to be with Christ. "
Among the condemned propositions of Miguel de
Molinm, the author of "The Spiritual Guide"
which uie false mysticism known as Quietism is
propounded), is the followii^: "These three kinds «rf
way, the vurgalwe, iUumiruUive, sod unitive. are the
greatest absurdity in Mystical Theology" (cf. Con-
stitution "Ccelestis Pastor" of Innocent XI, 1687).
Avoiding this and other errors of false mystics, it
must be borne in mind that energy and ocUvity sie
required in every stage of our spintual life, and that
we have to accept the degrees of that life and to
follow the kind of prayer which is proper to one or
other of them according to our state, whether it be the
purgative, illuminative, or unitlve. Various descrip-
tions of these three ways are given by eminent mas-
ters of the spiritual life. Substantially they m^ all
be said to agree, though in details and manner vt
treatment they m^ differ. .

The PurgatiDe Way. — ^The purgative way is the
way, or state, of those who are beginners, that is those
who have obtained justification, but have not their
passions and evil inclinations in sudi a state sul^
*]Ugation that they can easily overcome temptiutions,
and who, in order to preserve and exercise chant;
and the other virtues, have to keep up a oontinuu
warfare within themselves. It is so called because
the chi^ concern of the soul in this state is to resist
and to owoome the paamons by nourishing, steength-
ening, and cherishing the virtue of chanly. This
can and ought to be done not only by keq>ing the
Commandments, but by foresedng the occamons in
which the precepts obuge, so as to be reader by s
prompt and well-disposed will to resist and avoid any
sins opposed to them. This state, although in ooe
sense it is imperfect, in another sense may be called
a state of perfection, because the soul remains united
to God by grace ana charity so long as it is free from
the st^ <n mortal sin. I^iirity of soul may be said
to be the proper end of ttie purgative way, and the
forms of prayer sultf^Ie for this way or state are
me<^tations on sin and its consetiuences, and on death,
judgment, hell, and heaven. The acts which aid
towards uprooting the remnants and habits of fonoer
ifins, and prerentmg (»tw fromsver returning to thtmi

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an corporal austerities, mortification of tiie iqipeiite, '
abnegation of one's own will, and conformity to the
irill of Qod. In a word, the distinctive notes of this
state are war against those tenqjtations which entice
the soul to sin by the attraction of pleasures of the
senses and the natural shrinking from pain; and re-
pugnance to acts known to be contrary to the will
of God. liie characteristic virtue of this state is
humility, by which the soul is made sensible of its
own weakness and its dependence upon the suooouts
ct the grace of God.

What mystical writers describe as the active and
passive purifications of the qiiritual life nunr be
brought under, and arranged according to, their three
states of perfection, thou^ not confined to any one
of them. The active purification consists in an the
bol^ efforts, mortifications, labours, and sufferings by
which the soul, aided by the grace of God, endeavours
to reform the mind, heart, and the sensitive appetite.
This is the characteristic work of the purgative way.
The passive purifications are the means which Qod
empk^ to purity the soul from its stains and vices,
and to pr^>are it for the exceptional graces of the
supernatural life. In the vrorka of St. John of the
Cross these jiurificationa are called ni^ts. and he
divides them into two classes, the night of tne senses
and the night of the spirits. In the state of beginners
the soul 6 often favoured by God with what are
called "sensible consolations because they have
their beginning and are felt chi^y in the senses or
sensible'facultiee. They consist in sensible devoticoi
and a feeling of fervour arising from the consideration
(tf God's goodness vividly represented to tiie mind
and heart; or, from external aids, such as the cere-
monies of the Church, lliese consolations are often'
withdrawn, and a state of desolation ensues, and Uien
the passive purification of the senses b^ns.

The lUumiTiatwe Way. — The ilhiminative
is that of those who are m the state of progress and
have thdr pasmons better under control, so that they
eaafy keep themselvee from mortal sin, but who do
not so easily avoid venial sins, because they still
take pleasure in earthly things and allow their minds
to be distracted by various imaginatioiv uid their
hearts with numberless desires, though not in matters
that are strictly unlawful. It is called the flhunina-
tive way, because in it the mind becomes more and
more enlightened as to spiritual things and the prac-
tice of virtue. In this grade charity is stronger and
more perfect than in the state of beginners; the soul
is chiefly occupied with Drogress In the spiritual life
and in aU the virtues, both theolo^cal and moral.
The practice of pra;^ suitable for this state is medita-
tion on the m^teries of the Incaroation, the Life of
Our Saviour, and the mysteries of His Satnied Passion.
"Though the mysteries of the Passion", as Ven, Luis
de Lapuente says, "belong to the illuminative way,
especially in its highest degree, which approaches
nearest to the unitive way, nevertheless they are
exceedingly profitable for all sorts of persons, by
whatever way they walk, and in whatever degree of
perfection they live; for sinners will find in them most
effectual motives to piuify themselves from all their
sins; bepnners to mortify their , passions; proficient^
to increase in all kinds m virtue: and the perfect to
obtain union with God by fervent love" (introduction
to "Meditations on the Passion"). The fundar
mental virtue of thb state is recolleotioa, that is, a
oonatant attention of the mind and of the affections
at the heart to thoughts and sentiments which ele-
vate the soul to God— exterior recollection which
oonmsts in the love of silence and retirement, interior*
recollection inmmplicity of smrit and a right intention,
SI -weXl as attention to God in all our actions. TliiU
does not mean tiiat a paw}D has to nei^eet tihe duties
of his state or portion in life, nor does it imjdy that
honeat and needful ncreoticttt shoidd be Avoided;

because these lawful or necessary circumstances Ok-
occupatlons can well be reconciled with perfeoi
recoOectiott and the most holy union with God.

The soul in the illuminative wur will have to ex-
perienoe |>eriods of spiritual consolations and desola*
tiooB. It does not at once enter upon the unitive
way when it has passed through the aridities of the
first purgation. It must spend some time, perhaps
years, after quitting the state of beginners, in exeras-
ing itself m the state of proficients. St. John of the
Cross tdls us that in this state the soul, like one re-
leased from a rigorous imprisonment, occupies itself
in Divine thou^ts with much greater freedom and
satisfaction, and its joy is more abundant and in-
terior than it ever esi«rienced before it entered the
nig^t of the senses. Its purgation is still somewhat
incomi)1ete, and the purification of the senses is not
yet finished and perfect. It is not without aridities,
darkness, and trials, sometimes more severe than in
the past. During the i>eriod of desolation it will have
to endure much suffering from temptations against
the theebgical virtues and against tM montd virtues.
It will also have to endure sometimes other diabolical
attacks upon its imagination and senses. Also, God
will permit natural causes to combine in afflicting the
soul^ such as the persecutions of mm, and the in-
gratitude of friends. Patient suffering and resigna-
tion have to be borne during all these trials, and the
devout sOul should remember the encouraging words
of the pious and learned Blosius: "Nothing more val-
uable can befall a man than trUnilation, when it is
endured with patience for the love at God; because
there is no more cntain sign of the divine election.
But this should be understood quite as much of in-

patient suffering tnat forms the ring
which Christ espouses a soul to Himsdf " (lostitutio
Spiritualis, viii, §3).

The Unitive Way. — ^The unitfve is the way of ihoae
who are in the state of the perfect, tiiat is taoae who
have th&T minds so drawn away from all temporal
things that the^r enjoy ^reat peace, who are nether
agitated by various desires nor moved by any areat
extent by passion, and who have their minds cmefly
fixed on God and their attention turned, either always
or very frequently, to Him. It is the union with God
by love am the actual experience and exercise of
tnatlove. It is c^ed the state of "perfect diarity'\
because souls who have reached that state are ever
prompt in the exercise of charitv by loving God habit-
ually and by frequent and emcacious acts of that
Divme virtue. It is called the "unitive" way, be-
cause it is by love that the soul is united to God, and
the more pmect the charity, the closer and the more
intimate is the union. Umon mth God is the prin-
cipal study and endeavour of this state. It is or this
union St.^ Paul speaks when he says: "He who is
joined to the Lord, is one ^irit" (I Cor., vi. 17).
Souls thus united to God are penetrated by the
highest motives of the theological and moral virtues.
In every circumstance of their lives the supernatural
motive which ou^t to guide their actions is ever
plresent to their mmd, ana the actions are performed
under its.insmration with a force of will whidb makes
their aceompUshment easy and even delightful. These
perfect souls are above all f amiHar with the doctrine
and us^ of consolations and desolations. Th^
are enlightened in the mysteries of the supematund
life, and they have experience of that truth proclaimed
by 8t. Paul when he said: "We know that to them
that love God, all things work together unto good,
to such as, according to bis purpose, are called to be
•aihts" (Bom., viii, 38}. The form of pmyer suit-
able to pcnons in'the umfive w^r is the oontemplation
of the glorious norsterles ctf Our Lord, His Reaurree-
Hon, Aj^eantieeB, and Asoonon, ustil'-the onnlnc
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STATS

of tiie Holy Ghost, ud the preadUns of tbe Gospel
These myeteries may also oe the subject of medita-
tion for b^noerB and for those in a state of progress,
but in a peculiar manner they belong to the perfect.
Union with God belong substantiaUy to all souls in
a state of gracei but it is in a qtecial manner the di»>
tingiiishing characteristic of those in the iinitiTe
wur or in the state of the perfect.

It is in Uiis state that the gift of contemplation is
imparted to the soul, though this is not always the
case; because many souls who are perfect in the uni-
tive way never receive in this life the gift of contem-
plation and th^ have been numerous saints who
were not mystics nor contemplatives, and who never-
theless excelled in the practice of heroic virtue. Souls,
however, who have attained to the unitive state have
consolations of a purer and higher order than others,
and are more of t«a favoured by extraordinary graces :
and sometimes with the extraordinary phenomena of
the m^tical state, such as ecstasies, raptures, and
what IS known as the prayer of union. The soul is
not, however, in this state always free from jdesola-
tions and passive purgation. St. John of the Cross
telle us th^t the purification of the spirit usually takes
place aftw the pturificatioa of the senses. The ni^t
of tihe senses being over, t2ie soul for some time en-
joys, according to this eminent authority, the sweet
(telights of contemplation; then, perhaps when least
expected, the second night coined, far darker and far
more miserable than the first, and this is called by
him the purification of the spirit, which means the
purification of the interior faculties, the intellect and
the will. The temptations which assail the soul in
Hm state are similar in their nature to those which
affict soulb in the illuminative way, only more ag-

Savated, because Mt more keenly; and the witn-
awaj o( the oonsolations of the spirit which they
have already experienced is their greatest affliction.
To these trials are added others, peciiliar to the
spirit, which arise from the intensity of their love for
God, for Whose possession they thirst* and long.
"The fire of Divine love can bo dry up the spirit and
enkindle its desire for si^sfyiog its Uiirst that it tiuns
upon itsdf a thousand times and longs for God in a
thousand ways, as the Fsfdmist did when he said:
For Thee soul hath thirsted; for Thee my flesh, O
how many ways" (St. John of the Cross, op. cit.
infra, bk. 11, xi). There are three d^rees of this
species of suffering designated by mystical writers as
the "inflammation of love", the "^jrounds of lore",
and the "languor of love".

SptBiTUAL Statbs ow Cohsoution AND DESO-
LATION.—Consolatiim and desolation may be said to
be phases of the various states or stfwes of the
^intual life, rather than distinct states in tnemselves.
The character or permanence does not usually belong
to them. They succeed each other, as a rule, and
devout souls have to experience both the oap and the
odier, but as they may have sometimes a long period
of consolation or desolation the term tUUet may be
used m a wide sense when treatiiw of than. Spell-
ing in a general sense, the state of oonsolatjm is that
in which the soid enjOTs a q)iritual sense or imprea-
uon of close union ana intimate converse with God.
The state of desolation, on the contrary, is that in
which the soul feels itself as it were abandoned by
God. Consolation and desolation may be more easihr
understood whoi considered in oppoeititm to eada
other.

CoruiAUion. — ^In ilie nuritual wder oonsolal^ is of
three kinds. Th9 fizst kind| which is known ss "wa^
sible consolation", is that which has its be^nning
and is Mt chiefly in the sensee or sensible faculties.
It consists in sensible devotion and a feeling of fer-
TQUT arising from the oonsideration of God's goodness
vividly represented to the mind and heart; or iron^
tbs fixtonal aids and oennuoinof Uw CSmvohf .{tip

not to be disregarded on this account because it leadfl
us finally to good. St. Alphonsus says: "^iritual
consolations are gifts which are much more precious
than all the riches and honours of the world. And if
the sensibility itself is aroused, this completes our
devotion, for thm our whole bai% is united to God
and tastes God" (Love for Jesus, zvii). The B»»nd
kind of oonsolation, which is often the result of the
first, and.usualW remains with the third, is charac-
terised by a fatnlity and even delight in the exercise
of the virtues, especially the theological virtues. St.
Watius says that any increase of faith, hope, and
charity may be called a consolation (Rule 3 for the
discenunent of spirits). By this kind of consolation
the soul is raised above the sensible faculties; and, in
the absence of senuble consolation, truth is percdved
at a glance, faith alone operating, enlightening, sus-
tuning, ana directing the soul, and fervour of the will
succeeds to sensible fervour. We should be thankful
to God for oonsolations of this kind and pray for their
oontinuance, and it is these we a^ for in the prayer
"En e^o" usually recited after Communion. The
third kmd of consolation affects the higher faculties
of the B011I, namely the intellect and the will, and in a
more perfect way than the second. It consists in
spedaf tranquillity and peace of soul, and is the result
of the firm determination of the wiA to live for God
with entire confidence in His grace. It is present
when, as St. Ignatius says, "the soul bums with the
love of its Creator, and can no longer love any cre^
ture except for His sake" (Rule 3 for the (Mscerament
of spirits). The soul is conscious of its happiness,
even though the inferior and sensible faculties may be
depressed and aiflicted. This is the most perfect
kind of all, and it is not often experienced except by
the perfect. As the first kind is said to beloiu; to
beanos in the why of perfection, the second to those
nuupng pn^resa, so the third is said to belong to the
perfect.

Detolalim. — Spiritual desolation means the feeling
of abandonment by God, and of the absence of His
grace. This feding of estrangement may arise from
-various causes. It msy be the result of natural dis-
position or temperament, or of external circum-
stances; or it may come from the attacks <A Uie devil;
or from God Himself when for our greater «>od He
withdraws from us spiritual consolation. In con-
tradistinction to consolation spiritual desolation may
be of three kinds. The first is called seiuible desola-
tion and is the opposite of sensible consolation. It
includes aridities, dissipation of mind, weariness, and
disgust in the exercises of piei^; and it is often ex-
perienced by beginners in the practice of mental
prayer. It m&y co-exist with consolation of a hi^er
order, just as^ m the natural order, we may feel pdn
of body and \oy of soul at one and the same time.
The second kmd of desolation affects the intellect and
will, and consists in the privation of the feeling of the

Sresence of the supernatural virtues as described by
t. Teresa in her life (di. xxx). This trial is ex-
tremely severe, but if generously accepted and pa^
tiently endured, it may be turned into great merit,
and maiur fruits of sanctity will be the result. (See
Letter of St. Francis of Sales to S. Jane Frances de
Chantal, 2S March, 1612.) The third kind of desola-
tion is still more severe. It is a darkening of the
mind and a feeling of abandonment so great that the
soul is tmpted to distrust concerning salvation and is
tonnented by other terrible thoughts against faith^
aoinst puri^, and evoi by blasphonous thoudits—
tuB most painful experience v^ch a holy soul naa to
endure (see St. John of the Cross, op. cit. infra, bk. I,
ch. xiv). It would be a great mistake to iniagtne that
quritual desolation arrests progress in virtue or en-
fe^es the spirit of fervour. On the contrary, it af-
Inds occasion of heroic virtue and of absolute detadi-
mmt , fo»n aeo83)le pleasure, whether natural or

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smniatanl. At the same time we may hapB and
wiflfa that theaa interior grieCa may be Himiniahed or
made to disappear, and we may pray God to deliver
UB from them, but if all our effortB are in vain, and
God permits the deeolation to oontinue, it only le-
maiiM to naiiB oundrea geoeionabr to His Dnrine
WOl.

DiRBcnoMS.— For the bettor tmderataading of
the three etates or ways in their rela^na to eaoh
oAer and tiieir effeeta inpon aonb tmding towarda
perfection the following (firections and observations
may be useful.

(1) The three states or ways are not so entirely
dirtinet that there may not ^mear in any one of them
— .at^mp of the other two. In each and all of them
is foond the tStort andeare to preserve and guard
theeoul from sin, though this ie aaid to belong (^ipro-
pnately) to the purgative way; in each, virtue nieia to
be jMnctiaed, ana from its practice light and proftreaa
result. Agfdn, in each of them the eoul gives itaelf
to God to live in Him and for Him the supernatural
hfe which He imparts to it, and this may be said to
be the conuBemoement of the unitive way. The
ebaraotetirtic and disUoetiTe feature of these sti^
is detemiined by the form which is domfaiant in the
soul in its efforts towards po^ection. When strife
and fear predominate, the soul is said to be still in
the purgative way; when the deare and fervour to
advance in virtue and the attraction of hope prevail
above fear, then the soul is said to be in the illuminap
tive way. If ohari^ is dominant above all, the soul
is in the imitive way; but so long as this mortal life
lasts, for tiw stroi^ and the feeble there will always
be the labour and activity of pui^tion, illuminatkm,
and of union in the work of mpematural perfection.
Snares tMcbes this doctrine in very distinct terms.
"These three states", he says, "are never so dis-
tinct that any one of them may not partii^pate of
the other two. Each them takes its name and
chaiaeter from that which predominates In it. And
it is certain that no one can attain to such a state of
pnfeotioD in this life that he may ttot or cannot make
nirther progress" (De Orat., 1. II, e. id, n. 4).

(2) According to the usual manner of advancement,
the majnity of souls are gradually raised to the state
<rf perfect union after passing throu^ the states of
punfication and illununation. But this rule is by
no means absolute, and a miraculous intervention
or an extraordinarv grace may bring a soul suddoily
from the lowest depths of moral abjection to the
most sublime heightB of charity, as may be seen in
the ease of St. Maiy Magdalen and other celebrated
penitent saints. On the other hand we may find
saints in whom the pui^tive state mav predominate
even to the end of theu- lives, and God sometimes
withholds the favours of the unitive way from many
faithful and fervent souls who have advanced gene^
CHisly in the degrees ot the purgative and iDuminative
ways, and who have all along preserved the fervour
ot ooly durity, iriiioh is tbe easenoe and crown of
peffeewn.

(3) As a rule, supernatural phenomena of mystio-
ism appear in the most perfect state, namely that of
union; one special favour of the mystical life, namely
spiritual espousals, supposes the unitive way, ana
cannot be ascribed to either of the inferior grades of
perfection. Many of the other mystical favours, sudi
as ecstasies, visions, looutions, etc., may be found, by
way of exception, m the less advanced stages of the
niritual bfe. As regards the gift of oontemplati(»i,
sjUiou^ it is proper to those who are perfect in vir-
tue anabolinMs, still it is sometimes granted to the
imperfeot and erm to b^inners so that they may
taste of its sweetness. Souls by the exercise of Chris-
tian asoetioism can prepare themselves for this inti-
msts coDummication wfth Qod, but th^y should await
iritb bnmility and patiense tbs tims ud osoaaiao Id

wiuch they are to be introdaoed by their heaTaoly
Spouse into the mystical state <rf oontcsnplation.

(4) la order to decide as to the diifMsitions re-
quired for frequent and daily communion, it is no
longer neoessaiy for a aimritual dinotor to find out
vr to judge whether a soul ia in <«e or other ni tbess
states aocordius to the rules laid down by some modem
theologians. All that is now required^ as stated in
the first clause of the Decree ot the Sacred Congrega-
tion of the Council of 20 Deo., 1906, is that the recip-
ient be in a state oi grace and approach the Holy
Table mth a rij^t intention. As already stated,
these three states are not essily distinguishable, and
the lines ftf demarcation between tiiem cannot easily
be disosmed, and tberefore ooold not faAve beui re-
nrded as at Ai^ time very useful as a TOle of guidanos
for frequent Cmnmunion. Now the rule is inappli-
cd>le, lor those in tha pureative way may receive
Bol][ Communion just as often as those who are in
the illuminative and unitive, as is evident from thd
Decree rrferred to. We are not, however, to sup-
pose that the rules ^ven by Umdocians and ascetioal
writers, founded as they are on the teaching the
ancient SWihsrs, with regard to £My Omamunion
according to tbe three states or ways no longo- serve
for edification. They indicate to us what is to be
expected as the fruits of frequent Conununion re-
ceived wcnrthily. Frequent Communion is the
chief means of preserving and pufecting in our souls
tbe spiritual liie, and oi siq^wrting them in aU its
ways.

HiAv Faiik (LoDdoa, 185<)-, I>LVist, A'

of Sfl/itirat fi^Btagr (I^JBcfon. IWIl and

2-'->i' W. Jd— or TSM Caoam, ThM Qkmn'^ fflff^t ^ JwbI;

Bt. Tnnu, M/fl. si, ab. or; ^ftlmiaOM Lotdu. ApMuf

Abthur Dbvinb.

StatM of tha Ohuroh (Ital. Lo Stato dtOa
CAisae), the dvil territorv which for over 1000
years (754-1870) aoknowleaged the pope as temporal
nikr. The ei^HesBion "Patrimonium Sancti Petri"
originally designated the landed possessions and
revenues of various kinds that belonged to the
Church of St. Petar at Rome. Until the middle of
the ei^th century Uiis consisted wholly of jMivate
properly, but the teem was htter applied to the States
of the Church, and more particularly to the Duehy
of Rome. Our subiect may tii\i8 be convenient^r
treated under the foUowinft neads: I. Patrimony of
St. Peter ftLddng the origin of the States of the
Church to the time of Charlemagne); II. History of
the States of tbe Church.

I. PATBnioNT or St. Pvtbb. — (1) PairiMoniat
Pouutiont cf the Ckvreh tff Ams.— The law of Con-
stantino the Great (321), by v^iaeb the Christian
Church was declared muumed to hold and transmit
property, first gave a legal basis to the possessions
iA the Qiurch of Rome. Subsequent^ the posses-
sions were rapidly augmented by donatmns. Con-
stantine himself set the example, the Lateran Palaoe
being most pmbaUy presented by him. Constan-
tine^ gifts fnmed the historical nudeus, whidi the
SrtnstiBr Legend later surrounded with that net-
work of myth, that gave rise to the forged document
known as the "Donation of Constantino", llie
exam|^ of Constantine was followed by wealtity
famihes of the Roman nobility, iHiose memwy fre^
quently survived, after the families thetnselTSs had
beeome extinct, in the names of the properties wUoh
they had once intsented to ths Bomaa See. 7^
donatfon of large sslalis oaassd «lMWff>4ttU /Dlf-.

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Bynctine emperort Bubseguentiy mn less liberal

in their gifts; the wan with the Lombards Hkcmae
had an unfavouraUe effect, and there iremained few
families in a position to bequeath large estates.
Apart from a number of scattered poeseesjonB in the
Cment, Daknatia, Gaul, fmd Africa, the patrimaueB
were naturally for the moet part situated in Italy
ai^ on the adjacent islands. The most valuable
and moet eztenove posHnicnB were thoee in Sieiljf
about Syraeuae ana I^lenno. The revflnues from
the properties in Sicily and Lower Italy in ihe oghth
oeotury, when Leo the Isaurian confiscated them,
were estimated at three and one-balf talents of gold.
But the patrimonies in the vicinity of Rome were the
most numerous and, after moet m the remote patri-
monies had been lost, in the ei^th oratur^, were
mani«ed with especial care. Of other pabrimonies
may be mentioned the Neam^tan with the laland
ftf Capri, that of Gaeta, the Tuaoaa, the Patrmoniton
T&nimnum in the vicmity of Tivoli, estates about
Otranto, Osimo, Ancona^ Umana, estates near
Ravenna and Goioa, and lastly properties in Jatria,
Sardinia, and Corsica.

WiUi these landed poaeeeaions, scattered and
varied aa they were, the pope was the largest land-
omna in Italy. For this reason every ruler of Italy
was compelled of necessity to redton with him first
of all; on the oth<r hand he was also the first to feel
iht political und economical disturbances that dis-
trttsed the country. A good insight into the prob*
lems that required the attention of the pope in the
administration of his patrimonies can be obtained
from the letters of Gr^ory the Great (Mon. Germ.
Epist., I). The revenues from the patruuonies were
employed, not only for administrative purp<we^ for
the maintenance and construction of church edifices,
for the equipment of eonveuts, for the household
<^ the pope, and Uie support of the clergy, but also
to a great extent to relieve public and private want.
Numerous poorhouses, hospitals, orphanages, and hos-
pices for piurims were maintained out of the revenues
of the patrimonies, many individuals were supported
directly or indirectly, and slaves were ransomed frtnu
thepossMsionof Jewsandheathou. But,aboveaU,the
popes relieved the emperora of the responsibility of pro-
v^iiDgIlomewith.food,andlateral80 assumed the taak
of warding off the Lombards, an undertaking generally
involving ^n^nnUI obligations, The pope thus be-
came the champirai (A ul the opimesec^ the political
champion of all those who were unwilling to submit
to foreign domination, who were unwilling to become
Lombards or yet whoUy Byvantinee, {unefcxrins to
remain Romans.

(2) PolitictU Position of Ae Papacy.— Hiis political
aspect of the papacy became in time verv prominent,
inasmuch as Rome, after the removal of the im-
perial residence to the East, was no longer tlie seat
of any of the higher political officials. Even after
the partition of the onpire, the W^tem emperors
preferred to make the better^iroteoted Ravenna their
residence. Here was the centre of Odoacer's power
and oi die Ostrogothie rule; here alsot After the fall
of the Ostroeoth& the viceroy . <tf the Bysantine on-
peror in Itiuy, the exarch, resided. In Rom^ on
the other hand, the pope appears with ever-increasing
fiequency as the advocate of liie nee^ population:
thus Leo I intercedes with Attila and Goserich, ana
Gelasius with llieodoric. Cassiodorus as pra^ectus
jmtUria under the Ostrogothie supremacy actual^
entrurted Hie care crit the tem^mai affairs to Pope
John U. When Empmr Jurtiiuan issued the Frag-
matio Sanction (554), the pope t(«ether witik toe
Senate was entrusted with the control of Veighta and
measures. Theoc^orth for two centuries the popes
were most loyal supporters U ih» BinantineGovem-
OMut agi^nst tlM encroachments oi the LonUtards,
fad VCM all tlwmoR inrli^nmhici, beoMiw after

608 tin Senate diai4}peared. They, too, wwe Ito
only court of judicature at whicb the Roman popul*-
tion, exposed as it was to the extortion of the ByiaiH
tine functionaries and officers, could find proteotimt
and defence. No wonder then that at scared any
other time was the papacy so popular in Centru
Italy, and there was no cause which the native popu-
lat^o% who had again begun to <ncanise themselves
into bodies ttf muitia, espouaed with fraifes meaX
then the freedom and inoepmdenee <tf tiie Boman
See. And naturally bOj for they toidc part in the
election of the pope as a separate dectwal body.

When the Byaantine emperors, infected with
Cffisaro-pwist tendenciee, attempted to cruah the
papacy abo, they founa in the Roman mHitia aa
opposition against which they were able to aooom-
plish nothing. The particularism of Ita^ awcJce
and concentrated itself about the pope. When
Eknpraor Justinian II in 692 attempted to nave Pope
Sergius II (as formerly the xmfortunate Martin I)
forcibly conveyed to Constantinople to extract from
him hu assent to the canons of the TruUan CoundL
convoked by the emp^r, the militia of Xlavcnna and
of the Duchy of Fentapolis tying immediately to
the south assembled, nuutshed mto Rome, and com-

gelled the departure of the emperor's plen^iotentiaty.
uch occuirenoea were rq>eated and aequued wgnm-
cance as indicating the popular feeh^ When
P<^ Constantino, the last pope to go to Constanti*
Dople (710), rejected the confession of faith of ^va
new- emperor, Bardanas, the Romans protested, and
refused to acknowledge the emperor or the dux
(military ruler) sent by him. Not until news was
brought that the heretical emperor had been replaced
by one of the true Faith was the duz allowed to
assume his office. That was in 713. Two yean
later the papal chair, which had last been occupied
by seven Oriental popes, was filled by a Roman,
Gregory II, who was aeetined to oppose Leo III the
Isaurian in the Iconoclastic conflict. The time was
ripening for RxHue to abandon the East, turn toWd
the West, and enter into that alliance with the
Gar!nano<Itomamo nations, on which ie baaed omr
Weetem eivilisatitm, of wiiiiui <me ccmaequenee was the
formation of the States of the Church. It would have
been easy lot the popes to throw off the Byxantine yoke
in Central Italy as early as the time of Iconoolasm.
If they resisted the impulse, it was because they
correctly recognized that such an attempt would
have been premature. They foresaw that the end
of the Bysantine supremacy and the beg^ming of
the Lombard power would have been encompassed
at the same time. It was necessary first to cstaUirfk
fact that the Byzantines could no bnger proteet
the pope and the Romans against the Lombards,
and then to find a power that could protect them.
Both of these conditions were fulfilled m 1^ middle
of the eighth century.

(3) Collapse cf the BjfganHne Power in Central
Jtaljf. — ^The Strang shape which the Statee of the
Church were destmed to assume from llie beginnias
is eacplained'by the fact that these were tiie oiMrieta
in miich Uie population of Central Italy had defendeil
itself to the very last against the Lombards. The
two chief districts were the country about Ravenna,
the exarchate, where the exarch was the centre of
the opposition, and the Duchy of Rome, which em-
braced the lands of Roman Tuscany norUiof the
Tiber, and to the south the Campagna as far as the
Gari^iano, whoe the pope himsdf was the soul of
the opposition. Furthermore, the greatest paine
were taken, as ko^ as it was at all poemble, to retaia
control of the intsrvraing district* and witii thesa
communication over the Apennines. Henoe tbe
strat^e importance <rf the Duchy of the Pent^Kwe
Rimini, Feaaro, Fano, Hmigaglta, Aneona> ami
nrofia. If thia iitwtBgy connexion wen bnlni^

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STAm

STATU

it was evident that Rome and Baivenna oonld not
Mg^ thesnsdvcs for anv kiigUi of time.

Hub vas reix^iiied by the Lnnbarda abe. The
aune narrow stirp of land in fact brake the oonnodoa
beUreen their Duchiee of Sjioleto and Benevento
aod the main portion of the king's territorise in the
Dorth, and it was i^ainst this thoefore that, from lha
■econd decade of the eighth oentnry, they aimed their
attsdcB with ever-iaoreaaLog enemr. In ttie be-
ginning the popea were able repeatecQy to wreet from
tbor hands aU Hiat they had gained. In 728 the
Lombard kii^ Liut{»rana took the Oastle d Sutfi,
vfaidi dominated the highway at Nhh on the road to
Feragia. But Uutprand, softened by the entreaties
ti Pope Gregory II, restored Sutri "as a gift to tiie
blened Apoetlee Peter and Paul". This ezpresaion of
flw "I^>er pontificaUs" was errcKMOusly interroeted
to nean ihaX in this gift the beginning of the matM
of the Chureh was to be reoc^ued. This is moor-
rect inasmuch as the popiee continued to acknowledge
tbe imperial Government, and Greek officials appear
in Rome for scHne time longer. True it is, however,
that here for the first time we meet the associatioa
of ideas on which the States of the Church wen to
be eonsbiicted. The pope asked the Lranbazda for
the return of Sutri tor the s^ce of the Prinoea of the
.^jostles and threatened punidunCDt by thcM aahitod
protectOTB. The pious Liutprand was imdoobtedly
Busoeptible to snob [dea& but never to any ocm^der-
ation for the Gre^. For this reason he gave Sutri
to Peter and Paul, that he might not expose honadf
to their punishment. What the pope Haea did with
it would be immatmal to him.

The belief that the Roman territory (at first in
the mom restricted, but afterwards abo in iho wider
sense) was defended by the FtiiHsee oC the AponOxm
became more and mca« prevalent, in 73S the Ltmi-
bftfd duke Transamuod of Spoleto eaptured the
Castle (A GaUese, which protected the road to Praugia
to the north of Nepi. By the payment of a large
sam of money Gregory III induoed the duke to.
restore the castle to him. The pope thm sou^t by
u alliance with Duke Traosamund to protect him-
sdf ag^nst Liutprand. But Liutpzana oonqnered
Spoleto, beeie^ Rom^ laid waste the Du«iy of
Rome, and eeised four uiportant frontier fOTtresaes
(Blera, Orte, Bomarso, and Amelia)^ ther^rr cutting
off the communication with Perugia and Raveona.
In this exigency the pope now (739) for the fint time
turned to the powerful Frankiah kiDsdom, under
tlie protection of whidi Boniface had bc^un his
meouHful labours as a missionary in Germany.
& Bent to Charles Martd, "the powerful mayor itf
the palace" of the fVankish monareby tad the
ennmander of the EVuiks in the famous battle
«t Tours, undoubtedly with the consent ^
the Greek dux, and appealed to him to protect
the tomb of the Apostle. Charles Martel r&<
plied to the embassy and acknowledged the gifts,
but was unwilling to offer wd against ute Lombards,
ware hoping him anmst the Sfiraoeoa. Ao-
oordingly the suooeasor of GrcooiT III, Zacharias
(the last Greek, who occupied the ptael ohair),
changed the polioy that had been previw^ followed
toward the Lombards. He framed an dhanoe with
liutprand acaiost Transamund, and reoetVed (741)
itt, return the foiu* castles. This ZtM^ariaw ob-
tuned as the result cS a personal viat to the camp of
thekii^atTenu. LivtinaQd also restored a number
a MtiUKmiaB that had baen seised by the Londbarda,
m fiorthermore oonduded a twenty years' peace
nUi the pope. The duchy now had a reenite from
Lombard attacks. Hie Lon^lMtrds fdl upon Ra<
nana, which ihsy had already hebl from 731 to
736. The exarch had no other reoourae than to aedc
w aid of the pope. liutprand did in fact alknr
lOMdf to ba mduaed far Zaohariaa to nunodac the

■Mrter part of his oonquests. Nor was it unimptv-
umt that- these districts too once owed their rescue
to the pope. Only a short time after Liutinand's
death (744) Zacharias was successful in further pont^
poning the catastrophe. When ' Rachis, the Lom-
bard king, waa besi^in^ Perugia (749), Zacharias so
wrought upon his conscienoe that the king raised the
aege. But as a result <rf this Rachis was overthrown,
and Aifltulf, ■who was put into his place, at once ^owea
1^ his aeta that no consideration could halt him in
his course.

In 761 Aistnlf conquered Ravenna, and thereby
decided the long delayed fate of the exarchate and
the Pent^lis. And when Ai^iulf , who hdd Spoleto
also under his inunediate sway, directed dl his might
against the Duohy of Rome, it seoned that this too
cmild no k>nger bis hdd. ByaanUum oould send do
troops, and Empenv Constantino V Copronymus,
in answer to the repeated requeste for help of tlw new
pope, St^hen II, could only offer him the advice
to act in aeeordanee with the ancient policy of Byzan-
tium, to pit some other Qennanic tribe against the
Lombards. The Franks idone were powerful enough
to compel the Lombards to maintain peace, and th^
alone stood in close i^tionBhip witn the pope. It
is true that Charies Martd had cm a fonner occasion
faOad to nqrand to the entresfties of Grecoty UL
But meaN^le the relations between the Fnmkish
rulers and the popes had become more intimate.
P*>pe Zacharias had tmly recently (751), at Pepin's
accession to the throne, i^ken the word that removed
all doubts in favour of the Carlovingian mayor of
the palaee. It was not imreasonaue, ther^ore,
to expect an active show of gratitude in return,
when Rome was most grievously pressed by Aistuif.
Aooordin^ Stolen II aecretl/ sent a letter to Peinn
by pilgriBM, sMidting his aid i^iunst Aiatulf and
asking ior a oonference. Pepin in turn sent Abbot
Dioct<^[anfE of Jumidges to ccHifer with the pope,
and a little later diroatehed Duke Autcbv and Bi^op
Qkrodoigang of Mets to conduct the pope to the
Frankiah realm. Never before had a pope crossed
the Alps. While Pope Stephen was [vmaring for
the journey, a messenger arrived from Gcmstanti-
noi^, bringmg to the pope the inmerial mandate to
tr^ onoe more with Aistuif for the purpose of per-
suading him to surrender his oonquests. St^noi
took with him the imperial messenger and several
dignitaries (rf the Roman CSiurch, as well as members
of the atisboatmy belonging to the Roman militia,
and proceeded first of all to Aistuif. In 753 the pope
left Rome. Aistuif, vbea the pope m^ him at Pavia,
refused to enter into negotiations or to hear of a
restoration of his eonqueets. Onify with difficulty
did Stolen finally prevail upon we Lombard kmg
not to hinder him m his journey to the Frankiah
kingdom.

(4) IntermUion tf the FranA». Formation of the
StaUa of. the Chvrch.-^Tbe pope thereupon crossed
the Great St. Bernard into the Frankiw kingdom.
Fqan reoetved hv guest at Fonthion, and there prom-
iaea him ora^ to do all in hia power to recover the
Exarchate of Ravenna and the other districts seised
1:^ AietuH, The pope then went to St-Denis near
Paris, where he oonomded a firm alliance of friendship
with the first C^fuiovinfdMi kin^, probably in January,
754. He anointed Kmg Pepm, his wife, and sons,
and bound the Franks under the threat of exoommu-
nieatkm never theceaftw to ofaooee thor kings from
any other family than the Cariovingiaa. At the
sane time he bestowed on Pspin and his scms the
tide <rf "Patrician of the Romans", which title,
the Ina^Mst Bysantine officials in Italy, the ex-
archs, had bcnne. Instead of the latter the King of
the Franks was now to be the protector of the Ro-
mans. Hie pope in bcetowing this tiUe pn^utbly
acted aiao in etmAmnity wkh authority ooiJerred on

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him by the ByBuUne empvnr. In order, however,
to fulfil the wuhesof the pope Pepin had eventually to
obtain the consent of his nobles to a campaign mto
Itai^. This was rendered imperative, whea several
embiuaies, -niudi attaiq>ted by peaceful means to
induce the Lombard king to give up bis conquests,
returned without accomplishing thor mission. At
Quiercy on the Oiae the Frankish noblee finally gave
uidr oonsent. Tb«e Pepin executed in writing a
promise to give to the Church certain territoriee, the
mst documentary record for the States of the Churdi.
This documoit, it is true, has not been preserved in
the authentic version, but a number of citations,
quoted from it during the decades immediately
following, indicate its oontenta, and it is Ukehr that
it was the source of the much inteipolated *'Fi«g-
mentum Fantusiianum", which probably dates from
71^-80. In the original document ot Quimy Pepin
promised the pope the restoration of the unds of
Outral Italy, which had been last oonouered by
Aistulf , eq>eciaUy in the exarchate and in tne Rcanau
Duchy, and of a number of more or less oleariy de-
fined patrimonies in the Lombard Kingdom and in
the Duchies of %>oIeto and Benevento. The lands
were not yet in Pepin's hands. They had therefore
first to be conquered by Pepin, and his gift was con-
ditioned by this evrat. In the summer of 754 Pepin
witix his army and the p<^ began thdr march into
Itahr, and foroed King Aistulf, who had shut himself
up m his capital, to sue for peace. The Lombard
promised to give up the cities of the exarchate and
of the Pentapolis, which had been last conquered,
to make no further attadcs upon or to evacuate the
Dudiy of Rome and the districts of Voietia and
Istria; and acknowledged the sovere^ty of Ihe
Franks. For the cities in the exarchate and in the
Pentapolis, whidi Aistulf promised to return, Pq>in
executed a separate deed for the pope. This is the
first actual '^Donation 764". But Fdpin had
hardly recrossed the AJ^ on his return hom& wb«i
Aistulf not only failed to make preparations tor the
return of the promised cities, out again advaooed
anunst Rome, which had to endure a severe siege.
The wme sent a messaiger by sea, summoning Pepin
to fulfil anew his pledge of k>yalty. In 766 Ftein
again set out with an army aMiurt Aistulf and a
second time hemmed him in at Pavia. Aistutf was
Main compelled to promise to deliver to the i>ope the
cities granted him after the first war and, in addi-
tion, Commachio at the mouth of the Po. But this
time the mere promise was not oooHidered suffitnoit.
Messengers of I^in visited the various cities of the
exarchate and of the Feotqwlis, donanded and re-
ceived the keys to them, and brought the hi^Mst
ma^st^'ates and most distinguished magnates of
Uiese citiee to Rome. Pepin executed a new deed of
gift for the cities thus surrendered to the pope, which
together wiUi the k^ of the cities were deposited
on the grave of St. Peter (Second Donation m 766).

l^te Byzantine Government naturally did not
mprove of this result of the intervvnuon ot the
Ertrnks. It had hoped thnnif^ the inatnunoitality
oi the Fnui^ to regain possenaon of the districts
that had been wrested frran it the Lombards.
But Pepin took up arms, not to render a service to
the Byzantine emperor, but for the sake of St. Peter
alone, from whose protection he expected earthly
h^pmess and everlasting salvation. Just as kings
St that time founded monasteries and endowed them
witib landed pn^ertkm, that prwen might be attend
for them there, so Pepin mshed to proride the po^
with temporal tmitories, that he mijdit be certain
of the prayttB of the pope. Therefore Pepin answered
the Bysantine ambassadors, who came to him before
the second e:q>edition of 766 and asked hhn to return
to the emperor tiie cities to be taken from the Lom-
bardib that he had andertakeo the eipecHtion for

St. PMcr alone and not fw the cn^Mror; thet to
St. Peter alone would he restore the cities. Thus
did Pepin found the States of the Church. The
Greeks undoubtedly had the formal r^t to tiie
sovereignty, bat as they had failed to meet tlw obU-
gatiMi of soverdgnty to give protection against
foreign enemies, tiwar lights became illusory. If the
Franks had not interfered, the territory would by
ri^t of oonqueet have fallen to the Lombards;
F^in by his intervention prevmted Rome wiUi the
native peculation from falling into tiie hands of the
foreign conquerors. Tbb States ot the Church are
in a certain sense the only renmant of the Roman'
Elmpire in the West whieh escaped foreign conquerors.
Gratefully did the Roman p^ulatioa acknowledge
that they had escaped subjection to the Lombards
only throu|^ the mediation of the pope. For it was
only for the pope's sake that P^in had resolved
to interfere. The results were in^Hirtant, (a)
diiefly because the pope throu|di his temporal sover-
eignty received a guarantee of nis independence, was
freed from the fetters of a temporal power, and ob-
tained that freedom from interference which is
Decessary for the conduct vi his high office; (b) be-
cause the papacy threw off the pohtical ties that
bound it to tne Eaat and stored mto new relations
with the West, which made possible the development
of the new Western civilization. The latter was
destined to become eq>ecially prominent under Pepin's
eon, Qiarlemagne.

Under Chaiiemagne the relations with ^e Lom-
bards soon became strained again. Adrian I com-
plained that the Lombard king Deeiderius had in-
vaded the teoritories of the States of the Church,
and rcsminded Chaiieina^ne of the promise made
at Quiercy. As Desidenus also chanq>ioiied the
claims of Charlemagne's nephews, he endangered
the unity <A the Frankish kingdom, and Charlemagne's
own interests therefore bade him to oppose D^ide-
rius. In the autumn of 773 Charlemagne entered
Italy and besieged Deeiderius at Pavia. While the
siege was in progress, Qiarlemagne went to Rome at
Ewter, 774, snd at tbe request of the p<^ renewed
the ijnnnises made at Quiercy. Soon after this De-
sidenus was foroed to cwitulato, and Charlemagne
had himsdf proelaimed lung of tlw Lombards in his
place. Charlemagne's atUtode toward the Stetes
of the Church now underwent a change. With the
tttie of ICng of the Lombards he also assumed the
title as "Pi^Tioius Romanorum", which his fathw
had never used, and read into this title ridits ^rtiich
under Pepin had never been assoeiatea with it.
Moreow, diffefences of opinion arose between
Adrian and Charlemagne concerning the obligations
which had been assumed by Pepin and Charlemaipie
in the document of Quiercy. Adrian construed
it to mean that Qurleanagae should take an elastic
concept of the "req>ublic& Komana" to the extent of
giving up Dot tnily the conquests of Aistulf in the
wiftHfiM^' and in the Penti^lis, but also earlier
conquests of the Lombards in Central Italy, Spol^,
and Benevento. But Charles would not listen to
any sodi intetprataion of the document. As both
puttes were anxious to oome to an underHtanding,
an agreonent was reached in 7S1. Charlemame
acknowledged tbe sovereignty ot Adrian in the Duuty
oS Rome and in the States of the Church founded
Pepin's donations of 764-66. He now executed a
new dooument in whidi ware enumerated all the dis-
trielB in whidi tbe pope was imogiised as ruler.
Hie DulAy of Bcmw (miioh bad not oeen mentioned
in the earfier doottments) heads the list, fdlowed by
tiie exarchate and the Fent^ioUs, augmented by iite
Gttiee whufli Deeiderius had agreed to surrender at
the beginning of his reign f Imc^ B<^c^na, Faensa,
Pwtara, Anoona, Qsfano, ana Pmana); next the pirtiri-
mooiH wm 9sefSad i&Taiioiu grwqMMa tbe SabiiWto

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in the Spoletan and Beneventan diatriets, in Calabria,
in Tuacany, and in Corsica. QtarittiiacD^ Iwwmv.
In his character as "^Uricius", wanted tobe OMiddflrea
as tike highest court of appeal in criminal eases in the
States of the Church. He promised on the othw hand
to protect freedom of choice in the election of the pope,
and renewed the alliance of frienddiip that had been
previously made between Pepin and Stephen 11.

The agreement between Charlemagne and Adrian
remained undisturbed. In 787 Charlemagne still fur-
ther enlarged the States of the Church by new donatkmB.
Capua and a few other frontier cities of the Duchy
of Senerento, besides several cities in Lombardy,
Tuscany, Populonia, Roselle. Sovana, Toscanella,
Viterbo, Baniorea, Orvieto, Ferento, OrcUa, Marta,
imd lastly Citt& di Castello appear to lurve been
added at that time. All of this, of course, is based
upon painstaking deductions, since no document has
come down to us either from the time of Cbarlem^p>e
or &om that of Pepin. Adriaot in these negotiations
proved himself no mean politician, and is justly
ranked with Stephen n as the second fotmder of the
States of the Church. His arrangements with Charl^
magne remained authoritative for the relations of the
later popes with the Carlovingians and the German
emperors. These relations were giTco a brilliant out-
ward expression byCharlemagnffv eonmattim as em-
peror in 800.

Caisr Koi ii' E* — DmrEUVE, Lib/r fwKJTaiiiit, 1 (Puu,

GrN^JATH, .U'"J. iiTm. HE- CamJinti* (flu-

flvBr, 1S92K LLTtltArirRL. — FaBAE. ptrlritif^niit Rffma^^x
teelm» itagiu aJ ataUm CarolirmrMm. iLtllt.-, Ci&LHMi, Hirt

RuMdganf diirch die PnJrijrutJiiBri lirn hi. Stuhlri uai i!<y< unii 1'it->
vaUutHj u. II'OHihiUl drr papitl, Painmonirn tun OiH) in ZttLfchr,
far lc<H». TKfol,. I (1877); Idem, Gttch. Hamn u. tSfr Pajitu im
M. A-, I !Fti;tbtirs; 1601): ScpwumlrtBls, Die Pn!riifiatii*n dir
rflnj. tiiT'-hf bia iifr £n{M<|Jhinii 'let f\Uf.hr"irr,(iltv iBarllb. 1SS7);
Idem, I'-'urailvntt u. flnaniiillf Bt'tfiiaim der Patrimtnifri in
ZeiCrrhr. j^r Kxrchrngtarh., XI 'ISIH)); 'SlQVurir.n. Z>m £fiinrf-
KirrhtngiLlrr F, cVrtfl'.ir / in ZntrrAr. /ilr

r/Ji(7rir^., 1 <l,«U-i3]; AuwnBCdT, />w ierrUariale

IT Rrirkii- u. RnhlW-itK. II (Inubniok.

I'iifi\'}r-uf>\ur'yfn itir idtrren Ttrrilariia Jyi i lA. det

!; nri-iMKH, JryiiThaeh/rr jfm frankinehtn Rfieiitt
I [.-.-IP BIB, ]B71>. Apf-i, ^^fn fliwso?', •/a/irlntihtr
I HHt!u:f M<fttr Ktirl. -1. Ir''., 1 (2liJ ed.., Lcipiijc,
383S)J UrE.HU Et\uirn snr /■^jiimi'ii.fjiKini tifsmiint danf
r*rardtal lit Rartnt\' IFuri',. 1\Hh;; Uijfii'E.BM;, Lfx jirrmiert
ttmr* J'^li!( jh>ritiji-raf IJrjfl wl., Foriir, 1901f; .S«tErTKii-
BoiCBOMTi Pi;ifi-iH': u. A'nrJ' J. ijr. S-ihrnl;uiffin-i^Bpreeheti In
iliittil. lica 'In/^til•^!-1 .'Hr Jf^ii^';(5/-J)-*f/iuns. V (ItlM);

gttt, 1S81'I, Idem, Bel"i<:liIuno dc neaaicn ConiroriTWFi aber
dii rom. Frat/f. iifii^er I'isiinii u. Karl d. tfr. (Munich, ISBH);
Bllljvf;«;iio, Lt .n-icnii> ilrUt inrernniia Irmparaie dri papi {3rl
ed,. ?r*». iS»9l; Idem, /( Pmiivtli) floTnuifl fJi: CarUimas^vj
(Pnito, lAB3)j IjAMPiiwriTT. Die rOmurJ" Fran' w»i Kdtm/ tSppin
O-ii in/ Kaiser Ltidu^ den PromTrua ilx'b|iiig. IHt^'ll-j; Livuneii,
£iif. *iT<;fn.T^inJe>i Srhrrtiungrn Pippint, Karlt d. Gr, Ojlui an die
PfljisTf t^^lutiswi. iSWi ; Gi'vom-Ti, Di? BnCtlthune dti fiirfJ\*Tk--

)i ]ii:HH, L>ie joe^ri. K'lrcSi'ioi^cht SchmkuttB c^ri 7?i is
Zeilai-hr., LXX [IWflJJ; luCii. Uetitr die C/trnnelotfie drr
FojJtl Paiiin I in Xachnrfilfn iter fiflllinprr GnrUarfutft
CitfTBLL.ucKt, DeS\f nrt^rii driio tbiio Prmtif. in Sfurfi
X-XII (HQma, iBHJl-Oli.t; S^-hsPher. Di' Em^ifJij^ns
.1-ifchtjMaalti (Colcsnc!. luL tr, by .Mcn^m,

Ou Fruffintntum Faatuaianum (FribdHb .fitfb tfpiL Jmh

II. SrAns or tbb Gbukck. — (1) Psriod As
Carhmngian Sm-pmm. — The States of the Cmtrdi
founded by the Carlovingians were the security for
friendly alliance between tike papoey and the em-
pnre which dominated the MidcDe Ages. But this
msndly alliance also was and remainea the neecflsary
condition for the existence of the States of the Church.
Without the protection of tiie great power beyond the
Alps the States of the Chnim emiid not have been
maintained. The worst dangers threatened the
States of the Churdif not so much from foreign en^
mies, M frcnn tiie faetiom of the nobility in the oitT of
Rome, who were continually engaged in jauous
qomli, oMb Bliiviag to get ooBlni of tliB iVfaitnl

fL«i;i'ii!;. i'.tin'

H ■

and temporal power attaching to the pc^Muty. The
degradation of the pq»ey reached its lowesl point
nmsi it oottid <Atsin no protection from theenqrfre
against the lort for power of the factions of the Bwian
nolHlity or of the nei^bouring patridan famihes.
TTiis lust for power manifested itself principally at the
deetion of a new pope. For this reason the emperors,
when they assumed the respcHuibility of protecting
the States of the Church, also guaranteed a canonical
election^ and the popes laid great stress upon having
this oMigation renewed in writii^ Inr eaon new on*
peror in the confirmation <A the oul oharters. Of
these charters the (Mest v^ose text is preeorved is the
"Hludovicianinn" or Padhm of Louis the Pious, i. e.
the instrument executed by that mc»iarch for Pasohal
I in 817. With Paschal's successor, Eugme II, the
friendly alliance was, by order of Louis, renewed in
824 by his eldest son and collei^e in the empire,
Lothajr I. The pope, dependent on the protection
of the emperor, then nanted the emperor new ri^ts,
which mark the semth of the unperial influence under
the Carlovin^ans. The emperor received the ri^t

BupervTsing the government and the administration
of justiee at Rome through the instrumentality of
permanent envoys, and no new pojM was bo be oon-
seerated until he had, together with the Romans,
talnn the oath of aU^gianee to the empetw in the
I»«Bence of imperial envoys.

In this way the empire received in the "OrastitiH
tion of Lothau-" an inoirect influence over the deetiim
(rf the pope and a supervision of the papal government
in the StBtee of the Church. But soon after this the
Carlovingians were so busily occupied by their dynas-
tic quarrds that they had out little time to oonoem
themselves about Iu»ne. Leo IV had, in oonoeri
with some weupa^ towns of Ita^ to take measures
personally for the defenoe ctf Rome against the
Saracens. The soldiers blessed by him won a bril-
liant victory at Ostia in 849. As l£e right bank of the
Tibv with Its Basilica of 8t. Peter was exposed to the

?illage (A the Saracens, Leo fortified it with a wall
1(48-52), uul in his honour the part of the city so
protected was called Cmta$ Lamina. In 850 Leo
crowned Loithair's son, Louis II, as emperor. Al-
thou^ this enmeror bravely ot^xieed the Saracens in
Lower Italy with all his power, this power was no
longer that of Ouu-lemagne, for Louis's rule extended
only over Italy. To the papacy, then represented
Nimolas II, the regency of^ Loins II was at times a
danger rather than a protection. His representative,
Duke Lambert of Spoleto, under the pretence of super-
intending the eleetHm of the pope, mvaded Rome in
807, and treated it as oonoueied territory. This was
the tnelude to the wretched period followmg the death
of LmiiB (E^6), when Rmne and the pope were placed
at themerov of the neighbouring feudal lords,.who had
come into It^ with the Carlovingians, and who now
quarrelled first with the Carlovingians still ruhi^ be-
yond the Alps, then among themselves for the apple
of discord, the imperial crown. In vain did the able
Pope itAoi VIII hope for hdp and protection from the
West Frankidi kii^ Charles the Bald, who had bem
nowned emperor m 875. It is true Charles renewed
the old charter rdative to protection and donations
and increased the domain of the States of the Church
1^ new donations (Spdeto and Benevento) ; he also
gave up the clsim to nave envoys present at the oon-
secn^on <rf the pope as well as the assignmoit to
these envoys the admuurtrotion of justice. But
beyond these donatacms on paper he did nothing.
John VIII, at tiie head of his fleet at Cm» Circao
(877), had to defend himsdf unaided ajpunst the
SaroMDS. FteeiDgfrom the dukes Lambert of Spoleto
and Addbert of Tuscany, who bore themselves as
reprcsentottves of the imperial power, he went to
Rnmee, vi^ily im^ning uie Canovingians for heh>.
Hw But Ytrnkt Charles the FM» i^ received the

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imperial crown from J<^ TIH ia 881i Wumm tUd
nothing, and Arnulf, who ww crowned emperor in
896, was compelled iUnees to suspend further inter-
ference. Severely did the defencdees pope have to
suffer for having summoned him. Pope St^hen V
had previously (891) yielded to the urging oi Duke
Guido of Spoleto and bestowed on him the imperial
crown. St«dien'B Bucoeasw, Pope Fonnoeus. had
been compeued to give the crown also to Guido s son,
liambert, as the associate of his father in the empire
(8^) ; he thus incurred the fierce hatred of Lambert,
when he afterwards Bummoned Amulf to Rome ana
crowned him emperor. When Lambert, after the
de^ of Fonnoeus, entered Rome in S97, he took a
horrible revenge upon the corpse <d the pope throu^
the medium of Stqihea VI.

Ths papacy was now oomplet^ at the mercy ol
the struggling facUona of the nob^ty. Benedict IV
in 901 crowned as empow Louis, King of Lower Bur*
gundy, who had been summoned by the Italian
nobles. In 915 John X crowned Louis's opponent,
the Marquis Berengar of Friuli. Bereogar was the
last to receive imperial crown before the founding
of the Roman Empire of the German Nation. At
Rome itself the greatest influence was wcm by the
family ot the later Counts oS Tusculum, which traced
its descent to the senator and dux, Theoohylactusj and
whose power was for a time represented by the wife of
Theoimylactus, Theodora (called Senatnx or VeMter-
atrix), and her daughtm Marozia and Theodora the
Younger. The pt^Muiy also came under the power of
these women. Alberic, t^ie husband of Marosia, with
John X, who had been raised to the papacy the
elder TaeoAotA, defeated the Saracens on u» Gari^
hano (916), and thereaft^ called himself Conmil of
tba Ramans. After his death this rank was trans-
mitted to Marozia, and, on her fall, to his son Albefio.
Marozia had John X deposed, and finally had her own
SOD by her first hu^and placed upon the papal chair
as John XI. John XI was entirely dcwoinated by his
motiier. When Marozia's son, Americ II, finally put
an end to the despotic rule of hia mother (932), the
Romans proclaimed him their lord and master, con-
ferred on him all temporal power, and restricted the
pope's authority to purely spiritual matters. Alberic,
who had a palace on the Aventine, refused the Ger-
man king Otto I permission to enter Rome, when
the latter appeared in Upper Italy in 951 • But, when
Otto appeared for the second time in Italy, oonditioiu
had changed.

J 2) From tii« Coronation of Otto I m Emperor to tiie
' of the Hohemtai^m Line. — Attterie II died in 954.
In accordance with a promise made to him, the
Romans in 955 elected to the papaey as John XII his
seventeen-year-old son Octavum, who had succeeded
him in the temporal power. This pontiff thus united
the spiritual and temporal |>ower, but only in the
tenitcny which had beian subject to Alberto — ^that is
substantially the old Duehy of Rome, or tlw "Pstri-
numium Petri". The Peotapolis aod tiie ^carehate
were in other hands, ultimately falling to King Beren-

Jar of Ivrea. To obtain protection against Berengar,
ohn XII called upon Otto I Ux help. Otto
came and on 2 February, 962, received tl^ imperial
crown. On 13 February he drew up the charter (still
extant in a contemporary calign^hic copy, preserved
in the archives of the Vatioai^, m wfaion he renewed
the well-known covaumts of his piedeeeasm, in-
creased the donations by the addition of several new
ones, and undertook to secure the canomiud dectioa
of the popes. The pope was not to be consecrated
until imperial envoys had assured tiiemselves (rf the
legality of the election and obtained from tiie pope a
sworn i^mise of ^egianoe (cf. Th. ^okel, "Das
Privilegium Ottos I fOr die rOmisdie Kirche", Inns-
bruck, 1883). The neoessary oonditioa for the
coOpenltoD <tf ampww and pope vm tlirir ooa-

mou oppodtkin. to Btnagfr. Iliis was itmoved
when John XII, who not unreasonably feared
Otto's power, entered into secret ne^tiations
with Berengar. Otto thereupon again came to
Some, which the pope had left, and demanded of
the Romans an oath that henceforth they would never
again elect a pc^ without the eroreea consent and
sanction of the emperor. ThoewiUi the papacy was
declared nibject to the en^eror. Hiis at once be-
came evident, when a synod, over which Otto pre-
sided, dq>osed the p<^e. But Leo VZU, who was
chosen in accordance with Otto's wishes, was unable
to remain at Rome without Otto. The Romans, after
the death of John XII, dected Benedict V, but Otto
sent him into exile at Hamburg. Other afflictions
beset John XIII, to secure whose elevation the Ro-
mans and Otto had acted in harmoi^ in 966. John
needed the protection of the enqieror against a rebel"
lious faction of the nobility, whereupon Otto trapointed
a prrfect d Rome and enfeoffea him witJi drawn
sword. In return the pope crowned the son of Otto
I (Otto II) with the imperial crown in the next yeai
(967), and later married him to the Greek princess
llteophaao. Otto II had to render the same pro tec- .
tbn to the pcpes <tf his time. John XIU's successor,
Boiedict Vl, was inmrisoned and murdered in the
Castle <d S. Angplo by hostile nobles. The Frank
who was chosen m his place (Boniface VII) had to
flee to Constantinwle, but the position of Benedict
Vn, who was raised to. the papacy with the consent
of Otto II, remained unoertam until Otto in 980 came
to Rome, where, after his defeat near Capo Colonne,
he died (983) and was buried in St. Peter's. Boniface
VII, woo returned fn»n Constantittt^ile, had during
the minoriW of Otto's son displaced Jonn XIV, the
auooeasor en Benedict VII, and exposed him to deatji
starvatioa in the Castle of S. Angelo. And beside
John XV, who was made pope after the fall of Boni-
face VII, the dux, Oesc^tius, under the usurped
title of "Patrician", ruled over Rome, so that the
times of an Alberic seemed to have returned.

J<^ V therefore earnestly desired the arrival of a
Gmnan army. It appeared in 996 under the oon^
mand ol the sixteen-year-old Otto HI. As John had
died b^ore Otto altered Rome, the Gramaa king,
whom the Romans had asked to pmpoee a candidate,
designated, on the advice of the princes, his relative,
the young Bruno, who was then elected at Rome and
graced the pu>al chair as Grw^iy V (996-99). Oe-
Bcentius was besieged in the Castle of S. Angelo and
beheaded. Gr^ry V, who crowned Otto III em-
peror, was the first German p<^. His Hucceasor,
the fiiBt French pope, also designated by Otto, was
leamed Sylvester II, near whom on the Aventine the
emperor desired permanently to make his residenoe^
that he might govern the West as the Roman emperore
had once cfone. The old Roman law and a ceremonial
fashioned after Byzantine forms were to be put into
effect. But these plans soon came to naught. Only
a few years later, in 100^ the youthful and visionaty
emperor, bitterly disillusioned, died in his camp out-
side Rome, which had risen against him. And, when
Sylvester II also passed away in 1003, John Crescen-
tius, the son of the Cresoentins who had been bdieaded
b^ (Xto XII, having possessed himself of the patriciate,
seized the government at Rome. After his death the
Counts of Tusculum began to contend with the On-
Boentians for the supronaoy, and, in o^wBition to the
pmM set up by thdr opponents, raised one of their own
Iwowers to tine pwu diair as Benedict VIII; the lat-
ter was reoogiuaea as Uie lawful pope by Henry U,
iriiom be crowned eMipmof at Rome on 14 Fdnuaiy,
1014. An intimate irknddiip united Benedict and
Bmry. Together they planned a reform of the
Church, which unfortunatdy was not oarriedout.
fiane^ct was sueoeeded by his brother, John XTX, a
nmi Imb mMhy oC lbs boaont, who had pmlously^

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BtAtlB 2

hddtbe temporal power in tiie oHy, and who aepo|>e
for the most part thounbt only <rf the interests m nis
family. These urged him to gain the good will of
Hea^a sucoesBor, Conrad II, whom be crowned eia-
perdr at Rome in 1027. The papal dignity sank to a
Btin lower level under the nephew of John XIX,
Benedict IX, whoee elevation to the papal thnme at
tlw age of twenty was secured by his family through
Bimony and violence. When the Romans set up an
anti-pope, Sylvester III, in <q>poeitioQ, Benedict
wavered for a time in doubt whether he ou^t not to
resign; finally he relinquidied the pontificate to his
^dJather Jonn Gratian for 1000 pounds (rf silver.
l%e purchaser had had reoonne to this measure xxnify
to put an end to the ab<Hninable practices c£ the
TuBculan. He called himself Gregory VI, and stood
in friendly relations with the Cluniac monks. But
as John !^;ain asserted his claims, and all three pop«8
had evidently secured the dignity only through
simony, the party of reform saw no other remedy than
to induce the German king, Henry III, to intervene.
Henry III, through the ^ods of Sutri and Rome,
had all three popes deposed. Oregonr VI in the
'rapacity of secret!^ went into exile to Germany with
H^debrand Oat«r Pwe Gr^;oiy Yll). Tben, maric-
ii^; the senitn of the German imperialpower at Rome,
there followed a number of German popes: Clement
II, who crowned Henry HI emperor m 104S, confer^
rii^ on him also the rank of Patrician, and with it the
ri^t of nomination at pajial elections; Damasus II;
Saint Leo IX of Alsace, with whom the drift toward
ecclesiastical reform finally reached the pi^al chair;
and Victor II.

The reaction soon set in. Under the Burgundian
Nicholas II the effort to free the papacy from the
oommanding influence of the empire becomes clearly
noticeable. At the Easter Synoa of 1059 the papal
election was placed under new r^ulations, beingre-
poeed essentially in the hands of the cardinals. The
German king was no longer to have the ri^t of desig-
nation, but at most only that of confirmatHm. As the
German Court was unwilGi^; to yield the nAt of desig-
nation without a struggle, which^ acooraing to itfl
concept, was cooferred together with the hereditaxy
rank of Patrician, the first conflicts between empire
and piracy began. In opposition to Alexander II,
who was elected to succeed Nicholas II, the German
Government set up Bishop Cadalus of Parma (Hon-
orius II). Soon afterward, imder Henry IV and
Gr^ory VII, the conflicts broadened out into t^e con-
flict concerning investiture. In ihk contest the
papacy had pressing need of a temporal power to
support it against tne German Empire. This sup-
port was destined to be furnished by the Normans,
whose state, foimded in Lower Italy, oecame of ever-
increasing importance to the p^acy .

The relations between the Holy See and the No>
mans were not always friendly. Wheri these at the
time of Leo IX advanced into the Lombard Duchy
of Benevento, the Beneventans sou^t to defend
themselves against them b^ expelling the reigning
prince uid elMting the pope m 1051 as their sovereiDu
Thus was Benevento added to the States of the
Church. Actually, of course, the popes had possee-
sion only of the city of Benever to with the district
immediate^ under its jurisdiction, and that only
since 1077. Through Benevento Leo IX became in-
volved in a quarrel with the Normans and took the
field against tnem, but was defeated and made cwtive
Dear Civitate in 1053. The victors, however, did not
fiul to recognize and to respect in the captive the suc-
cessor of Peter, and subsequently, as the result of
n^otiations with Nicholas II, the treaty of Melfi was
made in 1059, in which the Normans acknowledged
themselves vassals of the Holy See for the conquered
territories — Benevento was excepted — and engaged
to pv a yearly tribute. Tluy now abo took upon

i3 KfMft

themselves the protection of l^e papacy and the
States of the Church, as well as of ^e canonical elec-
tion o( the p<^. A Normui army under Robert
Ouiscard rescued Grwory VII in the greatest dis*
tnss, when Heniy IV bad come to Rome with his
ailti>i>ope Clement III, received the in^erial crown
from the latter, and ii^risoned Gr^iy VII in f^e
Castle of S. Aiwelo. Before the powmul Norman
army Hmiy haa to withdraw from Rome in 1084.

A valuable ally of the p^acy in its conflict with the
entire was the great Countess Matilda of Tuscany,
at whose Cfletip of CanosMft Kinp; rT> TV upp. ar^d
in Jani]&r\% 1077, to beg Cireg-.Tv Vll fdr !Lhs..liiiion
from tbe ban of tbf? Cliiircli. MutiMii had by will
bequeathed hrr frefliold ratatcs to the pope, biit htid
aiao \a 1111 miuie promises to Eniperor Hairy "V^ but
probably only in such a way that the HOman ClfUwsh
wotild remain chief owner. The HuccessiOTi to the
lartda bequeathed by Matilda furnished after her
dpftth (1115) a new cause, first for straincti rdations,
then for a quarrel between empfror and popi . 1 [li.'^
wa.^ partly due to the tnci tliMt thv lands, b-^ruiisi- of
their location, liflii a lii-^h striitcRir; value. Whoever
pomesBed tliem commiindtd the passage of tho Apen-
jnaqs from the pl&ms of the Po into Tuscany. Heniy
V at oftOo took poBOBsion of the landEs^ and subgequtnt
kings and cmpergra to Frederick II also occupied or
bestowed them in apite of the repeated pTotesto of tte
Curia. Amid uM w» wf nfien see popr and emperor
wiirkinp^ in harmoii^', Tlic nnii-nuji-.^ Aiiacktus II
with bis protctior, Kinp R'lgiT 11 of .'^irily, Tvas at-
tacked by EmptTor Koili.tir, whn tuok tm the i-nuac of
Innocent 11. Frederick 1 liud ,\rrold of Bn*fia, whg
hiiii iippnly preoAhed agfuDst the tenqniral power ol
tEH° popes, executed as a heretic and rebel (1155).

Tin - \ :>riou3 matters of dispute, which had k'A iinrlcr
['TL-iltTii k I to the eighteen yeWB* Hlllflict with Alcx-
iimicr III ;iiifl li:iH bi'<^n ilipti settled in thfl Treaty of
Vi :iirf, -Kon- iiRjun n vived when Henry VI, as liuB-
bund of (111' Norniiin htirp^ Cntistance, at thr; <lfath
of the nhir'UcjsH Kint; WflliiLm li in USO, laid rlaira to
the Norman Kingdom, which embraced Sicily and
Lower Italy. The pope as lord paramount wished to
have the unrestricted dkpoQal of the Norman ting-
dam, and firHt bestowed it on theillpgitinmtpTftncred
of Leqoe. But Henry disregarded thia action, and
conqucrod the kingdom ftffpr Tancrci!'?; d nili in 1 194,
He desired to transform Ihily im'l f'.frriiHny into an
hflrmlitary monarchy. He nUa siiiidf nM parL-^ i>r the
States of the Church Bubjwl lo him, wlirn in 1195 he
placed the Margravato of ^Vruxjna, the Duchy of
Ravenaa, and the ancient exarchate (the Rtunagnai
under the lorrl hi|^ stewani of the pesJm, MiarWan
of Ariwrtin', afl hi3 viceroy. But with hia death in
] ]n7 all t]u- ]:r.-ans for world domiiiiDn enIIapBO<l, In
Italy i\ national movement wll9 starl^ii, which the
y(«n>ift:I anfi enerjrt-tit' InnoccTit HI uliliziHl tti re-
cstflblish and extend the States of thf Cliiirtli. First
ef all In; enforced the papal authority nl Home il.^H.-lf
by ex.'W'linK an oath of al'pjriBncB from the serii^ioris as
well as fnnii tlie prcfert, jtrt \ ioUsly appointed by the

lynp^iror. AfUr tlii-i fnwilv all the towM aod viUagBB
of the territory bequeathed by Matilda, in the March
of Ancona, and in the Duch^ of Spoleto, idco Assia
and Perugia, submitted to lum. Innocent thus be-
came the restorer of th6 States of the Chiu-ch. After
the precedent set by Otto IV (Neuse, 8 June, 1201),
the son of Henry VL Frederick II, who had been pro-
tected by Innocent III, confirmed anew the States of
the Church in their constituent parts by a golden bidl
executed in the name of the empire at Eger on 12July,
1213: these parts were the old Patrimony from Ceper-
ano to Radicofani, the March of Ancona, the Duchy
of Spoleto, the territories of Matilda, the County of
Bertmoro (south of Ravenna), the exardiato, and the
FentofKiliB. All theee new acquisitions and the States
of tlw ChuToh in their eating were ^ain placed bi

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the greatest jeopardy when the great struggle be-
tween Frederick II tad the Curia Drolce out. With
the exeepikai of the city ai Rome the en^eiw had
brought the States of tiie Church into hu power.
Innocent IV fled to his native city (Ecumenical Genoa
and Uience to Lyons, where at the thirteenth (Ecumeo-
ical Council in 1245 he placed Ficderick II under the
ban of the Church and deposed him. The conflict
raged for several years longer, but the star of the
Hohmstaufen was rapidly setting. The emperor's
eon Ensio, oommander-in-chief in Central and UtHoer
Italy, was cultured by the Bologneae in The
emperor himself died in 1250, and his son Cmtad

IV died a few years later (1254). When Fred-
erick's illegitimate son Manfred undertook the con-
tinuation of the struggle and had himself crowned at
Palermo, the French pope Clement IV aummoned to
his aid the brother of King Louis IX of France,
Charles of Anjou, who had accepted the Kingdom of
Lower Italy aa a fief of the pope. Charles vanquished
Manfred in 1266 at Benevento, and Conradm, the
youthful nephew of Frederick tl, at Ta^duuxuso in
1268. and had this last descendant of the Hohenstau-
fen house executed in the market-place of Naples.
With this the danger to the papacy from the Honen-
Btauf en was removed, but a worse danger took itsplace.

(3} From the Avignon Exile to the End of the Fifteenth
Cenlvry. — ^The papacy was now not only dependent
upon the protection of France, but was also entirely
at its mercy. This was se«Q in the utter dlsr^ard
shown by Pnilm the Fair in his attitude toward Boni-
face VIII and his succeasors. Clement V, a native of
SouthOTi France, did not venture to go to Italy, after
his election in 1305, but had himself crowned at Lyons,
and after 1309 resided at Avignon, which now re-
mained t^e residence of the popes until 1376. The
country about Avignon ocmstituted the County oi
Venaissin or the Margravate of Provence, which, on
the ground of a former donation of the Counts of Tou-
louse in 1273, had been given up to the pope by the
French king, Philip III the Bold. The cityof Avignon
itself first came into the possession of the Holy See by
purchase in 134S. During the residence of the popes
m Avignon the papal dominion in the States of the
Church almost ceued. In Rome the Colonna and
Or^ fought for the supremacy. In the other cities
the Fren^ r^ents, who were aoit fimn Avigmm,
found anything but willing obedience. Bologna re-
volted in 1334 against the pope's relative, Bel tram.
Cola di Rienzi deluded the Romans with the phantom
of a republic. The state of anarchy was first ended by
the Castilian Cardinal Albomox (eee Gil db Air
BOBNOZ, Alvarez Cabillo), whom Innocent VI sent
to the States of the Church as his vicar-general in 1353.
AlbomoB not only brought the States of the Churdi
under subjection to the pope, but also reorganized
them by means of the ^giHiAi* CmstitutlonB. which
were m force in the States of the Church untu 1816.
But the successes of Albomoz were soon nullified
again, when the Great Schism occurred during the
residence at Avignon. After its termination Martin

V (1417-31) sought to establish a centralized mon-
archy out of the various conflicting rights, privil^es,
and uBurpa^aons, and in this had much success. New
afflictions were brought by the period of the Renais-
sanoe, in whidi visionaries of radical views loved to
pose as liberators from tyramr^- Thus the con^iracy
of Stefano Porcaro alaimed Nicholas V in 1453, bjm.
the conspiracy of 1468 alarmed Paul II. Other dan-
gers lay m the growth of power of certain families of
we feudal nobiuty in the States of the Church, in the
n«K>ti8m of some of the popes, who provided for their
rdatives at the expense of Uie States of the Church, or
in their intematiinial policies, for which the States <d
the Qiurch had to suser.

(4) pTom the Sixteenth Century to the Treatj/ of
7ienna.— -Under Aloq^ider VI thp St^tfs of tit?

B4 mm

Churdi disintegrated into a series states hdd \ff
p^>al relatives at ibo Boigia family. Cessre Borgia,
whom Madiia.Telli w^miiwd^ laboured esznsstly fan
his Duchy of Romaciut to tnuufinin tlM States of tht

Church into a Kingdom of Central Italy. After his
fall (1504) Venice sought to bring the cities on the
Adriatic Sea under its power. Julius II tfaui in hit
impetuous way had recourse to force to re-establiih
and extend the States of the Chundi. He conquered
Perugia and Bologna and by the Leeeue of Cuabni
forced Vmice to give up Ravenna, Ceryia, Faeua,
and RinunL But, after he had beoa satisfied by the
VenMisDs, he concluded the Holy League for the e»*
pnlsion of the liVench from Italy. It is true that Hnt
fVench in 1512 were once more victorious over the
troops of the League at Ravenna, but thanks diie£y
to the Swiss mercenaries, whom the pope had enlisted
through (Cardinal Schinner, Julius attained his object
On the surrender of the Duchy of Milan to Maximil-
ian Sforza. Julius II made a still further gain for the
States of tne Church, since Parma and Piaoenia were
taken from the duchy and incorporated in the States
of the Church. Reggio and Moaai% which b^onged
to the Duke of Ferrara, were also taken pooocamon of
by the pope, but his successor Leo X had to restoe
these cities to the duke in 1515. A dreadful oaUa-
trophe was brought upon Rome by the vacillating

S}licy of Clement VII. The disorde^ troops «
harles V overran and plimdered the States of the
Church, occupied Rome on 6 May, 1527, and far d^t
days rioted there frightfully (Saaxt di Boma). In the
Castle of S. Angelo the pope was held captive unUl 6
December. It was long before these wounds were
healed, although the pope in 1529 concluded a peace
with the emperor at Barcelona and received back the
States of the Church. The conclusion of peace was
confirmed by the Conference of Bologna, at iHudi
Oiarles V <m 24 April, 1530, received the impoial
crown from Clement VII.

During this time as well as later a number of dii-
tricts were for a time separated from the States of
the Church and oonferred as separate principalities
by popes on their relatives. The Revere pope Six-
tus IV had in 1474 made Federigo of Mont^eltro
Duke of Urbino, and married FMerigo's daughter
Gknnnna to his nephew Giovanni deUa Rovcre. The
son of this Giovanni, Francesco Maria deUa Rovere,
came into possession of the Duchy of Urbino in 150^
during the pontificate of the other Rovere pope,
Julius II. In addition to this Julius 11 in 1512 con-
ferred on him the Vicariate of Pesaro, which had
previously been a fief in the hands of the Malatesta
and since 1445 of the Sforza. Not imtfl the male
line of t^e Rovere became extinct in 1631 were Mon-
tefeltro and Urbino togetto* with Pesaro restored
to Ute States <rf the Church. Fbpe Fttul in in 1545
bestowed Parma and Piacenza as a ducjrv on his stm
Pier Luigi Famese. Even after the Famese line
had become extinct, the duchies reverted, not to the
States of the Church, but to a branch of the Spanish
Bourbons, and finally in 1860 to Sardinia. To make
up for this Ferrara, which had once belonged to
Matilda of Canossa as a papal fief, had in 1208 faUes
to the Guelph family ci EBte,and had in 1471 been
made a duchy. After the main line of the Este had
become extinct in 1597, Ferrara reverted to the States
of the Church, and remained part thereof (fixeept
during the Napoleonic period) until the Italun an-
nexation in 1860. Modena and Reggio, however,
fell in 1597 to a collateral line of theEste as a fief
of the empire. Thus the States of the Church before
the outbreak of the French Revolution embraced
substantially the territory that had belonged to them
at the time of Charlemagne, except that some pwiioni
of the old Dudiy of Spoleto had been added in the
south sinoe the time of Innocent III.
Rapid changes cvaiif wit^ t))e tinje cf ^ fttoA

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266

mm

Benitntkm and of Napoleon. In 1791 the Frrach
Natktoal Anembly announoed the union of Avignon
and Venaiasin with fVanoe, and in the Peace of To*
lontino (1797) Pius VI had to give tJiem up, while at
the same time relinquishing the legaUons of Femn,
BokKna, and Ronuuma to the Cua^ine Rraublie.
In Febniaiy, 1798, Gener^ Ber^ier, who had been
sent to Rome by Napoleon, fonned the rest of the
States of the Qiurcn into the Roman Republic.
Thb pope, because he would not renounce his claim,
was taken away as a captive and eventually confined
in Valence, where deaUi soon released him (29 August,
1799). People were already rejoicing that the papacy
ami the churai had oosm to an end. Thar joy was,
howvrar, immature. Under the protection m Em-
peror fraaos 11 the cardinals in 1800 elected Pius
Vll as pope at Venice. But hard trials awaited him.
It is tame that in 1801 Piua VII bv Napoleon's favour

f>t back the States of the Church as bounded in the
eaoe of Tolentino. But the position of the States
of the Church ronained extremely precarious. Napo-
leon in 1606 conferred Benevento on Talleyrand and
Ponteoorvo oa Bemadotte. In 1808, beeftuse ^us
VII would not oloae his ports to the Eki^iah, the States
<d ttw Oiureh were again oooupied and In 1800 oom-
{rfetely confiscated. The Muohes, Urbino, Came-
rino, and Maoerata were annexed to the uewly-created
Ki^dom of Italy, the rest of the States of the Church
to france. Not until the Congress of Vienna, where
die able Consalvi represented the pope, were the
States (tf the Church again establishea (1815), almost
in tbor old dimenrions exoept that Avignon and Ve-
BaiHin wen not restcwed to the pope, and Anstria
reouved a narrow strip along t£e frontier d the
Ferrara district north oi the Po and the right of gar-
risomng Fenara and Comaohio.

J>) From th0 Pwee of KtCTwa to J»70.— The liberal
national ideas prevalent throughout Central
Borope undermined the States of the Church, jiist
as th^ did the rest of Italy, and found expression
in the high-sounding phrases "constitution" and
"natknal unifieatitm". The FVeooh Revtdution
and Napoleon had awalMned tiiese ideas. Tlie
name of a Kmgdom of Italy, whose crown Na-
poleon had worn, was not forgotten. With the
old conditions, which the oongrees of Vienna had
restored, the people were by no means satisfied.
They lamented the division of Italy into various
states, bound together by no common bond, and
above all die fact that Uiot were ruled \es fcniffien-
The pope and the King of Sardinia alone wes« woked
upon as really native rulers. The other rulers were
ngarded more or less aa fordgners. Naplee^cily
was ruled by tiie Bourbon line, v4uQh had oome there
in 1788, and which was opposed particularly by
Sici^. In Parma and Plaoensa also the Bourbon
Ime, first established here in 1748, ruled ^in from
the death (1847) of Maiifr-Louiae. wife of Napoleon
I. In Modeoa and Tusoanv collateral lines of ibs
faonwof Austria ruled: in the Dudiy of Modeoa, a
line iriuch had in 1803 become the hen* of the anoioit
ducal houis of Gste; in Tuscany, which, after the
BAedici had become extinct, had fallen to the ducal
house of Lorraine, the line qtrang from Ferdinand
III, brother of Emperor Francis I of Austria. Fur-
thermore, the Austriana were the immediate rulers
of the Lombard-Venetian Kingdom. The current
of national feeling was directed above all against the
nife of tbs Anstnana at Milan and Venice, hated as
a govemment bjy foreigners, and also aga^bnst tiw
gorvemnMots which pursued die policies of and wen
protected by Austria. Austria's statesman Metter-
nidi had at heart the maintenance of the order es-
tij>tiih0d by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. As die
Statta of die Church were included amoi^ tlu gov-
ernments under Austria's protection, thegr gmdiully
disced the hatred against Austria.

The narrow police spirit of the absolute govem-
mpnts, which d:d noi di.stineuiiii between wluit was
justifiable and what wad not^ itrnmcJcJ the growth
cf disstitiafaction, whicii first Inuk ^JtitjiL- in sficret
societies. Carbonariem and frc^-cniasDiiry apr^^
Nt^dly. The Greek war of independence, whioh
ewlted univenttl admiration, atouwd the natioiul
sp^it in Italy. The Sanfedtatir (par la ttmta
aa the loyal Catholics were called, were mftr a mUc
support for the Papal Government in thegtatCQ Of
thf Church- The Caibonari, led hy cxiloa and "ifA^
fufiitivea in I'ana iiHci yi'tildmp to ih't- iiffi^ri^ssion made
hy thi:' Ui'vcjlutjon of .FiiIy, prulitfd (jy tht ^Licancy
oi the pa^ial chair after the death of Piua VlU, in
1930, to inaugurate rising in the States of the Church,
espeotaUy in Bologna. Under the preBldeney of
Mazsini, the founder of the revolutionarv sooiely qf
thft^Ofovane Italia"^ delates e^Beiabled at Bologba
in 18^1, 03 a. parliament of the united provin>ces, to
(-wt'ibli.ili ii rppiiblican foniiof goveniineiit, wid elected
n iirn\i^ionjil KdvcniHu-nt. When the new pops
<i:-H'j;ijrv XVI Jinked for Austria's assistance, Metter-
nich waa ready to intervene without delay. The
AiHttittwnaturad peace in the Statca of the Church,
as alw & Modena and Fanna. But hanlly had the
troops iJpported, when new disorders broke out, and,
in nnriwer to the pope'a renewed call for help, the
AuHtriMtia rrajiipenrcfl at Bologna in \^^2 under
Hitii<.'tsk\'. Tu neutrftlizp the influftif.- nf tho Aus-
lri:ni4 I 111 ' l-'n'nfh CliivcmniPiit of lyjiiia Hiiltppe
e(?rit t^i Am-uri!i trocijiii, wJiir h remainixl thtrre as long
aa the Austriana occupied Bolojma (until 183111).

^ wpatl^xm i» j^4omwtn of MAndni tha« were
fbiittttildn^roJi' a ska who etfove to brfng about
the unification of ItjiTy with the co-operation of m
pope. Their spokesman was at first the former
chaplain of King Charles Albert of Sardinia, Vincenio
Gioberti, who in 1843, as an exile in Brussels, wrote
the treatise "B primato morale e civile d^ Italiani",
a publication which caused a great sensation. He
desired that the pope should become the head of the
national union of states in Italy, frtnn which tiie
foreign princes were to be exeluded. Piedmont, how-
ever, was to act as r^ularly appointed protector of
the pope and Italy. The priest. Count Antonio
Rosmim, desired an Italian confederation with the
pope at ita head and two deliberative chambers. He
published his ideas in 1848 in the treatise "Detle
cinque piaghe della S. Chiesa", in which he also par-
ticulaiiy recommended die reform of the Church.
The Bon-in^w of Mansoni, Marehese Massimo d'
Aa^o, set fortii the pervene political conditions in
Italy and especially in the States of the Church more
unsparinsly m the treatise "GU ultimi casi di Roma*
goa ' (1846), in which he urgently advocated reform,
but at the same time warned against conspiracy ana
revolution. The majority of those who were enthu-
siastic about the unification of Italy put their hope in
Piedmont, "ht spada d' Italia". Cesare Balbo in
his book "Le spennse d* Italia", which appeared in
184^ expected first of all the founding d a union of
the Ix>mbard states.

The demand for reform in the States of the Church
was in fact not unjustified. It was expected that it
would be inaugurated by Gr^ry Xvl's successor,
^0 was hailed with extravagBot hopes, when as
Pius DC he ascended the papal chair on 16 Jime,
1846. Men saw in him the pope of whom Gioberti
had dreamed. I^us DC convoked at Rome a council
of state composed of r^resentadves of the various
provinces, estsblished a fonnal cabinet council, and
sanctioned the formation of a militia in the States of
the Oiurch. In addition he suggested to Tuscany and
Sardinia the formation of an Italian customs union.
But the country was wrought up too highly to con-
tmue peaceftdly and slowly alon^ mica a course.
Hw LUMrab at Rome were dissatisfied beouise th(L
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Uity were excluded from partidpation in the govern-
ment of the States of the Church. Even before the
outbreak of the French Revolution of Febniary
they forced by a popular uprismg the appoiutmoit m
1S48 of a cabinet of laymen. On 14 March, 1848,
PiuB IX after long hesitation decided to proclium the
fimdamental law for the temporal eovemment of
the lands of the Holy See; as in other lands two
chambers were to vote upon the laws, which were to
be drawn up by a council of state. But the chambers
wne fortiidden to interfere in any way in questions
purdy q>ititual or of a mixed character, and the
Collie of Cardinals had the right of veto over the
decision of the chambers. This proved unsatisfac-
tory. Pius IX was also expected to accommodate
himself to the national desires when Milan and Venice
after the outbreak of the revolution in Vienna had
risen against the Austrians and Piedmont was pre-
paring to support the uprising. The pope too,
tt was thought, should draw the sword against Aus-
tria.

When Pius IX in an EncycUcal announced on 29
April, 1848, that he could never persuade himself
to engage in a war against a Cathouc power such as
Austria, and that he would never assume the h^-
ship of an Italian confederation, his popularity in
LibenJ-Naticntal circles was weUni^ at an end. The
party of those, who with Gioberti had dreamed of a
unification of Italy tmder the pope, crumbled away.
Massini made the demand that Rome be erected into
a republic. A portion of the civic guard surrounded
^e Castle of S. Angelo and comp^ed the pope to
appoint Liberal ministers. But the revolutionary
repubUcans would have nothing to do with such a
compromise. They became bolder than ever when
King Charles Albert was defeated hj Radetsky at
Custozsa on 24-25 July, 1843, and we nxmaTchical
national party had thereby met with complete failure,
^nien the Libend minister Rossi sought to reorgan-
ise the States of the Church and at the same time
urged on the fornrntlou uf a confederation of the
Italian states, he waa Bti3.bhc(i to death on the steps
of the Palace of the Canc(jll<?ria on 15 November,
1&48. On the fuUowing d^'' the I>ope found himself
bwiwed in the Quirmal. Only with difficult could
iJie Swiss Guards protect him from the fury <tf the
populace. On 24 November Pius IX escaped in
disguise to Gustn in the Neapolitan Kingdom, whither
King Ferdinand II had rcturni^d to take oommand in
person. After tha flight of the pope an assembly
was elected to tulmiiu-sttT the government, the repub-
lic was proclaiTni;il at Rouic- on 9 February, 1849,
and ttie temporal soverei^ty declared abolished.
Maiiaini with his mtranatuHuil following ruled at
• Home. In Florence ftJuo the republic was proclaimed
«n 18 February. But reaction followed quickly.
This was hastened when the Austrians in a new pas-
sage of arms had defeated the Piedmontese at Moi^
tara on 21 March, 1849, and at Novara on 23 March.
Charles Albert thereupon resigned in favour of his
son Victor Emmanuel II. The Austrians were now
more pow^ul in Upper Italy than ever. They
brou^t back to Florenoe the Grand Duke ctf Tuscany.
Fndmand II suppressed the revolutiim in Sicinr.
Pius IX was readily heard when he appealed to the
Catholic powers for asustance against the republic.
To anticipate Austria Louis Napoleon, then presi-
dent of the Second RepubUc, with the consent of the
Constituent Assembly in Paris, sent a force under
Oudinot into the States of the Church, where besides
Mazzini many revolutionaries from other lauds
(including Ganbaldi) had gathered, and a triumvirate,
composed of Mazzini, Aurelio Saffi, and Cark) Ar*
melhni, was administ^ing the government. Oudinot's
small force soon after its landing at Civitavecchia
was, it ia true^ at first d^eated before Rome. But
now the Austrians abo entered the States of tfa«

Chunh in the north, in the south the Nea]xditMM^
while in Terracina Spaniards landed. Oudinot
received runf orcements aiod began the siege of Borne.
Garibaldi with 5000 volunteers cut his wa^r throadi
to continue the struggle in the Apennines. On
2 July, 1849, Oudinot entered Rome and Sjgun >»■
stored the temporal power of the pope, na IX
re-entered Rome on 12 April, 1850.

Thus not only the Fiedmontese and their foDoma,
but Uie Republicans also had been routed, and had
shown that they were unable to bring about the unit^
of Ita^. By the militarv power of Austria all df
Italy's forces had been shattered. But the object
was not abandoned. A different programme was now
adopted: to proceed with foreign aid under PiedmiKit's
leadership against the pope. Piedmont sou^t to
retain the sympathies of all Liberals by kequng the
constitution, while the ranainii^ ^vemments of
Italy had returned to absolutism. Pius IX, bitterty
disiUudoned, declared ihe retention of a constitution
wholly incompatible with the most vital interests
and uie canons of the Church, as wdl as with the
independence and freedom of the pope. Between
him, the States of the Church, and Italy no efforts
could bring about an understanding that was satis-
factory to all. A French garrison maintained the
soverognty of the pope at Rome, while the Ausbians
secured tranquillity m the koations. The qucrtion
was: how long would the two foreicn pawen continue
harmoniously side by side in Italy? It was answered
when Napoleon III undertook to show Europe the
splendour of his imperial power and to force Austria
out of its position of military suprenmcy in Italy.
The chanj^ of temper in those circles of Italy that
were striving for national unifieatim was shown in
a new treatise of Gioberti, who in 1843 in his "Rth
mato" had assigned the guidance to tlwp(^ bilSSl
he jpublished nis book "Rinnovamento civile d'
Italia", in which he set forth tiiat the unification
oould be acoompUshed without Rome, and even
against Rome with the aid of Piedmont. To prepare
Piedmont for this r61e was the task of Camillo Qtvour,
who was made prime minist^ in 1852. It- was also
he who found tax Sardinia the ally who united with
it Mainat Austria. At Flmnbidres, a waterinHilaee
in Lorraine, he interested Napolem in hb i&ns in
July, 1859, and all measures down to the enialkst
details were here agreed upon. The FiedmontMS
succeeded in joining their forces with the French
army, and the allies defeated the Austrians at Ma-
genta and Solf erino. Napoleon, however, then swiftly
concluded with the Emptor Francis Joseph tne
Peace of Villafranca-ZQrich, by thn terms of irtiiidi
Austria had to give up Lomibardy only, not Venstia;
in it provision was also made for an Ituian oonf ede^
atim, into which all Italian states, indudinc Austria
for Venetia, were to enter, and over y^oiSi it was
intended that the pope should preside. Napcdeoa
feared the intervention of ihe other powers, and at
the same time was eager to show consideration for
t^e feelings of the French Cathcdics.

In national circles in Italy men were at fint furioaa
at the conditions of this tnaHiy of peaoe. But ealm
socm retimed yrbm it was sem that Naptdecm made
no preparations to bring back the eiqidled petty
princes, and that the pope would have notliing to
do with the r^de assigned to him. Cavour was
able to continue his efforts in behalf of his aohemea
by the secret patii of oMispiraey. At his instiga-
tion wparentfy independoit governments were
established at Flraence, ModMia, and Bcdogna; in
reality, however, these were directed from TUno*
and were suprNnted by England, smoe Engfanrf dia
not desire a Kingdom of Italy d^Kodent on Vnim.
In Tuscany, in the district of Modena-Panna, iriaoh
had formed itself into ti» RapnWie of Bmitta, and
in the legations a vote «< the fajn^i tents was takn,

5le

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12 OTMiirieb

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AcqULKLtLaiu in lEOt and l£OB

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287

STATU

IS-CO Mttdi, 1860, wiAih rasoHed unanimondy in
{avour of annexation to Sardinia. Napoleon hiroBelf
had half desired this deoeptive e]q>edient, means
of which he had himself onoe risen to power, in order
that he might have an excuse for letting matters take
their own course. By the same expedient he now had
Toted to him the indemnity, stipulated in advance,
for hia interferenoe m Italy, namdy Savoy and Nice,
which by a popular vote deriared themBelvee for
France. The pope did not suffer the annexation of
the lotions qmet^. He exoommunicated Victor
Emmanuel and those who had assist him. At the
same time he issued a call for the formation at a
volunteer aimy, which was jotned by many of the
Frendi l^tiimsts. The eonunand or the army was
undotaken by a bitter enemy of Napoleon, General
Lamoriciire, who had distinguished himself in Ai^
geria. In a very short time the volunteer army saw
active service. Garibakii with 1000 armed insur-
genta had oome from Qeaioa and landed at Manala
in May, 1860, had revolutionised Sicily, and was
marching against Niq>leB. The Govemmoit at
Turin, which had at first allowed Garibaldi to do as
he ^eased, now saw witii diq>leasare the prof^ess
of the Republicans, and feared that Uiese im^t
aotiohMte it at Rome and Napke. It a«it an army
to the south. Napoleon, whose consent Cavoor had
aowht for the foreseen clash with the pope, sent word
to Turin "Fate presto" (act quickly) and crossed to
Algma that he might not see what was going oa.
At Cartdfidarde, not far from Anoona, the Piemmon-
teae army met the papal forces under lAmoridSve,
and Lanwriei^ was defeated on 18 September, 1860.
The Piedmontese occupied Ihe Marches, and then
advanced into the Kitudom of Naj^. By a vote
of the inhabitants on 21 September the population
was then allowed to declare itself in favour of annex-
ation to Sardinia. King Francis II of Naples after
a brave defence was forced to eaptttdate at Gaeta
on 13 Fdsruary, 1861, and retired to Rome. AU the
awttoTOH pnmnoea swt reqweeentativea to the Turin
Psiliamait, and Victor Emmanud II was here pro-
daimed Kii^ <rf Italy on 13 March, 1861. Rome wd
Venetia alone were still to be won. Venetia was
added to Italy in 1866 as the result of the victories
of its ally, Prussia.

At lafft Rome was also to follow. Napoleon had
at the end of December, 1806, withdrawn the small
£^«nch garrison -from Rome. It is true indeed ihat
afweign lesiont composed for the most part of French
soldieiB and officers, was formed at Antibce to under*
tiJce the {ffotection of Rome, but its position was
nevertheleas very critical. Garibaldi in the autumn
1867 invaded the States of the Church with his
insurgents. Then Napoleon once more sent a force
from Toulon, which togetiier with the papal army
repulsed the forces of Garibaldi near Mentana, north-
east of Rome on 3 November, 1867. The French
mrrison aiter this remained in Rome, since the
Parisian Government had to yield to the wishes of
the Catliolics of France. Not until 20 July, 1870,
after the fVaneo-German War had brotoi out, were
Hie troops withdrawn. After Napoleon had been
taken prisoner at Sedan, Italy, wmch had removed
its capital to Florence in 1865, sent troops against
Rome unda: Cadoma, and these on 20 September,
1870, entered the city throu^ the breach at the Porta
Pia. A vote, which declared in favour of annexation
to Turin, was here also to give approval to the occu-
pation. Phis IX enwmmunicated all partidpants
m and authors of the occupation of the mates m the
Oiurch. All Catholics condemned the action of
Italy. To protect itself against the remonstrances,
Italy on 13 May, 1871, issued the so-called Uw of
the Papal Guarantees (see Goaramtbbb, Law or),
wlikb was to seeore to tiie pope lui nvemgoty,
thefavlolaUlttyofhk psnoD, aa weB aa thft fraadDin

of the conclave and of the oecumenical councils. In
addition to this a yearly pension of 3,226,000 francs
was voted to him. The Vatican, the Lateran, and
the country-seat Castel Gandolfo were declared ex- •
tn^territonal. But Pius DC, to maintain his protests
against the seiiure of the States of the Church,
refused to ace^ the law, and shut himself up in
the Vatican.

The Roman question remains unsettled to the
present day, since its solution by Italy has thus far
been absiMutely one-aided, b^des having been
broufdit about by violence. Without heedmg the
prot^ts of the pope, Rome was declared the capital
of Italy on 30 June, 1871. The radical elements,
iriio were hostile to the Church and who had con-
tributed so much to the unification of Italy, Qontinued
for the future also to hold the upper hand. Pope
Pius IX by the Decree " Non expedit'' of 29 February,
1868, had forbidden the Italian Catholics to partici-
pate in the political life and especially in the election
of representatives of the Kingdom of Italy. Only
in very reoeat years has a ipradual tendency to a
duuiM of relations become noticeable. Although
Pius A, because of the princi]^ involved, adheres
to the ''Non expedit", he permits the participation
of Catholics in admioistrative elections (municipal
and provineial elections), and since the Encyclical
"Certum Consilium" of 11 June, 1905. in certain
cases on tJie recommendation of the bi^op also
participation in the parliamentary elections. Since
that time tiie Catholics have begun to take part in
the political life of Itab^ (1000: 22 representatives)
and to exert an influence Triiich we hope will redound
to the welfare of the Church and of Italy.

GnniRAL Womb. — ^Tsbinkb, Cod«x diptomatieua damtntt
lamporaUM S. Mm (3 toIi., Rome. 1861); Rcmiom, OmcA.
dtr StadI Bom (3 vote., Berlin, 1867—-); Gseooboviub. 0«te\.
der StaJH Rom im MitMoUtr (8 vola^ 4th ed., Stutt^ut, 1886—) ;
BaoflCB, Qneh. dea RtrtJunataatM, I (Gothtt, 1880), dealing with
th* dziMoth aod ■eventeenth oenturiee, II (IKQ, ekteodiiig
from 1700 to 1870; SnaiHHBiii, QtUh. dtr SnttUluaia w.
bUduttg dM KvciimttaaU* (Leipitc, 1854).

Hpecul Woua to the FtnaT avd Sscoyu- pEtuODa,— SaH^
MAW, HiH^rfiiehi* /foJicrifl >"i M ^Hcutttrr. Ill ((.lolliA, HHK-llK
Fkkeh, FuTttAuj^m tur JincliB- w. fiec^JOMCA. ffoUcnt (i tobLa
1 Dual) ruck. 11^-74) ; NiEBTJKa, Oateh. dta VerMClnwH mfolm
KiLi^rrfumu. l^pttlum im MitielalUr, I (3 vdIi., 2nd <k1.| MOneter,
1877), 87; GiEaEBRB(7irr. Geuh. dtr ritalte.ktn RaUmett [0 voliLi
Lk<ipiU, 3,fi$l~&&): t^iuAuN. ^nArMchtr dtt JrOnttiMehtrt ftsKhwl
H'Utf Ltidmo d. Froifumn <,2 voila., Leijxijt, 1971-70)^ OCuMuia,
GatK. drt CttfTHnkiKhtn Rrichit iiad ed., 3 vola., LeipxIfE,
18S7 — y, DopmL, Ka^^trt^tm u. PwpMam mOtr dm KaraHnfrn
(Freiburit. IHS9)i B|{]k.c:l, Di» VcrtrOfw ier Paptlt wai dm
KaToiWi,oern jaiu! daa nme Kavnttim IbDcitfKllM ZnUthr. fltr
6■^^rMr^t1U'■i^',t'l.^rhaft tl854-Mj; IDMU. ASmic\ II und rffT
Kif/i^njtaai m ItfiUtil. dut Intl&Mtr fir WmftiA. OaMiektt-
fn-iJiu^, XXllI U9US); &AKmi»-MioaaaH', £h dm.
■iiiUechm Sehmkv'xgen in Mill, dta Intlitula/arisisrr. GeeMdiUiP^
■ r/iurig. Ovbbulinn, Gntfln SttMiMt ten Tiueiattilirt

BtKttrvneen; Geteh. I'Artj Gultt rvin ItlB-IMO (Lnoohniclc, ISH);
LtJnjUia&, Innoctni 111. Rviru st i' Italit {2od ed.. Pvu, VUnt
WiMULMXNN. mtipii t. jSc/iu'D^sri u. Otto IV 13 vaia., lafyt^M.
1873-78) ; Idbw, Kuim Friedneh II (2 vDW_Lei|^ I^^WJ.

lOOS): tr, AvTCtoflm, BiH. al Uu Pomi from lA< CltM Am
MiddU 1 i^t. Louiu, 1902—); C^eibhtom, HittatH if ihm

Papiry .Jiinii.^ the Ra^rmahM. vob., T^Uivkm, 188a-M; qei(

tUi-if umr Slmmt FCBcrus. 1907); Wimk. AsnL 41I)#h«e,
Z BtemtOtr 4m iNrelitiMaatM (PtdetboTTi. 1BQ3); ^IUMMLIa
MB^tma M sdrd. AUtomet fn IlaUa in ShM tiariei, V.
(EtootBi ISHJi ImWi ^ fXEentfuuEa dtlia liata d«Ua ohiHB
«pmdi Es&»AIhtima»in ^{(iiJi iforici. VI, VIII [Romij, Uot.

tutMi^Xl9iAArMt6wk/rKait^ tturda RenMna df itoriftlMria

To Ttn Fim Pntoo. — KOamBBora, PaptUam u. JCfrtAM-
AM. (8T0b..Haisi, 1897-1800); HnosMBOnnB,
Dm-KirdiMttaatttadarAuMtttdMRnUuUoKlFTnb^
lUHONDim, L' Italia dtmmte In dominanoM franeet (Naples.
1882): Baldi. Aorfo deOa HMkmoiw Ualiana dOa fueOatiim*
dd re OiowaeMno Mmnt at moU dd St • 4S (Floranos, 1808);
RiMiaxi, n eongnuo di Vitiua • ta SaiUa 8ed4 (Tuns. 1804):
Idbm, La MiramlA dd Pajn « i ttmani di Ivtta P Buropa nd IBli
In OMKa eaU., ISth nrica, V (1802); Pabou, U pokmCt ttmpord
Ml dIM Al vmiami it OHaiirt X VI d'oprie la MrrmiwRdanw
* AtMdM toKe AMotKm. XUI (Ari^ 1880); Fabimi.
U MO I niHWU dal l«4 «I UVX* toU.. fid ed.tFtoreooe, 185»);

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MHi f W * tu« 0^ iH04: ChHwuq-

AiMMr Km /x nOcA dtn imiUiAan Jjnnldk^ to pr«unjcA«fi

di« tUl-a OMtii BffL CiAd, Caupiroi^iM ramane,

Mfalp dd pupa dal ritonu MKoTX al »0 Mtt.
DprnjUta-MBinmiir. £a iwiiHbi

~' ,:sit MMti^iiiU it u _.

Stfttlon D«Ti.— Days ob which in the eaily Churdi
fast was obs^ed until the Hour *A None (between
twdve and three o'elook), later of Sext (nine to twelve),
as distinct from tiie strict observance of the fast da^
properimtil Vespers (tl^eetonx). llieaneientlitiKKi-
cal writers commonly apply the word tlaUo to fast d^ya,
but a distinction must be made between jtfwiivan
and ttaiio. Famelius will not admit this (Ustiaction,
but Cardhial Bona is less unoompromising and admits
that though itatio ia sometimes identical with jg'untum
this is not an absolute rule. The stalio came to an
end at the Hour of None, but the jmunium was not
brdcen till the Hour <^ Vespers, which is a notaUe
difFa«noe. However, TertuiUan speaks of a less
rigorous fast which was broken sooner and which he
callfl aemi-o^vnium. In this case the faithful did
as on a day of aiatifi, and the fast did not differ from
tiie one on that day. To Tertullian tcAvere sUxtionem
meant exactly the same as solwre jegvnitim. But
St. Gregory the Great designated certiun churches
in Rtnne as ttoHonu and recommended that on U»
more aolonn festivals they should be made stations
(steKonM fi^ until the Hour <rf Sext, and at these
same churches on the appointed days (jstaiis duim&)
the faithful ^ould amist at the Office. The statifMU
have long since been abandoned and have left their
trace only in tiie Missal, but in some instances the
fast lasted longer and has been preserved even to
modem times. The classic text on the sfoftones is
found hi Tertullian's "De Oratione" (XIV): "Simi-
liter et statamum <^bus Dcm putant plerique sacri-
fidonim orationibus intervemendum quod stetio
solvenda idt accepto corpore Domini ". (In the same
way many think that on Station days we must not
be present at the praters of t^e saorinoes beeause tiie
Station should be finished when the Lord's Body is
received.) Comparison of other phrases of the same
author with this passage shows that the stoKo was
celebrated on Wednesday and Friday, of each week,
lasting un^ the ninth hour. The GOth Apostolic
Canon enjoins the observance of a fast on tlKse two
days.

An explanation of the fast of the stoltmet has been
found in the fact that the solemnity was fixed ttaHt
diebus, but this is a purely verbal coincidence; and
it seems difficult to find in it anything else. St.
Ambrose gives a reason which may have been aocoxt-
ed in his time: "Our fasts'\ he says (Senno XXV),
"are our enoampmeate against the attacks of the
devil: they are cidled Oationsa beeause we remain
staamng" (atantes). It also seems {wobabte that
these days of fasting and prayer were characterised
by endless watchines, and processions either witiiin
or around the church, when the faithful were obliged
to remtun standing, stantea, as is said in mod^em
French in exactly the same sense, tt^imntr, to stand.
i^aOo became the place before which or wiaiu which

the faithful walked in prooetrion and, tired out, but
always standing, sometimes leaning on a stick,
sasisted, before separating, at the oelsbration of tfas
Liturgy. The ohundiss to whidi they roMixed Ux^
the name of ttoHonea. though inoorrectfy, and the
route folknrad to reach them beume stotio od. . . .
Hie tini^ of a martyr became the object of a kind
of pilKtiiUBge to which the faithful went in a body,
ana tibus aroee another akttio ad. . . . But the
martyria alone did not attract the crowds; it beeame
the custom to go to the oelebrated basilicas, and
sometimes all the eUny of a lane dtqr asnmbled
at a oertaia point, probably in the viamito' of the
qiisocHwl renoence, to qo thanoe with the Ihmk^ the
patriarch, or the popenmnaetf to the plaoe sssigiiwl
for the odebratiMi <h the Eudharist. As time w«at
on parishes or tituU were formed in the dties and their
grouping ^ve rise to vexatious oue^one of preee*
oence, whMAi were solved as well as could be by
"rotation". Rome has picaerved the moat oranplete
aooounts of its staiional chxirches, but we know that
t^ese oelebratiMis also to<^ [dace at Jemsalon and
Constantinoide. Hm eomg to tlie sWts was quite
a onemoiw; HiUiwr were earned the sacred vessels,
fiturp^cal instruments, all that was peoufiar to the
a^nce of the pope, and abo, doubtissB^ all that wouU
8un>l«meitf the insufficient liturgical furniture of the
cfaurdi to whidi Hiey were Kung. Tlw "liber
IKmtifioalis" states that Leo lU (796) had twenty
nlver vessels made whi<^ weore borne by aoolytee in
tiie piooesaons to the statitKis. There is extant a
writing called "De lods Sanctis martytum tnm sunt
foris civitatis Bonus", tin last dtqiter A -w/k&A.
contains tihe list of "statiMi bosiBoaa" of Rome.
Tliis little document, the work of a Qerman rnlgrimf
dates from the ponti&eate of Honorius I (^5-88),
but seems to be based oa an older oominlatMm dating
at least from Pelsgius II (579-90).

The f ollowsng is tiie list of the station diun^es as
it was compilfd in the time of St. Gre^oi?: Patii-
ardial baaucas, S. Oiovaimi ia Latomno, S. I^etio,
S. Bdaiia Maggiore, S. Fudo Puori le Mura, S. Laremo
Fuori le Mura; caidinaKtial titles, S. Sisto, 88. Gio-
Faok>, SS. Quattin Conmati, S. Clemento,
S. Marcellino e Pietre, S. Fietro in Vinooli, S. Silvee-
tro ai Monti, S. Prassede, S. Pudensiana, S. Euaetno,
S. Vitide, S. Susanna, S. Ciriacos, S. Marcello, 8. Lo-
renao in Lucina, S. Loranso in Damasq, S. Maroo^ 8.
Anastasis, S. Nereo e Achilleo, S. Balbina, S. Sabma,
S. Frisos. S. Maria in Traatevere, S. CoeiUa, 8. Gria-
ogmo; diaeoutee {[those iriiich had been stations
before they were diaconates), 8. Nicolo in Carcere^
SS. Cosma e Damiano, S. Mana in Via Lata, S. Maria
in Forticu, 8. Maria in Domnioa. The number o£
stations is eighty-«x, and, that of the churches being
lees, some c& them luve the station several times in
the year. S. Sabina, the station established by Ur-
ban VlII for Ash Wednesday, ia the most important
of all because it was knig wistomaiy Ux the pmieB to
wpdix thteher on that day to dismbute the ashes to
the peopto.

Penons desirous of ^uning the station indul^nces
first repair to a church in tfae vicinity of the station in
imitation of the ancient collect, or gathering of the
clecay and the people, preparatory to the prooeeaion.
In this church prayers are recited from the Station
Manual, ocmsisting of invocations to the Blessed 'Vir'
gin and the Mart^. Then Ix^ns the ioumey to the
station accompanied by the recitation of the Miserere,
5 Paters, the Ave and Gloria, and tfae steps the
Passion of Christ. On arrival at the station church
the Litany of the Saints is said with versiclea and
prayers, ending with the " De Profundis". The pope
grants di^Knsstions to all who are uiid3lfi to ^ in
person to the stations^ such as cloistered laUgioui^
prisoners, the sick, eto., who are free to viut tbeir own
church and say the prayen prescribed. Carriinala

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and thMT attendanta aad pnlfttes of the papal ooiut
may gain the station indubmtoo by fwitiag oortain
{wayen in their oratory. These ptaren an printed
annwUty and distributed to the oarainab aad prel-
atea who aarist at tiw flret Sistiiie olund ti Lnfe.

BnMicWUf Id Ante, CIV (Puli, 1W6). S06-M.

H. Ijcmboq.

Station!. See Station Wats.

Statlona of the Croat. See Wat or tbb Cboss.

Statiaties, EocsLBsiAancAL. — In dealing with «ta-
tistios, both tbeoratioally and praotkaUy^ it is unim*
portant whether the men, mattora, or aotiona subject
to obsorvatiim are eeeleaastieal or eivO. Henoe the
methods used for the eoUeotion and tabulakiea of
eedesiastioal Btatiatics oui^ not to differ from thoae
employed in the preparation trf ^enerd statisticB, if
aocurate results are to be attained. The concise
claaeificatioa tested aad adopted for general stattstaoi
will therefore serve for eocleeiastisal etatisticB : (a> per-
aonal statistios, when men are the object of obiar^
tion; (b) material statwtics, when things and acttona
an ' obsomtkai.

By the study of thoontieal statisties (metbod8»
scope, limitation, eto.) practical statistaes wen hy
decrees ]>erfected until they reaohed tiie point where
it IS possible to sift thoroD^ily the materials gathered
and to discover thek conneotiDg links. Eocleeiasti-
eal statistics need no other methods or tecdmie. The
statistics of eoonomics sift, olasafy, and group all pes'
sible qaeations eoncemiag ecoaonuc and industrial
life. Ethical statiatjes ffom and oollate all main>
fsataticms, whether favmiraDle, indifferent, cht un-
favourable, of the free wfll ai man in the sphere of
moral^ while other branches oi this scbnce investi-
gate deariy-defined groups of interests. Similarly,
ecclesiasticsu statntica have their own peculiar prov-
ince, thou^ Uw boundaries between this and other
branches of statistics cannot always be sharply de-
fined in eveiy direction. The method of gathering
statistiaB ooneans itsdf with Tesuttaot totals, in order
to enable us to investi gBte pn^Mrly tbe most varied
eonditions, events, cmamiirtanees, fmnisioDs, eto.
The Bcieaoe of statistios hsjaUee the data thus <^
tained in its own peculiar way, so that we may acquire
A oorreot knowiedge of the facts oi govefsmentaf, ee-
eleeiaBticail, and natimal life. Fw ow pwpose it is
irrelevaat whether atatistiee are an e»ct seienee or
not.

1. — ^HmOBT. — ^IVom time immemorial the ci^,
State, and Churdh have oalled for tabuiatiim in some
form, however rough and empirical, of the statistical
knowledge aoquired. The fixing of the relationdiip
of family and tribe <see the stotemeots of tiie (Hd
Testamoit), the just division of ptdriic burdens, the
I»eparation of lists o( mm able to bear anns, and
many oUier matters gradually led dwim^»er authori-
ties to make tJw deaired reoonla. lie exeeution of
audi records continually improved, thou^ naturally
dependent on the means of miercourse and adminis*
Irative powers at hand. The medieval Church,
throu^ Its organs and institutions, notab^ influeooea
statistical science, however unreliable in many cases
the results obtained. L*ter the increase of general
onlture, the greater freedom <rf ittteroourse, and the
Utgtr ehims made by the modem Stato i^Mn its oiti*
sens led throui^ the taking of a eensos at indefimto
periods, or for casual reasons, to a ngalaz periodical
enoBfteration. It has not hitlierto beem noticed in
BtattsUcid seimioe that the earliest of theee perioditwl
enumerations are those of the inhabitants of RMne
nrhkh w«e annually made at Easter by the parish
priests. As the parish priests were supported by Uie
fliviljpower, all perBons residing at Romfr— Ghristtaas
cf all Unds, hma. Mohanaasdsn^ psiiwia wtm
onmted awl ofaaiffied uwbr deftiito SST tktm
T«7 eaaat aUrtistfaal smimsratiafts sMi .be teMtd

19 vrATnmot

back ftv into the dxteentii century and ceased onlr
with the fall ot the temporal power in 1870. Riw
printed material still awaits inveet^tion. Immense
UMittaseript reoonlsof Um Bomsn parishes show exactiy
the methods used in making these enumerations.
Not until the smnteenth oeutury do s^sular statistics
Aow a poiodieal census; it becomes more frequent in
the ttg^teelitii century. In Prussia the first periodi-
oal census was taken in 1719. In 1755 Sweden began
a oomprdienatve agricultural census. In 1790 the
UnitedStatesofAmoioa took a census of its own on a
lai^ scale (census every tesa years). In the nine-
teenth sentory periodical oeasus-takiiig reached ita
Bane. In the Gennan Eknpire tiie oensus of 1 De-
eember, 1871, was thorou^ and sdeaitific.

It was not for statistioal science, but scHelv for pur-
posBB at discipline and administration that the Catho-
lie CSuiroh wdained the exact keeping of re^sters of
all kinds, first by spscial hm, then oy the general
Tridentine law. There were b^>tisinal renters,
cemetery registers, confirmation books, etc. Suctus V
<lfi8j^-00) madeittheduty of all bishops to send com-
prdMiBive leports ^ their loesses at stated periods,
lliese an of great value in the administration of the
Qioreh (see Constitotian "Romanus Fontifex", of
90 December, 1685). Smilarly the Apostolic nuncios
were onmmanded to send to Rome full reports of
ecclesiastical oooditicmB ia their respective territories.
This <^pnal material, ofEdal in character, has never
been omcially elaborated on its statistical side. Of
late years attempts have been made, solely for the
sake (tf its historical intoeet, to publish it (SdmudliOf
Vvtwre, Friedmsburg, and others); so far, however,
DO caiiq)r^iensive statistical td[>uIation of the mate-
rial has appeared. With episcopal reports as a bans^
it wouM not be difficult to produce a general ecdesias-
tioal manual of statistics; attention is particularly
called to Uiis continuous authoritative source of eccle-
siastical statistios. In the "Acta Apostoliote Sedis"
(1910), pp. 1 and 17, appeared a new and exhaustive
list of queries for tbeee reports. Other Roman au-
thiMitiea, particularly tiie CoagrwaticMi of Propaganda,
have likvwiBB collected valuable material^ intended
almost entirety far disciplinary and administrative
pimwaoa. Access to these statistical sources is rath^
difficult, thoi^^ in ooorsa of time they may be thrown
open. Mention diould also be made here of the very
valuable report* sent to Rome for many centuries by
the headsoi orders from all the respective provinoea
<d their orders, but these reports have been made
aeoessible to students only in a restricted way.

It is evident from these and other facts not here
mentioned, that the history of ecclesiastical statistics
is of great intcreat, even thoi^ these materials were
not ctdleoted to serve the ends of scientific statistics.
The misBtonaries were probably the first to present
eedeeiastioal conditions in a more or leas cruoely di-
BBsted statistical form; it was neoeesai^ fw them to
snow their patrons in what way the given alms had
been used. The first imperfect attempts to present
ecclesiastical statistics in a psriodicat way are found
in old workB oontaining ocrfleetions of missionaiy
report*.

Amcmg those wbo contributed to develop statistios
as a science qieeial mention is due to Hermann Con-
ring (160&-81), professor at the Uoivernty of Helm-
stftdt; Giottfried Asohenwall (1719-72), professor at
Q<ittiB8an; Johann Peter SQssmilch (1707-67), sopsr^
intendent and oonsistorial councillor in Prusna, i^w
obtained largely from eotdcsiastical r^psters the mate-
rial for his epocbmaldi^ work: "Die {Attliohe Ord-
ming in den Verindenmgen dee menacmichen Giesob-
ichtea"; also QuMetet (1796-1874), a Belgian, who
mwt be ragaraed as the fatiwr of moral statistiea.
iMi^igh the phikMophical basis of his tksory should
be MiMted-aa wrong. In the last flftgr years so many
dMngiMhed vriten in nuat omHasd oountriss ham

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270

BTMSEBnClS

Himr attrition to the establuhmeiit and niain-
tenance itatiBtioB that we cannot mentioo even the
moat noted of them. Readers are referred to the
work of Mayr, "Statiatik und Geadlschaftslehra"

(189&-97).

Among the di£Bcultiefl thatofafltiruet tin advaBtaeft>

ous and exhaustive collection of statistics prirate
individuals are modern intercourse and induBtrial
life, the highly specialized development of govern-
mental, parliamentary, and municipal administration,
and tJtie military organixation <^ most civilized ooun-
triea. Statistics had first to be put under control of
the State, and th^ to be taken up by the municipal
and county authorities. Thus began the atatiaticftl
bureaux aided by government autiharity in their invea-
tigations. On the other band their tasks, serving
purdb'^ practical ends, are exactly laid down tor them,
without any r^ard to larger scientific demands.
Nevertheless the labours of the official statistical
bureaux are satisfactory and valuable. Official eccle-
siastical bureaux for the collection of ecclesiastical
statistics are almost mUrely lacking, althou^ numer-
ous suggestions and {stqwdUons have been made for
such.

A clear distinction must be made between statistics
concerning religions and ecclesiastical statistics. The
classification of mankind according to religions per*
taina to genraal statistics, i. e. so far as the civilized
coimtries of the whole world are conc^ned (see 8ta-
rnsTEcs OP Rbugions). Hitherto only a few coun-
tries, and these for trivial reaBons, have failed to
ascertain racactly this important fact. The lelipous
clasrificatloa being made, then, ecdesiaBtieal Btatis-
tics are the work of those who hold the Chriation faith;
the first task of these statistics is to make a further
classification <^ Christian denominations. After this
each denomination .makes such collections ot statistics
as enable the investigation (so far as possible) of all
the diverse relations of the individual, the parish, and
tirn whole body to the denmnination^ ecdesiaBtical
authoritisB, institutitma, etc. It can, thereCore, be
said that the statistics of religpons separate mMHniiii
into groups, and that ecclesiastical statistics in the
strict sense classify the great Christian group into
subdivisions; that m these subdivisions reU^us star
tistics investigate methodically all religious and eccle-
siastical events capable of being considered statisti-
cally, make clear their characteristic criteria, and
lay oare the connradcHi between cause and effect. In
addition to questions Bbictly rd^ious and eecle-
siastical. Church statistics should mclude all tboee
other domains in which a Christiaii population and the
ecclesiastical authorities should be interested, as:
schools, charities, religious associational life, missions,
and many other matters. Ecclesiastical geography,
tc^grapny, and similar tcoios are natural^ excluded
from toe survey of ecclesiastical statistics, even
though they necessarily make much use of statistics.

la eoolenaettcal statistics, as in every statistical
odkction of aggregates, the reliability of the surveys
depends upon trie excellence of the preparation and
fficecution of the undertaking. The most essential
preliminary conditions for a well-managed statistical
survey are: determination of the period of time and
extent of space to be covered; selection of the eolleo-
tors of the statistics and their procedure; the prepara-
tion of clear, simple, comprehensive questions for the
statistical inquiry-papers. Next come rewinif stUH
plementary addition^ and expert arrangemrait of the
origmal material. Third, one of the known methods
of performing such work must be selected, as the sys-
tem of small strokes, that of small blanks to be filled,
or an electrical counting-machine, wd the reflpeetive
divifflons of the work must be closely senitinizea. The
most common way of i»«eenting results is to exhibit
^e matter in the form of a table, the firaires of whieh
wiilunreaqualifiedoraauiioaBdhiouufTaliie. PmiD'

tiooUily dear results are obtained by the calculatioo
tA avwagss and by relative niunbwe; titeir sdeatifie
valuation, however, is subject to oertain precautirais.
It is easily understood that the full value of many
nsults can be reeogniBed only when they are placed
in suitable relation tooUier results. Of late, the uae
of the gn^hied method has somewhat increased ia
eccledaatical statistics, while, so far as I know, the
plastic method has not yet been tried. DiaoamB
(geometrical figures of all kinds) have been pr^abiy
iised; eoclesiasuoal statistics also use what are call«l
cartf^pamB|0r coloured represcmtatioos of geographiul
■uifaoes. Oocasionally, uae baa been made of variooB
floroMnatkma of these imibb ot preaentation, theread-
''ng<tfThldiisea«y (otheprae^sadeye. Suohpresen-
tations of statistical results in popular forms wm
employed in secular statistics on a lai^ scale for ^
first time by Hiekmann of Vimma in his various pocket
atlases, of which lai^ editions were printed and sold.
While it is evident that Catholics cannot concede to
statistical laws the character of unchangeable natund
laws, ecdeaiastioal atatistiea show that the absolutely
free will of man is indeed influenced by paaakn^ ct»
tarns, envinmment, educatiffli, ebaraeter, eto., but can
never be ratirely annulled.

Bocleaiastical statistics have not shared so far in
the benefits of intonaticaial coOperati<m in the teeat-
ment of statistical miestions. Not even in the larger
civilized countries has it been possible to introduce
uniform, and universally observed j^cipke. At the
feenval ooiuress of German Catholics held at OBna-
wOdE in 1901, the pvesont writer urged the establiib-
ment of an iuiomaticMial bureau of ecdesiaslieal
statistics. The propoaticm was reoeived enthunaiti-
cally, but nothing further has been done. On aecoant
of UM large dnuands now made on ecclesiastical life
everywhere, it is imperatively necessary that the
queeticm then cyseuaaed and aft^waros dropped
Htould receive more practical consideration.

If the total of Froteetant staitistical work and Uiat
o£ tin Catholio Churdi be eoo^Mrad, it nu^r be said
that both foodies have aooanmlsriied about the aime
and with the same saeoeaa. If the work the two
bodies be omupared in individual comitries or in
large sections of a country, the reeolt ia some-
times ^vourable to Protestant statistics, aometimes
to Catholic ' I^erences of otmsiderable importance
are to be found in the methods of carrying on the
wwk, 8o that the requirements of comparative stati»^
tioB eaanot, Toy oftoL be met Thjanmortpanep-
tibb in the viewaon whick are baaed the metaoda of
oollecting aggEcgates in missionary statiatiea, e. g.
what eonstitutes a catechumen, an ordained miBsioo-
aiy , and similar questions. Since this article does not
propose to go more fully into Protectant statistics,
those desirinK to learn more on that head are re-
ferred to ^e Dibli(^rax^y at the end.

OvthoUe Church statistics can be dassified in the
most varied maimer. The following daasifioatim is
in aootwdanoe with the inost important principle8>-

I. AxnuDged aeoordiDg to the source of collection:
(a) (^fidal statistica, men they are classified for offi-
cial purposes the central administration d the
ChuKh, or by metropohtans, bisbc^ or parish priests
in their offi(»al cwacity; <b) assooiaticmal statistics,
when ordos, sodautiea^ assodations, or parte of and)
(^aniiations are accustomed to gaUier statistica ia
any mannerlwtbdr own needs; (o>iwivated«ti^ea,
iroea incKvidoala or groups of sitdi collect and (UgMt
statistieal data for scientific or practical ends.

II. -Classified aeoording to gie(^cra|diioal area: (a)
statistics of the world, for all or any category oi church
questions that can be statisticMly considered; (b)
national statistics, when the above-mentioBed ■to'
tistics refer to a country or an essential pert of it;

provindid and diocesBn statietioa, when the obtff-
Tatjon ct *inr"a'*" jafmfhwH to a dwdi ptonam

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271

or diooeee; (d> parish statisticfl, iriMQ the statistical
inTestigsticns rafw <mly to a paridi; (e) associational
statistica when the geographical territc«y claimed b;^
the membm of a society as the field tA their wwk is
investigated.

m. Classified according to the subjeot^^natter and
extent of the inquiries: (a) general statistics far the
whole world; (b) world-wide statistics fw q>ecial quea*
tiuu^ (c) partial statistics tat qiecial questionB.

Witiiout oonsidering further classificatiMiB it may
basaidlliatbyfar the weakest pomt in the first group
is oSidal statistics.

If Catholic church statistics are to be ocHuplete,
the subject-matter should include all persons, obiects,
and actions connected directly or indirectly with the
Church, its entire organization, its authorities^ and
all its various regulations. Statistics of this ex-
haustive character do not now exist nor will it
be poesftile m the near future to obtain sudi,
even if it be conceded that tiie carrying out of such a
taric be possible. What exists is the tabulation of
some of the most important ecclesiastical objects and
personH ^ the Catholic world; these statements, how-
ever, are not official but eoMy the result of private
industry. CoDsequently, the new statistical tables
(Baumgarten and Kroee) only elaim to have the value
id the material on which Uiot are based. For earlier
general statistical work see Btrott, "FUhrer dun^ die
oet^sche kathdisdie Missionsliteratur" (Freibin^,
1011), 99-102. Both authors were but seldom in a
pnaition where they could either obtain an enumera^
tion thanselves or always fill out the gaps in tiie
available material.

Theoretically it must be conceded that the central
administxation of the Church has the necessary means
and power to attain in time an exhaustive, absolut^
eoBMt deeorq>tiim of all the posBeflsi(»s of tiie Church
inthewortd. Fractically no ine has been made of this
pcnrer, far the " Gerarchia cattolica", now the " Annu-
ario pontificio" (1912), is not a statistical work.
Leaving out scattered and unimportant statistical
tMearches made by this or that Roman administrative
board, the Congr^tion of Propaganda alone has
^ven official attention to statistics. The result of the
inquiries of the oongremtion in the regjcns under its
enre are seen in a watk which iqipean at irregular
intermix "Misriones Catbolicas cura S. Coi«r«a-
tioniB de Frcmaganda Fide descriptie". This bulky
woik (last edition, R«ne, 1007) serves, indeed, the
purposes of an hist(n:ical and statistical work of mod-
est {x^tensions, but it lacks that sclenUfio exactness
which the compilation of modem statratics demands.
It is a striking fact that the German periodical, "Die
katholiscbe Missionen" of Freiburg is often able to
main statements more reidly extxA than this idSoial
iwff'»»fti of the Concretion of Fnqtaganda. The
of the irregularly iaued yohimee of this work
cftea point out clearly enough its very considerable
defoets, but no essential imi»ovement in the colleo-
tioB or treatment of the matter has followed.

The i^glish-qieaking branches of the Cathoho
Church have the best official statistical publications
for entire ooun tries and oootinents. Without exoep-
tion they all issue year-books which contain the
moat important records more or less complete.
Attfaou^ the statistics are seldom thwougMljr worked
OTtr in these publicationa. yet the statistician does
not lay great stress on tnis, because he can do it
bimsen, and is satisfied if he can get the raw materia!
fairly ooinplete. The best of these annual publica-
tions is "The Official Catholic Diioctory and Clergy
JJat", vrbieh was formeriy publubed at Mflwaukee,
'V^soonain, now at New York. The publication of t^is
year^wok is a {ffivate undertaking, but in r^ty, in a
flortahi sense, it is an official ecoleeiastical work,
baeanse the pubUdier is afanost entirely dependent on
tlw eCHOperation ci the episocqud autborities of the

Unhed Btotes. It most, howeva-, be said that the
episcopal ehanceriee measure die very important
Sfiures of the increase of Catholics in the individual
dioceeee more by estimate than as a result of detailed
information. Arthur Preuss, in his "Catholic
Fortni^tly Review", has often pointed out this unfor-
tunate d^ect, without, however, any great improve-
ment in th^ regard being attained. It should be said
^t tihe difficulties enoounterod in determining ex-
actly the number ol C^itholics m a diooese are eqie-
coaUy great in tiie United StMes. The same applies to
the statistics ai schools and scbool-diiklren, whidi
must be characterised as inadequate. Most excel-
lent, on the oth^ hand, are the carefully revised rec-
ords of the number of priests and their addresses at
the time of pubhcation. The statements of this year-
book concemiiw other American countries are also
serrioeidile, altnou^ not quite so copious and reli-
able.

Tbe second place belong to "Hie Irish Cathi^
Directory and Almanac, with Complete Directory in
En^ish''^ (Dublin), lliis excellent year-book not
only contams the usual general statistical statements,
but also includes well-arranKed tables hardly to
be found elsewhere. EspeoiaUy well presented are
the losses in population so characteristic of Ireland.
There is some lack of uniformity in the statements.

*"tb» Cathohc Directory, Ecolesiastical Renster and
Almanac" (London) is an official annual pubUeaticm
for tbe Catholic Chtmsh in England. Altbou^ it
would be desirable to have a greater uniformity in
the contributions of the different dioceses, yet the
copious material offered is a cause of great satisfac-
tion. In view of the difficulties attendnig the prob-
lem of pastoral care in the large cities of England, it
is at times a cause of surprise that the statistics pre-
sented can be so «tact. The fouriA year^xmk to be
noticed is described m its title as official: "Hie (Catho-
lic Directory for the Clergy and Laity in Scotland.
By AuthcHTity of tbe Ard^ishops and Bi^ops of
Scotland" (Aberdeen). It is a great credit to the
small body of Catholics in Scotland that they have an
official year-4>ook of their own; at the same tune it
reflects on those countries which, with many millions
of Catiiolics, have not yet miade equal progress
in this direction. Even m tiUs carefuUy-prepwred
annual there are some records that require more
cu«ful supovisitm. The fiftJi place is to be asswned
to an anniial year-book, issued at Madras for the miole
of south-eastern Asia^ and formerly entitled "The
Madras Catholic Directory and General Annual
Register", but now (1912) ''The Catholic Directory
<rf India", a work of great industry. If in a numbar
of naviculars the other year-books were taken as
modelSj this meritwious publication could be brou^t
to a rtandard of excellence. The typographical
wm-k is Bome^iat poor, but that matters fittle. The
sixth place belongs to tbe year-book: "Australasian
Catholic Directory bontaming the Ordo Divini
Officii, the Fullest Ecclesiastical Information and an
Alphabetical List of the ClGTgy of Australasia" (Syd-
ney). The oivanization of uie church provinces is
wdl given in this wwk, but the accounts oi the indi-
viduu missionary distiiets, eepecialty of those on the
mainland, are not complete. The list ct year-books
issued in English-speaking countries may be closed
with "The Catholie Directory of British South
Africa" (Capetown). This offers only a limited
amount of data to the statistician, still a very praise-
worthy effort is evident to develop gradually the con-
tents of the directory.

There is an evid«it difference in the value of the
woi^ just mentioned, but that does not detract from
the faet that thn group of cfaurah year-books iweeeote
as a whole a very imposing piece m work. The annual
pirt>lication of saeh volumes is made possible by the
aid of advertisements wfaieh enaUe the pubhshers not

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only to cover the heavy ta^mmm, but alw to obtain
a moderate return for their woric. This points out
clearly the way in which other countries can reach the
same Koal.

Each year the "Annuaire pontifical catholique",
edited by Battandier (Paris), offers a great variety of
useful statistical infonnatitm which can be found
elsewhere with difficulty a- not at all; it omtaiDB also
many histwieally and otherwise instructire artieke
and otha vahiable eccleeiastical information. For a
nunJbor cS years iben has been published in Italy the
comprehensive work "Annuario ecclesiastico", which
presets the conditions of the Church in Italy with
great minuteness, if not always with clearness and
reliability. The laree amount of matter that may be
drawn from its reooras is shown in the present writer's
vohuie, "Kirehliehe StatiaUk" (WOnshofen, 1905).
It should be said that the editors make every effort
to overcome the inequalitiea still to be found in the
oontributions. The material offered by the "Annu-
ario" for countries outside of Italy has no claim to
consideration. If it were possible to develop this
second part, so that it should be unexceptionable,
there would be the banning of a statistical hand-
book for the entire Catholic world. In that case the
Italian part would have to be somewhat abridged, and
the whole work divided into two volumes. The ''An-
nuaire oomplet du cler^ belse et repertoire dee ^tab-
lissements rel^euz" (Brussels) is well arranged and
copious in matter. It would have been well to include
In it also the statistics concerning the Congo. The
same excellent standard is maintained by toe year-
bode issued in Holland, the "Piu»-AInianak". Be-
aidea information r^^rding the Church there are
also litenuy contributions, while the Dutch colomea
receive suitable mention. Up to 1004 two year-books
were issued in France, of wnich, unforttmatc^, the
laigsr and better, the "Clerg^ frangais" (Tours)
ceased with the publication of 1904. The vt^umes ca
this annual still have a great and permanent value,
because they have fweaented in a manner that is
abec^tely a modd toe life of the F^eh tndera. The
second publieatim, "La Franoe eed^aiaatique", has
odeted for sixty years andjneets more modest statis-
tical demands. As to the two Spani^ hand-books,
"Anuario eclesiistioo de Eqiafia and "Guia ecle-
siistica de E^>afia", do recrat information is forth-
coming, and it is doubtliU if new editions have
appeu«d during recent yjArs. The Hungarian year-
book and sdiematiam "BvkAnyve ^ Nevt^" is a
successful woric in which mudi mdustry has been di**
[dayed, as far as the spe<^ Hungarian leewds are
ooncoiwd. The atatiatioal data oomoemim other
hierarehiee have been obtained at aeemd and third
hand.

The small book, "Taachenkalender fttr den katho-
lischen Klenis" sedcs, more or leas aaeoeflsfuUy^ to
collect the data for Germany, and the " Frommes Kal-
ender fdr den katholischen Klerus Oesterreich-Un-
gams" undertakes to do the same tat the Austro-
Hungarian monarclnr. Ndther is suited in any way
to tlw importance of^ the hierarchies' of both countries.
The excellent "Kirchlichea Handbuch", edited by
Kroee, issued by Herder since 1908, gives full infor-
mation regarding the affairs of the Church in Ger<
many; every effort is made to improve and devekxp
the work. (For fuller discnssicm of eeeteaiaatioa]
statistics in OenxxBuy, see below.)
. As the majority ta Cathcdios in Canada are ot
French deeoeut and still ipeak EVenoh, eq>eoiaIly in
the Province of Quebec^ the Canadian yearbook is
puUished in I^Vendi; it is entitled " Le Qmada eod6-
aiastique". The bode is accurately and carefully
prepared and doea good aervioe. However, near^
all Its statistical reootda are to be found in the "Offi-
cial Directory" of the United States, so that it is selp
dom necessary to consult the Canadian woric. Ther*

2 mmnM

flto a feir other smaller publications whidineed hardhr
be numerated here. The fcnt^oii^ description will
aore as a sufficiently exhaustive summary of the
statistical authorities of official or sHni-offidal char-
acter. It should also be said that in writings on the
subject reference is made to a kind of general stattt-
tical outline for the whole of Portugal, out when the
atatiBtioal tables fur the present wntor'a hrge wmfc,
"Die katholisdie Kirdie mment Zeft und ihie Dimm
in Wort und Bild", were beju pre|mred it ma not
possible to find a oopy of this FortugiMBe puUieaticn.
Neither is it known whether any general ecclmantioo
statistical work has been pub^ed in ^e South
American countries, except the "Gufa ecleaMkm
de la Republica Argentina". Such oompendiuins
would be all the more desirable, because tiie seakws
activity td Fiua X in increasing the number d eool^
riaatiod tgovinces and dividing dioeeaea has preitly
inereaaedf the difficulties in determining from a dis-
tance the statistics o( these traritories. (See som-
maries in "Theologiache Revue", 1904, Nos. 4, 6, 12.
15, 16, and in "Uterarische Rundschau", Nos. 7,8.)

After the year-books for entire countries or oonti*
nents oome the diocesan oompendiums, so far as the
contents of these exceed pure^ litumcal infonnatioo
in reference to the observances of uie church year,
commands or prohibitions for the ekrgy. and similar
administrative matter. Excellent samples of general
outlines, and large historical and statistical reorads are
to be found in Bavaria, Austria, Hungary, as well m a
number in Germany outside of Bavaria and in Swits-
erland. They are model diocesan compendiums and
are of value to the statistician. Ahhou^ all
are not issued regularly, yet so large a proportion are
published annually that they can easilv be f^aoed
anumg the ecdeaiastical yearAxMka. Puolications of
the same character obtaining serviceable matter also
appear in some other countries, but copiee ue hard to
find, so that it is impossible to present an exact soi^
maiy. Official oompendiuins of this kind should be
isaued, if not in all (uooeses, at least in all ecclcaiasti-
cal provinces. The aims « the LmuUadinktoritiij «r
government direct«ie^ are frequently other waa
those of ecelesiastioo-Btatistical compendiums, fma
which many more details oS their subjects are ex-
pected. (See Brtlnins;, "Bemerkungoi zu dm Hand-
Dtkdkem und Scbematismeo da- deutaoheo DiAseaen"

S" Literarlsche Beilage der K^nisohen Ydkaseitung",
o. 42, 19 October, 1911; Ueae, "Die Didsaaanashs-
mstisnwn", ibid., No. 44, 2 Nov., 1911.) Some yean
W>, whoi, owing to the iHvaaine of modem condiaon%
the f oimer customary general paxodiial aiqierviaon
waa T^laced by the auperviakn of the individual
mmbers of the paridij all wa;ya sad methods were
sought to reach the individual m some practical my,
eepecially in the large cities. This led to the excel-
lent proposal to issue pwiodical parish p^Mrs, so as
to give the members of the parish all the eaacntial
faeta of the parochial life. Thia method haa beeai ai»>
oeesfully tried in a good many plaess in Anstoia, Ocr>
many, England, and, here um thsfe, in the United
States. In tbess ^ttpen, whx^ appear at r^^ilar or
irregular intervals, statistical nooiaa and reports eot
lected by the parochial auttunitiee are poAilished with
constantly increasing frequence. These statements
have in all instances attracted mudi attention and
have often devek>ped new interest in the parUi and
its rdigious sorvioes. If this good custom were idtr**
dueed everywhere, it would soon be easy to draw up
a really lifelike iweseiitation of tbe CSincdi in evecy
dioeese.

Aftw this enumer^Aion of the various kinds cS sta-
tistical works prepared by the diurdi aathorftiea, or
at leaat llbmUly aided by them, it snuat be noted that
in not a few countries the govemmciit authctitiss
collect information conceniinft eeoMastioal mattaas
or present, in the national etstastieal works, fiwt haad

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auKtaiml wbidi 'm ezoMdm^ Ttdoable to the •ecto- treatm«Bt of tt tiutt vdiild be necessary. Notbins of

siastioal statistician. Heis.nidaed,freq[iieDtIy depen- this kind has happened; the result of the new method

dent upon them, because these figures are not to be has rather been to add new and enthusiastic membm

found anywheve else. In addition the "H<rfka3ender" to diaritable associations, because each could see

or " Ahnanadt de Qotha'S as it is cdled in tiie French elearty that the impelling force d Christian charity

edition, gives statistics « all kinds, the exactness of had really increasea throiwi the unity <rf organisaticm

which may generally be relied upcm. This almanac is find the bbours <^ statisticians. The statistics which

well known throuKnout the world. The state direo- reveal a good, a merely even, or a poor ratio between

tones and the "Hofkalender", which are frequenUy MliefandDeed,ontheonehand,andbetweeiithework

the authoritative and the only sources itxt the statis- dcme and file expenditoree, on the other, make po»-

tics of religion, are sometimes also important sources sible a more exact use or a greater output of the powct

for ecclesiastical statistics. While formerly the pub- latent in the forces hi question. Another, and very

lie had but little int^eet in exact data conceniing impcfftuit, point is Uiat exact statistical recwdecover-

,the great Catholic orders, there has been a change in ing lame territories faisilitate the prerontiwi oi unwise

the present era. The latest atatisties eoUeoted are expeuclitures. Fnm Uie preeont writer's tsxpeiieaoa

published more or lees regidarly and attract much ft may be asserted that Ian <tf knoirledse (tf organisa-

attention. These figures are based on thorou^ tionsatilleapableof d(rfiigwork has ledto the estab-

investigations, which make it possible at regular Into- Ucdbment new ones on much the same lines for

vals to offer an exact summary of the growth and which no need existed, flie fact that those desiring

development of the respective orders. Only a few, to ioiu^ursto <^aritablB work of a certain kind did

however, these important statistical reooids are not know liie extstenee near by of organizations with

puUished, and <mly in isolated instances an they to be the same object has, unfortunate^, been at times the

lotmd by the laity in fbe book trade «r ofaeMim. maatm for a needlees expenditure of money which was

Two important wo^ betoag to this ehas, "Odhemi^ far mm impoutlvely needed for other purposes. It

tismus totiua oidinis Fratmm Mlnonun" (Aeaiai) and may idso be noted here that the statistics itf the actual

"88. Patriardue Benedioti Faanhe oonfoederatv" rcaults are effectual to faispire to greater endeavoun

(Rome). Along with these are excellent outlines for those who co-operate in the work,

the ooneregations. General statistics are drawn from The idea of combining all Catholic charitable organ-

thecataloEuesof each Jesuit province irtiidi are at Uie isAtiona was first realized on a large scale in the cele-

dispoeal of those who desire to know, white the cata- brated charity organization BocieiyJChariiasverband)

logues thetDsetves are very seUcsn given to the pvb^ established in Qonnany in 1897. Tiw was followed

lie. ItisiKitpo8sQ>letoaw,fromtbeaKly^HandTeiy in Aiutria by an imperial organisation for all the

■canty^-statiBtics of the Dominioan Order known (o diaritsble societies in t3w monardiy. For further

the present writer, whether, berades the enumeratien particulars conoemisK the two omnizations see

of provinces, coi^r^tionsj monasteries, aad mem- "Kirchliches Handlemon", s. v. "Charitas", where

bera of the order, other statistical work is also under- a bibliograpliy is also given. For the United States

taken. The Capuchina jxiblish statHtioal summaries a bednning <n buoh general organization was made in

in their "Analeeta otdtms", of which ooe volume is tlw First Natitmal Conference <^ Catholic Charities

issued annually. The further statiatieal suramariee held at the Catholic University, Washington, in 1910.

of otim orders need not be mentioned here: for titese Jui exceediiwly valot^Ie woric is done m many coun-

the reader is wfeged to the MgaeeUveartiMBamTCT trica as Beqpum, Bavaria, Prussia, AuBtriar->and in

Catbouc E^oroLonuA. "Am are ooly « f^' duny dtiea uid prorinees by the preparation of star

■tatii^cal outlines of monasterieafv entire ooontriBS. tMail nnninartes of all eharitable aasodations with

The year4xKAs mentioDed above give ecniions Mcords- irtiich Oathcdios are oMinected. Such handbooks of

of the monasteries for both sens in the toiibnies Quistian benevolence save much time and labour;

OQvered at the time of publioatiw. they show exaotiy what exists and also make existing

A very impcvtant sectioQ of eeelesiastieal stat^stioa- gaps ecpialty plam. In addition to this is the work
is that comprising the statistics of the miasioimry doiie by the secretariee of the charity organization,
labours oi the Catholic Church. As alreatfy men* who are able ftiom thdr records to distinguish between
tioned, this branch d statistical work was the eariiest ttie nany needy and wcvUiy and the prttessional beg-
undertaken and the most has been done in it. Con- nrs. Thus itls evM^t that a comprehensive statfr
sequeotlv it is in this field that we have the most thor- tioal srasp of Christian benevolence nas alreadv been
ough ana complete statistics. What the Propaganda exeeMingly useful and beneficial, and will be stiU more
has, m this respect, done officially has already been so in the future. But, while these two facts by no
noted. The statistical labours of the missiDnarics means. eiduHist the list oi advantages, a furtiwr enu-
have, from crude beginnings, developed in the prBscint nieratibtacaiUHft be entered mxm here,
time to imposrag poformanoea. It is not, htmever. Wherever Catiiolic Bchools are permitted in addi-
meant that there could not be imfrnvements and ti<m to state schools, ^e number of these schools, of
additions in many particulars: above all tiiere might tinirteachen and scholars, and the expenditure on the
be greater unif<Hrmity in thetruesMimffairet and clearer, same form an important branch of eeclec^iatical star-
presentation of the headings to be conveyed. The tistics. Figures are far toiore merciless than the moet
immense amount of matenaL broudit together by severe denunciation of the indolent. In addition to
individual missionaries, by orders and oangregatirais, Uie hnporiwiee of such statistics for the elementary
and from other sources, has of late been critioalhr schools, stettetics of the middle schools and universi*
examined and collated, laigety by Oennan and I^Ventm ties AoPr whether any, and how many, Catholics
scholars. For further particours of this collation receive a liberal education, or are studying for tecfani
BeeMnaiom,CAzaDLU},whereaoopiouBbiblioBnq}hy callhiga, or pursue lit^aiy courses, aim abo mskke
ia given; see also the wow of Btreit mentimed above, dear whe^er the'toires aiein proportion to the Catb-
on the bibliognqdqr of German Catholic misstons. olic population. Fw if a deficiency fn OtttiioHe intd-

Mudi alarm was expressed the timid at the time ligenoe apmars, because Catholics do not send their

when the statistics of diaritaUe work woe first sons in stimobsit numbers to the fa^er schools, lead*

demanded, when the opinion was maintained tint a era wfll surely be lacking to the C&tho&cs in the next

statistioal record should be kept of needy peraona and gsnenticm.

aaplieBBta for fael^ and a oombtoad OKanisataon of BceleeiBBtifoal etfatistics also fnchide the statistics

diaritaUa wodc was deBoaaded. Tbo fear ma m.' of CAthoHo Modations, whether purely religion^

IMMwd that the noUc. worid^ndmafau waeeptim mtM, Mlitibal. relMoo-poIitieal, or of^ ai^ other

<)< Cfaiirtian lore wouMaaflsr from Ihebudwiin Ilia kM. nwQF dW iMIier tlw itt^^

znr^u 1

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an Buffioiently developed and vfaether the; >n wukp
ing with success or not. As r^uds the rtporU of the
boards of manayrs of these sodetieB, it miqr be said
that, as all societies have more or lees to do with

money, it is desirable that the total amount oi money
^veu for the purposes of the society fr<»n its found^
tion should be counted up and that this total sum
^ould appear in the annual report together with the
amounts for the year, so that the reader of the report
may be able to estimate the whole work done by the
society. If the socie^ has other wwks besideB the
eollectitm and disbursement of mon^, these should
also be meerated in ccmdensed form frran the time ot
Uie establishment of the society. Once the labour of
ooUecting theee statistics for the entire period of the
existence of tiie society is dime, it is only ncceesaiy
after that to add to these totals the reeonla of the
year just closed.

The brief outline givoi above by no means exhausts
the possible i^)plications <d ecclesiastical statistics.
Each one must flfipl^ fsniieiples here explained to
sphnes not yet under statistical examinaticm in order
to gain a full realisation of the great uaefutness and
absolute neceanty of thorough statistical recratb.
When the statistioal work of the State takes up eccle-
siastical affairs, it is not neoeesary in every case to
reject it at once. There are, however, undoubtedfy-
ailairs of the Church which are outaide of all statisti-
cal investigation on the part of the State. The State
oan Buccessf uUy collect statistics of the external activi-
ties of the CbuToh in traininK and educatitm, aiKMna-
tional life, and similar brancnee. In my opinion the
church authorities of all ranlcs have in such case the int*
perative duty of collecting for their respective depart*
ments all those statistics which are adiuited to present
an image of the labours of the Church in each field.
The uses of the often difficult and prolonged compute
tions are evident. The filling out of exact statistical
pojpen is of great value for all leaders ot the Catholic
peonJe, showing who are really CathoKes. This
applies just as much to what is purely religious as to
wi^t pertains to charitable, socaal, wd assooiatioiud
Ufe. Comparative statistics make it possible to
detect failures from the figures, and also to find out
what fields it is absolutely neoeesary to cultivate, what
have not been woriced at all <v wcriced but littJe.
Id the same way the succeases are as esfdly to be seen
from the figures and preatly increase the desire to to
on wwking and the joy in the woric.

As diuly experience shows, the sum total of tbe sta-
tistical records of the Church is of great importanoe
for the reputation of the Church. The oppcmenta ctf
the Church take more interest in its statistics than
many Catholics. When, therefore, from the careless-
ness of those whose duty it is, the statistical presenta-
tion is an imperfect one, the importance of the Churoh
is greatly damaged, because its oraonenta oan oon-
clud^ with apparent right^ that the Church is abso-
lutely unable to produce efieets in this or that dtvoain,
or else labours with very little suocess. As an exam-
ple of what is needed in this direction^ it may be wdl
to notice here a brochure recently published ^ BiAop
Canevin ot Fittsburgh, "An Examination, Historical
and Statistic^, into Losses and Gains of the Catholic
Churoh in the United States" (1912). The frequent
unedifying controversies with oppnient^ wbo fall
back <m our scanty statistical figures, show that every
force should be strained to produce an exaot, oom-

Slete, satisfactory statistical survey of the Chureh.
ather Alberts says m "Literarisdie Rundschau",
No. 8 (1905) : "Like all sUtistical material, the pro-
tocols of visitations are a two-edged sword in the
hands of the user, according as he inshes to USB them
for a good or undesirable end. As a rule tiie latter
aim is the one sought, as it is seldom or not at all cus-
tomary to keep a reecffd of good woAb. U, therefore,
ny ■saociatiott in State or Cmiwhis Mtwimngtoyisiil

the records of its inteadmittiBb«tiait to unreitrsinsd
misuse, it must Itsdf undertake the pubMeation «(
fwih et^tiatim iheavelvm in tteder to set the vieroB
the right road by offeriiig the necessary explanationt,"

It ill Dot neouMry in u nniele on cfaureh ttatiatiiH to givf tha
tiMnof th« cuinb«rl<HW0Tl[AiB7hj«h th« rerultioC ibcM NUt-
puuttotu are uituwpd uid tf^^i^- Th«ii« r&nilta Iiatb beeil pub-

iat mattera in which ehurab atalutien wen- DFeraaarily rrf crrpd
Cblvf unaoi^ ItwM nra the DiunerouB xeaera^iol, Mclaaiuttifl^l,
Kccial. aad luBi-ariaB] utielea, which glv* tti^ oibKocTvphiH itf tha
rMpectivQ •ubjwU, Bcridfw Uw baotci Ksd trutUH nmttcHd
in tbe eouTM of ihin Ktlale, It ii only MMAaawy to aiUkUoa ■ few
ugJattuUfiipa vhidi tnat clitirak Btatlitio^ Uw Luea, m.ad necw-
jKV'mtnaHdny: KireUiAu Jian^aikan, : n. Slaiittik; B«tni-
bAflar, JCMIbA* SlalUtih (WftriihafFn, IHUS) : Hitlmulu-poK-
(ucla BUmmr, CXXXIV, 831; Germanin (Brliti, 1905], Ho. 6.
l}«nn«rvn Id nwmi the QOeation ot tbv «atkblbfaiuat of k
aixmMn bumu f«r ohuiob ttBtlaiics; Aueitniretr PvUttitmtt

raUuMl^w (Caltwm, 1900), No. fi3, 32 Juusryi jVmci wtm
BtbitU dvliirciUiqCm BtiUiitih in No. 273 (1005), 3 AwU:

In GtauuNTj beginning with tiie eartiest years d
the tweotieth century, an active movonent todc
shape towards the creation of a general and imiform
body oi ecclesiastical statastics. At the Forty-eighth
Congress of the Catholics of Germany at OsnidiTlick
the erection of a German bureau for ecclesiastical
statistics was warmly reconmiended as a preliminary
step towards an international institute for ecclesias-
tioal statistics. This resolution has, indeed, not
been carried out as yet; but the endeavours of the
Cathdic Congresses hive not remained without
result. The want of universal eecleaastical statistics
was to some de^pree supplied by a book on geiwrU
eecleaiastical statistics for Germany which appeared in
1906 under the title of "Kirohliohee Handbuch": a
second volume was published in 1900 and a third in
1911. It gives statistical information from govern-
mental and eeckaiastica] official publications deling
with themovemutof tb« Catholic pmulation of G«v^
many. It indudes also the number m priests and of
oantudates for the prirathood, statistics of religiouB
orders, ecoleeiaatical action, and the position of Catho-
lics reflBrding national education and morality. The
manuiu, moreover, g^ves information on the oriauiisa^
tion frf the i^le Chureh in general and of the Church
of Germany in particular, on ecclesiastical legislation
and deciaimis, on the social and philanthropic activity
of Catbobes, the positioii <rf the Caioreh in other ooun-
tries, and Catholie missions amoiw the heatbra. The
churoh autboritiee, too, favoured a further develop-
ment of ecclesiastical statistics, both by reoommending
the "Kirchhches Handbuch", and especially by draw-
in^ up a quettionnaire satisfying every scientific r^
quirement. Whether tdiese efforts of the churoh
authorities will produce the desired effect dep>ends on
the reqxmse they meet with from governmental and
municspal statistical bureaus and from registrars'
offices; for witliout such co-operation the proportion
of baptisms to birtiiB, of mamages before a minister
of the Churoh to those before a registrar, and of
ecclesiaatioal funerals to deaths cannot oe aeoertained.

The Protestant State Churches of Germany foW
lowed the example of the Catholics with recud to
the keeping of parish-r^fisters. But the results were
published only in t^e mneteeoth ouituiy, eqpedal^
during the last decades. This is duefly due to the
"Kirdiliehes Jahrbuoh",editedby J.Sehiiwder, whioh
has been published for thirty^gbt years; statistical
records of individual churches, however, and a gen-
eral accoimt published in 1862 by the statistioian
ZeUer of WOrtemberg (Zur kirchlichen Statistik des
evangeliachen Deutsmland im Jahr 18^ preoeded
the publication of the " Jahrfoudi". TheCauCTch Oon-
ferenoe of E^senbaeh (now "Deutsdie evansdiscte
KirehsEdconfereni"), in wfaidi all the Protestant
Qiurohes of Osrmaay are represented, has formed %
ipeasl atatirtieal oonmtisrifi whidi, dme 1880, has

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BTATIBTI08

276

ITAtinZOI

of religious betiothda to CwthoUo and

ni dsn dfiotaidtea evaDgeliflchai Lftiuiedcirohelt'\ mixed mairiagee, burials with the litee of the Church

fttaUe(rfthebaDtism8.iiiArriagefl, funcrabtoonfinuar- to the deaths among Catholics,
tiou, oommunicants, lo88«t. and conversions within It would be a good thinff if the unifonxi table oS

the states of the German £hnpire and the provinoea eoclesiaitical statiatios which has beeu introduced of

of Prussia. These statistics are acoompanied by the late fai all the Qerman dioceses were adopted by Cath-

flvrespondiog figure <A the movemmt oS the Protest- oUce (A other countries, as it meets all scientific

iBt population, which an for this purpose plaoed at demands. A toaoalation of this table is given above,

dinosal of the ouiferanoe by the govemniantal at*- biQmnaa dioceses there are two quoy-sheeta: Sheet

Uitteal bureaus. An (^Icial oentre tor eodenastioal A, which emtains the quoies given above, is sent

statisticB faa& however, not yet been erected by tbe by the episeopal curia to all the parish priests of the

Protestant Churches of Germany. diocese. Before a definite date Sheet A must be

^— ~— — — filled out by the parish priest and sent to the dean,

GuMAM DiocBBAii FoEM OF STATiancAi. Tablb. ^jio ig to examine it as to completeness and correct-

1. Ch»( ChuTche« of the Pariah negg And ia to en^«^ and summarize by a definite date

itechlS"^.::::::::::::::::::::::::;:::;:: aii the events of his deanery in the blank provided for

Church institutiona for: — the district supervised by a dean (Sheet B) ; it is
*■ W V^^^fi^h ^® episcopal curia, where the statistics

t fe cSi^MnWu!" ; for the entu-e diocese are put together.

7. It) SickneM, loBWilty mcI Incurables Nebkh, KireUiche Otoffraphie mtd SttaUttk, I-II (bMOxM,

8. W th*C»reof thePoorMidOld... . 1864 and 1865); Karl voii bl. Alot^ Si<m»ft«^ AArtiiefc

t (0 CttiCTP^rpoflM. . Kirehe, t-U (RaUabon, 18«0 and 1862); Piepm. KireAHdu Sta-

la Paridi Priwto. . ~. K<«fcDewttcWBnrf« {FVdburg and Tttbingea, 1899); Baomoaiitem,

U (Hher Secular Priesta Wirktn der katholitehen Kirehe auf dam frdoirund (Munich,

li Other Prieat«belQwdni"to'6ixiorB' 1901); Ioku. Kirthlieh* Stoitrttt; i)r« Au/adlM (Warisohofen,

H. M«mbera of Oidera in them H. A. KbOSB.

Chief OocupatioD of These Reculara Conaiata in: —

1 S8&^^l4f;;iL;;;///. statwia tit Ryi^rioni.-i. DiiipimoH.-'ijis

17. fa) Trainini and Eduoatioa, at study concems itself With religious bodies, the number

S SSSSj^** ** " " ■ ^ members, and their distribution over various

iS S^blrerfoXiin^Li' countries, in a wider sense the numerical account of

C3iief Oeenpation of these Orders Conaiata in the external manifestations of religious life also bo-
s' ^ SS^^*'P'*Hr?i.i^J^*" - V longs to the same study, but of late it has beai cus-
S U ^JSS ObSffirSr- •* tomary to comprise tl^s latter group of facts under

». Membere of i^riab on 1 January. 19— the designation of " Ecclesiastical Statistics" and to

^ JfcS!?"S.2l5l"f".S9SE'l?- K • treat of them separately. As the whole fidd has only

* SMSS^ ^"^^ ^"'^ m the last decX^ thaoughhr ^n»ked, langua^

37. M cSti^o Groom has not as yet afforded a clear distinction between

^ cJ^^^^S&S&O^);^-^^^ terms. Practical reasons^ however, spedc in

». ^^^(SSSSlicQroomTT^ . favouT of such a distmction, and therefore we retam

n (3 Catholic Bride it in the present article, and treat ecclesiastical sta-

31. Uring Birtha from Msrriuei <rf CsUiolica tistics separately (see Statistics, Ecclesiastical).

i: ^^^^^^^^'^^'^Si^. :::::::: n. histowcal r>EVELOPMENT.-The first attempta

u. Crthobe BwitiapM from Mi»d Catholic Mainiatea to determine exactly the number of members of a

17. DeeasMd CathoHes seventeenth centuries. But th^ only give the sum-

S aSSiS^^U^jie-aii^TiU- «f the Christians, andnot thatof^ adhoentsof

S£ CwwSoMtawTiiwSSilSito^ : the mdigenous rehgions m the respective countries.

iL Of thne. Children nnder 14 Yean Dating mun the eighteenth century, some accounts

a cS^u^t^Sj*" ^ 'rithdrawn from tbe Church. . . indeed of the various religious systems and Ibeir

*4. Of theee. Eart^'ci^i^'^M'^'.'.'. "^\'.'.'.'^'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. Spread are extant, but they only mention the coim-

' ~" " ■ biee ovw which the remwctive religions extended; as

Valuable material for ecclesiastical statistics is also to the number of their followers we possess but scat-

f&^jvi by many of the German diocesan year-books, tered data ewea. of that period, and no comprehensive

Hiey are limited, howem, to statonente concerning and Mm^arative records. It was only in the nine-

the particular diocese and have, therefore, only speciid teenth century that an effort was made to distinguish

interest. The directories issued in F»gMffh, as Ken- Btatistically, according to religion, the entire popu-

edy, "Official Catholic Directoiy", "Tlie Catholic lation of the earth. The accounts given in Table I

Directory" (London) "Australian Catholic Direo- are the most accurate.

tarjr", "Madras Directory", "Catholic Directory tiL In all these calculations the total of the earth's

uuin South Africa", hare the advantage over the population is cbnaidmbly underrated. Thenumbers

Qennan works of this class, that th^ give informa- of Uie mm-ChriirtiBns are evident^ onl^ vague esti-

of ecelesiaatical affairs for a much braerput of mates withoat any soMd foundatiDii, as is clmr Iron

* country. In particular, the "Offidu C^itholie the round numbers and the great differences between
Dveetorjr' contams much matter and is an indi^wn* tiie variona eetkoates. Hoarding Christians the
nble raeience-work for anyone who wishes to gain eomputatkm is indeed more accurate, but very far
t^onoation concerning the affairs of the Chun£ in from the exactness requisite for scientific research,
ue United States and Canada. The statcmeots m ENrm the attempts made by geogr^hers. such as
utw directories are graerallv limited to the namee of HQbner, Petennan, Kolb, between 1860 and 1880, do
ue^gnitanes of the Church and the priests, to die not show any essential pn^ress.

(wch institutions, schools, and monastic houses. Statistics of relimfms that should come up to the

neitatistical records in the British and American nquhraments of teMDOe woidd be possible only if for

<iiKetone8 are scanty and are not generally colleeted every eointtry Hie number of menobeES <rf the various

^ a uniform plan. There ia an ahnost entire lack relkious bodies were asosrtainedftomreUabte sources,

« Btatietidd records as to ecclesiastical action, the and tiie totab anived at from the individual results

neoTOg <rf the aaflntment& and the prpportiGa at were tabulated. Avara«e estimates that extend over

VUbote baptisms to birtha fh»n Catliolie and «atingiMVB<>f «»>ttn"^th6at definite ,

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STAHSnOS 276 nATUTUSB

of Vb» numbers of the population and its diBttUmtion of millions of inhabitants, Buddhism, Confudanism.
with regard to religious deiKaninatioDS are little and aaoeetor-worship cannot be sharply separated
use for statistical investisations. Detailed religious from one another; tn^ are at times professed and
statistics, dealing distinctly with all oouri tries oi the practised by the same mdividual. It must be borne
earth, were for the first time presented by Foumier de m mind, tf>o, that the population of China has hitherto
Vhix to the second oongrees of the International In- been difficult to estimate precis^ — as much so, in-
stitute of Statistios, held in Paris, in 1889. His deed, as that <tf the interior of Afriea. Regarding the
example was followed F. Von Jiinudiek (1898), H. three nluions of Eastern Ana, as wdl as the F^sh*
Zellw, and H. A. Krose, S.J. (1908}. The figona inn of Afiiea, the statisMoal data neoessarv for a xe-
given by Founder de Fwx mosOy oorraqiond to Uie liable ealeulation are wanting even now, and therefm

Malta Bnin
UIO

1818

C. O. Bteio
1810

Fi&kertan
1827

Bslbi
18U

5,000,000
1104)00.000
00.000,000
160,000,000
100,000,000

' Illlll

228,000,000

6,600,000
120,000,000

363,400,000 1

236,0004)00
5,000,000
120.000.000
60.000,000
180,000,000
100,000.000

' iiiill

Total

653,000,000

686,000,000

708,000.000

700,000,000

737.0004)00

ocmditions at ihe heaaniag or the naddle of tiie eiA-
ties; those of Juraschek to the poriod 1890-97. Zeller
has in essentials taken ova the statements of Jura-
schek and made them the basis of h^ own investiga-
tions; he has, however, completed and arranged them
more clearly (in Wamedc% "Alteemeine Missions-
seitschrift, 1903)i and has added exact references
for the various items. Tkb numbers as given by
Krose bekmit to tiie last decade of the ninetemth cen-
tuiy and oafy in a few eases to 1901. The total re-
sults of tluse four aeoounts are shown in Tsble II.

fluctuations of the estimates are easily understood.
Again, Juraschek-Zeller did not make special cate-

g Dries for Taoism in Japan and ancient cults in India,
ut added them to the great collective groups Just
mentioned I and the individuals having no religious
denomination seem to have been allotted by Juraschek
to other groups on certain principles. Juraschek de*
cidedly undoestimated the number of Mohsmme-
dans: recent investigations have proved that Mo-
hammedanism is far more widely extended in Africa
than was believed. Otherwise Uie statistical acoounta

Tasui n.

Fonnler da Flaiz

Jurmaehdc Bod Zeller

KlMB

330,866,583
143.337,625
•84)164)00
4,900.000

251.600,000
165,830.000
106,480.000
8.1304)00

264.505,923
166,637,109
109,147.37s
8.7S8.38t

477,080,158
74)56.000
t78.S34.373
1004)004)00

i47.fibo.6eo

266,0004100
144100.000
484)004)00

117.881.«e0

534,040,000
10,860,000
176,390.000
214,570,000

i26,7sb',6oo

300,630,000
14,000,000

640,017.341

11.036,607
202.04S.240
210,100,000

12,113.756
120,250,000
235.000,000

17,000,000

32,000,000
144.700.000
2,844,483

173.800,000
170,000

1,420,552.198

1.544^10.000

1.536, 110.W

The differences between the first and the last two ac-
counts seem to be considerable. But we must keep
in mind that Foumier's figures refer to a time about
ten years previous to that of Juraschek-Zeller; and
that the distance in time from Krose's record is even
greater. Withhi a period like this an increase of from
10 to 15 per cent is by no means extraordinaiy.
Hence, so far as regards the Christians, the statemoits
may easiW^ be made to agree. (The Raakokuks have
^I^MrentW beni oountecTwith the "OreekOrtfaodox"
by Fcnumer and witii "Other Christians" 1^ Jura-
•ohek-Zelkr.) Neither is the disagreement regarding
the Bfohammedans and the Brahmins ranarkaUe.
The number of the Jews, however, has evidently been
underrated bv Foumier, and that of the Buddhfsta
oveieBtnnated. The latter migr easifar be aotoontad
for, « in the Ghinew Empire, with Hi knubedB

of Juraschek-Zeller and Krose show a far-reanhtiy
agreement, comidering the different periods of their
estimates. Their caKulations having been carried
out bi complete ind^endence each other, this har-
mony no doubt confirms the reliability of the results.

III. Pbbbent Status of Reliqious BoDina. — The
tables of Juraschek-Zeller and Krose given in section
II ooireqiond on the whole to the last decade of the
nineteenth century. At present, thnefore, the first
deoade of tiie twentieth century being over, their ao-
oouBtB need oomplementinR and rsvirii^. Hub ia
eyeoially necessary with the various Christian de-
■ominations considering their steady and vigorous in<
crease, whUe the estimates made ten years ago of the
Afltatio and African rehgtoiE may evoi now be to a
large extent accepted in the absence of more exact
oonipMion. l£egR»rtdiffioaltiepfreligiaa..t».

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mntnos 2

tutioi hare ben hinted at' above. TImt ate indeed
than the diflSeuHies of any other branch of
etatistias bearinE on population. Even eountriee
poBwasmg in other re^wcta well-grounded official
statistioB oftm lack official acoounte regarding reh-
0on. The scienoe of statistioe has king since come to
the oonohision that religion belongs to the oaoentiai
itouB of evwy oensus. Aa earjtjr as 1872 the Eisbtii
Literaatiraul Congrees for Statistica at St. P^ctwuri
vxprvmfy emphaaged this, pointing out the great im-
pcntaaoe that must be attributed to a full and oleu
statement d the individual's reli^itHL "one of the
moat eeaential elements of civilisation . This want
ia lees felt in countries like Belgium, Spain, Portugal,
and the majority of the republics of South and Central
America, whose populations generally profess one and
the same reli^^on. excepting a small minority, whose
number csn usually be ascertained in other ways with
Bi^cient accuracy. But the difficulty is great with
oountriee of mixed denominations, like Great Britain
and the United States, where iu> to now tiie diatr9}U-
tion of the various relii^ous bodies has not been asoo^
tainedl^ a universal census. In such eases the defect
is to some degree r^edied by an ecclesiastical census;
but this is the case only when all the individuals are
counted; and the census is not reliable when only the
communicants or those with full right ot membership
are oounted, and a certain ratio ia added for the rest,
as is eomuKuily done in the Protestant dmominationa
of Eni^d and America. Hie totals arrived at in
this way are vague estimates, posseeaiitf only «p-
IMxndmate value. The nme niplies to Protcetant
missionary statistics as far as ^gl*"^ and American
missionary societies are oonoemed.

Another difficulty in cbmprehensiTe statistics of
religions lies in the classificaUon of the various creeds.
We cannot but combine smaller ocmmiunities into ool-
lectiva gtoupa. Tlds, however, is a great inooDvei^-
ience; for thus denominations differii^ from one
another must be connected, and then the large totals
produce the impression that one important religion
IS meant, whereas in fact it is but a combination of a
number of relifpous communities, poescasing neither
common organization nor identity of belief. In the
first place this holds good of that great collective
group comprised under the designation of "Protest-
antism". This term can, m the statistics of reli-
gioDS, be applied only in the widest and merely ne&^
ttve sense, i. e., as meaning all those Ctuistiana mo
are neither Roman Cathohc nor m^bers ci a Qredc
or Oriental schismatical Church. As soon as we try
to ptunt out a note propw to this whole gioi^ and to
it exclusively, we find ourselves at a loss. In the fol-
lowing list, therefore, we have rec^ned tiie group,
designated as "Othw Christians" in some official
etatistics, under the heading "Fvoteetants". On
principle, only those are to be counted as Catbidics
who are in oommumon with the Qiureh of Rome; it
is evident that differences in rite or liturneal language,
which do not constitute any diversity m creed, are to
be neglected. The self-styled "Old Catholics" do
not belong to the Catholic Church, even though the
official statistics of some cotintries reckon them as
Catholics; this, however, is of no importance, as their
number is hudsoifieant. Hiede8^ati<m"Sohtsmstie
Gredcs " eomprises all the Russian or Qre^ Orthodox,
whether they acknowledge the Patriarch of Con-
stantinople as their head or bckn^ to independent
Churches. The schismatic Armenians, Syrians, Chal-
deans, Copts, and Thomas Christians may be ooU
lectively^ouped under "Schismatic Orientals". The
Russian Raskolniks, on the contrary, must be r*-
garded as a separate ^nmp, distinct from the Christian
denominationB mentioned above.

Vnth an religious bodies onhr eKtemal membership
eomes undo* statistical reekoimg. "nHrefar It is not
denied that, e. g., anung tin S8 ndlliona of moM b»>

(7 tTATnnas

bBfug exteriorly to the Chtholie Qiuroh many, p«t^
hapa even many millioh^ ai« intariorhr attotetber
auarated ftmn the Church, just as in Gratmany and
ouiar Teutonic nations we have the analogous faot
regarding Protestantism. In the Christian rdigions
which are, after all, the most important, memhenhm,
ever since the days vi primitive Cnristianity7 is
founded on baptism; this membership, from the point
of view of statisties, must be oonaidend as severed
(wly by a formal withdnwal or excommunication
£tom the particular religtoua body. In offieial coibiib
oi rdigions nothing but ibe indivUual's own dedans
tion oomes Tidftration

A coiBUS represents the religious status of a coun-
try at a given date. Of course, when hundreds of
states are to be taken into account, there caonot be
one fixed date, but at least a limited period ought to
be assi^ed, so that tiie calculations for the diff^nt
countnes may not lie too far apart. Otherwise the
general impreasion conveyed would not be correct.

' On these princ^^ the following tables an made
up, the data being taken as a rule from the years
1905 to 1010, in most cases 1907 or 1008. The re-
sults of official census taken in 1910 and 1911 have not
yet been published, and although a few more recent
figures have beoome known since these lists were put
tether in 1010 foi the "Staatslexikon der Gfirres-
gesellschaft", they have not been incorporated, in <»>
da not to impair the unifoitn character ttf tin tables.
In die first puce, the official government census of
ligions has been followed in each case: but with raard
to those oountriee in which since 1900-1001 no Gov-
ernment census of religions has been taken, thoi^
the numerical status of the population is officii^
ascertained every year, the ratio of the various r**
lisious bodies estabUslied by the preceding census of
religk)ns has been applied to the present numbo: (A
inhatdtants; for, exe^iting the "unmigration oouUp
tries", the ratio of denominational membership diows
little change within ten years. Where a govemmoit
censiiB is wanting, the data of the religious bodies
thonselves are made use of. Our sources are jpvai
in full in the bitrfiography at the end <^ this article.
In Table III (second column) the reeuha of the gov-
emment census of religions are marked C, along witii
the year in which tiie census was taken; the oompu-
tatims fmmded i^on the ratio derived (rem previous
official records, are marked R; the non-officiu figures
and estimates are marked £. (See Table III.)

Of the nearly 430 millions living in Europe at ores*
ent, almost 411 millions (96 5 per cent) are Cnris-
tians. The number of Jews (2-3 per cent) may in
reality be a little lees than appears in the table, as the
considerable emigratioB of Jews from Russia during
the last decade could not be taken into account. On
tba other han^ the natural increase of the Jewidi
population cf luuila, in contrast to that of the Jews
m Germany and Western Europe, was exceptionally
large within the period in question, so that the total
number of Jews Uving at present (1911) in Europe
diould be at least 9 miUJons. Not quite so large is tne
number of Mohammedans (2 per cent). FinaUy
there remain 1 million (2 per thousand) of other non-
CSir^tians, of individuals without religious denoran
nation, «ke. Aracng the Christian^ Cauiolics fwm
far the nost numerous group, lliev make up 43*8
per cent of Uw total popuiatwn of Europe. For-
merly the percentage was even high«. The ex-
tiraonlinary merease of the Oavio races, diiefly Gre^
Orthodox, and the great e»>dus of emigrants from
Austria-Hungary, Italy, Spain, and Ireland are the
winoipal causes of the relative decrease of Catiiolics.
Tbib Ctfeek Orthodox have, on account of their high
Mitb-nte, ootaumbend the ftotestants. The for-
mer are now flS4 per oent trf Ite total, the latter only
M-7per«Bt, wml^ acoordtagto the earlin' oomp»>
Mien bgr fOrose, tte Greek OrtfaodoMemikting tlM

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278

iz&nsnos

Bflhif^ft'^*^ Oneatals added to the "Grecdc-CathoUeB"
by Jtufudiek-ZeUer and otbdta) were a little below the
Ftotostants. In the total of Christians are included
2,056,000 Raakolniks in Russia (the real number
probably is much greater), 232,000 Gr^orian Anne-
nians in Turkey. Bulgaria, and Rumania, 24,000 Old
Catholics in Austria, and about WOO JaiuenistB in
Holland.

In Asia (see Table IV) government owsusee re-
ligions have been taken only within Russian and
BritidL tCTrituiea. Regarding the other oountries
only the number of Christians and Jews ean be ascer-

nent and New Zeahuid: Buddhists and Mohamme-
dans are found among the immigrants in Hawaii and
on the oontinmt. An official craisus of relieons was
taken in New Zealand in 1000 and by the Commcm-
wealth in 1900. As, however, the population has
grown oonsidenbly since the last census, we
havB i^^ied to the Catholios of the Australian Com-
monwnuth the results of the ecclesiastical census of
1900 and raised in due proportion the numb^ of P*rot-
estants ascertained in 1900. With regard to Uie
other countries and islands, the Catholic and Prot-
estant miaaionary statistics have served as our durf

Tablb UL— EDBora.

AiutriA-HmsiMV-

8aa Uomw. . . . .

iSbrriB

^^f*)

andw

SwiUariBiad,

TuflMym

Y<M.

E. 1«W
R. 1H07
E. 1908
G 1«»
C, IMS
E. 1^

C. 11)05
E, hXfl
E. 1907
E. I90H

c. iwa

C. 1908
p. l«M
B

IMS

B. IWS
IE. 1W7

1007

C. 19De
B. 190S

E. 19(17
IL 1907
E. 1900

3S,]fl,').(W(J

7,;i.w,<)0(i

4i:i,a,>l
7.Si71

33,7^,000

2,000
WTjQOD

I,«SAOO

PraiiaAaDU,

4.1SS,CXX)

'io,Qa6

25,000
7,4aM00

e,3TOj«l0
3(^000

Gnwk
Riuoiui

3,021,000

100

I,W1

301,100

lUO

6,lffi,Q0D

Totfllef

Jews.

£,231

7,380.000
1,321, A?&

2,673,000
a9,(B5.«»

45,410,0)0

MohBfn-
□wcUlH.

3,»0,000
4,000
11,4S1 filfi,62ll
37.&H1 003,807

(1 S,MO
S&,000i

240jxm

MiOOO

Iff;

214.000
5,Ji7S,OaO
2.332,1)00
4,443 ,M)0
«,H£000

Cr)U4,a3,ooo

n.43B

1)138

£.«»

700
1.200
260,000
H,042,a00,

24,000

13.800

e,ooo
•1.000

4,DU0
14,000
100,000

fio,ooa
4,£H,oaa

ie.ooa

3,100,000

OtberaUd
Uiwjmqni-

103,000
8.000
9JCA1
l,3lW
30,090

lO&OW

lSB,fi77,0S6 100,200.177 113.735.719 410.828.405

B.79fi.87T 8.«U,S9&

, Thk noiitier oomnpad* to tbpr»tio (14 in 10.000) deduat«d from the faut offiouU oenmu <rf nliciona; aocofdins to tits
' \**g_?f^^j'?^|||j*]^^^Jfejy'^ °* ^^ce nuu Op to S5,000,

«, atekiUr and ttw Chuwel IiUotk.

TwSn^ el 3,QBA,OaO lU^nUb.
Wtlboot tba C^uinr blaadk.
VttliCnu.

toaWwiitailt^^iiiffllsi^

tamed with any (^ree <tf ontunty. Of the wid»>
spread rdigioiis of Eastern Asia we nave nothiog but
estimates of very doubtful value. The Christians ai
the various creeds amount in all to about 32,270,000,
only 3-0 per coit of the total population of Asia, which
may be reckoned as 820 millions. Among the Chrio-
tians the Greek Orthodox (in round numbers, 13.800,-
000) are the best repreeented; yet the Catholics
(12,660,000) oome fairly close to them. The Prot-
estants (2,350,000) are far fewer, even if the high
estimates of Wameck regarding China and Koka be
accepted. The remainder (3,600,000) are Armoiians,
Raskolniks, Thomas Christians in India, and what is
still left of the old Christian communities in Jwan.

Of about 6,634,000 inhabitants of Austraha and
Oceania (see Table V), about 6,240,000 are Christians.
The Protestant denominationa take the lead (idnaoet
77 per cent of the total). The Australian oontiuttit,
Tasmania, New Zealand, New Caledonia, Fiji, the
Tonga and Navigator ZsLuuis are almost ooinpete^
C%nstiaiiised ; whereas the populations of New Guinea,
the Bismarck Archipdago, the Solomon Islands, and
moii of IJm amidler grow* <tf Ldaods are for the most
put pi|M> Jmra an tew <n the Ansfailian oonti-

aources of information. Thus a fairly high degree of
Boouracy is attained eonowning the Christians, while
for the pagans mere estimates have had to sumce.

In Africa (see Table VI) there are, in a total of
about 126 millions, more than 11 millions of Chris-
tians, of whom more than half belong to the Mono-
E^iysiteB of Abyssinia and Egypt. Catholics and
Protestants are m almost equal numbers, if we add to
Africa the Canary Islands and Madeira, which ad-
ministratively belong to the European possessions of
Spain and Portugal. The main stock of IVotestants
live in British South Africa, the numerous immigrants
being for the most part of English and Dutch extrao-
lion; but the Protestants have won many converts
among the natives. Of Catholics the greater num-
ber reside in the French, Spanidi, and Portuguese
ooloniee. With regard to the last-named, especially
Angola, much higher figures wm« formerly given, but
without sufficient founwtion; hence we have inserted
in our table the lowest estimate. Jews are somewhat
more numerous in Abyssinia, Tunis, Al^ia, and
Moroooo, their total being about half a million. More
than (ne^hird of Africa professes Mohammedanism,
whiah is .em gaining ground and encroaching on

Digitized by

Google

279

wtArmaxm

pagmiam; yet the latter remsins the nli^n of th*
ini4<»itgr. A more aceiirate deUmuiutMn of th*
number of Moluunmedans and pagan* in AfMea Is not
pcNSBible, as Uie population has not yet been aaeer*
tainad in mai^ mamota of the interior.

Ameriea fan Table VII) rougUy counts 109 mil-
lioDs of inhabitanta. Of these more than haU

tained only tin number of c(nnmumoanta (i. e.» a»-
oording to BngUah and Amerioan usage, paitiJcers of
ihb Lovd'fl Si^pw, or full members), not the total
muabttt 4rf adhereota to the different denondnatims.
Theae dat^ however, do not carry ua very far for the
puriMeea of genwal statistiaa oi religiona. The no-
portion of communicanta to noiKonMBiuiueaiita dttfaw

Tasu IV.— Aha.

Gklbolki.

tMita.

aiMk

Total
ChiMkM

m&Urn.

BruBimi.

Bnddnins.

Adheranla

and
Aiiowtor
Wonhip.

Tioiits
and

tfhintftirta

OdMT

Fnik, AI^uIbUh, Btluo-
hktaa, tad Indepaodeat
StatM ia dw HimafavM

Turkkk Pimmbom

RoMiAa PowMrioiM ud

|. a»,797

mjm

tSfM,<000
9S1.3S7

3t;m

U10,0H
68.016
«S,741
••5«,214
7J0^

j. 80.000

96,000
1,190,000

1.000.000

12,000.000
183.001^

•S.110.000

40,000
UO.O0O

11,000,000

in.oo.ooo

3.000.000

1.000.000

|3,aeMoo

9I1.8S7
41,707

1,493,000
181,S1B
180,000
038.314

7,335.0^

mjM

18,000

13.100.000
HOOMOO

300,000
|I3Jt30309

Bi^ fmmmom 1

rartngawa PtwiMrioiM. ■ f

m.000.000

13,900,000

9k<00
]2U/)00
1113,499
71318
473.000
30,000

CUm nith DdMadtodM. .
Kcm

\m

39,000,000

110.000/100

340,000.000

83.000000

33,000

17,000300

81,000,000

mjaoo

4300,000
•00300

Alb

13.001,498

3.364317

13300,000

33,373,906

740,000

ISS,I00,OOO

31QjD0030a

135,000.000

340,000.000

49,000300

• laeltuive of 1.300.000 Armeniaiu and oUwr Scblaouitio OttouUla.

ilnduaive of 512,000 Raakolnika and 1 .365,000 ArowniaiM and Other 8eM— Mia Oriutala.
tndunvB of the French PoaasMiotu In India.
Inoluvra ol 204/100 aohiamatio ThoDU^ChriaUau.
iDcluara of 12,1144)00 adhcmnta to aadeat Indiaa Cults.
^Theao Dumbers an taken over from the " Abriai dar Oeaohlehta dar pfotaaUntlaet
•n fouitded on aatiinatM whiefa probably an muDh too
** Inetnam ol Honh-Bonkso.

MlirfaeMk,- far WaiMdc 0th «L, sad

{87,614,635, or 51-8 per cent) are Catbolios; 70,868,923
(41-9 per cent) Protestants. In all 93-7 per cent are
Christians. The number of Jews, very small up to a
tmr decades ago^ has inoreaaed considerably of late on
•eoount of the unmigTation from Russia. There are
neariy 2 m^iona at iveeent. The pagan Indiana and

widely in the various denomin&tioDS. Caleulatitm of
membership in the denominations from these data r^
suits only in vague estimatee of very doubtful vahie.
Still, as Carroll's list is of some int^^t, his figures for
the more important denominationa are given below
(table: "Number of Commonicants, Unitad Statea")

AVatBAlU XMO OOUMU.

CooirnUBa.

CathcUw.

Pruiailaiitii

Awa.

Moliam-
medana.

Bod-
dhiata.

Fetfoh WOT-
shipperg
ana other
Heathcna.

Otben
and ua-
denoia-
inatknud.

981,429
137.237

8,000
27.W0
47,000

8.O1S.0OO
719/)B7

. 147.800
21.000
32.toO
44.460

18,000
1.807

20,000

10,000

HOMO
24.000

2,000
660,000
10,000
60,000
300,000

60.000

40.000

AMtnUftHidOaMaBlft.

1.M43W

■3,907^.

ie,as7

SObOOO

70,000

1,112.000

174d000

(I) laehutre ot BritMi'mad Oermaa New OuhMa. — Xhitefa New Gtdnea waa iDchkUd \n the Dutoh Eaat lodiea.

Negroes may be put down at from to millions;
in ueir case a more accurate estimate ia out of the
miestion. The great variety (rf denominatima In the
united States madcee it v^ difficult to detonodnetlieir
creeds; an <Aeial oewaa of reluioiu has wm yet
been tidnn. Hie Ameriean statistician, Dir. OarroU,
has ttfed to find a Bubatitutb Iqr loquirlea addreaaed to
the cbunh Mitlinftiee,but-iB'1iUBiray behaai

as they ^Vear in "The Christian Advocate" for 26
January, 1911, omitting only the ordiniU numbers in-
dicating the relative ntmiencal importance of each
doiominatMn. Vtom thia table it ia evident that the
Catitelie Omrdi it by far the largest religious de-
aoafanatfoB in the United Stwtea, and that, exoept-
ing tile Monmamt no other body Aom aa hig^ a
Mte of inenaae within the laafc twenty yMn> ^

Digitized by VjOOglC

BTATltnCM

2S0

number of ootmnunicuitB haniiK almogt doubled.
Further, the tolBls of the offiouJCathoBe T^neUay
(for 1009: 14,347,027; for IdIO: 14,618,761) an by
tar too low. For, although the pK^witimi of non-
oomnninicantB is mueh mtitiJlflr among Cathottot *ihm

Nuxsm or CounnnoANTs, Umru) Stauis

In 1910. In 1890.

CathoUoa 12,321,746 6,257,871

MeUwdista 6,696,168 4,589,284

BaptistB. 5,774,066 3,717,969

Lutherans 2,243,486 1,231,072

PruBbyterians 1,930,765 1,278,362

Episcopalian! 938,390 540,509

Reformed 448,190 309,468

Mormons 400,660 166,125

United Brethren 303,319 225,281

Jews 143,000 130,496

Friends 123,718 107,208

Dunkard Brethren 122,847 79,795

Adventiato 95,646 60,491

among Protestants, ^t, even with Catholics, the
nimiber of commumcante was, up to 1910, hardly
more than two-thirds of the total. MoreovoTjjUie
statistics furnished by the parochial dovr fw Wilt-
lius' DirecUuy can, fnm the nature m the ease,

estaat" in Uie wider soiae ex[daiaed above (C3iria>
tiana who an nehlur CatiiolioB nor oumected with
tbe Greek or Oriental achismatical Churches), w»
have put down the number as 65 millitns. The num-
ber 01 Jews in full manbership given by CanroU is
evidently far too low, nor is it clear what Carroll
understands by this term in the case of Jews. We
have therefore given preference to the number of
"The Jewish Year Book" for 1910 (1.777,000).

In Sou^em and Central America the oetermina-
tion of religious profession is easier, as the entire
population may be regarded as Catholic, making al-
lowance for the few Proteetants and the unciyiBied
Indians not included in the census. The same may
be said of Cuba, Porto Rico, Haiti, San Domingo,
and the French West Indies, while in the Britiw,
Danish, and Dutch colonies there are parUy official,
partly ecclesiastical data. In Mexico, too, a census
of reugions was taken by the Govemmrat m 1901.

Aoocnding to the qmopna unseated in Table
Vni, the entire papulation iA the Earth at present
(i. e. iha averue for the ywm 1906-08) amounts to
about 1661 millions. The various figures show a
notable difference when compared with the previous
accounts of Krose and Zeller-Juraschek. In the first
l^ace, the latest fiffiires an considerably hic^w, at
least as far as the Christian denominations are oon-

Tabui VI.— Ajtbica.

Oooasnai*

CatboliM.

FlOtM-
UDtflL

Oriental
ChrbtiaiiB

modans.

■Uppm
and
other

H««llMM.

6,100
063,000
10,000

37^440

T
T

1,000
23,000
7.000
344.000

748.980
6,000,000

: Illll

10.::' i.wfi
:-:i.i!,(it<0
l.'i'X 1,1)00
B;nyi,iif>0
7.11! III. iflO
"||K^|^^0

a < h M M ;00

2SO.(>00

^f^'v;;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

t

1.00O.000
10,000.000

2,ocaooo

6.000,000
19.000^
13,000.000
9,000.000
6,700,000
6,000000
800,000

63398
866,000

&4,47B
:S5,004
31,^

4,000
26.000
47,223
133,000
1,911,000
101,9ftl

T

7.0011.000
50,000

6.ocm.noQ

300,000

?

60.000

80.000

M9M80

S.0ai.66O

5,823,080

673,635

43.299,445

njooofioo

0) lacluiive of Uaited Ori«BtaI CathoBoi, wlio watt pot dowa wBpmUiif la tht oSdil eeanii of 1907.
m Inelunra of Canary Iilandi.
m Inelunve oi Madein.

iv Wttfa Tssard to the C>thoUoa of AacoU tbe <kU ▼wy eonsderably; we turn taken the lowest estimate, 250,000.

comprise only those Catholics who have for some
time resided in a parish and are known to the clsfgy;
such records, therefore, fall far short ot the reality,
on account of the great Catholic immigration ana
the great fluctuation in tbe populi^iim. Hence the
present writer believes that. <rf the 6H milfiona
whose denomination is marked in our tables as
unknown, the majority are Catholics. In those
tables^ however, Wiltsiiu^ figurea for 19D9 have bem
used m default of any aoeurate data for auaHha
estimate.

The total number of Protestant communicants in
the United States, according to Carroll, is 21,663,248.
As, aa the av«age, then is one conmiunioant to every
2*6 mbabitants, tiiis would mean at moat 06 millions
of Protestants, and it is quite clear from CamS'a
atatisties that thve an milliona in tiie United Statts
unconnected with any denmnhiatioa, a faot which
ou^t to be taken into oonstdcratimL in "*l'^il»ti"g
the total number of adberents from the number <rf
eommunioanta. Taking, howmr, tbe torn "Fn^

oemed. The reason of this is that more than a decade
has paawd since the last calculations. Considering
the high birth-rate of the Christian natiqns, an increase
of 10 to 15 per cent is not improb^le. Besides, the
reoent and mon accurate orasus in Southern and Ceo-
taral Amoioa brou^t in far higher figures than tiia
older and router eeUmatee. As these territortea an
ahnoet exohisively Catholic, it is clear that the in-
crease of Catholics iq>parently surpasses that of the
Protestants. On the olher hand, the column of
Fetish-worshippetB and other pagans of lower civili-
sation shows a very considerable decrease, which is
explained by the recent estimate of the population of
Central Africa. While in 1898 Jurasehek supposed
the population of Africa to be 178 millions, in 19iD8 he
recnmed the peculation as 129 millions. Thus in
theae rej^ions nligious statnUcs are subject to great
fluctuations. The total number of Christians amount
to 61S miUiDns, or 39*6 pw cent, of the entire popula*
tion of the earth. Of tiie Oiristians, not qwta «m-
haU— 393^ miffiQ>H^oc47*4iMr ee^T-belong to tba

Digitized by VjOOglC

nmmmm . 911 mwnon

GWnlto Gbtnok 186 iqillipnB,:9r J04^'^^ iwa wad Uia^*r'^m»\*nwn,oi aSl rtJigkiiM denonuM-

FtotcBUnte: 137>^ huUiods, or ^frp par ceoi,Greal( UDn9yaspn»ch.neiBa^ toCa

Ortbodoz; Uie rest are Orioital Schwpiatice or belong more than 200 millions of followers. But their ez-

to ssets not Be{)aratdy meatioiied in the taUe* tenion is not so universal as that of CathoUoinn;

TMm til— Amhiiu.

PvetHlSBta.

Jtowa.

VHnw MBB

3,017,391
14,347,037

4J5a,000
1 824 897

ilooojooo

1, t83.0Q0
600.D«
303.928
iOO.000

77,A3»

2. «40/X)0
4.300.000

I, 370.000
4,500,000

II, 180,000
3.800.000

4.382,760
60,000,000
51,705
15,000
30,000
T

00 000
1,777|000
8,972

60,000.
800,000

•

(

R finnnnn
13,319

120,000
13,000

4,000

160,000
12X100
800,000

Hilti

986,000

2,000

600,000
18.000
12.000

80.000

63,350
4,000

3,000
400

13,000

:i Illlll

10,000

|||||;

1,000

fix??:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

8,000

OD,UUU

600,000

13,000

87,614.635

70,868,023

1.858,372

2,622,000

6.080,219

Raakofauks, Jansenists, Old Catholics etc. The locally and ethnogmphioally they are much more

Roman Catholic Church alone oompriseB almost one- HmitM. In Table VIII the Jews probably appear

fifth ot mankind, and has more followers than any more numerous than they are in reality, aa the great

other form of reli^n. Buddhism, Ancestor-worship, emigration from Rosda could not be determined

Tabu VIII.— Snonn or Tulm HI to. TIL
(A) OnmuM^

PratwtaBta.

Greek
Roa^
(Oitbodo^

Oriental
BcUanutlea.

Total
of

188.577,058
13,601,408
1,344.055
2.689,889
87,814,685

108JW,177

amsi?

m

113,785,718
18,806,000

382,000
3,91»,000

410836,868
82,378,908
5,341,102
11.148,488

188,488.858

a^TT.

5,S28,08»

AMta

282.787.085

186.085,684

187,841.718

8,074,989

617,973,918

(B) Now^Cmmin.

Pus or m WcMxo.

Jvwa.

Moham-

BnbnlBi.

SuddhMa.

Adhenntaof

Anoestor-
Worahjpand

CoBAt-

aaniam.

Taoiats
and
Bhiatoiata.

ahippeta
and
other
HsatitqiH.

Otlun
and
Unda-

HomL

f?^

9,795,877
745,000
18.867
878,685

1.856.873

8^48.395
165,100.000
30,000
48,399,448

1.0B0;081

210,000,000

125WI.000
70.000

340,000.000

49,000,000

16,870.000
1.112.000
71,000,000

iolnKa flod'OoMnu.

174,000

AMrin

100,000

SOftOOO

6,080J19

Totah

18,989,751

207,067,840

SIO;100,000

128.270,000

240.000,000

49,000,000

01,604,000

7318,880

ttd Confucianism, Tdiich, taken tOKether, would in- numericalh^ for want of reliable oflflcial statistics,

ondposseas a larger numb^ of acUierenta, are not while in the most recent records from countries to

nUoet reliKtoQB bodies, but forms of religion and which they migrate, the Jews seem to be included,

■yatems of reli^ouscustonu ail of wkteiijaa mentioned Nererthewss the total number of Jews can scarcely

■bore, are at times observed by the same indlTiduaL fifl to tmoh 12 millions. (See also Mioratioh:

Wttntecncetotbenumberofadherente, Brahmin- ImmffntUm io (A« UniM Stalea.) The lemainiac

Digitized by Google

mmttfe

7| miDk'i» not dasrified ^ indfridaiUs-irHlioQt aoj
religious denomination and, atill more, thoae nfaose
crewB oQuld not be ;MoHcUmed.

■IwUMifribMta'MM BB- Zfi( do- JUriHMtwtNtEMdt

4te£l^7>«lAalUani<i CIBHl; tfwwnw CatkiOiem {Rome, 1007);
Knon. JCofh. MimaimMiMik (lOOS): Ipkm. XirvAI. Q^njbuek,
[-III (LDD6-11): IH* Kalk. MUtMHm (IW-OO. 1H»-10);
jltttnmiMi'f PoBT Amt fLoDdwi, 1909); StntHtiOOt, KircnL

U»D); GkAhifMkfl- Ofn«j(vkiAfr iWkalmim- mm. U7:

UoiK (Puis, 19101: B^jtckJl, Th* Jw^tA Ymr BoiA (tjaadoa.
WIO}; Wabstkk, Abrin tintr OamA. d*r prtflpKuTO. if^iiortm

iOth rd. igiCHj TA* OffitAU CalMie iMwricrv [MUwuikm Htid

H. A. Kbobb.

Btettler. BbNEDICT, Jt^uit tlirolo^^irm, b. at

KOtitinx, Bavaria (Diooese uf Hatisboiii, 30 Jan.,
1728; d. at Munich. 21 Aug,, 1797. He eatwcd the
Jesuit novitiate at Landaberg in 1745 and, after the
usual studies, taught phUorophy and the^^ogy in
Solothum (Switserumd), lonHbitick^ and Itigolstadt.
In the last-named plaoe he rrriitinned to cucupy the
chair of theology even aftrr Hi' supprcsBion nf the
Society. In 1783, when all I'unuT Ji'-^nitrt wire ix-
cluded from Uie office of tcadn -L: Ik ; ,k chArgc of
the parish of Kemnath, but soon exchanged this post
for that of ecclesiaBtioal adviser and monber of ttie
electoral oonunittee on omsuiee in Munidi. After
four years his health oompelled him to resign this
office, and he lived thereuto- in retirement till his
death. A man of keen intellectual vision and an
unlimited capacity for work, Stattler was ever ready
to giiard and defend Catholic principles. Shortly
aft^ Adam Weishaupt had founded the secret society
of the lUumioati, Stattlw, in an anonymous work, laid
bare the rationsJustio ideas and the ponicious deigns
of these formmners of freemasonry. Kant's "Crttimie
oi Pure Reason" appeared in its first edition in 1781 ;
in 1788 Stattler launched against its subversive prin-
ciples his "Anti-Kant", and akilfuUy pamed the
attack which his book provoked in the literary world
of Qermany. When the doctrines of the French
revolutionists began to be echoed in lus fatherland,
he lost no time in pointing out to his compatriots the
false ring which he detected in their boasuul promises
of liberty. The bulk of his writings, however, ia
devoted to Catholic philosophy and theokwjr. It
was his avowed purpose to adapt the traditional
teachings of the School to the living needs of hie time,
"to plow anew the entire field of scholastic philosophy
and theoloKy and to fructify it with fresh seeds , aa
Bishop Sauer of R&tisbon, Stattler's great pmip,
expressed it. Witii this end in view, he wrote "Phil-
osophia methodo scientise propria explanata" (Auga>
burg, 1769-72) and " Demonstratio Evangeliea"
(Augsbuiv, 1770). Yet his attachment to the ration-
alistic pbflosophy of Wolff and the far-goine oonoee-
sions he made to religious toleration and Febronian-
ism led him astray and marred the lustre of his
merits. The sup^ession of his order and the oon-
aequent loss o{ wise direction by superiors iwoved a
veritable calamity to him. His "Demonstratio
Catholioa" (Pi^^nheim, 1775) fell under the oensure
of the Roman authorities, and, shortly before his
death, his "Loci Theolodci" fWeissenburg, 1775).
"Theologia Christiana Theoretica" (Xngoktadt and
Munich, 1776-79) and two other works were placed
on the Index.

Biomphy by Sailu in SdmmiL Wtrk4 fflulsbMb, 1841),
nmu, US aq.; Huvtek. ftonuhAMrJII, SM wta.; Bohmkr-

ThmUtU (UtuiSh. 1866).

A. G. COTIBB.

' StMlMmftier. Fiuks Ahton, tfceoloeiata, b. at
Donsdotf , WOrtemberg, 11 Bept., IMO; d. at Frei-
burg iid Brei^u, 19 Jan., 1866. He was a mi^
at tne Latin school <A OmUnd in the yeaza 181fr-f8,
and at the Oymnasinm at EUwangen 1818-22. Dur-
ing the years 1822-2S he studied theology and phU
loMwhy at the Universitv of TObingen, whne Jm^,
Herbst, Hirseher, and MOhler were nis tMchers;
in the autumn of 1826 he entered the seminary at
Rottenburg, where he was ordained priest on 15 Sept.,
1827. After performiog the duties of a p^ish pneet
for a year he Decame, in the autumn of 1828, atutof
in the Catholic theological seminary, "Wilhelmfr-
atift" at TQbingm; in iSO he was made rqpilar pr»-
fesMV of dogmatic Utecdogv in ibe neifhr-eBtabKsbed
Catholic theological facmtjr of the Uni^nersity of
Gieesen, which owed its brief period of proroerity
largely to Staudenmaier and his colleague Kuhn.
Id the autumn of 1837 he became the reguar profes-
sor of d<H3natic theology at the University of SVei-
buig im Breisgau; fnnn 1843 he was also a eatho:
dral canon.

Staadenmaier was one of the most brilliant figures
in the Catholic theology of Germany in the first half of
the niueteenth century. Mid one <tf the most ioqxHtant
writers on dogmatics of the Catholic Tubingen school.
He was a scholar of far4«aohii% kno«dedge, of great
productive enernr, and at the same time a phuoso-
pher with a bnluant talent for speculation. His
imperishable service consisted in securing a deep
speculative foundation for Christian truth and in do*
fending this truth against the enors of tlie putibei^
tic speculation of that era, especially of the H«cdiau
philoeophy. The most important of his nununoua
literary works are the foUowing: "Geschiohte dar
Dischofswahlcn" (TObingen, 1830); "Johannes Sco-
tua Erigena und die Wissenschaft seiner Zeit" (1 pt.
only, ^ankfort, 1834); "Encyklopftdie der theoio-
gischen Wissenschaften als System der gesammten
Theologie" (Mains, 1834; 2nd ed. 1 vol. only, Mains,
1840), at the time of its publication an nxwb-mak-
ing wwk in tiie dnnain oi Catholic theowgy; " Dev

gPrumatismus der Geiste^aben oder das mrken des
Sttuohen Geistes im Menschen und in der Menaob-
eit" (TQbingen, 1835); "Der Geist des Christen-
thums dargestdlt in den h«ligai Zeiten, in den beili-
een Handlungen und in der heiligen Kimst" (2 pta.|
Mains, 1835; 5th ed., 1855; 8th ed.. 1880). an intro-
duction to the understanding of Catholic Christianity
wid its wwahip, based on a presentation of th^
Catholic Chunui year, and eqiressed in laimiase
that can be understood by all educated Chiw-
tians, the most widely-circulated book oi Stawt
enmaier; "Geist d^ gOttlichen Offenbarung, oder
Wissenschaft der Geschichtsprincipien des Cmisten-
thums " (Gicssen, 1837) | " Die Fhiloeophie des Christr
enthums oder Metaphysik der heiligen Scbrif t als Lelve
von' den gOttlichen Ideen imd ihrer Entwicklungin
Natur, Geist, und Gesofaichte: "Vol. 1, Die L^ure yaa
der Idee" (GiesBen, 1840); "DarsteDung und Kritik
fles H^l'schen Systems. Aus dem Standpunkt der
christlichen Hiilosophie" (Mains, 1844); "Die duist-
liche Do^tik" (vols. I-IV, i, Freiburg im Br., 184^
52). Uns is Staudenmaier's principal work: unfortu-
nately it was never finished. He also published *' Das
Wesen der katholischoi Kin^, mit RUcksicht auf
ihre Genier darmstellt" (Freiburg im Br., 1845);
"Ziun religiOaen Frieden der ZukunfL mit RQcksicht
auf die reugide-politisohe Aufgabe der Gegenwart"
3 pts., Freibui^ im Br.j 1846-51). In addition he did
mudi for two theological periodicals which he aided
m founding and on which he collaborated; with his
coUeaeues at Giessen he established the " Jahrbachei
fttr Theologie und christUche Fhiloeophie" (three
yearly series in seven vols., Frankfort-oo-the-Main,
1834^; Muns, 1836); in conjunction with his oo^
leagues at fVeiburg he established the "Zeitsehrift

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fttr Theokme" (31 vols., Freiburg im Bt., U8B-49).
Both perioaicala came into existence efaiefly tlmmipi
his efforts and attained hi^ sdiolarly reputation
largely Uiroiu^ his coatributMxis.

L&DanaT, Frnu AiUm AoMdMMoitr, iSOO-iaSe, in wtam
L<bm md ir<MM dargaliOl CFMbors fan Br., 1901}. with por-
(rait.

Friedrich Lauchebt.

SteupltSf JoHANN TON, Abbot, b. at Motter-
witz near Leisnig (or Moderwits near Meustadt an
dec Orla) about 1460; d. at Sabbun, 28 Dec., 1524.
He was descended from an ancient family of Saxony,
studied at Leiinig, and was matriculated in 1486.
He later jomed the Augustinian Oxdw, prol><
ably at Munich, and in lw7 moved to TQbingen,
where in 1408 he beciune prior and in 1500 Doctor of
Tlieology. He was subsequently prior at Munich,
and in 1603 was elected Vioar-Cknieral of the Genuan
Congr^tion of Augustinians and sununoned as pro^
fesBor to the new University of Wittenberg, in which
he was the first dean of the theolc^cal faculty. In
1512 he Tosigned his professorship, and moved to
South Gemumy, ^eie he thmo^orth resided (at
Muuidi, Nurembwg, and Salzburg), except for some
journeys to the Netherlands and Belgium. He re-
ai^;ned the office of vicar-general in 1620, received a
dispensation to join the Benedictines in 1622, and
finally became- Abbot of St. Peter's, Salzburg. On a
tour of visitation he had become acquainted with
Luth» in the monastery at Erfurt, ana had consoled
the emaciated brother, who was torturing himself
with his sinfulneeSi by apealdng to u the mth
ranitting eraoe of Clod and man^s cedemptioa in the
Blood of Christ. For this Lutlier remamed always
grateful. In 1618 he was deputed by the promagister
of the order to remonstrate wi^ the heretic Luther.
Luther r^nained obstinate and through Staupits sent
an explanation of his thesee on indulgences to Rome.
This ctroumsiance has led some to mclude Staupitz
among Luther's followers. In reality his attitude was
hesitating — bein^ partly BUB|»ciouB and anxious, and
partly encouragmg and oonfirmatory — because he
still believed that it was imly a question of a protest
against ecclesiastical abuses. By releasing Luther
from obedience to the order, he separated its fate from
that of Luther, but also gave the latter freedom of
action. In 1620 revocation and abjuration were de-
manded of Staupitz; he hesitated at first, because
tbssre was no need to revoke what he had nevw as-
serted, but finally declared that he xecopiised the
pope as his judge. Lutfier saw in this dedaration a
detection. Howeverj Staupitz was no Lutheran but
thorot^ilily Catholic m matters of faitli (eef>ecially as
regards the freedom of the will, the meritonousness of
Kood works, and justification). This has been estab-
Ushed by Faulus from the writings of Staupitz.

KoiAB, Die dmUehc AvevtinerkongrtoaliM u. SlaupiU
(Gotba, 1879); Eeixeb, Johann v. SiauinU a. die Anfange d«r
B^ormatioK (Lup^s, lEtSS); Paolub, Johann v. Stamritt, Seine

nta-tOadSaft. Xn (UBl), 80IM6.

Klbusns LOfflkb.

ftMlfopoUf , a titular metropolitan see of the Prov-
inoe Caria. The city, founded by the Lelwes, was
at first called M^dopolis, thai Ninoe, ana finally
Aphrodisias. The legend which in expl^iation of the
name Ninoe attributes its foundation to Ninus only
proves that the town is very ancient. Built at the
foot of Mount Cadmufl and watered by numerous
sources, Aphrodisias had a celebrated temple of
Aphrodite which seoired for it from the Roman em-
perors, eqieoiaUy from Cesar, Uie privil^e of a free
and the r^t of asylum. ApoUonius, the his-
tonan trf Carta, was bom there, as was Alexander, the
commentator m Aristotle in the second century of our
era. The name Aphrodisias is still used by the "Hier-
odes Ss^neodemus^', by Novd ohc of Justinian, and
flguna in tbe aignatonB of the Fifth (Eoomenkal

Counsil in to3. That of Staoropolis appears for^
first time about in the "Eotheeis" of pseudo-
Epiphanius (Gdzer, "Ungedruokte . . . Texte der
Notitiie episoopatuum ", 534). The name Tauropolis,
said to have been borne by the town prior to that of
StauropoKs, ia an error of several scholars (Revue dee
etudes greeques, XIX, 228-30) .

Le Qiiiea (Oriens christ., I, 890-004) mentions
twenty Dishops of this see, among whom were Ammo-
nius at Nicea in 326, Eumenius at Constantinople m
381, C^ruB at £pheeua in 431, Critonianua at Cn&loe-
don in 461, Severianus at Constantinople in 553,
Eohraem of Caria, a liturgical poet, ete. Another was
Tneopropios, menttooed by an inscription (Revua
des etudes greeques, XIX, 298). In the seventh
century Stauropolis had twenty-«ight suffragan bish-
ops and twenty-six at the beginning of the tenth cen-
tury. Between 1356 and 1361 the see must have
beeri abandoned by the metropolitan, but the title was
long retained and he was given the revenues of o^ec
churches (Waecht», "Der Verfall des Grieohentums
in Kleinasiai -im XIV. Jahrhundert", Leipzig, 1903,
34-7). Isaias of Stauropolis attended the Coimcil of
Flomoe (1439) and flea to avoid signing the decree
of union, Excavations begun in 1904 at Ghere, the
modem name of Stauropolis in the oaza of Ekdune and
the sanjak of Saroukhan, have brought to light the
iherma, the tem|^ of Aphrodite dating from^M seo-
ond century after Christ, and the stadium. A i»rt ol
the waUs, which date from the fourth ooituiy of our
era, is preserved.

SuiTH. Diet, of Or. Hid Rm. Quig.,». it. Ajrkndiriim; FAfCm,
In Jrmmal vf IItlhs\ie StmJitu, XX CuHidon)i 7^ "4-; Tmrat,
Awie UintiiTa <PitriA, 18(12). MS~7: LA^noitnn, Vuyage «n ArU
Mintura fParia. 1837-8), 9&-100j Waddjngtojj, Vftgayf arcMo-
loffiqut-- Atii Min&urt, AS^SS, 1585-1650; Liekmawk, AftoltO^
fpwjrnphien rk aatmistSm in tUstfrialioiift P/ifl, Ilaltnitt. X
lETiill.!!; IcEM in liirifhl dee AmiiscAir^ llochrli/la lu f^niJitt
.zm Main, (rro^kforl, 304-111; KtJBTcafc ia MonaUbUUtr

du Wittetitdi. chiiu i» wien, XXL (VinuojO, CktuHKmi.iq

Smt dm Port artfitn el m/ktrntt - -- .
Idu b Amdimie dr» intcriptioum

Varia. 1006), 16S-ftit tinuQb AhpMihm i'A^Ar^

Stedln^nn (a word meaning those Uvju alois a
shore), a tribe of PriHian peiisiknts in Northran
many whci revolted against tlieir li>rd, the Archhtebop
of Br^en, and had to be subdued by arms. The
Steding^s refused topay tithes and to penTorm forced
labour as s^s. These duties were demanded of
them with considerable severity, and Archbishop
Gerhard 11 of Bremen (121&-68) sent troopa against
them. His army, however, was defeated in 1229|.
whaeapoo the Stedingers destroyed churches and
monasteries, and ill-treated and killed priests. A
synod held at Bremen, 17 March, 1230, accused them,
in addition to the acta of violence above-mentioned,
of contempt for the authority of the Church and for
the sacraments, as well as of superstitious practices:
it also excommunicated them. The Stedingers ref usea
to submit, and Gre^ry IX commissioned the Biahop
of LUbeck and the Dominicans to labour among them
for the extirpation of unbelief. The Emperor Fred-
erick II placed iba rebels under the ban of the em-
pire, and on 9 Oct., 1232, Grcsorv IX issued a BuU
coimnanding the Bishops of LUbeck, Minden, and
Rataebiu^ to preach a crusade against them. An
army was collected and advanced against the Sted-
ingers, but it was drfeated in the winter of 1232-33.
A new crusading army defeated a part of the tribe,
but the other [uut was once more victorious. The
pope now issued another BuU, addressed to several
Dishops of Northon Germany, commanding a fresh
emsaae, and on 27 May, 1234, the Stedingers were
eompletely defeated near Bremen. The tnajori^
of them now submitted: on 24 August, 1236, Giwory
IX commanded that they should be relieved from
excommunication after pmonning penance and satis-
faetfon, and should be reooved agam in the Qiuroh.

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The Stedinc^ were not bentios, but rab«b iffwirt
lawful ecclefliastical and secular authority.

Hahn, Guehiehu d«r Kttaar im UiOelaiUr. Ill (StiAtcut.
1S46): ScBUilACBtR, DU Sladingtr: BtUng rur OmcAmU* dm-
W»trma.ndMn (BraiiMn. 1866); nunm, Poftt Ongor tX (FHi-
bwBimBr., 1886),S90ki.

J. P. KnaoB.

Stafanesehi, Gucoho Qastani, cardinid deaoon,
b. at Rome, about 1270: d. at Avignon, 23 June,
1343. He waa the son <n the senator Pietro Stefan-
eschi and his wife, Fema Orsini. He received his
early education at Rome, and waa sent to the
University of Paris to pursue higher studies.
After three yean (rf diligieant n^oation he re-
oeived the mgfw of Master of Arts, and intended
to devote himself to the study of philosophy and
Soiy Scr^ture, havii^ already becun to teach at
the university, when his parents recalled him to Italy
in order that he should stu^ canon and avil law.
He was highly este^ed by Celestine V, who made
him canon of St. Peter's and auditor of the Rota; and
was created cardinal-deacon of the titular Church o{
San Giorgio inVelabro, 17 Deo., 1206, by Boniface VIII,
wbo idso sent him as legate to Cesoia. Fcnli, Faraica,
and Bo^gna in 1206, to-suppress eivu disturbuieee.
John XXII appointed him protector of the Mitto>
ttes, 23 July, 1334. He waa never ordained priest.

Stefaneachi is best known as tbe author of "Opus
Mebioum", a life of Celestine V composed in oao-
tyhc hexameter. Abstracting from a riiort autobi-
ography left in his cell by CeMstine when he became
pope, Uie "Opus Metricum" of Stefanflsdu is the
eanieet biography of the hermit-piHitifiF. It is com-
posed of three ptatSj each complete in itself and writ-
ten at a different tune. In 1319 the auUior united
these three separate poems into one work and sent it
with a dedicatory epistle to the prior and the monks
of San Spirito at Sulmona, the mother^iDuse iA the
Celestinea. The first part contains in three books an
account of the election, reign, and abdication of Ce-
lestine. It was written before Stefanesohi became car-
dinal. The aeoond jiart describes in two books the
dection and coronation of Boniface VIII, and was
written five years later, when Stefaneedii was already
cardinal. The third part is composed oi three books
and describes the life of Celeetine after he had abdi-
cated, his canonisation, and miracles. The poem is
IHWjeded by an introduction in prose, which contains
valuable data of the author's me and a s^opsis of
the whole mjrk. Though of great historical vidue,
the poem is devoid of all literary exoellaiee, and at
Ihnes is even extremely clumsy and barbarous. It
was first edited by Papebroch, ''^Acta SS.", IV, M«y,
436-483. A new edition by Professor Sdralek of
Breslau is in course of preparation. The other works
of Stefaneachi are; "Liber de Obnteeimo sive Ju-
bileo ".edited by Quattrocdii in "Bessarione" (Rome,
1900, VII, 299-317), an interesting and historically
important account of the first Roman Jubilee, held
in 1300: "Liber ceremoniarum Curin Romans", a
book of oeremoniee to be observed at the Roman
Court, edited according to a highly interpolated man-
uscript Mabillon in "Museum Italicum" (IT,
24£M43), re-edited in part by Ehrle in "Arehiv fOr
Literatur und Kirchengeschiohte" (V, 666-S87), and
by Labande in "Biblioth^ue de I'^le des ehartes"
(LIV, 45-74); "Vita S. Georgii Martyris", a eulogy

Ititeno, GATAum Oiounmi to. See Lur-
IBAHCO, Oiovamn.

StaflMi, Aoonroo, titular Bishop of Si»ga, diplo-
matiat and musician, b. at Castdfranoo in the Prov-
mee of Treviso, in- 1SS6; d. at Frankfort in 1738 or
VTSO. At the age of twelve he was brouriit to Munich
by Count Tattenbach, who had heard turn angiog at
St. Mark's in Venice. At the Court of the Bleotor of
Bavaria, where he remained for twen^-oae years, be
soon obtiuned the position of oourt and cfaanuMT
mosidaii, and af termrds that d diieetor and orarl
m-nudst In 1073 be went tor om year to Rome in
order to perfect himself m his art. In 1688 he left
Munich, and was attaehed as muncian to the Court
o( Hanover, where resided the famous philosopher
Leibniz with whom he was on intimate terms. Tea
years lat«ar, in 1608, he took up his residoice at the
Courtof the Elector Palatine, at tXteseldorf . EUs com-
positions may be ranged in three claaece : (1) hisr^
^ous nwrie, fw exan^^ a " laotbte puvi" for nine
vmoea in two idKHrs, a "FlMlmodia Veqxftina" scored
for eight voices, a "Stabat Mater" for nx voices and
orchestral accompaniment (of which it has been said'
lhat bis great contemporary Alessandro Scarlatti pro-
duced nothiiw finer) ; (2) his chamber duete, more than
a hundred of which are preserved, and which were
esteemed the most perfect ol their kind, so that the
most renowned angers ddi^ted in them; (3) and his
optnB for the etBOB, fiw of wUeh are known to have
been written for the Court at Munieh, mne for that of
Hanovw, and at least two for DQaendorf . In later
yean, yibaa im position did not aikm him to
pear as eompoeer of opnas, his secretary and copyist
Gregorio Piva wgned these compontions fw him. In
1096 he publiriied a pamphlet, "Sui Frineipii della
Mnrica", in wMch is shown how music is gRHBtded on
ni^ore and soienoe.

But this remaricable man is not <aily f amoua for lus
nmiBoal talosts. B^ng ordained priest, piubal^
aboat 1680, the Hohr See made him Prothmiotary
Apostolie for North Germany, and in reoogniticm of
fan services for the cause of Catholicism in Hanover,
tiie Holy Father appointed him Bishop of ^iga (the
ondent Cyricus), in Ana Minor. When in 1712 a new
diurch had been built at Brunswidc by the Duke
Anton Ulrich, who bad become a Catiionc. the pope
Bcnt Bishop 8tclfaiu,"VieazioApast(dioodslle Mianoni
8et(eiH>ksiah,"iuiMrformtiieoonseeration and opoi-
ing service of tiie new builtUi^. But if he was held in
su<^ esteem tqr the ecclesiastical authorities, he
was also tiie confidant and ambassador of temporal
princes. A delicate mission was entrusted to him at
the various German courts in 1696, and in 1698 at the
court in Brussels, for which office he was mngulariy
fitted by bis gentie and prudent manners. His mertte
as a mundan were solemnly rwogniaed in Londcn by
the Academy <tf Ancient Mudc electing him its hon-
orary president for life (1724).

Hawuns, Biography, a* introduotioc to the DtMt*; Pmuioi.
Vtirife-LwttMt (Loipiis) ; CcBiMS in Ctom'* Dictionary if Mvtie
ondMuMiciona (Naw York. 1908), •. v.

A. Wabisb.

Steinamangar (Szoubatbblt), Diocese of, in
Hungary, suffragan of Gran, founded in 1777 under
Queen Maria "nieresa. Origiiudly Cobnia Claudia

6n St. George, the patron of Stef^^ieecHi's titu& iS'hf ^

church; and ^'Aistoria de miraculo Mari« facto Ayi- SiS!h"^J^^t^aJS^"^'«»S^-evS

before the invasion of the Huns, waa placed under the
jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Salzburg; King St.
Stephen, it is said, gave Steinamanger to the Bishop of
Veezpr^m. In 1777 the see waa reconstituted at the
expense of the Dioceses of Agram and Veezpr^. It
includee the Counties of Vas and Zala and the territoiy
hdng on the River Mura. Its first bishop was Jfwt
Bnfy (1777-^), who built the epiaoopal leoidenoe and

nione", a short narrative of how a young man, who
had been condemned to death at Avignon, was mirac-
ulously ddivered by the Vii^n Mary.

Hoau KardiruU Jaeobtu OaMam Sitfan—elH (Barttn, IMS);
Amoku, Jaet>po SUfantttM t il no "Opv Mtlrievm" ia An-
TiMOBi, CdMi%no ¥ ed il VI Cenlmvio rf«Ua tua ineorowuimu
fXquilK. 1804), 381-486; Tnramx, The Botg Ttar cf JvbiUt
QjoBim ind St. Lend^ IBOO), pMUk 8m ■!■» Quinocaa,
Smta. and I«Aa*Nl>B, loo. m^. ail.

Mksul Otp.

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Ifce oatfiecfral. "Bia aneoeaBor, Canfiiul Frans H«nen
(1799-1804), was envoy of Joa^ II to the Holy See.
Bishop Count Mikes is the iffesent ineumb«it (since
1911). Tbo Abbey of Jaft, one of the chief Romaa-
eaque ecBfioa in Hungary, is in tiua dkMsee. The

Tn Catctdkal, SnnrAiuiran (Ssombathely)

chapter of Strinamanger sprang from the chapter
Vasror that clfums as its founder King St. Sterpben,
tbou^ its documents are of later date. Tliis chatter,
rictdy endowed by the Hungarian kings, dedined in the
fifteenth centuiy, and in 1578, during the invasions of
the Turks, was removed to Stdnamancer; on the
foundation of the see it became tiie cathedral chapter.
The number of canons was 6 with as many titular
canons. The diocese has 6 archdeaneries, 188 priests,
54 parishes. A r^t of patronage is exwcised. There
are 5 abbeys eaid 3 titular abbots, 4 titularpravosts,
and 26 monasteries witii 216 members. The clergy
numbers 288 and the Catholic laity 468,947.

A iCataUhM JroMBm-Hdv (CathoUo HmwHy ) (Bud^NOi, ItWl) ;
BdmmaHtmuM avfS).

A. AldXst.

Stainle, Eduard von, historical painter, b. at
Vienna, 2 July, 1810; d. at Frankfort, 19 8^., 1886.
Steinle came successively under the Influence of tiie
painters KujMlweiser, Overbeck, and Cornelius, and
was thus introduced into the new and vigorous
methods of the German painters who had formed
thansehrea into a school at Rome. Stanle w«it lum-
self several tfanes to Rome, but preferred to work in
GoToany. He received his first large commission,
the painting of the chapel of the Castle of Rheineck,
^rfiile living at Frankfort-on-the-Main; a second one
was for wonc in the Hall of the Emperors (KaiMraacd)
at Frankfort, where he painted the pictures of Albert
I and Ferdinand III. These cuounissions and his
friendship with nUIip Veit and the Breotano family
derided him to take up his permanent reeidenoe at
IVaiikfwt. Fh>m 1850 he was professw of historical
nimting at the Stfidel Art Institute of Ftankfort.
like his friend Schwind he was one of the last of the
great painters trf the Romantic School and one of
those of this school who were largest in Uieir scope.
lAe Schwind also he was ]wobfd>fy mwe a master in
tlMirtcfpaintingonlinaryaubieotB. StillCoBBtaDtvni

EIdcabd vok Snwu

From ■ phntojrraph

WurriMch was able to write an appreeiaticn of Steinla
with the title "Ein MadiHmamalar unserer 2Mt"
(Vioina, 1879), for St^nb l^t more Uian a hundred
rel^ous panel pictures, besides numerous cartoons
for church win-
dows. He was
also regarded as
the great master
<rf monumental
fresco painting in
the districts <rf
the Rhine.

Besides his
work at Rheineck
he painted cycles
of pictures in the
Castle of Klein-
Heubach, in the
Church of St.
£gidius at Mon-
ster, and in the
Church of Our
Lady at Aachen.
He also painted
the groups of ao-
gebm theobdr of
the cathedral at
Cologne, and did
part of the work in the iqise of the choir of the Minster
at Strasburg and in the imperial cathedral at Frankfort.
Nevertheless, howevo" striking these frescoes may be,
too much stress is laid on detail, and the la^, monu-
mental character essential to such painting is not
sufficiently ^iparent. This lack is still more evii^t
in tin firescoes showing the historical devdomoent of
civiliBaticm <m tin stanway oi tite WaUraf-RichartB
Museum at Otrfogne. Anumg Steinle's smaller reli-
gious pictures are some very fine ones, as that of the
enthroned "Madonna holdmg the Child" while an
a^el plays a musical instrument in front of them, the
"VMtatwn", the "Holy Family at the Spring",
"Maiy Magdalen se^chig Christ^' "Christ WaSong
wHii His DiscipleB the '^Legend o^ St. Eupfarosyne
and the "Grwt Penitentiaiy". Steinle was not so
wflling to condescend to extremes in pleasing popular
taste as Schwind, although he had a keen ^e for
ordinary Ufe and a sense of humour. He placed the
idea presented by the picture prominently in the
for^round, so that at times the method of portrayal
seems too artificial. Among his nobl«t and most
univmaUy admired paintings that are not direcUy
rrikious are: the ''Warder the Tower", the
"F»dler" the "Sibyl'' the "Lorelei", and the
pictures of the story of Parsifal; no less remarkable
are his illustrations of Sh^eenieare, and espeoiaDy
those to accompany Brentano s wntings. Steinle s
works show both graceful and well-defined oom-
position, poetic conceptkm, healthy religious feeling,
and, of not lees importance, pleasing colour,

AUB. T<ni SfanLB pubUibad Ua iaOta^t oortemmuimM
(Fnfbwf, 1SS7), also bu fatiMr'a MtlMtod woriu (EngBtM.
19im; ^nr, Biwd m SUbitt (Ldpvs, 1887): PoppTlXml
•Ml SUhU (Mains. 1906) —

O. GnrnujiH.

SteiiinUTtf (Fakuer), Ferdinand, Jesuit mis*
sionaiy, b. in Swabia, Gennony, 13 Oct.. 1720: d. at
I%tladelphia, 17 Aug., 1786. He entered the Society
of Jeeus at LandsMr^ in Sept., 1743. He desired
to labour on the missions in China but was sent to
Ameiiea instead, whiUier he came in 1762. ffia
first missicm was at Lancaster whoe he remained
untU 1758, when he was transferred to St. Joe^h'a
Qiurch m Philadelphia, to look after the Qennans in
that seotitm. His labours were not, however,
limited to that city. He made numerous missionary
ioumsys tlnou^ Kastem Pomsylvania and North-
am and Omtral Neir Jerasy. tw also ctoesad Ofsr

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iato New York, but of his priestly laboura in the lat-
ter Btate prior to the close of the Revolution we have
no written record. This abeenoe of written evidenoe
is easUjr accounted for by the fact that a priest ren-
dered himself liable to the death penalty for attempt-
ing to enter New York while it remained under
British nde. There can be UtUe doubt, howev^, that
father Farmer on hi» journe>'e tbrough Northern
Jiw Jersey rro^Hf^l ov^r into New York Rud attended
to-flM Ofttholicfi (inTt'j even ventiu-iug ijUo the city
mttl, wt»A« lie kc^^t the faith aiiive and practically
ioimded St. Peter's Churdi. With all his missionary
mxk hff fotmd time to take an active interest in
public and literary affairs. In 1779 he waa wpointed
one <k the first trustp<:s of the University of Penn-
sylvaai^, while aa n philoecpher and oiitrDnomer his
nrputatnAi had reached tbekarDed societipi^ of Europe
with whom he ciarreBpondM. Hi: ili-il at Phila-
delphia a few monUiB after retuminj^ fruin n riissiMi-
axy trip to N«fw YiH-k. His funerul whs held aX St.
MW}^b ChuE«b« bub ^ cttntto* were iiot^^
St. Joseph's. ■

■ - - "■ — 'lifPlulMlolphl^&k. 1888;

{nilidkpbu AAa. loooi

fAfh and Tiwm V^fd^

Qtimn. Am.
July, IS90: Juu^

H. C. SCHUTLBB.

Steno, Nicouus (Nmu Steenben). an eminoit
Danidi anatotoist and geokvist, oonvert and sain^
bishop, b. at Copenhagen, 1 Sm., 1638; d. at Sohweria
in Germany, 25 Nov.. 1686. For many years Uie name
of Steno was almost loi^otten ; in science he was ceiitu-
ries in advance of his time. During the last thirty
years justice has been done to his menta asascientisL
When a young man of twenty-two years he went to
the Netherlands to proceed with his anatomic studies;
there he discovered, among other things, the excretory
duot the pazDtid glaadi (^udua sUnomanw) ana
the circulation erf the blood m the human body. In
spite of his achievements his countrymen faued to
^point him professor at the University of Copenha-
gen, in consequence of which he went to Florence,
where he was cordially received by the Grand Duke <h
Tuscany. He was appointed anatomist at the Hospi-
tal of Santa Maria Nuova and continued his re-
searches. Even while residing in the Netherlands
he bad begun to doubt the trut£ of the Lutheran doo-
trines. At Col(^e he conferred with a Jesuit, and tJt
Florence he became convinced of the truth of Catholi-
oism. After many strurales he entered the Church
on 4 November, 1667. Shortly after a royal letter
came from Deaimark, that called him home and offered
him a high annual senary. But it was too late: as a
Catholic he could not return to Denmark. He re-
mained in Italy and made many gec^ogical discoveries,
which were not appreciated until our time. He was
slso the firat who gave a scienlifio exjdanation ofthe
many petrifactions which are found in the earth. In -
Damiark men b^an to regret Stoio's loss, and through
the influence of GrifTenfeldt he was nominated, not
professor — for a Catholic could not hold that position
--but anaiomicus regius in his native city, but he re-
mained there only two years, as he was eiqiOBed to
narrow-minded treatmmt.

Feeling a h^her call, he returned to Italy, where he
received Holy orders in 1675, and two yean After was
consecrated a bishop. As such, he lived a most self-
drying and mortified life, giving all he had to tiieptwr.
He was made vicar ApostcJio for the northern misBions
and worked nine years as an apostle in the north of
Gennany. He died, worn out by his labours, at the
eoriy age of fortv-eight. His remains were brought
to Florence and deposited in a vault in the Basilica of
St. Lawrence. He wrote several aaeetie works. Of
his sixteen theological wwIcb the mwe iutoresting are
Ui "l^uatote de jnopria ooDvecriime" (Fkmioe,

1677), and "D^ouio et plenitv daotdatio episboln
depr^>riaoonveraioae" (Hanover. 1680). Hissoien-
tifio writings wwe pubUsbed recently hy Maar, " Nioc^
lai Stenonis opera philoeophica" (2 vols., Copnihageii,

1910), a very fine work in ciuarto, oontaining his thirty-
two anatomical dissertations, with mtroduction and
notes in English. A facsimile edition of his "De
BoUdo intra solidum naturaliter contento dissert*-
tionis prodromus" appeared at Berlin in 1904.

Mujt, To wdffime Arbtjd«r of Sicolaut St«no fra BibUoUea
Zjawmtiana (Copenhaceo, 1910); Plbnuu, Otr Dam NMt
SUnMti (Frriburi, 1884} ; Jj^sNUH, JWb Slaauni (CqponhMjen.
1884); Wm*, Keetaiu Stmm Lit w Dod. Oftnat of V. Hoar
(CoMiihacso. 1906); Mnun, /KMbm <8t«M In FaMat ternn^
XXKnTriM. 1911).

NiXLS HANraiN.

Stephen, Saint, one of the first deacons and the
first Qiristian martyr; feast on 26 December. In the
Acts of the Apostles the name of St. Stephen occurs for
the first time on the ocoasion of the appointment of the
first deacons (Acts, vi, 5). Dissatisfaction concern-
ing the distribution of aims from the community's
fund having arisen in the Church/seven men w^ se-
lected and specially ordained by the Apostles to taJ«
care of the temporal relief of the poorer members.
Of these sevr^n, Stephen, is the first mentioned and
the best known.

Ster^hen'e life proviouB to this sf)pointment remains
fnir IIS fJinriftt I'liiircl',' in the dark. His name is Gredi
and iiuggesta he waa a Hdlenist, L e., one of those Jews
wbv hau been bom in some foreign land and whose
native tongue was Greek; however, according to a
fifbh-oeatury tradition, the name St^hanos was only
4 Gredc equivalent for the Aramaic Kelil (S^. Jfcdfbl,
crown), which may be the protonuu^r's original name
:inrl was iTLscrihed tm a slab found in his tomb. It
hi'tins thnt Sf ephs'Ti was not a proselyte, for the fact
Ni' i_'!:t.^ I'Tiiy one of the seven designated as
eucti oiokoa it uimoat curtain that the others were Je<tra
birt'u That Stcnhen was a pupil of Gamaliel is
HRnetinws infened trom his able dttenoe before the
Sanhedrin ; but this has not been jvored. Nother do
we know when and in what circumstaneee he became a
Christian; it is doubtful whether the statement of St.
EpiphaniuB (Hsr., xx, 4) numbering Stephen anumg
the seventy disciples is deserving of any credence. His
ministry as deacon appears to have been mostly
among the Hellenist converts with whom the Apostles
were at first less familiar; and the fact that the oppo*
sitiMi he met with sprang up in the synagogues of the
"Libertines" (probably the childr«i ofJ^ws taken
captive to Rome by Pompey in 63 b. o. and freed—
hence the nameZA6itrttnt), and "of the Cyrenians, and
of the Alexandrians, and of them Uiat were of C^cia
and Asia" shows that he usually preached among the
Hellenist Jews. That he was preeminently fitted for
that work, his abilities and character, which Uie au-
thor of the Aots dwells upon so fervently, are the best
indication. The Church had, by selecting him for a
deacon, pubUcly acknowledged him as a man "<rf
good reputation, full of the Hob^ Ghost and wisdom"
(Acts, vi, 3). He was "a man full of faith, and of the
Holy Ghost" (vi, 5), "fuU of grace and fortitude"
(vi, 8): his uncommon oratorical powers and unimr-
peachable logic no one was able to resist, so much so
that to his arguments replete with the Envine energy
of the Scriptural autboritiee God added the wei^t of
"great wondem and signs" (vi, 8). Great as was the
efficacy of "the wisdom and the spirit that Bpoke"
(vi, 10), still it could not brad the minds of the uih
wflling; to these the forceful preacher was fatally soon
to become an enemy.

The conflict broke out when the cavillers fA the
synagogues "of the Libertines, and of the CyrenouuL
and of the Alexandrians, and of them that were or
Cilicia and Asia", who had challenged Stephen to e
dispute, eame out coinplBtely discomfited (vi, 9-10);
iRiiuided pride ao in&uned th«r hirtnd tut UmV

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nibonied false witoflm to tertifT 4luit "tb^ luu)
heard him Bjteak words of blanhemy againsfc
Mosee and against God" (vi, 11). fTo oharge oould
be tqore apt to rouse the mob; the anger of the an-
cients and the scribes had been alreai^ kindled from
the first reports of the preaching of the Apostles.
Stephen waa arrested, not witiiout some violenoe it
seems (the Greek word rvviptrwar implies so muoh)t
and dragged b^ore tha Sanbedrin, where he was ao-
eused oiMyiag that "Jesus of Nasareth shall desteoy
this piaee {the temple] , and shall change the traditions
which Moses delivered unto us" (vi, 12-14). No
doubt Stephen had by bis language pvea some

iBNmds for tibe aeoaaation; hii aeoiuen 'apparent
nfiBted into the oBamTe utterance attributed to him
a dcclsntku that "the most High dwelleth not in
houaes made by hands" (rii, 48), some mention of
Jesus foretelling the destruction of the Temple and
BOfDB invoghing against the burthensome traditions
fencing about tbe Law, or rather the aasevmtion so
often repeated by the Apostles that ' ' there is no salva-
tion in axi^ other" (of. iv, 12)-— ^e Law net excluded
—hat Jesns. However this may be, the aeeuaatioii
W% him unperturbed and "all that sat in the eonn-
cfl . . ■ saw his face as if it had been the faee of an
anjeel" (vi, 15).

Stephen 8 answer (Aots, vii) was a long recital of the
meroies of God towards Israel during its long history
and of the ungratefidnees by which, throu^out, Israel
r^aid these merciea. This disoaurae oontained many
things unpieeaant to Jewish ears; but the concluding
iudietaient for having betrayed and murdcond the
Juat One whose coming the Propheta had forbid, roo-
ycked the rage of an audience made up not €i Inagfa,
but of foea. When Stephu "kx^cine up steadfwUy
to faearen, saw the doi? of God, and Jesus standing
on the tight hand of God", and said: "Behold, I see the
heavens weoed, and tbe Son of man standing on the
r^t hand of God" (vii, 55), they ran violently upon
him (tu, 66) and cast him out <A ihe city to stone him
to death. Stephen's stoning does not appear in the
narrative of the Aets as a deed of mob violenee; it
mult have been kmked upon fay those who took mrt
uiiiaKtbHMrTiKioatofUMiav. AoDotdingtolaw

CUer., xxiT, K), or at least its nmal interpretatfan,
Stspasn had been taken out of the oHy; eoBtomi**
.qniM tiiat tiM peraott to be st<med beplaoed «n an de-
vation from whence with his hands bound he was to bs
thrown down. It was moat likely while these prepa-
rations w«« gmng on that, "fallmg on his knees, he
oried with a loud voice, sayine : Lord, lay not this sin to
thdr oharxe" (vii, 69). Meanwhile the witnesses,
whose handa must be first on the person condemned
hy their testimony (Doit., xvii, 7), were laying down
their garments at the feet of Saul, ^t they might be
mora ready for the task devolved upon them (vu, 57).
The praying martyr was thrown down; and while the
witneases wore thrusting upcm him "a stone as much
as two men oould carry", be was heard to utt» thic
supreme prayer: " Lord Jesus, reeeive my sinrit" (vii,
58). Little did all the people present, casting stones
vfton him, realise that the bnod they shed was the
^st seed of aharveflt that waste cover theworid.

The bodies of men stoned to death were to be buried
inaplaoeai^KHUtedby the Sanhedrin. Whether in
this instance the Sanhedrin insisted on its ri^t cannot
be affirmed; at my rate, "devout men —Aether
Cbtietiana or Jews, we are not told— "took order for
Stephen's funeral, and made great mourning over
him" (viii, 2). For centuries the kMiation of £^ Ste-
irfwn's tomb was lost sight of, until (415) a certain
priest named Lueian learned by revdation that the
sacred body was in Capbar Qamala, some distance to
the north of Jerusalem. The relics were Oxea ex-
humed and carried first to the church of Mount Sirai,
then, in 460, to the basilica erected by EXidocia oat-
side the Damasous Gate, on the spot where, accord-
incf to tradition, the stoning had taken place (the
oinuon that the aeeo» of St. Stephen's martyrdom
was east of Jerusalem, near the Gat? called since St.
Stoirfien's Gate, is unheard of until the twelfth cen-
tunr). The site of the Eudocian basilica was identi-
fied some twenty years ago, and a new edifice has been
erected on the old foundations by the Dominiean
Fathers. -

Tbe uily firat-haad.aMinM of imfimBation on the life and dMrth
of St. Aepben U the AcU of tb« ApoetlM (vi, i-viii, 2). On Hm
qnea^OD of the pls«e of Bt. Stephen's atoning, see LAQBAirai,
S. aUuma m ten tamehudra A JSnualem (Paris^ 1894).

Charucs L. Soovat.

Stn^n, Saint, first Kmg of Hungary, b. at Gran,
976^ d. 15 August, 1038. He was a son of the Htm-
ganan chief G<5sa and was baptized, tofffitfaer wiUi
his father, by Archbishop St. Adalbert of Prague in
985, on which occasion he changed his heathen name
Vaik CV<nk) into St^hen. In 995 he married Gisela,
a sister of Duke Heniy of Bavaria, the future Emperor
St. Henry II, and in 997 succeeded to the throne of
rruiit.'n,ry. In onliT io mrtfci* FTtrigdn- a CfiristiftQ
Qikf ion and to estublisli hiiii.-it;lf im>re liriiily oji ruler,
he sent Abbot Asljicus to Rome to petition Pope
Bylv^bter II for the royal dignity and the power to
establish episcopal sees. The pope accedtid U> hi3
wishra andj in addition, preBeoted him with a roynl
crown with which he was nrowneri at Grun on 17
August, lOOl (see HuNa\ni.~Hicloiy ). He founded
Si. monaalfTy in Jerugalem and hoajiu-es fur jtilgrinia
at Kfinif, It/kvennii, mid Constant in op l<t. li<? was a
pKifioual friHnd of St. Bruno of Querfurt and corre-
sponded with Abbot St. Odib of Duny. Tbe laat-
^are of Wa life were emtntt^fed by sickneBs and fam-
ily troubles. Whan on 2 September, 1031, his cmly
Mij, 8t. Einfttio, V«t bis life on a bear hunt, his che>
ishcd hopc! of tranafcrrlTig tho rf^ins of ROvornniBnt into
the hanilB of a pitjiis Christi:L'i pritirf rt- HhsM'Tivi.
During his liT'itime a qu;irTel arosi' iitnoiig hin various
Dppbcwa conrX'rniqg the figlit of surcosrfiyiu and soma
of ttiem even took part in a iroiispiracy against his
life He waa buried boaide his son at StuQweiSBsn-'
burg^ and both were caDonited together in 1063. Hla

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t^bm fwe tnzirf^sTcd to Buda. His iocon-upt Hf^
band is treaBured as the most scored relic in Hungv^.

Thn« oi-A livFK MS i!\[B.i>t^ V'ilJi tnajtrr la Man. Gtrm. liiH.,
fuTipt, XI. 221l-;if1, *rillt'B p'fb^bly Ihtlqre 108^1 Cranwa tJ<v
(d-wum in ,lfi"- if"/, 'm'.. 1. 49^515, wrilWu ^hoBt iMfl; Vito
»ii!i.iT in /fiif., Script.. XI, 2B6-^I'. w-iittcn abuut 11 OO.

/niiilir:T Llfr iii-iiiijn by Habtwio ahortly alter tho Vita miniir ui
£(T-ip(. rn-um Muiir/., I, is liMed on Uw thrpf prefi-iliHK

enirs, KAiui'snKTr. 5ifni /imn Hmiv ri*!!* (Byi^nikcm. 19(14);

lUOD: Haav, Hi. Eliennt, roi apotiviiqwt d^i tivnarU {Pvb. 1S&9):
firiLTIf <», Viii ». SiffiJi'iftirw" Wunfforia (Raab. 1717; KucbAU,

MicnuK. Ott.

Stai^an I, Saint, Popb. Ahbou^ tiiere is some
doubt as to the dates connected with the pontifioate
<^ Stephen, it is generally -betieirad that he waa ood-
aectated 12 Mav, 254, and that he died 2 Aucuat, 257.
Acecvdiiv to ttte most ancient oataloguea, he was a
Roman by birth, and the son of Joviua, and there is
no rMSon to donbt the as8ertl<m of the "Liber Pon-
tificalis" that Luciufl I, when about to be martyred,
made over the care of the Church to his arohdMOon
Stephen (254). Moat of what we know reffardlnc
Pope Stephen is connected directljr or indireet^ with
the severe teachings of the heretic Novatos. Oni-
eeming his moat imptntant woric, his deCenoe of the
valicUty of hepeticat baptism a^inst the mistaken
(q^nkm <tf 6t. Cyprian and other biahc^ of AMca
and Ana, there is no need to speeJc now, as the history
of this important controvert will be found und«-
Baftisu and Ctpbian or Cabthagb, Saint. SufBce
it here to call attention to certain newly discovered
letters on the subject by St. DionysiuB « Alexandria
("Ene. Hist. Rev.". Jan., 1010, 111 sq.), and to note,
with the late Archbishop Benson of C»nt«Awiy, that
Stephen ' ' triumphed, and in him the Church of Rome
triumphed, asshedeeer^'ed" (E.W.BeDson, "Cyprian,
His Life,HiBTime8,HisWoriu", VIII (London), 1897,
3]. In the early part of his pontificate 8ta>hen was
frequently urged by Faustinus, Bishop <A Lyons, to
take action against Mardan, Bishop of Aries, who,
attaching himwlf to doctrines of Novatus, denied
oommunxm to the penitent lapH. Tot some reason
unknown to us Ste^ien did not move. The bisbopa
d Gaul aocordingly tunwd to Cyprian, and b^ged
him to write to the pope. Thiatiie saint did in a letter
which is our sole source of information r^nrding tlus
affair (Epp. bdx, Ixviii). The Bishop ol Caruiage
entreats Stephen to imitate his martyred predecessors,
and to instruct the bishops of Gaul to condemn Mar-
cian, and to elect another bishop in his stead. As no
nme is said by St. Cyprian on this affair, it is sup*
posed that the pope acted in accordance with his
wishes, and that Marcian was deposed. The case of
the Spanish bifdiops Martial and BaoiUdes also brouRht
Stephen in connexion with St. Cvprian. As Iwd-
latid they bad been condemned by tne bishops of their
province for denying the Faith. At first they
acknowledged thdr nult, but afterwards ^pealed to
Rome, and, deceived by thdr stoiy, Steplmt eirerted
himself to secure their restoration. Accoidingly some
of their fellow bishope took thar part, but the others
l^d the case before St. Cyprian. An assembly of
African bishomi which he convoked renewed the con-
demnation of BaedUdes and Martial, and exhorted the
people to enter into communion wiui their suoceesors.
At the same time they were at pains to point out that
Stephen had acted as he had done becauBe "tftuated
at a diBtanee, and ignorant ti the true facts of the
«aae" he had been deceived by Basilides. Anzioufl
to preserve the tradition of his predeoeasors in matters
of practical charity, as well as of faith, Stephen, we
are told, relieved in their neoesvties "all the provinces
of Syria and Arabia", hi his days the vestments
worn 1^ the clergy at Mass and other church servioea
did not differ in shape or material from those ordinar-
won Iqr the Iw- Steidiai. bomvor. ■ Mid far

the' "liber PmitiiicaUs" to have ordtuned that tiie
veetments which lutd been used for ecclesiastioaJ pur*
poses were not to be employed for dail^ wear. The
same authority adds that he finished his pontificate
by martyrdom; but the evidence for this is generally
regarded as doubtful. He was buried in the cemetery
of St. CaUxtus, whenoe !u8 body was transferred li^
Paul I to a monasteoy wfaidi be had founded in his
honour.

I>CCHMMB, Libtr PotUifieaK*, I (Puis, 1888^ zeni,
EowDitn, HiM. XwIm., VII, 2-A; th« letten of Br. GxfKUM.
IzvU M., ia kny ed. of hia Work4, or kp. Coobtaj^ Mpp.: AM,
PmL,1 (Psris. 1721), 211 M.: JxrH, Rtottla, I (Lth^ U8S).

HoRACB K. Mahn.

Bttphen n. PopK.— On the death of Zacharr, a
oertun priest Stephen was unanimously elected to
succeed him (about 23 March, 752); but on the third
day after his election, whilst transacting some
domestic affairs, he was struck with apoplexy, and
expired on the next day. As he died before his con-
secration, earlier writers do not appear to have in-
cluded him in the list of the popes; out, in accordance
witii the long standing practice (rf tb« Roman Churehf
be is now generally counted among them. This
divergent practice has introduced coiuuuon into tbe
way of counting tlie Popes Stephen.

iSd. Dncnun, lOcr PonSfiealu. f (Pbiu, 1888), 440; Hahx,
LiPtt oftKt Pop**, I, pt. ii (London, 1902), 200 aq.

HOBACI K. Manh.

Stephen (11) m, Pope, unanimously elected in
St. Mary Major's, and consecrated on 26 March (or
3 April), 752; d. 26 April, 757. He had at onoe to
face the Lombards who were resdved to bring all
Itafy under their sway. With the capture of Ravenna
(751), they had put an end to the power of the
Byzantine exarchs and were preparing to seize the
Duchy of Rome. In vain aid Stephen apply for
help to Constantinople and freely spent bis money,
to mduce them to keep the peace they had made with
him, and to refrain from hostilities. He accordingly
devoted himsdf to prayer and endeavoured to obtain
anstanoe from P^in and the EVanks. As a last
reaouroe be went hunself to Gaul to plead his cause
before the Frankish king. Receiving a most favour-
able reception, -he crowned Pepin as King of the
Fnutks, and at Kierney was sokonnly assured by faimi
that he would defend him, and would restore the;
exarchate to St. Peter. Failing to make any im-
pression on Aistulf, the Lombard king, by repeated
embassies, Pepin forced the passes of the Alps, and
compelled him to swear to restwe Ravenna and the
other cities he had taken (754). But no sooner had -
Pepin witiidrawn from Lombaniy than AistuU roused
the whole Ijombaid nation, appeared in arms before
the walls of Rome (Jan., 756), ravaged the neigfa-
boiu-hood, and made a desperate attempt to capture
the city. After receiving oiie appeal for help after
another from the pope, Pepin crossed the Alps a
second time (756), asid. again forced Aistulf to sob-
missioa. This time Stephen was put in possession of
the cities ai tbe exarchate and of the PentapoUs,
and became practically the first popfrJdng. Towards
the close of Uus same year Aistulf died amid prqwa-
tions for onoe wfun violating his engagements. On
his death two rivsls claimed the Lombard throne,
Desiderius, Buke of Istria and Ratchis, Inother ot
Aistulf, who in 7tf bad reeigned the Lombaxd onnm,
and had taken tbe monastie habit in Monte Casamo.
Desiderius at once invoked the assistance <rf the
pope, and, on oondi^im of his hdp, promised to re-
store to Rome certam cities in the exan^ate and the
PentapoUs which still remained in the hands of the
Lombards, and to give the pope a large sum of money.
Stephen at once sent envoys to both the rivals, and,
impresung on Ratchis tbe duty of being true to bis
monastie vowa. snooeedM in faringbig ubuut paaaa.

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and preventinc civil war. Ratchia returned to hia
mona«tei^ and Deeideriua was recognised as king
(about March, 757). The latter, howevn, did not
fulfil his promiae to the pope in its entirety. He
gave up Faenza, Ferrara, and two small towns, but
retained Bologna. Imola, and other towns in the
Pentapolis till his overthrow by Charlemagne.
Stephen had scarcely established a system of govern-
ment in the exarchate when he had to quell the
rebellion of Sa*giu8, Archbishop of Ravenna, wh(xa
he had made its governor. He, however, caused the
rebel to be brought to Rome, and kept him there
whilst he lived. Stephen corresponded with the
EmpenM- Constantine on the subject of the restoration
of the sacred imaees, and himself restored many of
the ancient churches of the city. Remarkable for
hie love of the poor, Stephen built hospitals for them
near St. Peter's, in which church he was buried.

Ed. Ddcrebke, Liber Prnti/Uati*. I (Pftris. 1S86), 440 aqj ed.
Jxvwt, Ccia Carolinua (Berlin. 1867); Hon. (3«r. Hu(.; Spp-.
Ill (Boriin, 1892); ^pl., I; Sarivt. rarum Lanoo>>. Host of
thaw Boureea will be found ia Hallbk, DUovf^m tur Oach. dtr
Siaatekuna dM KinAtnttaatet (Leipiic, IWTi: Hodokik, Jtaiy
and W hmtdtn, VII (Oxford. 1890); DDCBBflNX, The BtginninQ
irf Uu Temporal Snroigtitti ^ Uu Popm (London, 1008), iii. It;
Makn, LvMf of llu FSpta i» IM Xarly itiddU Age*, I, pL ii (Lon-
don, 1902), 289 sqq.

' HoaACE K. Mann.

Stephen (III) 17, Fofb, b. about 720; d. 1 or 3
August, 772. Paul I was not dead when trouble
bei^ui about the eleotiou of his succeesor. Toto of
N^i with a body of Tuscans burst into Rome, and,
de^ite ihe opposition of the primieeriiia Christopher,
forcibly intruded his brother C>>nstanttne, a layman,
into the chair of Peter (June, 767). In the spring of
768, however, Christopher and his son Sergius con-
trived to escape from the city, and with the aid of the
Lombards deposed the usurper. ^ Hiey were also
able to overthrow the monk Phflip, whom some of
their Lombard allies had clandestinely elected pope.
By their f^orts Stephen, a Sicilian, the son of Olivus,
was at length canonically elected and consecrated
(7 August, 768). He haa been a Benedictine monk,
and had been ordained priest by Pope Zachary. After
hie consi^ratioD the antipopes were treated with the
ereatest cruelty which, it seems to be generally al-
n>wed, Stephen was unable to hinder. To prevent
the recurrence of such an election as that of Con-
stantine, the Latoran council forbade laymen to be
elected popes or to take part in their election for the
future. Only cardinals were to be oh<Men popes
(April, 769). Through Stephen's support the arch-
deacon Leo was enabled to nold the See of Ravenna
against a lay intruder, and in turn through the sup-
port of the brothers Charlemagne and Carloman,
Kinp of the Franks, Stephen was able to recover some
tcmtinies from the Lombards. But their king,
Desidoius, managed to strite two aerious Mows at
St^dien. He brought about a marriage between his
diuii^ter and Charlemagne, and in some mystaious
manner effected the fall of the pope's chief ministers,
Christopher and Sergius. He also allied himself with
Paul Anarta, Stephen's chamberlain^ who practised
great cruelties when the pope lay dvmg. Desiderius
also brought about trouble m labia by toying to cause
a Bohinn against the Patriarch ot Grado, but St^dmi
defended ube patriarch momisii^ him even armed
support if necessary. Stephen is honoured as a
samt in some Martyrologies.

For UbUoan4»hy «« Btsfhsn (II) III, Popa.

Hgbacb K. Mann.

Sto^ien (!▼) V, Pont (816-17), date of birth
unknown; d. 24 Jan., 817. Stephen, the son of Mari-
nus, was of tiie same noble Roman family which gave
two other popes to the dSmrch. During his vouth
he had been patronized by Hadrian I and Leo III,
the latter of whom had ordained him deaoon. His
virtiiM) were celd>rated. and he was elected pope and
XIV.— w

consecrated immediately after Leo's death, about
22 June, 816. He at once caused the Romans to
take an oath to the Emperor Louis the Pious as their
suzerain, and he sent notice of his election to him.
He tJien went to France and crowned Louis. From
tiiat benevolttit prince he received a number of splen-
did lureeents, and with him renewed the pact or agree-
ment that had already existed for some time between
the Franks and the papacy. Whilst still in Gaul
he granted the paUium to Theodulf of Orleans, one
of the emperor's chief advisers. When returning to
Rome he visited Ravenna, there exposing the sandals
of Christ to the veneration of the faithful, and he
brou^t back with him a number of exiles whom
pohtic^ reasons had sent into exile during the
pontificate of Leo III. He was buried in St. Peter's.

Libor Pontifieali$, ed. Dcchesnb, II, 49 sqa.; LitM of Louit
the Pioua (uid viuioin (uin»ls in Mon. Oerm. HiA: StripL, II:
BIamm, Lmm <tftk9 Pop-, U, 111 sqq.

HoEACB K. Mann.

Stephen (V) VI, Pope (S85-91), date of birth
unknown; d. in Sept^ 891. His father, Hadrian,
who belonged to t^e Roman aristocracy, entrusteu
his education to his relative. Bishop Zachaiy, hbra-
rian of the Holy See. Stephen was created cardi-
nal-priest of SS. Quattro Coronati by Marinus I,
and his obvious houness was the cause of his beii^
chosen pope. He was consecrated In September,
885, without waiting for the imperial confirmation;
but when Charles the Fat found with what unanimity
he had been elected he let the matter rest. Stephen
was called upon to face a famine caused by a drought
and by kwusts, and as the papal treasury was empty
he had to fall hack on his father's wealth to relieve
the poor, to redeem captives, and to repair churches.
To promote order he adopted Guido HI, Coimt
of Spoleto, "as his son" and crowned him Emperor
(891). He also recognized Louis the Blind as King
of Provence. As Aiuelian, Archbishop of hyom,
would not omseccrate Teutbold who had been «uion-
ically elected Bishop of Langres, Stephen lumself
consecrated him. He had also to oppose the arbi-
trary proceedings of the Archbishops of Bordeaux
and Ravenna, and to resist the attacks which the
Patriarch Photius made on the Roman See. His
resistance was successful, and the Emperor Leo sent
the disturber into exile. When writing against
Photius, he begged the emperor to send warahips and
soldiers to enaole him to vmrd off tjie assaults of the
Saracens. St^hen, -ssbo received many English
pilgrims and envoys brin^g Peterspence, was buried
in the portico of the basibca of that Apostle.

Lib«r PontxJUxUia, II, 191 sqq., 226; LetUro of Stkpbbn is
P. L., CXXIX, «nd LowEHTELD, £pp. Pont. Rom. (LeipuB.
188S), 36 sqq.; various ann&la in Mon. Oerm. Hitt.: Script., I;
I^DOABD w ibid., XIII: DooBMMB, Th« Boginninoa 6/ tho
Temporal Bnmgat^ of A* Pmpta (London, 1907), 189, lB4-fi;
IiCum. Liwatfm ropot. III, 387 aqq.

Horace K. Mann.

Stephen (VX) VU, Pope (896-7), date of birtb
unknown; d. about August, 897. Steven was a
Roman, and the son of John, a priest. He had been
consecrated Bishop of Anagni, possibly against his
will, by Formoeus, and became pope about May, 896.
Whettier induced by evil passion or perhaps, more
probably, compelled by the Emperor Lamb^ and
his mouier Ageltruda, he causeo the body of For-
moeus to be exhtmied, and in Januaiy, 897, to be
placed before an unwilling ^od of the Roman
clergy. A deacon was iqipoiated to answer for the
deceased pontiff, who Was condemned for performing
the functions of a bishop when he had been deposed
and fw pawing from the See of Porto to that of Rome.
The corpse was ^en stripped of its sacred vestments,
deprived of two fingers of its right hand, clad in the
garb of a layman, and ultimately thrown into the
Tiber. Fortunately it was not granted to Stephra
to have time to do much else besid^ " "^'^ *
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STIPHJUI

deed. Before he was put to death by strangulation,
he forced several of those who had been orduned by
Formosus to resign their offices and he granted a
few privileges to churches.

Liber t^tfiealia. II. 229; privilegea of Stephen in P. L..
CXXIX; DcuuLK, AxuHm* and Vvioariiu (Leipug, 186fl>:
DucHSSHC, Tlu Beffjnninoa e/ the Temporal SofreifpUy of IM
ftpra. 108 Kiq.; Mum, LiMta/tkt Papu. TV, 76 mm.

Horace K. Mann.

Stephen (VII) TOI, Pope (929-31), date of birth
unknown; d. in Feb. or March, 931. He became
pope either at the end of 928 or at the beginning of
929. Except that he was a Roman, the son of Teude-
mund. and sometime cardinal-ptiest oS St. Anastasia,
and tnat when pope he issued certain privit^ee for
monasteries in France and Italy, and wa£ bui-'eu in
St. Peter's, nothing more is known of him.

LiUr PontifieaUt, II, 242; JattA. Rtattta (Lripns, 18S8),
4Sa-4; Maxh, IA— af Ou Popa, IV. 189 acn.

HoBACE K. Mann.

Stephen (VIII) VH, Pope, 939-942, date of birth
unknown; he became pope about 14 July, 939, and d.
about the end of Oct., 942. Despite the contrary as-
sertions of late writers, ihece is no doubt that Stephen
was a Roman and cardinal-prieBt of SS. Silvester and
Martin. He supported the declining Ciu^ovingian
dynasty, and by threat of excommunication forced
the nobles to be faithful to the Prankish King Louis
IV d'Outre-Mer. Throughout the whole of his
pontificate he was subject to Alberic, Prince of the
Romans, and so had little opportunity of distinguish-
ing himself.

ZHfr PontifiadU, II, 244; privilegee, P. Z... CXXXII;
Fbopoabd, jlftmii; M amn, Livie ofAe Pope* in the Sarin MiddU
Aon, TV (LoDdoB, 1910), 212 sq.

Horace K. Mann.

Stephen (IX) Z, Pope, b. probably about the be-
ginning of the eleventh century; d. at Florence, 29
March, 1058. (Junian?) Frederick, destined to be-
come Pope Stephen X, was the son of Goselon, Duke
of Lower Lorraine and of Junca, the daughter of Ber-
ei^arius II, King of Italy. As he advanced in years
he peeame as distinguished for character and learaing
as he was for his birth. It was aeemingly whilst he
was a canon of Li^e that his cousin Leo DC met him
and made him chancellor and librarian of the Roman
Church (c. 1051). He accompanied Leo IX in his
apostolic jouraeyings throughout Europe, and was
sent by him on the famous embassy to Constanti-
nople (1054) which terminated in the final separation
of the Eastern and Western Churches. On his re*
turn from the East he was robbed by the Count of
Teate, and, to avoid falling into the hands of the Em-
peror Henry III, the Black (who seems to have dis-
trusted him as the brother of the rebellious Godfrey
the Bearded, Duke of Lorraine), he became a monk at
Monte Cassino (1055), and, after the death of the
Emperor Henry, its abbot (1057). He was made
cardinal-priest of St. Chrysogonus by Victor II, and,
on the tatter's death, he was freely chosen hissuocessor,
and consecrated on the following day (3 August,
1057). As pope, he carried on the work of reforma-
tion which had been inaugurated by St. Leo IX. To
show how much he was in earnest, he at once made
cardinals of both that zealous champion of reform, St.
Peter Damian, and the quondam monk Humbert, his
own uncompromising companion on the embassy to
Otnstantinople. He also made no little use of Car-
dinal Hildebrand (afterwards St. Gr^or^y VII), the
soul of the reforming part^. He sent hun to Milan
to effect an improvement in the morals of its clei^
with instructions to proceed to Germany and to in-
duce the regent^ the empress-mothOT Agnes, to accept
hia election which had been made without anv refer-
ence to her. It was further arranged that Hildebrand
was Uien to go on to France. Stephen was preparing
to reopen negotiationB with the Greek Churohf and to

try to stop the advance of the Normans in eoutbem
Italy, when he died, exhorting the cardinals to awut
the return of Hildebrand before electing his successor.
He was buried in the Church of St. Reparata.

Uber PonlitUxdie.U, 278. od. DncHBsm (FMia, 1892):D««(«
el oMu jtMt. emuA. Caa.. o. AS. ap. Mai, Stript. Yd.. VI.
278: P. L., CXUII, n. fioBBBThu put together aU Uut ii known
<rf Stwhen X in Ui HUL Ou P. gliauu XJfinmitM. 1SB»:
VUKm,Liwm tfOuPvpm m Ue JTuUbilfM. VI(L(»ili». 1910:
207 iQ.

HoBACB K. Mann.

Stephen Ootwnu. See MoNOPHTSirEs and
MoNOPHTSinaM.

Stephen HArdlng, Saint, confessor, the third
Abbot of Clteaux, was bom at Sherborne in Dorset-
chire, England, about the middle of the eleventh cen-
tury;^. 28 March, 1134. He received his early educa-
tion in the monastery of Sherborne and afterwards
studied in Paris and Rome. On returning from the
latter city he stopped at the monastery of Molesme
and, being much impressed by the holiness of St.
Robert, the abbot, jomed that community. Here he
practised great austerities, became one of St. Robot's
chief supporters and was one of the band of twenty-
one monks who, by authority of Hugh, Archbishop
of Lyons, retired to Clteaux to institute a reform in
the new foundation there (see CItbaux, Abbey op).
When St. Robert was recalled to Moledme (1099),
St^hen became prior of Clteaux under Alberic, the
new abbot. On Alberic's death (1110) Stephen, who
was absent from the monastery at the time, was
elected fd>bot. The number of monks was now veiy
reduced, as no new members had come to fill the
places of Uiose who had died. Stephen, however, in-
sisted on retaining the strict obMrvanee originally
instituted and, havmg offended the Duke of Bui^undy,
Ctteaux's great patron, by forbidding him or his fam*
ily to enter the cloister, was even forced to bes alms
from door to door. It seemed as if the foundatjoa
were doomed to die out when (1112) St. Bernard with
thirty companions joined the community. This
twoved the beginning of extraordinary prospwity.
The next year Stephen founded his first cowny at La
Feort^, and before his death he had established thirtem
monasteries in all. His powers as an organiior inn
exceptional, he instituted the system of geoenl
chapters and regular visitations and, to ensure uni-
formity in all his foimdations, drew up the .famous
"Charter of Charity" or collection of statutee for the
government of all monasteries united to Clteaux,
which was i^>proved by PopeCaliistus II in 1119 (see
Cibtkboianb). In 1133 Stepbra, being now okl, io-
firm, and almost blind, resigned the post of abbot,
designating aa his successor Robert de Monte, who
was acc<Hraingly elected by the monks. The saint'B
choice, however, fsroved unfortunate and the new abbot
only h^d office for two years.

Stephen was buried in the tomb of Alberic, his 'prtA-
ecessor, in the cloister of Clteaux. In the Roman
calendar his feast is 17 April, but the Cistercians
Uiemsdves keep it on 1£ Ju^, with an ootave, regard-
ing him as the true foundw of tiie fvder . Besides the
"Carta Caritatis" he is commonly credited with the
authorsh^ of the "Exordium Cisteroiencis eenobii",
which however may not be his. Two of lus sermooi
are preserved and also two letters (Nos. 46 and 49)
in the "Epp. S. Bemaidi".

WiLLiAU or Malubbbukt, QMLi Rwwm, ed. Stubba in Aofit
Seriei. IV (London. 1889), {{ 334-7; GaUiadiTitl., IV (Paru. 173S).
9SO-4; Acta S3., 11. April (VcniM. 1738), 403-8; Mabillon,
Acta SS.. O.S.B.. II (Par&. 1668). 1062: HiLTOT, flirt, det oriitt
rrliaieux, V (Paris, \79Z). 335-7: DaoDALX, Mtrntutieeni
wntim. V (Loodon, 1H46>. 220-6; Daloaikma, Z^teTSr.AflAo
Hardino (London, ISM); new edition with not^ «L,T«ot»»"
(Lor.c...u 1888). Q, RoQIR Hui>IJKnMf-

Si-e^en of Autun, bishop, liturgical vnUr,
b. at Buig€ (hence sumamed Bal^acus or de Bal-
ipaoo) hi Anjou; d. at the abbey of Chmg, 1138«r

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eariy in 1140. Of his yoimger days nothing is known
except that he was the son of Cfaucenumus^ lord of
Bang6, and tlie uncle of Humbert, Archbishop of
I^rons. He appears in histoiy (1112) as Bishop of
Autun. As such he was present (1115) at a synod of
Toumus. A letter is in existence of the year 1116,
written to him from the Lateran by Pascal II in which
the poj>e places the IHocese of Autun under his special

£rotection and confirms to Stephen various privileges.
1 1129 Stephen was among toe prelates who assisted
at the coronation of Philip, ddest son of Louis VI of
France. He built a cathedral, beginning in 1120,
which was solemnly consecrated (1131) by Pope
Innocent II. He always showed a great admiration
for the religious state, and in 1136 resigned his see
and entered the monastery of Ctuny. The abbot,
Peter the Venerable, under whom he entered and died,
^ves great praise to bis leanung and piety. His
"Tractatus oc Sacramento Altaria , printed, together
with some other doctmients rdating to Sto)!:^, in
P. L., CLXXII, 1371, is an ascetico-nturaical
treatise, coo^sting of twenty chapters and a prdace,
in which he spea]^ of the ordination and duties of
each of the Minor and Major Orders; and of the Holy
Sacrifice of the Mass and ^vea a literal and allegorical
explanation of the Canon. He is one of the earliest
writers usiiw the term transubstantiation. This
treatise, pubUshed in 1517 by Montalon, canon of
Autun, was ascribed by some to Stephen U of Auttm
(d. 1189), but is vindicated for the earlier bishon by
MabUlon, "Annales O. S. B.", VI, 270.

HuBTWi. NoBund., II (InDsbruck, 1906), 75; GaQia elvrittiana,
IV. 38»; Docnun. F«<«« Spue.. 1, 339; HiH. Lilt. <U la rrmoe,
XI (Pkria, 1789), 710; Chluu, AtUnm Saeri: XIV (PwU,

1863), 304. Francis Mkrsbmah.

Stophen of Bourbon, illustrious writer and
preacher, especially noted as a historian of medie-
val heresies, b. at Belleville (Archdiocese of Lyons)
towards the end of the twelfth century ; d. in
1261. Having recdved his early education from
the cathedral clergy of Macon, he made his higher
studies in Paris, about 1220, and tiiere shortly
afterwards, as it seems, he entered tJie Order of
Preachers. From 1230 he was very active for
many years aa preacher and inquisitor in the dis-
tricts (H Lyonnais, But^undy, Franche-Comt^, Savoy,
Chamragne, Lorraine, Auvergne, Languedoc. and
RouBSulon. In his work for preachers entitled " De
septem donis Spiritus Sancti", or "Tractatus de
diversis Materiis pnedicabilibus", Stephen has em-
bodied much useful matt^ out of the many years of
his practical experience. The parte of this work more
valuable at the present d&y were published in Paris in
1877 by A. Lecoy de la Marche under the title "An-
ecdotes historiques, l^gendes et apologues, tir^ du
recueil in^dit d'Etienne de Bourbon dominicain du 13^
sidcle". ConsideredasawholeStephen'swork affords a
clear insight into the different sects and supersti-
tions of the age, while ^ving at the same time valu-
able information renuding the most prominent <tf his
contemporaries . Afthou^ credulous to a marked
degree, Stephen was, nevertheless, a strenuous oppo-
nent of superstition. A free use of his writings was
made by a later compiler to form a "Speculum Mor^
ale", wbicb for a long time was falsely ascribed to
Vincent of Beauvais.

BcMAMB. Serivt. otd. pnad., 1, 184 bq.; Hufrrnii, tftmmtJalor, II
(Innabrnok, 1906), 375; Lbcot db la M.kiichb. Intro'l. to work
• cited abovet HAOauo ia Jvvnal de* tutanU, 1881, 601 «]..
730 aq.; MOum. Dit WaUmatr (Ootlis, 1888). lOOaq.

Charles J. Callan.

Stephen of Muret, Saint, b. 1045; d. at Muret,
8 February, 1124, founder of the Abbey and Order of
Grandmont (q. v.). SeriouA chronological difficulties
are presented by the traditional story of his early life,
which runs as follows: Stephen in his twelfth year
•coonqtanied his father, the Viscount of Thiers, to

Italv where he was left to be educated by M3o,
Archbishop of Baievecto: after passing twelve years
in this prelate's household, he became the inmate of a
Benedictine monastery in Calabria, but never re-
ceived the habit. He then returned to France to bid
farewell to his parents, having formed the design of
entering religion, but, finding them dead, returned to
Italy. His patron Milo having also died, he estab-
lished binxseu at Rome, where -he studied the rules of
the religious houses of the city. After a four yeara'
sojourn ne obtained a Bull from Gregory VII author-
izing him to found an institute resembling that of Uie
solitaries he had frequented in Calabria, and returned
to France. He is said to have settlea at Muret in
1076. This story is impossible; his father visited
Italy in order to make a pilgrimage to St. Nicholas at
Bari; but St. Nicbolaa'a relice were not placed there
till some years later; MiJo was not Archbishop of
Benevento for twelve years. These are not the only
difficulties, but for a discussion of tJiese chronolf^cat
questions see Mart^ne, "Amplissima CoUectio", VI,

Enef., viii bC|. The exact truth as to St. Stephen's
fe cannot now be established. He went to Italy and
there saw some religious whose holy life inspired him
with a desire to imitate them, but who they were,
Carthusians or Benedictines, we do not know. The
quarrel as to what great order could claim Grand-
mont as its ofTsprinp;, with the consequent forgeries,
has done much to involve the founder's life m ob-
scurity. Though Stephen was cCTtainly the foimder
of the Order of Grandmont, he did Utue for his dis-
ciples except offer them the example of his holy life,
and it was not till after his death that the order was
firmlv established. His head is preserved in the
parish Church of St. Sylvestre, Canton of Lauri^re
(Haute Vienne). He was canonized in 1189 and his
feast occurs on 8 February. His works (not authentic)
may be found in Migne, P. L., CCIV, 997-1162.

Acta Sa.. Feb.. II. 1^ sq.; MxsrliNK, Am^inima 060., TI
(1729); Cbmtaukk. BrobtUwvrapAte, 1378.

Ratkund Websteb.

^tsplisu of Toumai, canonist, b. atOrl^ans,ll28;
d. at Toumai, September, 1203. He entered the Order
of the Canons Regular at Saint-Euverte in Orleans
about 1150, then studied canon and Roman law at
Bologna, returning to his monasteiy in 1 160. He was
elected abbot of Saint-Euverte in 1167 and of Sainte-
Genevi^ at Paris in 1177. Hie latter monasterv he
almost entirely rebuilt, establishing a monastic scnool
in connexion with it. In 1102 he became Bishop
of Toumai, but was greatly hampered in the exer-
cise of his episcopal functions by the opposition of the
people as well aa by the interdict placed on France on
account of the divorce proceedings of Philip II. He
is the author of "Summa in desretum Gratiani"
(11S9), which is to a great extent based on the similar
worlra of Faucapalea, Rufinus, and Rolandus (Alexan-
der III). It was first edited by Schulte (Giessen,
1891). His letters, edited by Molinet fParia, 1679),
are printed in P. L., CXI, 3TO-625.

B»NOt8. Btimw de Tmtmai, lltS-lMS (OrWana, I90S);
ScHDLT» in tbe iotroduotioa to Ua editfcm of tin Aunaia;
Wautbu in Swv. bdgifu*, VI (Bmaaela, 1878). 719^

MicHASii Ott.

Stephens, Hbnrt Robert, Belgian theologian, b.
of English parentage at Lifige, 5 August, 1665; d.
there, 15 June, 1623. He entered the Society of Jesus,
7 Sept., 1683, and for over twenty years was
sttacned to the episcopal seminary of Lifige, first as
professor of dogmatic theology and later as its supe-
rior. During this period the Jansenists were active in
Belgium, both in attacking the Jesuits and in opposing
the papal Decrees condemnatory of Jansenism. Ail
of Father Stephens's published works were iMMiasioned
by these attacks. In a libellous work entitled "Speci-
men doctrinse a Jesuitis in Seminario Leodiensi
traditffi" the Jesuits were aeeased, anamc other Uiing^

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STEPHENS 2

of coiTuptiug fnith and morals by their teaching. In
answer to these atxusations Father Stephens published
a Bet of theses, "ConciusioncB theologicae miscel-
lanese" (Li(^ge, 1702) and had them publicly defended
by one of his pupibi. In answer to another Jansenistic
work known as the "Epistola Leodtensis de formula
Alexandri VII", he published his "Vera defensio
auUioritatis Ecclesiae" (Lifrge, 1707). The Jansenist,
Henry Denys, thereu|)on defended the "Kpl'stola" in
an anonymously publishoil work which called forth
Father Stephens's "Author epistolffi Leodiensis denuo
confutatus'' (LiSge, 1709). His other works are
the " Dissertatio theologica de Condemnatione Libri
Janseniani" (Lid^e, 1710), and the "Consilium pacis
adversariis propriis inter se disputantibus" (Li^,
1710). In all these works his name iqipean m the
latinized form of Stephani.

SoMH«RTOattL, BibL de la Comp. de J.. VII (Bniaaels, 1896).

Edward C. Philups.

Stephens, Thomas (also known in India as Padb£
EsTEvXo or Estevam; less familiarly Padre Busten,
BusTON, or DE Buuston), b. about 1549 at Bulstan,
Wiltshire; d. in 1619 at Goa, India. He is admittedly
the first En^ishman in India. His father was an
influential London merchant. little is known of his
boyhood and youth. Though Hakluyt ("Voyages")
and Philip Anderson ("The English in Western India")
believe him to have been educated at New College,
Oxford, while A. F. Pollard in the "Dictionary of
National Biography" identifies him with the Thomas
Stephen of Bourton, Dorset, who was elected scholar
of Winchester in 1564, a careful search among the
registers of Oxford atudcDts ^ves no evidence of his
ever having been at any of the cplleges of Oxford,
lite error of countii^ Stephens as an Oxonian may
easily have arisen from his name havinff been mistaken
either for that of Richard Stephens his brother, who
studied at New College, or for that of another Thomas
Stephens who is said to have taken his degree at St.
John's CoU^, Oxford, in 1577, when the subject of
tlus article was already a novice at Sant' Andrea's in
Rome. Though not a student at Oxford, owin^ to
his father's influential position and to his own brilliant
parts, he very probably came into familiar contact
with Edmund Campion and several other Catholic
Oidord students whose examples may have influenced
his subsequent conversion. Soon after he had fin-
ished his scholastic career Stephens attached himself
to one Thomas Founde. The perusal of the accounts
of the Indian Missions seems to have engendered io
them the deure of entering the Society of Jesus.
Tbeir common aspirations and a similanty of tastes
broi^^t the two friends often together during the
persecutions of the English Catholics. Finally, impa-
tient of dela^ in carrying out their spiritual object,
they determined to set out for Rome, but Founde,
betrayed, was doomed to pass tiie next thuiiy years
in pnson. Stephens travelled alone to Rome and
entered Uie Society of Jesus. Haying finished his
novitiate, Stephens received permission to proceed to
India. He sailed from Lisbon (4 April, 1579) and
reached Goa, then the principal city of the East
Indies, on 24 October of the same year. From Goa he
wrote a series of letters to his father, which appear to
have held out "the strongest inducements which Lon-
don merchants had been offered to embark on Indian
speculations", coming, as the^ did, from one with a
thorough grn^p of commercial ideas. It has been un-
doubtf^ly put forth that these communications on the
mercantile chanf^s and ptwsibilities in the East subse-
quently led to the formation of the East India Com-
pany; but, unfortunately, only two o£ the letters have
been preserved. One of them (10 November, 1579),
the first he wrote to his father on reachii^ Goa, is in-
cluded in Hakluyt's "Voyages". The other(240cto-
bw, 1583), written in Latin to his brother in Paris, is

12 8TEVCO

preserved in part in the National Library of Bruaeela,
and published by Dr. Gerson da Cunha in the "In-
stituto Vasco da Gama", II. Fr. Stephens's first five
years were spent as minister of the professed house at
Goa, rector of Salsette College, and temporary sodta to
the visitor. The remaining thirty-five years of his
ministry were spent a^ong the Brahmin Catholics of
Salsette. His energy and zeal won the devotion of
the people and his influence often protected travdlers,
not only his countrymen, but other Europeans as well.

In the midst of his missionary labours he found time
for considerable literary work, though few of his writ-
ings remain. The suppression of the Society of Jesus
in 1773 and the chcckta^ career of the Konkani race
(the descendants of the Brahmin CathoUc commumty
of Salsette) destroyed most of his works and rcndov the
drawing up of anything like a complete list impossible.
M. PoUard states that Padre E^tev&o was the first to
make a scientific study of Canarese, that he also
learned Hindustani, and that.in both these languages
he published manuals of piety and grammar. Yet not
a single trace of these productions is extant. His
greatest surviving work, "The Christian Purdnna",
shows that he must have acquired a complete mastery
of MarAtM and Konkani and of Sanskrit, and it is
possible to suppose that he must have written more
works with the help of these than are preserved 'to us.
The following list includes all the extant writings: the
two letters mentioned above; a Catechism of Chris-
tian Doctrine which first appeared under the title,
"Doutrina Christ^ em lingua Bramana-Canarin,
Ordenada a maniera de dialogo . para enshiar os
meninoe, pelo Padre Thomas EstevSo, Jceuita, no
Collegio de Rachol" (1622); "Arte de lingua Cana-
rin", a grammar of the Konkani language, the first
grammar of an Indian toiu^e by a European, chiefly
of biblifwraphical interest (Uachol, 1640), revised and
improved by Fr. Diogo Ribiero, S. J., and bearing the
imprimatur of the prcBpositus General of the Society,
Fr. Vitelteschi. Only two copies of the first edition
are known to exist; a second edition was issued in
1857; "The Christian Purfinna" (1616, 1649, and
1654), but no copies of any of these editions are
extant. An editio vrmceps, reproduced from authen-
ticated MS. copies by the present writer, was issued in
1907 from the Jesuit Press at Mangalore, India. "The
Christian Pur&nna" is a Marathi-Konkani metrical
composition, consisting of 10.962 strophes, divided
into two parts treating of the Old' and toe New Testa-
ment respectively.

Hakltttt, Savigation, Vo]/aoe» and Ditanmet of (he Englitk
ffation (Edinburgh, 1880—): Dodd, Church HUton/, II (Bnimeb,
tare Wolverhunpton, 1737-42); FoLxr, Record* of the Eitol**h
iVoinnct S. J., Ul (LoodoD, 187S); Andebson rXe BrmtUh in
WetUrn India (Bomb&y, 1856); da Cunha Rivaba, Biuaio
Hittorico da Linova Comeani (New Goa, 1858); PoLUUW in
DicL NaL BioQ., s. v. Sttphtru or StoMiu, Thomat, In supplanteai;
SoiniBitvooEL, Bibliothlque de la C. de J. (Brusaola, 1890-1900);
BAUMOARTNiiR, OetcK. der WelUileraiur (Freiburg, 1900); Gribk-
BON, Linguittie Sureet/ of India, Vll, SfarOihi Language (Calcutta,
190.')); DA CvsuA in InitiiiUo Vaeco da Gama. II (New Go*,
1873); Idcu, MateriaU for Ihe Hiatory of OrxtiUiU Studies amonga
the PoTtttgvtM (paper read before the InterDational CongreM of
OrioDtalisU, FloreDoe, 187S, and published in the Aiti at tbat
CoDcrcM, IL Florence, 1881); Ideu, Tht Origin of BotiAaif
(Boinbay, ISDO) ; Bitsnelx., Tentative litt of works on the Parttt-
guest in India (Mannilore, 18S0; only fifteen copie* print«d by
the Board Hisaion Preae); Idem, Sptci'nuiM of South Indian
Dialeelt (Maocalore, 1872); Fernandeb in The MangaloTe JVoev-
tine, l\ Saldakha, The Indian CatU. I (Bombcy, 1904): Idem,
The Chrittian Purdnna, an essay (Bombay, 1903); MonEK-
WiLUAMB, FaeU of Indian Proorets in Coniemporary BnimK
Mascaxknhab in The Indian Antupiary (April. 1878); Bsio-
AVAX in Vividha iMydna YiiUra (Deoember, 1906).

JOBBPH L. SaIAAMHA.

Steuco (Steuchub), Agostino, exegete, b. at
Gubbio, Umbria, 1496; d. at Venice, 1549. At the
age of seventeen he entered the order of the Canons
R^ular of the Lateran at Gubbio, and in 1525 he
was made director of the library of Cardinal Grimani
at Venice. In 1530 he became prior of the canons of
R«g^ and shortly aftec at Guhb^. L^rlxIn^lSSS
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8TEVBN8

293

8TIVIN

ht was i4>pointed Bishop of Kisamos in Crete 1^
Paul III, who also made him direotm of the
Vatican Library on 27 Oct. of the same yeu, but
in the latter capacity Steuoo did not aooomplidi
much (Pastor, '^Geeohiohte Pauls III," Freiburg,
1909, p. 738}. In 1547 Paul III sent him as l^ate to
the Tridentme Council, which had been transferred
to Bolc^na, and he di^ on his way back to Rome.
He was a man of varied taloits, well versed in history,
^iloBophy, and theola|Qr, uid had a fair mastery <n
Greek and Hebrew. Em works, chiefly oiegetKHd,
were edited in three volumes by Ambrogio Morando
(Paris, 1578; Venice, 1591 and 1601).

TiauoscHi, StoHa dMa LeUmtwa Italiana, VII, I, 39ft-400;
WtLLUAMM, OeteA. dn /dMUnmu. Ill (Bnuuwiok, 1897), 170-77:
HuBTBR, Jfomendotor.

Michael Ott.

Steveiu, CoBNXiLUB. See Bdloium.

Sterezison, Josbph, archivist, b. at Berwick-oor
Tweed. 27 Nov., 1806; d. in London, 8 Feb., 1895.
Tliougn his parents were Presbyterians, he was edu-
cated at Durham tmder the historian, James Kaine,
and afterwards at the University of Glasgow. Com-
ing to London he found work, first amoi% the Govern-
ment recinds, then in l^e British Museum, 1831 ; later
he mairied Mary Ann Oaig, and gradually gave up
I^e^yterianiam. The death <rf his eldest and muoh-
loved son so affected him that he returned to Durham
and took Andican orders. He became librarian at
the cathedral (1841-48), and was afterwards instituted
rector of Leighton Buzzard (1849-63). All this time
he was constantly editing ancient texts: for the Mait-

tees Society, seven volumes, witii eiaht volumes of
"The Church Historians of Ent^d.'^ In 1856 the
Eni^ish Crovemment was makmg plans for dealing
with the national records on a lat^ scale. Stevenson
was one of those appointed to report on the subject,
and when the Public Record Office was instituted,
1857, he was one of the first editors engaged. He now
edited seven volumes for the Rolls Series, seven
volumes of Calendars, Foreign Series, and two of the
Scottish Series. Meantime he had been received into
the Church, 24 June, 1863, and after his wife died,
1869, he entered the seminary of Oscott, and was or-
dained priest by Bishop Ullathome in 1872. Next
year he was in Rome searching for documents concern-
ing English history . from the Vatican archives, be-
ii^; employed by the British Government to b%in the
series at ''Roman IVanscripts" for the Record Offioe;
he abo wrote many reports for the Historical Manur
script Commission. In 1877 he gave up these occu-
pations to enter the Society of Jesus, though nearly
seventy-two years of age, but after his novHiate he
returned agam to historical research, and continued
his studies until the end. His chief work of this period
was the discovery and publication of Claude Nau's
"Life of Mary Queen of Scotts" (Edinburgh, 1883).
In 1892 he received the honoranr degree (rf Doctfv <A
Laws fnun the University of St. Andrews. Prolonged
literary work, instead <rf stiffening the nund, left
Stevenson ever fresh and elastic, the friend of ohildr^
and producal of kindness to otluro.

Th» Jfima (Maroh, AprU. 1896); Qiuam, BOl. Diet, Eng.
Calk., M. V.

J. H. POLUEN.

SteTin, Simon, b. at Bruges in 1548; d. at Leyden
in 1620. He was for some years book-keeper in a busi-
neas house at Antwerp; later he secured employment
in the administration of the Franc of Bruges. After
Tisiting Prussia, Poland, Sweden, and Norway he took
up his residence in the Netherlands, where he spent
the rest of his life. The Stadtholder Maurice of
Nassau esteemed him so highly that he studied under

his dinctira mathematics, scieaoe, and engineering,
rewardii^ him for his svriees by making him director
ot finanoes, inspector of dykes of the Low Countries,
and quartermasteF-gmeral of l^e Government. His
was an upright, modest, and inventive mind. His
influence on the development of science was great and
lasting. He began ^tn the publication in 1582 of his
"Tafden van Int^est" (Tables of Intrant; Plantin,
Antwerp), thus disbibuting throu^ the busineM
workl an eaery and valuable m^od of cakulation.
still carefully preserved by tiie wealthy menAants of
the Low Countries. Then came successive^: in 1583
the "Problematum geometriconim libri V", a very
original worl(, somewhat imperfectly reproduced in
subsequent editions of the author's works, the
"Dialektike ofte bewysconst", a treatise on logic,
re-edited at Rotterdam in 1621, but not found in the
lar^ editions of the author's works, and "De
Thiende", a small pamphlet of tihirty-six pages con-
taining the oldest syatcanatto and complete explana-
tion of decimal calculus, both published by pj^tin
at Leyden in 1586. "De Thiende" has often causecl
its author to be regarded as the inventor of calculus;
he was indisputably the first to bring to light its
f^reat advantages. Stevin translate the pamphlet
mto French and re-edited it the same year under the
title "La Disme", with his Arithn^etic published at
Antwerp by Plantin. In 1586 appeared the most
famous of his works, " De Beghinselen der Weeghconst,
De Weeghdaet, De Beghin^len der Waterwichta
(Antweip). This was the first edition of his metdunics,
in which he sets forth for the first time several
theorems since then definitely embodied in science;
the hydrostatic paradox; equilibrium of bodies on
inclined planes; the parallelogram of forces, for-
mulated, it is true, under a different enunciation by
oonstruoting a triangle by means of two oomponente
and their results.

Stevin's "Vita ix>litica, Het Burgherlick leven", a
treatise on the duties of the citizen which is no longer
printed in large editions of his works, was published
by Raphelengen at Leyden in 1590. It gave nse during
the nineteentib century to a long and violent oontro-
ver^. Prom some pages of this volume the inference
has been drawn that when entering the service of
Maurice of Nassau Stevin apostatised from the
Catholic Church, but this opimon is hardly tenable
and has now been abandoned. In 1594 appeared the
"Appendice Algebralque", an eight-page jiamphlet,
the rarest of his worics (there is a copy at the Catholic
University of Louvain) and one of the most remark-
able; in it he gave for the first time his famous solu-
tion of equatirais of the third d^ree by means of
successive approxiniations. In the same year was
published "De Sterctenbouwiiw", a treatise on
fortifications, and in 1599, " Haven vinding", a
treatise on navigation, instructing mariners how to
find ports with Uie aid of the compass. From 1605
to 1608 Stevin re-edited his chief works in two folio
volumes entitled "Wisconstigegedachtenissen" (Bou-
wens, Leyden). A Latin translation of them, under
the title "Hypomnemata mathematioa", was con-
fided to Wiflebrord Snellius; and an inoomplete
French translation, entitled "M^oires inath6-
matiques", was the work of Jean Tuning, secretary
of the Stadtholder Maurice. These two versions
were publiehed at Leyden by Jean Paedts. The
"Wisconstige gedaohtenissen " and the "Hyponme-
mata mathematica" contain several treatises then
published for the first time, notably the trigonometry,
ge(^;r^hy, coBmogn4>hy, penqieotive, book-keq>ing,
etc

In 1617 Waaaberghe published at Rotterdam
Stevin's "L^ermeting" and "Nieuwe maniere van
Stercktebouw door spilaluysen", of which French
translations were published by the same editor in the
following year under the titles "Caata»mdtation"

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STIFm 2

and "Nouvelle moni^ de fortiGcations par ^cluses".
These were the last publications made during his
lifetime, but he left important MSS., the chief of
which were published in }649 by his son Henri, who
composed the "Burgherlicke Stoffen" (politieal ques-
tions); the others were lost, but later recovered.
Bierens de Haan edited two of them at Amsterdam
in 1884: "Spieling der singconst" (mirror of the
art of singing) and "Van de molens" (on mills).
After Stevm's death Albert Girard translated several
of his works and annotated others, thus forming a
large folio volume published at Leyden in 1634 oy
the f^lzevirs as "<Euvres mathSmatigues de Simon
Stevia de Bruges". Abroad Stevin ia crftea known
only through this translation, but it does not conv^
an adequate idea of his works and should be supple-
mented by several of the original editions mentioned
above. Unfortunately these have become bibliogn^h-
ical rarities almost unobtainable outside of Belgium
and the Netherlands. M. Ferd. van der Ha^en
has miide them the subject of a masterly study m his
"Bibliotheca Belgica" (1st series, XXIII, Ghent aod
The Hague, 1880-90), in which he notes most of tlu
copies preserved in the libraries of both countries.

GovraALB, Notice hiH. mr la vU H If tramxix de Aawn Stntn
de Bruges (Bniwels, 1841); Stiichbn, Mim. tur la wU «t he
Irafaux tU Simon Stevin (BniMeb, 1846); Cantor. V&HeatmgM
tibtr OMeh. dM MalMimatUt, II ad., Im^Sm. IMO).

H. BOBHANB.

Stiftor, Adalbeiit, poet and pedagogue, b. at
Oberplan in Bohemia. 2S October, 1805; d. at Linj,
28 October, 1868. His father was a linen weaver and
flax dealer. In these humble surroundings the tal-
ented boy received the first intellectual stimulus from
his mother and grandmother, who told him fairy-
tales. stcH^ies, and legends. At school he was an wt
scfaouu* and, among other things, showed talent for
music and drawing. After the sudden death of his
father in 1817, his grandfather sent him to the Bene*
dictine gymnasium at Krefflsmttnster in Upper Aus-
tria, where Father Plasidus Hall took the clever boy
under his care. In 1827 Stifter went to the Unrver-
sity of Vienna. Here, after completing Uie usual
philosophical course, he applied himself to l^al
studio; but his natural bent eventually led him to
attend lectures in mathematics and the natural
sciences. He supported himself by giving private les-
sons among the leading families, and m this way formed
a wide connexion among the VieDnese aristocracy, his
circle of acquaintances inchiding the family «
imperial chancellcv, Prince Mettonich. He wished to
be a teacher of natural science and passed the written
examination for this with honour in 1830, without the
OTsl examination, however. Although now thirty-
two years old and still a candidate for the position of
teacher, he married the penniless daughter of a retired
artillery officer. It was impossible for him to find a
more secure position, and he was obliged to continue
eaminga precarious livehhood by givmg private les-
sons. His position, however, improved when a stoiy,
"Der Condor", published in the "Wiener Zeitschrift
in 1840, suddenly made him famous. This was soon
followed by other stories, which were later collected
and publisbed under the title of "Studien".

A new era in Stifter's existence began with the year
1848. It was in that year that the revolutionary
uprisings, which filled- the stxeets of Vienna with tur-
moil snd violence, drove him from the ci^tal to Lins.
There, aftOT vainly trying to obtain a position as a
teachOf he offered his services to the provincial govcm-
ment m Upper Austria, and his great pedagogical abil-
ities were now at last realized. Count Leo Thun, the
reorganiser of the Austrian school system, apjwinted
Stifter in 1850 a member of the school board at Linz.
There was no longer any lack of honours and recogni-
tion : be received me medal for art and science and the
cross of a knight of the Order of fVanois Joseph, and

H SnOMATA

was ^atly esteemed by the Empress Elisabeth. But.
in spite of all this, Btif ter gradually became morose and
eccentric. Itbecaineimpossibleforfaimtoov^oomean
ever^ncreasing depreasi<m, the after-effect of his early
di8iq)p(ttntment8. As he entered the sixties, a aevere
liver compIaiDt developed which obliged him to make
repeated visits to Karlsbad. In 1865 he retired with
his full salary and the title of imperial councillor. He
visited his home for the last time in 1867, and soon
after was seised with the painful illness which, ia

3 lite (tf his wife's careful nursing, piroved fatal. He
ied childless.

As a poet, Stifter belonged to the late Romantic
School, like I>roete-H&lshoff and MGrike. His con-
templative spirit, his delicate perception of nature,
the richness of his im^nation, and bis shrinking from
the tumult of the day are all traits of ^e RtmaoU-
cism, as is evident m bis "Studien", and "Bunte
Steine". As an older man, aJx)ut 1850, the greater
composure of his style bore a resemblance to the
classicism of Goethe, as is shown in his "Naeh-
Bommer", and still more in his "Witiko". That he
was also an excellent pedagogue is made evident not
only in his work as a member of the school-board, but
also in his writings, which bear evidence of his excel*
l»it ped^c«ical knowledge. His latest bio0-^h«r
says: " In advance of his tmies, he held up as the aim
of the future most of the achievements which have
been realized by modem pedagogy, and was thus, until
death, in word and deed a mod». a leader, and a dis-
coverer of new paths for the school he loved so dearly."
Several of his works were often reprmted during, his
lifetime. A complete edition, edit^ by Apprent, was
issued at Pesth in 1870. A popular edition of selected
works was published at Leipzig in 1887. Professor
Sauer is editing a new and carefully prepared edition
for the "Library of German Authors of Bohemia"
("Bibhothek deutocher SchriftsteUer aus B6hmen",
Prague, 1901 ).

Hkim, Adalbert Stiftw, anft Ltbm md miM Werk* (Pnsuo.
1904): AdofiMrt Stifler, tine Sa>eleharakieriMc de* MmtcKen wii
dee Klhuttera, aueeewoAU und eingtieilet ton P. Q. Harmuth (Mu-
nich, 1905); KOOCH, Adalbert SUfter (Laipsic, 1905); Adalbtrt
Stifltr und Oie Bvmantik, in Pngtr dmilaAe StudiM, I (1905);
HuLixB. Zu SUftert SM, in Suptiorion, XVI (19M). 130-47.
460-71.

N. ScHEro.

Stigmata, Mtstical. — I. To describe m^y the
facts without deciding whether or not they may be
explained by supernatural causes, history tells us that
many eostatics bear on hands, feet, aide, or brow the
matKB of the Passion of Christ wi^ MMTesponding
and intense sufferings. These are called visible stig-
mata. OthCTs only have the suffering, without any
outward mark, and these phenomena are called in-
visible stigniata. Their existence is so well estab-
Ibhed historically that, as a general thing, they are
no longer disputed by unbelievers, who now seek only
to explain them naturally. Thus a free-thinking
pl^sician, Dr. Dumas, professor of religious psy-
chology at the StniKmne, clearly admits the facts
(Revue dee Deux Mondes, 1 May, 1907), as does also
Dr. Pierre Janet (Bulletin d% rinstitutpqroholo^us
•international, Paris, July, 1901).

St, Catherme of Siena at -first had virible stigmata
but throu^ humility she asked that they might be
made invisible, and her prayer was heard. This was
also the case with St. Catherine de' Ricci, a Florentine
Dominican of the nxteenth century, and with several
other stigmatics. The sufFeringa may be considered
the essential part <tf visible stigmata; the substanoe
of this grace consists in pity for Christ, participation
in His sufferings, aomms, and for the same ena — ^the
expiation of the sins tmceasingly committed in the
world. If the sufferings were absent, the wounds
would be but an empty symbol, theatrical representa-
tion, oonduoing topriae. If the stigmata really come
from Qod, it would be umnntby of His wisoom to

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: in such futility, aod to do so by a miracle,
tut tbis trial is far from being the onl^ one which the
saints have to endure: "The life of stigmatics, " Bays
Dr. Imbert, "is but a long series of sorrows which
arise from the Divine malady of the stigmata and
end only in death" (op. oit. uofra, II, x). It seems
historically certain that ecstatics aloiu bear the
stigmata; moreover, they have visioiiB which oorre-
spond to their r61e (tf co-suffererB, beholding from time
to time the blood-stained scenes ch the Paasion. With
many stinnatica these apparitions were periodical,
e. g. St. Catherine de' Ricci, whose ecstasiee of the
Passion b^an when she was twenty (1542), and the
Bull of her canonization states that for twfuve years
they recurred with minute reguUuity. The ecstasy
lasted exactly twenty-eight hours, from Thursday
Doon till Friday afternoon at four o'clock, the only
interruption bem^ for the saint to receive Holy Com-
munion. Catbenne conversed aloud, as if enacting
ft drama. This drama was divided into about seven-
teen scenes. On comuw out of the ecstasy the saint's
limlM were covered with wounds produced by whips,
oords etc.

Dr. Imbert has attempted to count the number of
atigmatioSf with the following results: (I) None are
known pnor to the thirteenth century. The first
mentioned is St. Francis of Assisi, in whom the stig-
mata were of a character never seen subsequently:
in the wounds of feet and hands were excrescMOces
of flesh r^reeenting nails, those on one side having
round blade heads, those on the other having rather
long points, which bent back and grasped the skin.
The saint's humility could not prevent a great many
of his brethren bdLoldiug with their own eyes the
existence of these wonderful wounds during his life-
time as well as after his death. The fact is attested
by .a niunbo- (A contemporary historians, and the
feast of the Stigmata .of St. Francis is kept on 17
Septembw. (2) Dr. Imbert counts 321 stigmatics in
whom there is every reason to believe in a Divine
action. He believes that others would be found by
consulting the Ubraries of Germany, Spiun. and Italy.
(3) In this Ust there are 41 men. (4) There are 62
saints or blessed of both sexes, of whom the best
known (numberiiu; twmty-six) were: St. P^iuicis
of Asnn (1186-1226); St. Lutnrde (1182-1246),
ft Cistwcian; St. Margaret of Cortona (1247-97);
St. Gertrude (1256-1302), a Benedictine; St. Clare
of Montefalco (1268-1308), an Au^tinian; Bl.
Angela of Foligno (d. 1309), Franciscan tertiary;
St. Catherine of Siena (1347-80), Dominican tertiaxy;
St. Lidwine (1380-1433); St. Frances of Rome
(1384-1440); St. Colette (1380-1447), Franciscan;
8t. Rita of Cassia (1386-1456), AujSUBtinian; Bl.
Osanna of Mantua (1499-1505), Dominican tertiary;
St. Catherine of Genoa (1447-1510), Franciscan
tertiary: Bl. Baptista Varani (1458-1624), Poor
Oare; Bl. Lu^ of Nami (1476-1547), Dominican
tertiary; Bl. Catherine of Racconigi (1486-1547),
Dominican; St. John of God (1496-1550), founder of
the Order of Charity; St. Catherine de' Ricci (1522-
89), Dominican; St. Mary Magdalen de' Pazzi
(1566-1607), Carmelite; Bl. Marie de I'lncamation
(1566-1618), CarmeUte; Bl. Mary Anne of Jesus
(1557-1620), Franciscan tertiary; Bl. Carlo of Sezae

id. 1670). Franciscan; Bl. Margaret Mary Alacoque
1647-00), Visitandine (who had only the crown of
tiioms); St. Veronica Giuhani (1600-1727), Capuchin-
ees; St. Mary Frances of the Five Wounds (1715-
91), Franciscan tertiary.

(5) There were 29 stigmatics in the nineteenth
century. The most famous were: Catherine Em-
merich (1774-1824), Augustinian; Elis^wth Cuiori
Mora (1774-1825), Trinitarian tertiary; Anna Maria
Talgi (1769-1837); Maria Dominica Laztari (1815-
48): Marie de Moerl (1812-68) and Louise Lateau
(1860-83), Franciscan Tertiaries. Of these, Marie

de Moerl spent her life at K^tem, Tyrol (1812-68).
At the age of twenty she became an ecstatic, and
ecstasy was her hahitual condition for the remaining
thirty-five years of her life. She emerged from it
only at the command, sometimes only mental, of
the Franciscan who was her director, and to attend to
the affairs of her bouse, which sheltered a large family.
Her ordinary attitude was kneeling on her bed with
hands crossed on her breast, md an expression of
countenance which deeply impressed spectators. At
twenty-two she received thb stigmata. On Tliuredfty
evening and Friday these stigmata shed very clear
blood, drop by drop, becoming dry on the other days.
Thousands of persons saw Marie de Moerl, amoiw
them GOrree (who describes his visit in his " Mystik ,
11, xx), Wiseman, and Lord Shrewsbury, who wrote
a defence of the ecstatic in his letters published by
"The Morning Herald" and "The Tablet" (cf.
Bor6, op. cit. infra). Louise Lateau spent her life
in the villaea of Bois d'Haine, Belgium (1850-83).
The graces uie received were disputed even by some
Catholics, who as a general thing relied on incomplete
or erroneous information, as has been eetablish^l by
Canon Thiery ("Examen de ce qui conceme Bois
d'Haine", Louvain, 1907). At sixteen she devoted
herself to nursing uie cholera victims of her parish,
who were abandoned by most of the inhabitants.
Witlun a month she nursed ten, buried them, and in
more than one instance bore them to the oemeteiy.
At eighteen Ae became an ecstatio and stigmatic,
which did not prevent her supporting her family
by working as a seamstress. Numerous physicians
witnessed her painful Friday ecstasies and established
the fact that for twelve years she took no nourish-
ment save weekly communion. For drink she was
satisfied with three or four glasses of water a week.
She never slept, but passed her nights in contem-
plation and prayer, kneeling at the foot of her bed.

II. The facts having been set forth, it remains to
state the explanations that have been offered. Some
physiologista, both Catholics and Free-thinkers, have
maintained that the wounds might be produced in a
purely natural manner by the sole action of the imag-
ination coupled with lively emotions. The person
bmng keenly impressed by the sufferings of the Sav-
iour and penetrated by a great love, this preoccupation
acts on her or him physically, reproducing the wounds
of Christ. This wmdd in no wise diminish his or
her merit in accepting the trial, but the inunediate
cause of the phenomena would not be supernatural.
We shall not attempt to solve this question. Phys-
iological science does not appear to be far enoi^
advanced to permit a definite solution, and the writer
of tills article adopts the intermediate position, which
seems to him unassiulable, that of showing that the
arguments in favour of natural explanations are
illusory. They are sometimes arbitrajy hypotheses,
being equivalent to mere assertions, sometimes argu-
ments based on exaggerated or misinterpreted facts.
But if the progress of medical sciences and psycho-
physiology should present serious objections, it must
be remembered that nciUier region nor mysticism
is dc^iendent on the solution of these questions, and
that in processes of canonisation stigmata do not
count as incontestijsle miracles.

No one has ever claimed that imagination could
produce wounds in a normal subject: it is true that
this faculty can act slightly on the body, as Benedict
XIV said, it may accelerate or retard the nerve-
curr^ts. but there is no instance of its action on the
tissues (De canoniz.. III. xxxiii, n. 31). But with
r^ard to persons in an aononnal condition, such as
ecstanr or hypnosis, the question is more difficult;
and, dteepite numerous attempts, hypnotism has not
produced very clear results. At most, and in ex-
ceedii^y rare cases, it has induced exudations or a
sweat mote or less coloured, but thisis a very imper^

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SnPIND

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feet imitation. Moreover, no expUmatioD has hem
offered of three ciroumstances presented by tiie stig-
mata of the Baints: (1) Physicians do not succeed m
curing these wounds with remedies. (2) On the other
hand, unlike natural wounds of a certain duration,
those of Btigmatics do not give forth a fetid odour.
To this there is known but one exception: St. Rita
of Cassia had received on her brow a supernatural
wound produced by a thorn detached from th^ crown
of tiie erucifix. Iliough, this emitted an uid>earable
odour, there was never any suppuration or morbid
alteration of the tissues. ' (3) Sometimes these wounds
dve forth perfumes, for example those of Juana of the
Cross, Fnuaciscan prioress oi Toledo, and Bl. Lucy
of Narni. To sum up, there is only one means of
proving scientifically that the imagination, that is
auto^ggestion, may produce stigmata: instead of
hypotheses, analogous facts in the natural order must
be producM, namely wounds produced apart from a
religious idea. This has not been done.

With regard to the flow of blood it has been ob-
jected that there have been bloody sweats, but Dr.
Lefd>vre, professor of medicine at Louvain, has re-
plied that such cases as have been examined by
physicians were not due to a moral cause, but to a
specific malady. Moreover, it has often been proved
by the microscope that the red liquid which oozes
forth ia not blood: its colour is due to a particular
Bubstanoe, and it does not proceed frmn a wound, but
is due, like sweat, to adilatationof the poresoftheskin.
But it may be objected that we tmdmy minimise the
power of the im^nation, since, joined to an emotion,
It can produce sweat; and as the mere idea of having
an acid bon-bon in the mouth producee abundant
sahva, so, too, the nerves acted upon b^ the imf«ina-
tion might produce the emission of a Uauid, and this
liquid might be blood. The answer is that tn the in-
stances mentioned there are glands (sudoriparous and
B^vaiy) which in the normal state emit a special
liquid, and it is easy to underatand that the imagina-
tion may bring about this secretion; but the nerves
adjacent to the skin do not terminate in a gland emit-
ting blood, and without such an organ they are

Eowerless to produce the effects in question. What
as been said of the stig^natic wounds applies also to
the suffering. There is not a single experimental
proof that unagination could produce them, espe-
cially in violent forms.

Another explanation of these phenomena is that
the patients produce the wounds either fraudulently
or during attacks of somnambulism, unconsciously.
But physicians have always taken measures to avoid
these sources of error, proceeding with great strictness,
particularly in modem times. Sometimes the patient
has been watched night and day, sometimes too lunbs
have been enveloped in sealed banda^. M. Pierre
Janet placed on one foot of a stkmatic a copper shoe
with a window in it through which the development of
the wound might be watched, while it was impossible
for anyone to touch it (op. cit. supra).

Imbebt, La iligmatUation (Paris. 1894); Luxbyrb, Louise
Lateau, UiuU midieaU (Louvaia, 1873); Ribbt, La myttigiM
(Parifi, 1899); Podlain, Dm prdces {Torauon (Paris, 1911): tr.
The Qraeea o/_Interior Praytr (Londoii, 1910); Bor^ Let Uig-
rnaUtUt du Tyrol (Paria, 1S46); Scbubges, Vie d« Catherine
BmmeriA (Frmiob tr., Paris, 1868).

Aug. PoDiiAiN.

Stipend [Lat. ttipendium, a tax, import, tribute; in
military use, pay, salary; contraction for atijnpen-
dium, nom slips, a gift, donation, alms (given in small
coin), and pendere, to weigh out], a fixed pay, salary;
retribution for work done; the income of an ecclesias-
tical living. In canon law stipend is a general desig-
nation of means of support {siuterUatio congrua or con-
grua) provided for the clergy. In the early ages of
the Cnurch no special provision was made for the
maintenance of the clergy. St. Paul, the tent-maker,
set the example (I Oor., iv, 12) of earning his own

livelihood. In imitati<m of him many clerics worked
at some oraft or followed some profeesion, living by
the labour of their own hands. Even in the fifth and
sixth centuries there were bishops, priests, and dea-
cons, who in keeping with the aavice of the Fourth
Council <rf Cfu>tha^ (a. 308, caan. 52, 53) supported
themselves by their own labour. Early l^alation
(Canon. Apost., can. 6), which forbade the clergy to
take up oertfun occupations and piofesuons, is an in-
dication that clerics sought to maintain themadves.
V Many of the laity, however, even from the beginning,
Srere quick to follow the instructions of Christ and bis
Apostles (Matt., x, 10; Luke, x, 7; I Cor., bt, 13; I ,
Tim., V, 17-18), founded on the practice in vogue
among the Jews (Lev., xxvii, 30 sq.; Num., xviii, 23
aq.; etc.), who gave tithes of all their goods andpro-
duce for the sustenance of priests and levites. "niuB
did the laity provide for the bodily wdf are of the der^
in return for the spiritual gifts received through their
ministoy. Later the payment of tithes was frequently
insisted on by St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and others
(Ihomassin, "Vet.etnov. eocl. disc," III, II,xii, xiv).
The Synods of Tours (560) and MAcon (586) strenu-
ously exhorted the faithful to pa^ the tithes ordained
by God. Charlemagne made their payment obligatory
on his subjects by a royal ordinance of 779, the re-
quirements of wmch he himself faithfuUjr observed.

oblig^>ion ^ saving tithes has long smce ceased
almost universally, but the faithful, ofcourse, must
contribute to the proper support of sacred ministers.

The volimtarv (rfferin^ of the people made on
Sundays and other occasions were also intended in
part tor the maintenance of clerics, that thev might
not be compelled to engage in pursuits which vdmt
ill become the ecclesiastical state or withdraw uk
clergy from their Efpiritual work. In most countries
the offraingB of tiie laity still constitute the chi^ sup-
port of the cl^ar. A quasi-contract obt^ns between
the parijBh on we (me hand and the clergy who min-
ister to its wants on the other. Pastor and assistants
are engaged in the work of the parish and receive in
return a definite salary from the income or revenues
of the parish. These revenues are derived from pew-
rental, offerings, c(^ections, subscriptions, and what-
ever other sources of income the parish may possess.
Clerics engaged in teachkw or other work not parochial
are supported in much the same way, obtaining a
sal ary from the institution by wfaidi they are empbyed.
The salary {congrva) of pastors and assistants should
be a fixed sum, such as will suffice for their necessities.
TTie amount paid will depend on various circum-
stances of time, place, persons, income of the parish,
and duties of the incumbent. The Council of Trent
(Sess. XXIV, c. 13, de r^.) directs bishc^ to arrange
we congrva in the most convenient way. Salaries of
pastors in ihe United States are determined in dio-
cesan synods or otherwise with the advice of the dio-
cesan consultors (Cone. Plen. Bait. Ill, n. 273).
Stole fees (jura stola), or pCTquisites received on the
occasion of the administration of the sacraments or
sacramentals, are not in the nature of stipends. At
times, nevertheless, by diocesan regulations, th^
form a portion of the salary of pastor and assistants.

In r^fard to so-called state aid of the clei^, the
State b^an indirectly to help the clergy in the time ^
Constantine, who gave a legal existence to churches
as corporate bodies, permittmg them to receive dona-
tions and legacies and to hold the same in perpetuity
(Cod. Theod., XVI, 2, 4). He ordered contributionfl
of grain to be given annuallj^ to the clergy out of the

£ul 3lic granaries. He contributed large sums from
is own resources for the support of the clergy in
Africa, and exempted the Church from imposts m an
edict imponi^ a generd tax (Cod. Theod., XI, i, 1).
Direct support of the clergy by the State is of compara-
tively moaem origin, having developed since the Ref-
ormation, It obtains particularly m Catholic coun-

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STOCKHOLM

2W

STOCKHOLM

tries th&t have entered into a concordat, or treat^^,
with the Holy See for the support of the olocgy. Ttua
support is in recompense, far inadeqaate indeed, for
the sec|uestratioQ of eoclesiastioal funios and prm>erty.
Austria, Spain, Italy, and certain countries of Central
and South Amerioa thus directly suppfurt the clergy,
paying salaxies to biBhopB^yioan-fKneral, pastors, and
assistants. France and Fortugal^ aa well as Cubi^
Porto Rico, and the Philii^inea, when- under Spanish
rule^ did the same.

Smoe the time of Gonstantine the right of the
Church to possess temporal goods has been universally
acknowledged and protected by civil governments
with some exceptions. These exceptians refer chiefly
to bequests and l^aeioB. The possession by the
Chureh of temporal goods and the sunendering of the
same to the cier^ for their sustenance gave rise to
bi^^ces, the fnuts or income of which constitute the
chi^ provision for the maintenance of the cleigy po»-
sessing them. The fruits of a benefice wiU mamtain
the incumbent, even though he have private means of
support. He should have not only what is necessary
for sustenance, but sufficient for fitting recreation and
ho^itality, and a modest portimi for future contin-
gencies: he ma;^ also asnst near relatives to some ex-
tent. If anythms remain, it is to be used in chari-
table works. Eedeeiastical goods are not to be be-
queathed in any considerable quantity to profane
purposes. There are other methods in vc^e for the
support of the clergy akin to, or divisions of, those
mentioned: voluntary offerings, tithes, quasi-con-
tracts, state aid, and benefices. Stipends tor the aopli-
cationof Masses were (wi^nal^ intended for the ou^
maintenance tA the oekbrant. (For treatment irf we
Masa-stipend see Mass, Sacrivicb ot thb.) It is in
this latter sense that the wmrd IB mostly used at present,
though it occasionally demgnates certain allowances
made from ecoleeiastical foundations in favour of stu-
dents seeking a more special or mart profound train-
ing in the arts w seieneeB. (See Benbyicb; Endow-
hmnt; Trnxs.)

AsDBXW B. Mbbhah.

StotidioliDi the e«>ital of the Kingdom of Sweden,
is situated on Lake Maelar at the spot where it opens
into the Saltsjd, a rocky bay of the Baltic 59° 20' N.
lat. The city, throi^ which flows the short but fine
river the NorrBtrom, is built partly on islands, partly
on hetjibts, on both banks of the river, from which
there is a view over Maelar and the Saltsid. It is
claimed that Stoddwlm was founded by Mrger Jail
(d. 1260), and the coat of arms of the citr stiil bears
the picture of King St. Eric ^d. 1160). The oity has
a population of 341,986 and is the court residence of
the king and the seat of the government^ of the dip-
lomatic corps, and of the vicar Apostolic. The en-
trance to Stockholm is defended by the ftHixeases
Oscar Fredriks Borg and Waxholm. It is the seat of
the chief military authorities of the fourth and fifth
military districts, ineludii% artillery, cavaliy, infan-
try, and transpwt, and is a station of the fleet. As
the eamtal it is the seat of the central administration
of the ldngdf»n, and contains the supreme court, the
Svea upper court, the national royal bank, the oaint,
and exonange. As regards admmistrotion the oity

Stockholm forms a separate district, which is ruled
by a governor and is distinct from the I^vinoe oi
Stockhohn (Stockhohns Iftn). The eit? hm burgo-
maatm, mapstrates, and a oommon counefl oC one
hundred members. The importance of the city in
regard to commerce, manufactures, and shipping is
shown by the following statistics of the year 1006:
value of imports, 157,066,681 kronen; value of exports,
46,934,890 kronen; factories, 732, with 29,948 work-
men and an output of the value of 166,540,075
kronen. The shipping trade of the citrr is carried
on by 249 ships of 124,037 tons. The vessels

over ten tons which call at the port of Stockholm
number 36,338.

Schools of higher learning in Stockholm are the
Hf^skola, a free college founded in 1878, the Caroline
medioo-Hurgical institute, founded in 1815, the mili-
tary academy, the academy for the artillery and en-
gineering cortw, the academy for music (1771). the
academy of fine arts (1773), the technical high scnool,
and the commercial nigh school. The learned socie>
ties are the Swedish Academy, with eighteen members,
founded by Gustavus III in 1786; the Academv of
Sciences, founded in 1739; the Nobel Institute, wnich
has an endowment of over thirty million kronen; the
Royal Library, containing over 300,000 volumes; and
the observatory. The most important public build-
ings are the royal castle, buHt in the B^iatsrance style,
one of the fineet works of the celebrated Swedish archi-
tect Count NicodemuB Tesein the Younger (d. 1728);
the Parliament building; the House of the Swedish
Nobility, where the council of nobles formerlv met,
built in the Renaissance style of 1661 ; the royal opera
house and royal theatre; the national museum, with
picture and sculpture galleriee: the Northern Museum,
with collections to illustrate the ethnognn^hy and de-
velopment in civilization of the Scandinavian peoples:
the okansen, a large open-air museum and so&logical
garden. The Northern- Museum and the Skajosen
were founded by Dr. A, Hazelius (d. 1901). The chief
ptd>lio statues are those of Birger Jarl, Gustavus Vasa,
Gustavus II AdolphiK, Charles XII, and Charles XIII,
both of these last mentioned statues being in the
"Kungstrad^den". Gustavus III, Charlw XIV,
a statue of Luuueus in a park bearing his name, ana
oneof Bersdius.

Stockholm has veiy few buildings belonging to the
Middle Ages, as the finest of this era, the monasteries
and clnmmes, were either disfigured or torn down at
the mtrodnction of the Reformation. Thus, for ex-
ample, Gustavm Vasa had the churches of St. Mary
Magdalen, St. C^ara, and St. Jacob torn down; after
bis death th^ were rebuilt in the style of a later pe-
riod. Hiis kmc ^so caused the choir (tf Uie Churdh of
St. Niohohis ©torkyritan) to be shortened. This
church, founded about 1260, is one of the finest monu-
ments still in existence of the Catholic period of Stock-
holm. The Riddarholm church, originally the church
of a Franciscan monastery, is the burial place of the
Swedish kings. The Protestant church buildings of
Stockholm belong to a large number of different Prot-
estant denominations. T]& State Church is Lutheran;
among the other dencnninations represented are: the
fdlowers of Waldenstrom, Baptists, Methodists, Ir-
vingite& Adventista, the Salvation Army, Mormons,
etc. Many <^ the adherents of these sects have not
withdrawn officially from the State Church.

There are in Stockholm about 1800 Catholics, for
whom there are two C^holic churches, that of St.
Eugenia, in Norra Sme«liegatan, and that of St. Eric,
in udtcatan. The CatnoUc cemetery has a chapel
called St. Joseph's. The vicar ApostoUc for Sweden
lives at St. Enc's; the preemt vicar Apostolic is Dr.
A. Bitter, titular Bishop of Doliche. Catholic ele-
mentary schools are connected with both churches.
A higher school for girls is tmder the care of the French
Sisters of St. Joseph. The Sisters of St. Elizabeth
devote themselves to the care of the sick and have also
charge of two asylums, Oscars Minne and Jozefioahe-
met. It was not until recent times that the two
Catholic churches (rf Stockholm were built, St. Eu-
genia in 1837 and St. Eric in 1892, and schools estab-
lished. From tbe introduction of the Reformation to
the edict of toleration issued by Gustavus III in 1781

Eublic Catholic worship was forbidden. Mass could
e said only in the private chapels of the foreign am-
bassadors at Stockholm, and attendance at these ser-
vices was forbidden to Lutherans under severe penal-
ties. Conversion was punished bj ^^^l^^^i^^^^j^

8T00XL

298

BtODDABD

country and oonfiscation of goodB. As late as 1858
six women who had returned to the Catholic Church
were expelled from the country. It was not until
1860 that a restricted religious liberty was granted in
Sweden. Thus, for example, institutions and foun-
dations of denominations not belonging to the State
Church cannot hold real estate in the countnr without
n^al permission. Monasteries are forbidden. By
the royal edict of 1910 the namee of Catholics are to be
entered ih the Lutherw Church books by the Lutheran
pastors of the State Churchy and Catholics must
apply to these pastors for their marriage certificatee.

Dahuibbk, Sloekkolm. II (Stockholm. 1897), xxii, 65; Nordsn-
8TAN, Maelardrottningm (Stookholm, 1SB6}; Bok^ om .StodUtdn
(Stookholm, 1901); St^tiak Aribok fi>r Stoekhotm* StadAr 1908
(Stockholm, 1910) ; Rttiffiou» Libertv in StMdm in America, no.
102 (New York, 26 March, 1911). Q. ArMKBUT.

8t0ckl, Albert, neo-Scholaatic philosopher and
theologian, b. at M5hren, nearFreuchtlingen^ Middle
Franconia, Bavaria, 15 March, 1823^ d. at Eichstfidt,
15 November, 1895. He received his clflasical educa-
tion at the gymnasium at Eichstfidt, studied philosophy
and theology at the episcopal lyoeum in the same city
(1843-48), and was ordained priest 22 April, 1848.
His first position was that of ciurate at the pilgrimage
church at Wemding. In 1850, he was made instructor
of philosophy at ^e episcopal lyceum at Eichstftdt,
ana two years later was appointed professor of theo-
retical philosophy in the same institution. He received
the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (1855) from the
University of Wttrsburg; and was transferred (1857) to
the theological section of the lyceum as profeMor of
exegesis and Helnew. In the autumn of 18^ he ac-
cepted a call as professor of philosophy at the academy
of MUnster in Wcetphalia. The dis^reeable divi-
sions and discord which arose in this institution at the
time of the Vatican Council led St5ckl, in the summer
of 1871, to resign his professorship and return to the
Diocese of Eichstfidt as parish priest at Gimperts-
hausen. On 7 March, 1872, he was instaUedT as a
cathedral canon at Eidistfidt. At the same time he
again became professor of practical philosophy, philos-
opfay of religion, and pedagogy in the lyceum. In ad-
dition to his labours as a scholar Stdckl also took an
active part in political life. From 1878 to 1881 he was
a member of tne lower house of the Reichstag. Dur-
ing the many years of his life spent in teaching, Stdckl
wrote a large number of text^-biDoks covering the entire
field of phuosophy which had a large ciromation not
only in Germany but also in other oounteieB, induding
the United States of America. As one m its most
distinguished representatives, he had an important
share in the revival of Thomistic philosophy. Both as
teacher and as author he was noted for simphcity,
logical acumen, and lucidity.

Among his numerous writin|ffi the following should
be mentioned particularly: "Xiturgie und dt^ona-
tiscbe Bedeutui^ der idttestamentUcnen Opfer" (Rat^
isbon, 1848); "Die speculative Lohre vom M^ischen
und ihre CSwchichte^' (WOrabure, 2 vols., 1858-59);
"Die Lehre der vomicSnischen Kirchenvftter von dCT
gOttlichen Trinitfit" (Eichstfidt, 1861, in the "Pro-
g-amm" of the lyceum); "Das Opfer nach seinem
Wesen und nach seiner Geschichte" (Mainz, 1861);
" Geschichte der Philosophic des Mittelalters " (3 vols.,
Mwnz, 1864-66) ; " Lehrbuchder Philosophic" (Mainz,
1868 ; 7th ed., 3 vols., 1892 ; 8th ed., revised by G.
Wohlmuth, 1905—); " Lehrbuch der Geschichte der
Philosophic" (Mains, 1870; 3rd ed., 2 vols., 1888;
tr. "Handbook of the Hiniory of Philosophy", by T.
A. Finlay, S.J., Dublin, 1887); "Die Infallibilit&t des
Oberhauptes.der Kirche imd die Zustimmxmgsadres-
fien an Herm von Dollinger" (Mtinster, 1870; 2nd ed.,
1870); "Grundriss der Acathetik" (Mainz, 1871; 3rd
ed., 1889, under the title, "Ix^hrbuch der Aesthetik");
"Gnmdnss der Religionsphilosophie" (Mainz, 1872;
2iul ed., 1878); "Lehrbuch der P&dagogik" (Mains,

1873; 2nd ed., 1880); "Lehriiuch der Geschichte der
Pfidagogik" (Mains, 1876); "Der Materialismus ge-
pruft in seinen Lehrsfttzen und deren Ckmsequenzen"
(Mains, 1877); " Das Christenthum und die fpxiesen
Fragea der Gegemwart auf dem G^ete des ^ustigen,
sittuehai una socialen Lebens. Apolog^wch-phi-
losophische und sofcialpolitische Studien'' (3 vols..
Mains, 1870-80); " Geschichte der neuuen Philoaophie
von Baco und Cartesius bis zur Ckgenwart" (2 vols.,
Mainz, 1883); "Das Christenthum und die modemen
IrrthOmer. Apologettsch-philosophische Medita-
tionen" (Mainz, 1886); "Geschichte der christliohen
PhiloeophiezurZeitderKirchenv&ter" (Mains, 1801);
"GnmdzOKe der Philosophie" (Mains, 1892; 2nd ed.,
edited by Ehrenfried, 1010) ;" Grundriss der Geschichte
do- PhOoBophie" (Mains, 1894); " Lehrbuch der
Apologetik"^(2pts., Mains, 1805). Stdckl contributed
numerous papers on apolc^tic, philosophico-historical,
and pedagogical subjects to the perio<£cal press, espe-
cially to "Der Katholik". He also wrote alaive num-
ber of articles for the second edition of the "Kirchen-
lexikon", and several of the longer articles for the
"Staatslexikon der Gdrree-Gesellschaft".

FPnmKL), Dr. Alb«H SUckl. Dwnkapitviar und Lyeealprofettor
in BiehtUtt. Bint LtbmtMtt* ttrftutl von tinem leirttr SdioUr

iMaiDt, 1896), irilh portr&it: PsoiiBa, Dr. Albert SOdd in Z>«r
lathoUh. I (1896), 1-11; RoustOck. PtrtonidUtaXittik u. BMiogr.
dM LtcmoM wi iidMOM (XngolMadt, 18M), 187-62.

Fbebdbich Lauchbrt.

Stoddard, Charlbs Warren, American author,
b. 7 August, 1843, at Rochester, N. Y.; d. 23 April,
1009, atMonteroy, California. He was descoided in a
direct line from Anthony Stoddard England, who
settled at Boston, Mass., in 1639. While he was still
a child his parents moved to New York City, where
they lived till 1855, when they migrated to San Fian-
cisco, California. In 1857 he returned alone to New
York, hved with his otindparents for two years, and
then rejoined his family in San Francisco. In a short
time he began writing veraes, which he sent anony-
mous to a local newqu^wr. They met with great
success and were later published with the modest
title "Poems by Charles Warren Stoddard". Poor
health compelled him to give up hb pluis for a college
education. He tried the st^e, but soon realized that
such a life was not his calling. In 1864 he visited the
South Sea Islands and from th«e wrote his "Idyls"
— letters which he sent to a fri^d who had them
published in book form. "They are, " as Mr. Howells
sasn, "the lightest, sweetMt, wildest, freshest things
that were ever written about the life of that summer
ocean." He made four other trips to the South Sea
Islands, and gave his impressions in "Lazy Letters
from Low Latitudes" and "The IsUnd of Tranquil
Delists". Several times he visited Molokai, and
became well acquainted with Father Damien, the
Apostle to the Lepers, and wrote his interesting little
hook, "The Lepers of Molokai", which, with Steven-
son's famous letter, did mudh to esUblish Fatirar
Damien's true position in public esteon. In 1867,
soon after his first visit to the South Sea Islands, he
was received into the Catholic Church, for which he
had a most tender devotion. The story of his con-
version he has told in a small book interestingly
written: "A Troubled Heart and How it was Com-
forted". Of this book he has said: "Here you have
my inner life all laid bare." To this change in hiareli-
gious bdkf are due in great measure those geual opti-
mistic qualities Uiat endeared him to all whoknew lum.

In 1873 he started on a ^loa^ tour as special cone-
qx>ndent of the "San Francisco Chronicle". His
commiasioD was a roving one, without restrictions of
any kind. He was absent for five years, during which
he travelled over Europe and went as far east as
Palestine and E^ypt. He sent considerable matter
to his newspaper, much of which was never reprinted,
thoogh some of it was among his best work. In 1886.

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I

8TOI08 21

having decided to settle down, he accepted the ehur
of F.ngliali litoatUTe in the TTnivasity of Notra Dune,
Indiana; but owing to ill-health he aoon reeled.
The same reason caused him to resign a corre^mnding
position which he held in the Catholic University,
Washington, D. C, from 1889 to 1902. In a short
time he moved to Cambridge, Mass., intending to
devote himself exclusively to uterary work. A senous
and almost fatal iUness interfered with his plans, yet
he was not idle. He put forth his "Exits and En-
trances", a book of essays and sketches which he
called his favourite work, probably because it told of
his intimate friend Stevenson and of others among his
host of literary acquaintances. At this time he also
wrote his only novel, " For the Pleasure of His Com-
pany", of which he said, "Here you have my Con-
fessions." So strictly bi<^raphicfd are most of his
writu^ that Stoddard hoped by supp^dng a few
misHng links to enable the reader to trace out the
iriiole story of his life. In 1905 he returned to Cali-
fornia and settled in Monterey with a hope of recover-
ing his health. He lingered on till 1909, when he
died in his sixty-sixth year. To superficial observers
he was a man of contradictions. He was essentially
Bohemian, but of the higher type, a man who could
not resist the call of the far-away land, his home, as
he himself said, being always und#r his hat. And yet
he was a mystie and a recluse even in his travels.
"Imaginative and impressionable", two epithets
which he apptied to his South Sea friends, are par-
ticularly appropriate to Stoddard himself.

That charm of his traits which may be de-
scribed as"8weetne8s,peacefulne8s,tendenie8S, gentle-
ness" he imparted to his writings. Noted English
authors have given the highest praise to some
of his work, and have taken to task the American
pi^lic for their lack of appreciation of him.. Besides
the books already mentioned he wrote: "Summer
Cruising in the South Seas" (1874); "Marshallah,
a FUght into Egypt" (1886); "A Trip to Hawaii''
(1885); "In the Footprints of the Padres" (1892):
"Hawaiian Life" (1894); "The Wonder Worker of
Padua" (1896); "A Cruise under the Crescent"

(1898) ; "Over the Rocky Mountains to Alaska"

(1899) ; "Father Damien, a Sketch" (IQOS); "With
Staff and Scrip" (1904); "Hither and Yon"; "The
Confessions of a Reformed Poet" (1907); "The
Dream Lady" (1907).

Jamm in Califomia CIowu* Sent* (1909): fiat. Mae. (Aug.,
191 1); A9t Maria (June, 1909) ; OtrUmd ^onMb (Ju., Juna, 1909).

M. J. FUHKBTT.

Stoics and Stole Philosophy.— The Stoic School
was founded in 322 b. c. by Zeno of Cittium and
existed till the cloong of the Athenian schools
(a. d. 429). (It took its name from the Sroi muiCKfi,
the painted hall or colonnade in which the lectures
were held.) Its history may be divided into three
parts: (1) AnciaU Stoicism; (2) Middle Stoicism;
(3) New Stoicism. (1) Ancient Stoicism (S2S-S04) —
Zeno of C^ittium (b. 366; d. in 280) was the disciple of
Crates the Qvnic and the AcademicianB Stilpo, Xeno-
crates, and Polemon. After his death (264), Clean-
thee of Assium (b. 331; d. 232) became head of the
School; ChrysippuB of Soli (b. 280) succeeded and was
Bcholarch till 204. These philosophers, all of Orien-
tal origin, lived at Athens, where Zeno played a part
in politics and were in communication with the prin-
cipal men of their day. The Stoic doctrine, of which
Zeno htid the foundations, was developed by Chry-
8iiq>us in 70& treatises, of which only some frajpaents
have been preserved. In addition to the pnnciples
accepted by all the thinkers of their age (the percep-
tion of the true, if it exist, can only oe immediate;
bodies alone existj the wise man is self-sufhcient; the
political constitution is indifferent), derived from the
Schists and the Cynics, they base the entire moral
attitude <d the wise man (conformity to onesdf and

9 STOLBIBO

nature, indifference to external thing^ on a compre-
hensive concept of nature, in part derived from Hera-
cKtus^ but inspired by an entirely new spirit. It is
a belief in a universal nature which is at one and the
same time Fate infallibly regulating the course of
events (elfutptUyri, logos); Zeus, or providence, the
external principle of finality adapting all other things
to the needs of rational beings; the law determining
the natural rules that govern the society of men and
of the gods; the artistic fire, the expression of the
active force which produced the world, one, perfect,
and complete from the beginning, with which it will
be reunited through the universal conflap*ation, fol-
lowing a regular and ever recurring cycle. The popu-
lar gods are different forms of this force, described
allegorically in the myths. This view of nature is
the basis of the optimism of the Stoic moral system:
confidence in the instinctive faculties, which, in the
absence of a perfect knowledge of the world, ought to
guide man's, actions; and af^n, the infaUible vn»-
dom of the sage; which Chrysippus tries to establirii
by means of a dialectic derived from Aristotle and the
Cynics. But this optimism retjuires them to solve
the following problems: the origin of the passions and
the vices; the conciliation of fate and liberty; the
origin of evil in the world. On the last two subjects
they mvpounded all the ai^piments, that were ad-
vanced latra* up to the time of Leibniz.

Ji) Middle Stoieiam{seamd and first centuries B.C.).
toicism during this period was no longer a Greece
School; it has penetrated into the Roman world, and
became, imder the influence of Scipio's friend, Pana-
tius (185-112), who Uved at Rome, and of Posidonius
(13&-40), who transferred the School to Rhodes, the

auasi-ofiicial philosophy of Roman imperialism. Its
octrines were considendily modified, becoming less
dogmatic in ponsequence of the criticism of the new
A<mdemician, Cameades (215-129). In Stoic mo-
rality Panffitius develops the idea of humanity. Posi-
donius is at once a savant, historian, geographer,
mathematician, astronomer, and a mystic who, com-
menting on Plato's works, revives his theories on the
nature and destiny ttf the soul.

(3) New Stoicism (to A. n. 429). — The new Stoicism
is more ethical and didactic. Science is no Ioi^;er
the knowledge of nature, but a kind of theological
sumyna of moral and religious sentiments. Very
little has been preserved of the diort popular treatises
and discourses, wherein, with a vivid style introduced
under the influence of the (^ynic diatribe, the philoso-
pher endeavoured to render his ethi«J pnnciples
practical. The letters of Seneca (2-68) to Lueiuus,
the conversations of Muaonius (time of Nero), and of
Epictetus (age of Domitian), the fragments ot Hiero-
cles (time of Hadrian), the memoirs of Marcus Aur^
lius (d. 180), give but an incomplete idea. Stoicism,
iriiich gradually disappeared as the official School,
was the most important of the Hellenic elonraits in
the semi-oriental relijdons of vanishiiw paganism.

ZSLLBB. Pkil. d. Ona^an, III, pt i, tr. SlJicM by RncHCL
(London, 1892); Dnorr, Di« Ethik der Sloa (Berlin, 1897):
BsowN, Stoif and SainU (New York. 1693); LkonaBD Autoh,
Stoic attd Chriatian (London, 1906)i Abnim, Stoieorum mMtkm
fraommia (Leipiig, 1908, 1905); Bake, Pondtmii re^igww (Lev-
den, IglO): BoNHortXR, E-piktet u. die Sloa (Stuttsart, ISiM) ;
Stun. PmduAogie der SUm (B«rliii, 1886) ; Ideh, Di* Brhmnt-
mttdt&n d*r Stoa (Berlin. 1888) ; Buttb, Die 8toa (Leipilc. 1908) ;

Biten. Chmippt (Paris. 1910). Be^hieb.

•

Stolb«rff, Frikdrich Leopold, Count zu, b. at
Branunstedt in Holstein (then a part of Denmark), 7
November, 1760; d. at SondermOhkm near OsnabrQck,
5 Deconber, 1819. He belonged to the younger
branch of the Stolberg family and was the son of a
Danish 'magistrate and owner of a manorial estate.
A few years after his birth the family moved to Copen-
hagen and soon formed friendships with dL<!tingiiishod
literary men, especially Klopstock. Klopstock was
thm at tiie hei^t <tf his fame and the fundamental

Digitized by Google

STOLBxaa

300

8TOLBEBO

principles which he held, devotion to God and coun-
try, inade a deep impression on the young Stolberg.
Stolbei^s rel^oufi ideas, it must be acknowl^Iged,
remained at txat somewhat misty and confused, as
his parents held to an eclectic form of Christianity and
read for their own edification the most heterMmeouB
Authors, as Augustine and Lutiier, F^nelon antloaurin,
Zinzendorf and Young. Together with his brother
Christianj Friedrich Leopold went to the Univeraity
of Halle m 1770, in order to study law. His other
studies embraced the classics and various historical
courses. Two years later the two brothers went to
Gdttingen, where they joined the Uttle company called
the "Hainbund", a society of young men who had
high aBpirationa for the freedom of the country, and
woo cultivated German poetry. Some the poetry
by the members (rf the "Bund", has a permanent
vahie. However, besides Burger, Holty, and Voes, of
an the members of the "Bund" only Stolberg has, in
reality, not been forgotten, and his name' contmues to
live less on account of his literary productions than
because of his conversion to Catholicism.

After com[>leting his studies at the univosity Stol-
berg made aioumey in Switzerland with Goethe and
Count von Haugwitz in 1775. Here, beeidee meeting
other distinguished persons, he boeome acqualated
with Lavatcr, with whom he formed a lasting friend-
ship. In 1777 he entered the service of the Protestant
Prmce-Biahop'of Lubeck, and was for a while the
bishop's envoy at the Danish Court. Somewhat later,
in 1781, he was chief administrator at E^itin and in
1785 magistrate at Neuenburg in the Duchy of Olden-
burg. Four years afto* this ne was the Danish am-
bassador at Berlin. In 1791 he was appointed presi-
dent of the board of ecclesiastical adnunistration of
the Prince-Bishop of LQbeck, and in 1797 he was sent
as ambassador to Russia. On 1 June, 1800, he joined
the Catholic Church in the private chapel of the Prin-
cess Galhtzin at Osnabrdck, and on 22 August he re-
signed his various positions. After this he lived first
at Mttnstor in Westphaliaj, then from 1812 at Taten-
hausen near Bielefeld, and finally from 1816 at Sonder-
mlihle near OsnabrOck, where he died after a du>rt
fllnesB. He was buried in the cemetery at Stockkem-
pen. Stolb^ was twice married. His firat wife,
Agnes von Witzleben, -died on 11 November, 1788,
after six years of happy married life, leaving two sons
and two daughters. Two years later Stolberg mar-
ried Countess Sophie von Redem. After their mar-
riage he and his wife took a long journey through
Germany, Switzerland, and Italy, lliis tour was oS
nreat importance for lus religious development, as he
then made the acquaintance of the devout Catholic
Freiherr von Droste-Vischering, as well as of Droste-
Vischering's resident tutor, the distinguished theolo-

fian Katerkamp. By his second marriage Stolberg
ad a large family, and all, with the exception of the
oldest daughter, followed the father's example and
joined the Catholic Church in 1801. The oldest
daughter, Agnes, was betrothed to the Lutheran
Count Ferdinand ctf Stolberg-Wemtgerode, but her
son in 1854 became a Catholic. Four sons and two
sons-in-law took part in the campaign against France
in 1814; one of these sons was killed at Ligny (1815).

Stolberg's chang;e of religion attracted great atten-
tion. Many of Qs nuiyerous friends deserted and
some abused him, such as Gleim, Jacobi, and othras,
or attacked him with bitter hatred as Voes in his
pamphlet "Wie ward Fritz Stolberg ein Unfreier?"
He was charged, and this charge is even now repeated,
with having been a Catholic for years before he pub-
licly left the Protestant Church. Men who ju'dged of
the facts as they were, as Freiherr von Stein, Goethe,
and especially Lavater, looked on his conversion in a
kindly spirit and imputed no ignoble motives to him.
They were entirely justified in so doing, for even after
his converuon and notwithstanding hia genuine

piety Stolberg was never able to rid himself altogether
of the syncretism of the paternal home. Both io da^
of good and ill health he sought edification, after us
conversion as before, from Protestant hymns and ser-
mons. Even when dying, besides the prayers ud
hymns oi the Church, he had read aloud to him Elop-
stock's poems and passages from the writings of the
"Wandsbecker Boten", the well-known freemason,
Claudius. He was also a warm friend the later
Bishop Sailer. Sailer's orthodoxy was doubted in
his own day, but without reason ; whateva* bethought
of his pecuhar mysticism, he was a strong believer
in the primacy of the pope, and a defen(UT of tJke
Church against State encroachments.
As re^trds Stolberg's literary works, there is do

"BalladB" (1779), "Iambics" (1784), "Plays" (1787):
"TraveU" (1791); novels, as "The Island" (1788).
After his conversion he devoted himself chiefly to the

grei)aration of a "Qeschichte der Religion Jesu
Ihristi" (1806 — ), which is marked by a warmth
of tone, although not without errors in inveatigatioiL
He also wrote a hist(^ of Alfred the Great (1816);
a life of St. Vincent jde Paul; translated passages from
the works of St. Augustine, and also wrote medita-
tions on the Holy ScriptureSj which, however, together
with the "Bilcnlein der Licbe", and the polemieiil
pamphlet "Kurze Abfertigung des langen Schmih-
schnfts des Hofrats Voas", did not appear \intil
after his death. At first Stolberg's muse was entirely
influenced by the ideas of Klopstock. Ifowever, the
poet soon alHuidoned the antique poetic measuies and
successfully adopted German rhyme. Most of bis
poetry is now out of date and scarcely half-a-doien
of his "Lieder" are known to the present generation.
In his own day his translations from the classics were
considered wdl done. At times credulity and lack
of criticM discernment mar his descriptions of travd
and historical writings. Probably his best work is
contained in his devotional writings, but even these
are not entirely satisfactory, especially the transbr
tion of the numerous passages from the Bible, which
at times are not very correct.

See the histories of German liter&ture. both the earlier histMks
and the more modern ones; of the modem ones, in particulu the
works of Enoel and Bartelb; of the earlier hutonca: Meksel,
D«tU*ch« Diehtung, III (Stuttsart. 1S24), 175 aqq.; BrOhu Ct*^^
dtr kaih. Lit. DmtieiUandi vom X VII. JahrkuwieTt bit air Gtetf
vart (Leipiis. 1854). 73-128. Of other works: Mbniil. Ntver*
QetehidtU der Deuttchtn. XII, pt. II (Bresl&u, 184S), 49; Menqe,
Friedrich Leopold «m Slolbero u. teine Zeitomtmen (2 vola., Goth*.
1862); Hennes, Stolberg in dm letxten JahrzehnUn geinet Mtiu
(Mam>, 1875): Idem, Aut Friedrich Leopold von Sto^erg'* Jagmi-
jahren (Frankfort, 1870); Jansben, Friedtrieh h. Oraf tnSkAat
(FreibuTC, 1876-77); UsLUifaHAua. Fr. L. Graf *u Ste&erg tt.
J. H. Vota (MODater. 1882); Id£U, Briefe Pr. L. OraftitStMmi
u. der Seinigen on J. H. Tom (MQagter, 1891) ; Roaximu, Cm-
terfOmMltlfr, I (RstiAon, 1889), 1-49.

PlUB WrmiANH.

JoBBPH, son of the poet Friedrich Leopold, b.
12 August, 1804; d. 5 April, 1859. In 1849 he woa
president of the general assembly of Catholic Assoeiar
tions held at Rati^>on (2-5 October). At this con-
gress the St. Boniface Association was founded, and
Stolberg was elected its first president. In the win-
ter of 1849-50 he made a laborious journey to all tbo
episcopal sees of Germany, and imtil his death was
constajitly active in the interests of the association.
Sinoe 1904 his son Hennann (b. at Westheim in
WeatidMlia, 28 Febniaiy, 1854) has been presideitt of
the St. Boniface AasociatMXi.

Katharina, sister of Friedrich Leopold, b. at
Bramstedt, 5 December, 1761; d. at Peterswaldsu,
22 February, 1832. Gifted with a highly poetical na-
tive, she was one of the most leamm women of h»
age. As she was most devotedly attadied to her
brother wid lived with him after the death of his wiffl^
bis conversion aroused in her an inteDBS«tEiiEKle be-
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801

BTOLI

tweffli her love for him and her Evaogelical belief.
In 1802 she also joined the Catholic Qkurch; how-
ever, new mental stni^ee followed^ and finally she
retoroed to Protestantism.

CoMotdW gtiuaioffitehtr Bofhalendar, s. t.; AOffrnt. deuUeke

Btlf., U. T.

Klbmens h&mxst.

Stole, a litur^cal vestment composed of a strip
of material from two to four inches wide and about
dghty inches long. It has either a uniform width
Uirougbout, or is somewhat narrower towards the
middle widemng at the ends in the shape of a

trapeaium or
Bpaoe. A small
croBsis generally
sewed or em-
broidered on the
stole at both
ends and in the
middle; the cross, ■
however, is pre-
scribed on^ for
the middle, where
the priest kisses
the stole before
putting it on.
There are no
express precepts
concerning the
matert&l of the
stole, but dlk, or
at least a half-
silk fabric, is
most appropri-
ate. Stoles for
festivals are gen-
erally orna-
mented with
embroidray, efr
peclally what are
called " vesper
stoles".

Present Use.
— ^The stole is
worn only by
deacons, prieste,
and bishops. For
deacons and
priests it is the
specific mark of
office, being the
badge of the
dlaconal and
priestly orders.
Dy Bubdeacons,

Smu FouMD m Sr. CWMBri'i Tomb

wrongful use of the stole
therefore, would imply the usurpation of a h^er
order, and would constitute an ureguluity. Dea-
cons wear the stole like a sash, the vestment
reetiiig on the left shoulder and thence pasdng
acnes the breast and back to the right side.
The stole of the priest extends from the back of the
neck across the shoulders to the breast, where the two
halves either cross each other or fall down straight
according as the stole is worn over the alb or the
surplice. The stole is worn by a bishop in the same
'Banner as a laiest, except that it is never oro»ed
^ the bi«aBt as a bishop wears the pectoral cross.
As a mark of order the stole is used in a special
ceremony, at the ordination of deacons and priests.
At the ordination of deacons the bishop places it on
thp left shoulder of the candidate, saying: "Receive
from the hand of God the white garment and fulfil
thy duty, for God is mighty enough to give thee His
pace in rich measure." At the ordination (A priests
ue Uahop draws the part <d tiie stole that rests at
ue back of tiie oandioate's neck forward amr the
vwt and lays the two epds CEOsswise, Bajying:

"Receive the yoke of the Lord, for Ills yoke is sweet
and His burden is light." The Sacred Congregation
at Rites has ^ven a large numbe^ (bcisions con-
cerning the use of the stole. As a gcnend rule it
may be stated: the stole is only used, and must be
used, at a fimction peculiar to the deacon, priest, and
bishop, a function that presupposes the order (e. g.,
at the_ celebration of Mass, when the Blessed Saciu-
ment is touched, when the sacraments are adminis-
tered), but not for example, in processions or at
Vespers. The wearing of the stole by the bishop at
Solmn Vespers is an exception: ite use by a priest
while preaching depends on loc^ custom. TTie
stole is not a specific mark of parochial jurisdiction.

The use of the stole is also customary in the Ori-
ental rites, in which, as in the West, it is one of the
chief litur^eal vestments (Greek, <ipdpuiy, the dea-
con's stole, and irirpax'^^My, the priest's stole; Ar-
menian, vrar; Syrian an^i Chaldaic, uroro; Coptic,
batraaktl). According to present Oriental custom
the stole is a strip of oik about seven or eight inches
. wid& havinj; at the upper end a hole through which
the bead is mserted; it is either imdivided (Syrian,
Coptic, and Armeman custom) or opens down the
front from the opening for the head (Greek custom).
Among the Chaldeans (Nestorians) the stole of the
priest resembles that used in the West, and is,
like tlus, crossed over the breast. The deacon's
stole generally hangs down straight from the left
dioul^ both in front and at the back, but in certain
ritee is first wound like a sash around the breast and
back. Among the Syrians and Chaldeans the sub-
deacon also uses the stole, but he first twists it like
a scarf around the neck, the ends being then let hang
from the left shoulder in front and behmd.

HisTOBT. — We possess few references to the stole
anterior to the ninth century. In the East, however,
it is mentioned very early, the deacon's stole being
frequratly referred to even in the fourth and fifth
centuries. The priest's stole is not mentioned in the
East until the dghth century. The stole .is first
mentioned in the West in the sixth and seventh cen-
turies (Synod of Braga, 563; Fourth Council of
Toledo, o33; Galilean enilanation of the Mass),
but then as a thing which had long been in use.
The earliest evidences of the use of the stole at
Rome date from the second half of the d^th centuir
and the banning of the ninth. But m the ninth
century, subdeacons and acolytes still wore both the

f»laneta and the stole, although, to distinguish them
rom the deacons, priests, and bishops, there were d^-
nite limitations to their use of the latter vestment.
After the ninth century the stole is very frequently
mentioned, and even then the manner of its use was
essentially the same as to-day. In the ninth and
tenth craturies in the Prankish Empire the priests
were commanded to wear the stole oimstantiy as a
badge of their calling especially whm on a journey.
In Spain and Gaul u the pre-Carlovingian period,
the deacons wore the stole over the tumc like the
Greeks; in Southern Italy this practice was continued
until at least the thirteenth century; at Milan the
stole is still worn over the dalmatic. The custom
for the priests to wear the stole crossed in front of
the breast at Mass was known as early as the Synod
of Braga (675), but did not become general until the
late Middle Ages.

Dbvsiw)Pmbnt. — Very little is known concenung
the nature of the stole in the pre-Carlovingian period.
Originally it was probably a cloth fdded into the form
ctf a band, and graduaUy developed into a sin4>le
band. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries the stole
was very long, and at the same time extremely
narrow. It was customary^ even in the ninth cen-
tuiy, to ornsinent the ends with fringe, tassels, or littie
bells. To!wanis the thirteenth century the ends came to
be tn^mdum-sh^ted; in the fourteenth century this

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STOLZ

ahww disc^p^ied, and until the sixteenth century the
stote waa a strip of material of uniform width, and only
ornamented witb>f ringe at the ends. During the course
of the sixteenth century it besan again to be customary
tobroaden the ends <tftheetole; tiiee^temt^oentury
produced the ugly stoles, in which the ends seemed to
spread out into huge spades; these were also called
''pocket stoles". It was not until the sixteenlli
century that it became customary to place a cross
in the centre and at the ends of the stole; ia the
Middle Ages this practice was unusual.

Orioin. — Various hypotheses have been suggested
concerning the ori^ of the stole. The tneoty
formerly univenally held, but quite wrong, that it
originated in the ornamental trimming o( a garment
called " stole", idiich in the course of time disappeared
leaving behind only this trimming, has been aban-
doned. The theory that traced the stole to the
Jewish praying mantle has also been given up. At
the present time the stole is either traced back to a '
litu^cal napkin, which deacons are said to have
carried, or to a neckcloth formerly peculiar to prieete,
OT it is regarded as a hturpcal badge Ontroduced
at the latest in the fourth century) wmdi first came
into use in the East, and then in the West. It
was also brought, as it would seem, to Rome, where
it was not at first adopted as a bad^e of the higher
orders of the clei^, but as a distinctive mark of the
Roman clergy in general. The riving of the stole
to the candidate at ordination in Rome was intended
to convey a double symbolism; first^that the ^eva-
tion to the dergy m the Romaii Oiurch occurred
de benedietione S. Petri, and secondly tiiat by
ordination the candidate entered the service of St.
Peter, that is of the Roman Church. It was also cus-
tomary before the ordination to lay the oraria upon
the Confeano of St. Peter. This liturgical badge was
called orarium on accotmt of its similarity to the
secular oranum both in shape and material, and in
the way it was worn. (For further details as to the
varioiA hypotheses concerning the orcein of the name,
cf. J. Braun, "Die litur^he Gewandui^", 608-20.)
The name "stole", as the designation of uie orarium,
is of Gallic origin, not Roman. As early as the ninth
century the expreerion "stole" prevtuled in the
Prankish Empire; it made its entrance into Italy
about the tenth century, and here also came rapidly
into general use. From the thirteenth century the
name orarium appears only in isolated instances.

Bock, Geaek, der liturguchm Gwander, II (Boon, 1866):
RoRADLT DE Flettst, La Mmk, VII (Paris, 1889): MxRRicnT.
Vatiarium chrutianum (London, 1868); Wilpbbt, Un eapilolo
deUa ttoria del veetiario (Rome, 1898-09); Idbh, DU Gtmnduno
der eralm ChrUlen (Cologne, 1898); Braun, DU prie»lerl.
Gewanderde* Abendlandf (FmbiUVi 1898); Idem, Dit lUureuehe
Oewundung mm Oeeident u. OrtMt.

Joseph BRAmr.

Stolit, Alban Isidos, Catholic theologian and popu-
lar author, b. at BOU, Baden, 3 Feb., 1808; d. at
Freiburg, 16 Oct., 1883. He Gist studied at the gvm-
nasium at Rastatt (1818-27), and then proceedM to
the University of Freiburg, where, after attending
lectures in jurisprudence for a brief period, he devoted
himself to the study of theology (1^7-30). Owing to
the unfortunate condition of the theological faculty
of Freiburg, he fell into scepticism, and could not
bring himself to enter the clerical seminary; but after
studying philology at Heidelberg from 1830 to 1832 he
renamed his former ffuth. Havmg determined to em-
brace the clerical state, he entered the ecclesiastical
seminary at Freiburg in the autumn of 1832, and in
August, 1833, waa ordained to the priesthood. During
the following eight years he was engaged in parochi^
work, being curate first at Rothenfels in the MuKthal,
and from June, 1835, at Neusatz, in the Distnct of
BtUil. In the autunm of 1841 he was appointed in-
structor in religion at the gymnasium ct miiohBal, and

on 1 March, 1843, teacher of moral and pastoral
theology at the theolt^ical college of Freiburg. From
May, 1845 he was temporary director of this institu-
tion, but his appointment as permanent director was
prevented by opponents holding Liberalistic views. In
iS4S he became doctor of theology^ and in the autumn
a[ 1847, despite the opposition to his appointment, was
made professor of pastoral theology and pedagogics
at the university. On 13 October, 1848, he was
named ordinary professor, and during 1859-60 he was
rector of the university. He waa made honorary doc-
tor of the theologicflJ faculty of the University oS
Vienna in 1865, and in 1868 archiepiacopal spiritual
counsellor. In both the charitable and sociu fields
Stolz displayed a great and successful activity; in
1851 he founded at Freiburg the Catholic Journey-
men's Association after the model of Kolping's, and
conducted it as director and later as diocesan presi-
dent. He likewise introduced into Freibui^ the So-
ciety of St. ^Vincent de Paul, of which he remained
director until his death. He devoted all the receipts
from his writings to the assistance of the poor and
charitable institutions, to the needs of the Qiunth,
and to home and foreign missions.

As a theologian Stolz was too self-opinionated, his
theolt^cal teachers having failed to give him any
fundamental training, and he lacked the exact knowl-
edge of the achievements of earlier theolcwy. Hir-
scher's wijtin^, for which he had an unboun(ted vener-
ation, were his chief authority. For the teaching of
practical subjects, however^ he was admirably quali-
fied, and numerous theological students from foreign
parts, especially Switzerland, came to Freiburg to
attend his scholarly and suggestive lectures. Of
his writings in the theological oomain we may men-
tion: "Katechetische AusT^;ung des Freibui^er Di5-
cesan-Katechismus (Hirscner's Katechismus) f&r
Geistliche, Lehrer und Eltem" (3 vols., Freiburg,
1844-47) j "Ueber die Vererbung sittlicher Anlagen '
(University Repc»t, Freiburg, 1859); "Erziehunga-
kunst" (I^biu!|^ 1873; 7th ed. by Julius Mayer,
1910); "Homileuk als Anweisung den Armen das
Evan^elium zu jn^digai", published by Jalu^
Schmitt afta' the authors dmtfi (Ftubuig, 1885; 2nd
ed., 1899).

In the domain of popular religious literature, Stolx
acquired imperishable fame. Gifted and original,
a keen observer of human nature, a master of language
with every shade of expression at command, he united
a broad sense of humour and an effective satire with
a deep sincerity of religious feeling, a delicacy in Uie
portrayal of conditions of the soul, and a poetical
force am beauty in his descriptions of nature. Among
his works, which, besides being published in Germany,
have been translated into French, English, Italian,
and other languages, his "Kalender ftir Zeit una
Ewigkeit", written for the years 1843-47, 1858-59, 1864,
1873-81, and 1884, hasbeen most widely read, thesedia-
courses were collected and issued in four volumes under
the titles "Kompass fOr Lcben und St^rben" (1861
and frequently) ; Das Vaterunser und der unendliche
Gruas" (1861): "Wachholder-Geist gegen die Grund-
iibel der Welt: Dummheit, SUnde und Elend"
(1879); "Die Nachtigall Gottes" (1888). Very pop-
ular also is his "I^egende oder der christliche Stem-
himmel" (in parts, 1851-60; 12th ed. in 1 quarto vol.,
1904; 10th ed. in 4 octavo vols., 1894). With this
must be associated another ascetico-religious work,
"Die heili^ Elisabeth" (1865; 16th ed., 1909), which
many consider the ripest work of Stolz. As the fruita
of hu travels in Spain in 1850 he published (1853) the
brilliant and highly humorous work "Spanisches filr
die gebildete Welt''* (12th ed., 1908): his pilgrimage to
the Holy Ijand in 1855 resulted in Besuch bf i Sera.
Cham und Japhet, oder Reise in das Heilige Land'*
(1857: 10th ed., 1909). The works " Witterungen der
Sede*^ (1867; 7th ed., 1910). "Wilder Honig" (1870;

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STONE

4th ed.. 1908), aod "Dtirre Kr&uter" (1877; 4tb ed.,
1908), otHuist of excerpts from his diaries.

Stoiz also wrote a number of pamphlets aod bro-
chures, some of polemical and some ch moral and as-
cetical contents, collected under title of "Kleinig-
keiten" (2 collections, 1868 and 1887; 4th ed., 1900).
His works were issued in nineteen volumes in Frei-
burg (1871-95), exclusive of the "Legende" and the
explanation of the catechism; a popular edition of his
works has appeared in twelve volumes (18^1909).
From his papas were edited an aatobic«n4)hy,
"Nachtgebet meinee Ldt>enB. Nadi dem Tode dea
Verfassers berausgegeben und durcfa Erinnerun^n an
Alban Stolz erg&nzt von Jakob Scfamitt" (Freiburg,
1885; 2nd ed., 1908), and "Predigten" (ed. JuUus
Mayer, Freiburg, 1908). Anothw valuable contribu-
tion is the correspondence of Stolz with the convert,
Julie Meineke, edited by Mayer .under the title " Ftt-
gung und FUhrung" (Freiburg, 1909). Extracts from
the writings <A Stolx are siveD in tlw^wwks "Edel-
Bteine aus reicher Schatdbunmer. ESne Sammlung
Bchdner Stellen aus den Schriften von Alban Stolz.
Au^wihlt von Heinrich Wagner" (Freiburg, 1905;
3rd ed., 1910), and "Bilder zur cbristkatliolischen
Glaubens- und Sittenlehre, aus den Schriften von
Alban Stolz. Geistlicfaen und Lehrem sowie dem
christlichen Volke gewidmet von Kari Te^V (Frd-
burg, 1900).

HloELB, Alban SloU nacK mUhmtUtJten QueUm (3rd ed.,
FreiburE. 1889). with poitnut; RBiNraBs in Badiseht Bio-
ffraphieen. IV (Katbruhe. 1891). 454-61; HsmNOBB, Ava Wdl
u. Kirche, 11 (4th ed., W^bnig. 1897), 3M-M7; Hm, IHt
neutre Aibm StoU-LiUntur in XiMur. AwutMAau, mi. 5-6 (1910),
coll. 214-20, 203-70.

Fribdrich Lauchbrt.

Stone, Corner or Foundation. — A rite entitled
" De benedictione et impositione Frimarii Lapidis pro
ecclesia ssdificanda" (Of the blessing and laying of the
Foundation Stone for the building m a churai) is pro-
vided in tiie Roman Pontifical. As it appears in the
same form in the "Giunta Pontificale" m 1520, it is
probably at least as old as the time of Patricius Pic-
colomini (fifteenth centuiy), and it may in substance
go back two centuries farther to the time of Durandus
of Mende (see Catalan!, "Pont. Rom.", II, 31).
The rite its^ is simple enough. Before the work of
building a church is set about the rubric directs that
adequate provision should be made for its mainte-
nanee, also the foundations are to be maiked out sub-
ject to the ^proval the bishop or his delegate, and
a wooden cross set up to indicate the place where the
altar is to stand. In the function which ensues the
bishop first blesses holy water with the ordinary
forms, then sprinkles the place where the cross stancu
and afterwards ihe foundation stone. Upon the
stone itself he is directed to engrave crosses on each
side with a knife, and then he pronouiices the follow-
ing prayer: "Bless, O Lord, this creature of stone
[ereaturam ittam lapidis] and grant by the invocation
of Thy holy name that all who with a pure mind shall
lend aid to the building of this diurch may obtun
soundness of body and the healing of their souls.
Through Christ Our Lord, Amen." Aftw the Litany
of the Saints, followed by an appropriate antiphon and
Psalm cxxvi, " Unless the Lord build the house" etc.,
the stone is lowered into its place with anothw prayer
and ^ain sprinkled with holy water. More anti-
pbons and psalms follow, while the bishi^ once mtm
visits and rorinkles the other foundations, dividing
them into three sections and ending each little tour
with a special prayer. Finally the "Veni Oeator
Spiritus'' is sung, and two short prayCTs. Then the
bishop, if he deems it opportune, sits down and ex-
horts the people to contribute to the fabric, after
which he dismisses them with his blessing and the
prodamation of an indulgence.

In the Middle Ages this or acmie analo^^m rite was
not unknown, but I3i» numbw Pontificals yrtach

contain anythii^ of the sort is comparatively small
(Martdne, for example, in his "De ntibus" gives no
R>ecimen of the forms used in any such function.)
One of the fen that provide such a rite is Archbishop
Chichele's Pontifical^ representing, no doubt, the use
of Harum in the early fifteenth century. The function
in its details differs considerably from that just de-
scribed. The only feature that ib quite identical is
the prayer above quoted, "Benedic, Domine, erea-
turam ititam lapidis", for blessing the stone, but it is
supplemented m the English nte by another and
much longer prayer, contaming madny Scriptural allu-
sions, among the rest, one to the "stone rejected by
the builders". Moreover, in England the stone is
anointed with chrism while a prayer is said which has
reference to this ceremony. Of all then is no
trace in the Roman type of service.

It is not easy to assign a date to the beginning of
this practice of blessinE the foundation stone. An
interesting fra^ent of evidence is, however, fur-
nished by what is apparently the inscribed foundation
stone of the first church of St. Mark at Venice. (See
the paper of F. Douce in "Archseologia", xxvi, 217 sq.)
As It IS roughly circular in form, between six and
seven inches in diameter, and only half an inch thick,
we have probably to do with a tablet let into the
foundation stone proper. It bears a rudely scratched
head (of St. Mark?) and the inscription in ninth-cen-
tury characters: xccl. b. harci prihah petrah
posvrr DDX lo. partici [aco]; the rest is broken
off. The Doge, John Particiaco, dedicated the first
Church of St. Mark in a. d. 828. Of course this in-
scription does not make reference to any religious
ceremony, but, as forms for the dedication of-a chiU'ch
were employed much before this date, it 8e«ns un-
likely that such a function should not have been
accompanied by at least some simple form of ecclesi-
astical blessing. Moreover, the English titun^
Belethus in the twelfth century was evidently familiar
with a rite of this kind. "When the foundations
have been dug", he says, "it is necessary that the
bishop sprinkle the place with holy water and that he
himself, or some priest at his bidding, should lay the
first stone of the foundation, vhich 'ought to have a
cross engraved upon it. And it is absolutelv neces-
sary that the church should be built towards the east"
(Belethus, ii; P. L., CCII, 10). Similar language is
used by Sicardus (P. L., CCXIII, 17 and 20) andlDu-
randus (Rationale, II, 7) less than a century later.

A question arises connected with the practice (1) of
laying money upon the stone as a contribution to the
fab ric of the church and (2) of enclosing coins within
or beneath it as evidence of the date. The former
custom might not improbably be traced to the terms
of the prayer quoted above, which, in blessing the
foundation stone, in particular invokes speciiu fa-
vours upon all "who with pure mind lend their «d to
the building of this church". It is curious, however,
that in the one detailed description which we possess
of a pagan ceremony of the same sort, viz., that which
preced»j the restoration of the Roman Temple of
Jupiter upon the Capitol in the time of Vespasian
(Tacitus, "Hist.", IV, 53), we find not only that the
foundations were wa^ed with lustral water, but that
attention was especially centred upon the great stone
iingem saxum) which was dragged into its place by
madtrtrates and people together. Moreover, gold
aniT silver in an unwrought and vii^in state were
scattered upon the foundations. Stranger still, a
similar ceremony seems to have prevailed in ancient
Assyria, where an inscription of Nabopolassar (604
B. c.) describes how that monarch, in building a temple
to Merodach, cast gold and silver upon the founda-
tions (Schrader, "Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek", III,
ii, 5). Furthw, the ceremonial rite of laying a found*
atlon stone seems to reach back to the time of Sargon,
c. 3800 B. c. Obid., pp. 86-93). The oustom of j^acing
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coins in or under the foundation stone, now very gen-
eral, needs further elucidation. The earliest de^te
instance at the moment discov^N^ble is an entry in an
account- book at Bruges, which records that, when the
palace of the magistrates of the Franc was rebuilt in
1519, an angel (coin) was paid ont to be placed under
the foundation stone (W. H. J. Weale in "Notes and
Queries", 27 Aug., 1870, p. 184). It is just con-
eeiTiU>le that this buri^ of gold and silver may r^
resent a more primitive f<nm oS sacrifice in which a
human vfctim was immolated and buried under the
maaoniy; but the evidence of any widespread custom
of this barbarous kind is by no means so conclusive
as is maintained by such writers as "ZVlor (Primitive
Culture, 1903, I, p. 104 sq.) and Trumbull (The
Threshold Covenant, pp. 45-57).

For th« eocleslutioal funotioo aee Cataiani, Cornmenlary on the
PantifieaU Romanum, II (RomD, 173D). 1-32: Sauer, SyinboUk
OUtiabon, 1002), 114 sq. Cf. alaa Douce in Archaoloqia, XXVI
Oiondtin, 1836), 317 ag.; Tbvhbuix, The ThrMhald Cmtmant
(Edinbtuth, ISM). 45-67.

Herbert TauitsTOK.

Stooe, Mart Juan, b. at Brighton, Sussex, in 1853:
d. at Battte, Sussex, 3 May, 190S. She was educated
at a Calviniat school in Fans and at Aschaffenbuig in
Giennany, where she acquired an intimate Imowledge
of French, German, and Italian. In (jermany Miss
Stone was brought into touch with the CathoUc reli-
gion, and exchanged Protestantism for the "free
atmosphere", as she expressed it, of the Catholic
Church. She was received into the Church by Mon-
sigDor Ketteler, then Bishop of Mfunz. Her histor-
ical studies, for which, po-haps, she is beet known to
the public, were, on her return to England, encouraged
by the fathers of the Society of Jesus. Her talent
and painstaking method of research earned for her a
ly recognition in her "Mary the First, Queen <rf
Dngland" (1901). This is a study of the unhappy
quaen which takes first rank amongst historical mono-
mphs. Miss Stone also wrote " Faithful unto
Death", a study of the martyrs of the Order of St.
Francis during the Reformation period (1892); "Elea-
nor Leslie", amemoirof a notable Scottish convert to
the Church (1898); "R«formation and Renaissance",
a group of studies on the periods indicated (1904);
"Sudies from Court and Cloister", reprinted essays,
qS which perhaps the most interesting are those on
"Margaret Tudor", "Su- Henry Bedingfeld", and a
"MisMng Page from the Idylls of the Kng" (1905);
"The Church in EngUsh History", a higher text-
book for tea^hero of histoiy (1907). Her "Cardinal
Pole", bwun for the St. Nicholas Series, was inter-
mpted byber death. She was a frequent contributor
to the greater periodicals, the "Dublin Beview",
"Month'', "Blackwood's", "Comhill", etc., and con-
tributed several articles to The Catbouc Enctclo-

PEDIA. G. FlaDQATH.

Stone, Marhaduke, Jesuit, b. at Draycot, 28
Nov., 1748; d. at St. Helens, 21 Aug., 1834. He was
educated at St. Omers, shared in its historic exodus
to Bruges, 10-17 August, 1762 (see Saint Ousr, Col-
LEGB OF), entered the Society of Jesus in 1767,
later became a master at the Li^ Acadeicr^. In
1790 he succeeded as president to Father William
Strickland, who then became procurator at Ltmdon;
with his assistance Father Stone succeeded in peace-
fully guiding the Engli^ ex-Jeeuits through more
than a score of tempestuous years (see Milner, John;
PoTNTEn, WiLUAM) . Father Stone's confrirea,
though held together by a common vocation and their
still uncancelled vows, were not allowed by the brief
of suppression to reunite for jnirpoaes of government.
He could therefore on^ rule by ai>p«£ng to con-
science ; no easy tat^ when one remembers the exterior
difficulties, the adventuresome ardour that animated
the young men of his college staff, and the peculiar
wf^ into iHiieh the middle-aged missionanes were

prone to submde. When dealing with the uishopb,
he could claim no rights, not even those essential to
religious bodies. Fortunately, they were not hostile,
though their views on Jesuit property and privil^^ea
caused Father 8t<Kie much trouble.

On 14 July, 1794, the College at Li^ was trana-
ferred.to Stonyburst (q. v.) . In mite of the magnitude
of the task, it was accomplished in good order; and
schools reopened 22 Octcnjo.r foUowmg. A rescript
from ProiMlBanda (14 Feb., 1796) confirmed Stony-
hunt in an the privileges of LiSge. Though it was
impossible to hope for a restoration of the Society
during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, it
was not impracticable to work for a reunion with the
Russian Jesuits, whose corporate existence had lately
been recognized at Rome. In this Father Stone was
successful. On 19 May, 1803, having made Iiis pro-
fession, he was declared provinoial and admitted
others to tiieiT vows, for England, Irelaiid, and Mary-
land; on 29 September a novitiate was opened at
Hodder. Rome, however, gave no public recogni-
tion of the restored order, though the pope pri-
vately expressed his pleasure. When the Bull of
Restoration finally came (7 August, 1814), the inter-
pretation was added (2 Dec., 1816), that it was to
apply only where the secular government wished:
in Endand, therefore, the Jesuits were to be r^arded
as stiu in tiieir old podtioo (see Socibtt op Jbsub).
The college had grown enormously since its transfer
to England and ihe Jesuit missions had prospered
steadily. Father Stone, notwithstanding bis years,
continued to act as college minister till 1827, when
he finally retired to St. Helens. Here the good news
reached him (1829) that the English Jesuits had at
lastl>een formally recognized. Though he might not
look an ideal leader. Father Stone was wond^ully
adapted to his circumstances; his unfailing ktndness,
simplicity, sincerity, patience, and self-devotiffli were
irreeiBtible. If he acted slowly, he made no mistakes:
he was (»pable of undertaking great enterprises, ana
of carrying them through with strong tenacity of
purpose.

OorMOondenoe mt Stonyhurat and elaevbere: Obkaso, SlonM-
hunt Cottm (ISM); Folbt. Rtxordt S.J.,yi\, 741; Wakd. 7w
Dawn of Ma Calhoiie Reeieal (Loodon, 1000); Idbh, The Aa «f
CaOuiic Bmandvation (London, 1912).

J. H. FouxN.

Stones, pRBCioTj^ in BiBUS.—Precious stones are
stones remarkable for their colour, brilliancy, or
rarity. Such stones have at all times been held in
^gh esteem ev^ywhere, particularly in liie East.
We gather ftom variotis passages of Sacred Scriptiure
that very early the Orientals appropriated them for
divers ornamental uses: rings, bracelets, collars, neck-
laces; the crowns of Icings as also thar garments and
those cS t\mr officers and tA the priests were set with
precious stones. The Hebrews obttuned their pre-
cious stones from Arabia, India, and Egypt. At the
time of the Exodus E^pt was floodeq#with riches,
and we know how the Iwaelites on leavir^ the lana
possessed themselves of many precious stones, ac-
cording to the commandment of God (Ex., iii, 22; xii,
35-36). Later when th^ were settled in Palestine
ihey could easi^ obtun stones from the merchant
caravans travellimc from Bat^lonia or Persia to Egypt
and those from ^U>a and Reema to Tyre (Esech.,
xxvii, 22) Solomon even equipped a fleet which re-
turned from Ophir laden with precious stones (III
Kings, X, U).

The precious stones of the Bible are chiefly of in-
terest in connexion with the breastplate of the hi^-
priest (Ex., xxviii, \7~^^ xxxix, 10-13), the treasure
of the Biing of Tyre (Eseoh., xxviii, IS), sod the
foundations of Uie New Jenisalon (Tob., xUi, 16-17,
in the Greek text, and more fully, Apoc., xxi, 18-21).
Hie twelve stones of tlw bfeastplate and the two
stones of the shouldep-omaments seem to have been

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oongidercd by the Jews aa the most precious; they un-
doubtedly serve as the standard' of whatever is beau-
tiful and rich beyond measure; both Eiech., xxviii, 13,
and Apoc.^ xxi, 18-21, are patterned after the model
of the rational; no wonder therefore that the stones
entering its composition should have been the ob-

i'ects 01 a considerable amount of literature from the
ourth century. That such a literature should have
arisea is a[ itself convincing proof that the identifica-
tion of the stones was no easy problem to solve. It
must be remen^>a:^ too that at the time of the Sep-
tuagint translation the stones to which the Hebrew
names apply could no longer be identified, and the
translators rendered the same Hebrew name by differ-
ent Greek words. So also did Joeephus who, however,
claimed he had seen the actual stones. This, coupled
with the fact tiiat, the late Biblical lists, although
visibly depending on that oS Exodus, exhibit here
and there notable changes, makes the task of identify-
ing the stones a veiy f^uous one. It should be iio-
tired that the ancients did not classify their precious
stones by analyzing their comi>ositiou and crystalime
forms; names were given them from their colour, their
use, or the country from which they came. Thus it
hiujpaui Uiat atones of the same or nearly the same
colour, but of different composition or crystalline
form, bear identical names. Mother difficulty ia due
to Uie names having changed in the course of time:
thus the ancient chiysofite is our topaz, the sapphu^
is our lazuli, etc. However, we know most of tlie
atones accounted precious in Egypt, Assyria, and
Babylonia. Owing to the neighbourhood and to the
influence <d these countries on Palestine, it is highly
probable that the score of substances called in the
Bible "deein^le atones" (Is., liv, 12) must be con-
tained in the fairly long list of the precioua and orna-
mental stones of the Assyro-Ba^jrlonians and the
E^ptians.

This is not the place to enter upon a critical and
exegetical discussion of the Biblical paasages above re-
ferred to, where lists of precious stones are given. It
will be sufficient to treat briefly of these stones accord-
ing to the alphabetical order of the English names.

AoATii, Heb. Sept. ix^'^vf, Vulg. acJuUes (Ex.,
xxviii, 19; xxxix, 12, in Heb. and Vulg.: also Ezech.,
xxviii, 13, in Sept.). — This is the second stone of the
third row of the rational, where it very probably rep-
resented the tribe of Aser. The derivation of the He-
brew word is doubtful, but the stone has generally
been acknowledged to be the agate. Fl^t (Hebr. u.
Chakl. WorterbO derives IDS from 32tf, "toflame";it
may also be related to Saba whence caravans

brought the stone to Palestine. The Greek and Latin
names are taken from the river Achates, the modem
Dirillo, in Sicily, where this stone was first found
(Theophrastus, ^'De lapid.", 38; Pliny, "Hist, nat.",
XXXvU, liv). The stone belongs to the silex family
(chalcedony species) and is formed by deposits of sih-
ceous beds in hollows of rocks. To this mode of for-
mation are due the bands of various colours which it
contains. Ita oonc^Idal clevage is suso^tible of a
high polish. To this stone various nwdicinal powers
were attributed tmtil far into the Middle Ages. It
was supposed to render the action of all poisons void,
to counteract the infection of contagious diseases; if
held in the hand or in the mouth it was believed to
alleviate fever. The eagle, it was said, placed an
agate in its nest to guard its voung against the bite of
venomous animals. The red a^te was credited with
the power of sharpening the vision. At present agate
and on^ differ only in the manner m which the stone
ia cut: if it is so cut as to show the layers of colour, it is
callea sc^te; if cut parallel to the fines, onyx. For-
noerly an agate that was banded witih well-defined
colours was the onyx. The bfmded agate is used for
the manufacture of cameos.

AUSTOTST, Heb. n?3^nM; Sept. ifidewmt, fdsoApoo.,
XIV.— 20

5 STOMU

xxi, 20, where it is the twelfth and last stOM of tli«
foundation of the New Jerusalem. It is the third atone
in the third row of the rational, representing the tribe
of IssachflT (Ex., xxviii, 19; xxxix, 12); the Septuagini
enumerates it among the riches of the King of 1 yre
(Ezech., xxviii, 13). The Greek name alludes to the
popular befief that the amethyst was a preventive of
mtoxication; Jience beakers were made of amethyst
fcH" carousals, and inveterate drinkers wore Mnulets
made of it to counteract the action of wine. Abeik
esra andKimohie:q}lain the Hebrew ri?:^nK in.an an^o-
gous manner^ dmvmg it from zhn, to dream; cbn in
its first meaning signifies "to be hard" (Ftlrst, Hebr.
Handworterbuch). We have no reason to doubt the
accuracy of the translation since we find a general
agreement among the various versions; Josephus
(Ant. Jud., Ill, vii, 6) also has "amethyst"; the Tar-
gum of Onkelos and the Syriac Version have "calTs
eye", mdicating the colour. The amethyst is a bril'
hant transparent stone of a purple colour resembling
that of diluted wine and varying in ^ade from the
violet purple to rose. There are two kinds of ame-
thysts: the oriental amethyst, a species of sapphire, is
very hard (cf. Heb., obn), and when colourless can
hardty be distinguished from the diamond; the occi-
dental amethyst is of the silex family, hence different
in composition from the oriental stone. But the ideo'
tity of names ia accounted for by the identity of col-
our. The occidental amethyst is easily engraved. It
is found of various sizes. Its shape is different from
the round pebble to the hexagonal, pyramid-capped
crystal.

. Berti>, Heb. D^""; Sept. jS^pvXXoi; Vulg. berylltu. —
In the breastplate this stone occupied the third place
of the second row and was understood to represent
N^htali (Ex., xxviii, 19; xxmx, 13); according to the
S^tuagjnt it is the second of the fourth row, and third
of the fourth according to the Vulgate; Ezech., xxviii,
13, mentions it in the tnird place; it is cited also in the
Greek text of Tob., xiii, 17^ but is wanting in the Vul-

?;ate; Apoc., xxi, 20, gives it aa the eighth stone of the
oundation of the New Jerusalem. There ia great
difference of opinion as to the exact Hebrew correla-
tive of this word. The best supported w cbn"", though
Cnti also does not lack probability. nCJf* has likewise
been suggested, but without sufficient reason, it seems,
for to this Hebrew ncS* must correspond jasper, Gr.
foffxtj, Lat. jtwjjt*. This mistaken idea mo t probably
arose from the supposition that the translated words
must have occupied the same position as in the orig-
inal. This is not the case, as a comparison of the
the Greek and Latin translations shows; in the Vul-
gate, indeed, we find ja^er in the same position aa
~CS*, whereas the Greek p^pvWoi does not correspond
to the Latin herylltts; the same may have happened
as regards the translation of the Hebrew into Greek,
especially as in the old manner of writing the two
words C^n* and nc^* might be easily confused. The
authority of Josephus is nere of little weight, for he
most likely quoted from memory, the position of the
words beti^c at variance even in his two lists (Bell.
Jud., V, vT?; Ant. Jud., Ill, vii). Our choice, there-
fore, is limited to the two words cbn' and cntf . By
comparing various texts of the Vulgate — the Greek is
very inconsistent — we find that cntf is_ always trans-
lated by onyx: this alone seems sufficient to render
fairly probable the opinion that beryl corresponds to
Heb. sSnv That the beryl was among the stones of
the rational appears beyond doubt since all transla-
tions mention it. The etymology giving us no spe-
cial help, by elimination we oome to the genially ac-
cepted conclusion that beryl and C /H" stand for each
otter. The beryl ia a stone composed of silica, alu-
mina, and glucina. The beryl and the emerald are of
the same species. The difference between the beryl,
the aqua marine, and the emerald is determined by the
colouring matter and the peculiar shade of each. The

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beryl, though sometimes white, is usually of a light
blue verging into a yellowish green; the emerala is
more transparent and of a finer hue than the beryl;
as a gem. it is more beautiful, and hence more costly;
the aqua marine is a beautiful sea-green variety. The
emerald derives its colour from a small quantity of
oxide of chromium; the beryl and aqua marine from a
small quantity of oxide of iron. The beryl occurs in
the shape either of a pebble or of an hexagonal prism.
It is found in met^orphic limestone, slate, mioa-
schist, gheiss, and granite. In ancient times it was
obtained from Upper Egypt and is still found in the
mica slate of Mt. Zaborah, The larRest beryls known
have been found in Acworth and Grafton, New
Hampshire, and in Royalston, Massachusetts, United
States of America; one weighs 2900 lb., measures 51
inches in loigth, 32 inches through in one direction
and 22 in another transverse. The beryl has been
cmployedforcabalisticuseB (Aubrey, "Miscellanies").

Cabbuncle, Heb., "DJ ; Sept. Mpai (Ex., xxviii, 18;
xxxix, 11; Ezech., xxviii, 13; omitted in Ezech., xxvit,
16); Vulg., carbunculus (Ex., xxviii, 18; xxxix, 11;
Ezech., xxviii, 13), gemma (Ezech.^ xx\'ii^ 16), the first
atone of the second row of the rational; it represented
Juda, and is also the eighth stone mentioned of the
riches of the King of Tyre (Ezech., xxviiij 13), being,
not a native product, but an object of importation
(Ezech., xxvii, 16) ; it is perhaps the third stone of the
foundation the celestial city (Apoc, xxi, 19). The
ancient auttuirs are far from agreeing ^on the precise
nature of this stone. It very probably corresponds
to the iw0pai of Theophrastus (De lap., 18), the car-
bunculus of Pliny (Hist, nat., XXXVlI, xxv), tlfe
charckedoniufi of Petronius, and the ardjouani of the
Arabs. If so it is a' red glittering stone, probably the
Oriental ruby, though the appellation may have been
applied to various red gems. Theophrastus says of
it: "Its colour is red ancT of such a kind that when it is
h^d against the sun it resembles a burning coal."
This description talhes fairly well with that of the
Oriental ruby. He relates also that the most perfect
carbuncles were brought from Carthage, Marseilles,
Egypt, and the neighbourhood of Siena. Carbuncles
were named differently according to the places whence
they came. Pliny (Hist, nat., XXXVII, xxv) cites
the lithizontes. or Indian carbuncles, the ametlwsti-
Bontes, the colour of which approacned that of the
amethyst, and the sitites. Most probably, then, the
name of carbuncle applied to several stones.

Carneuan, Heb. fromDTlJ.tobered, especially
"red blooded"; Sept. and Apoc. adpiMv\ Vulg. sar-
dius; the first stone of the breastplate (Ex., xxviii, 17;
xxxix, 10) representing Ruben: also the first among
the stones of the King of Tyre (Ezech., xxviii, 13); the
sixth foundation stone of the celestial city (Apoc.. xxi,
19). The word vttpSwr has sometimes hem rendered
. sardonyx ; this is a mistake, for the same word is equiv-
alent to camclian in Theophrastus (De lap., 55) and
Phny (Hist, nat., XXX VII, xxxi). who derive the name
from that of the city of Sardes wnere, they say, it was
first found. The camelian is a siliceous stone and a
species of chalcedony. Its colour is a flesh-hued red,
varying from the palest flesh-colour to a deep blood-
red. It is of a conchoidal structure. Usually its col-
our is without clouds or veins; but sometimes delicate
veins of extremely Ught red or white are found ai^
ranged much like the rings of an agate. Camdian
is used for rings and seals. The finest cameliana are
found in the East Indies.

ChalcedonYj Apoc., xxi, 19, xaXj^jW*"; Vulg. chcdee-
donius, the third foundation stone of the celestial
Jerusalem. Some claim the writing x>^2<i'' is erro-
neous, and that it should be x"^"^^', the carbuncle.
Though this view is countenanced by but few MSS.,
yet it is not devoid of roison; for whilst the other
eleven stones correspond to a stone in the rational it is
mpgular that this should be the on^ exception.

)6 SToms

Moreover the ancients veir often confounded the
names of these two stones. The chalcedony is a sili-
ceous stone. Its name is supposed to be derived from
Chalcedon, in Bithynia, whence the ancients obtained
the stone. It is a species of agate and bears various
names according to its colour. It is usually made
up of concentric circles of various colours. Tnc most
valu^le of these stones are found in the East Indies.
Sets for rings, seals, and, in the East, cups and beakers
ore made of chalcedon.

Chodchod, ")3*p (Is., liv, 12; Ezech., xxvi^, 16);
S^t. Uma (Is., Iiv, 12), XVX^ (Ezech., xxvii, 16);
Vu|g.ias7»> (Is., liv, 12), chodchod (Ezech., xvii, 16). —
This word is used only twice in the Bible. The chod-
chod is ^enerallv identified wifh the Oriental ruby. The
translation of the word in Is. both by the Septuagint
and the Vulgate is jasper: in Ezech. the word is merely
transliterated; the Greek xvx^p is explained by con-
sidering how easy it is to mistake a 1 for a 1. What
chodchod signifies", says St. Jerome, "I have until
now not been able to find" (Comment, in Ezech.,

xxvii, 16, in P. L., XXV, 255). In Is. he follows the
Septuagint and translates chodchod by jaapts. The
word is probably derived from T?, " to throw fire *' ; the
stone was therefore brilliant and very likely red. This
supposition is strengthened by the tact that the Ara-
bic word kadzkadzat, evidently derived from the same
stem as chodchod, designates a bright red. It was
therefore a kind of ruby, likely the Oriental ruby,
perhaps also the cu-buncle (see above).

Cbbtsolite, Heb. tf-Sm (Ex., xxviii. 20: xxxix, 13;
Ezech., i, 16; X, 9; xxviii, 13 j Cant., v, 14; Dan„ x, 6);
Sept.^ xpvfif^t (Ex., xxviii, 20; xxxix, 13; Ezech.,

xxviii, 13); eapirtt (Cant., v, 14; Dan., x, 6); ffofxreh
(Ezech., 1, 16; x, 9); Vulg. chrysolithua ffix., xxviii,
20; xxxix, 13; Ezech., x. 9; xxviii, 13; Dan., x, 6),
hyacitUhu8 (Cant., v, 14); quasi viaio maria (Ezech.,
i, 16)j Apoc., xxi, 20, x/KwAXitfo*; Vulg. chryaoliihut. —
This IS the tenth stone of the rational, representing the
tribe of Zabulon; it stands fourth in the enumeration
of Ezech., xxviii, 13, and is given as the seventh foun-
dation stone of the celestial city in Apwc, xxi, 20. In
none of the Hebrew texts is there any lunt as to the
nature of this stone; however, since the Septuagint
habitually translates the Hebrew word bf xptv^^*^,
except where it merely transliterates it and m Ezech.^ x,
9, since, moreover, the Vulgate follows this translation
with very few exceptions, and Aquila, Josephus, and
St. Epiphanius agree in their rendering, we can safely
accept the opinion that the chiysolite of the ancients,
which is our topaz, was meant. The word tharsis very
likely points to the place whence the stone was
brought (Tharais). The modem chrysolite is a green
oblong hexagonal prism of unequal sides terminated
by two triangular pyramids. The topaz, or anoint
chrysolite, is an octangular prism of an orange-yel-
low colour: it is composed of alumina, silica, hydro*
fluoric acid, and iron. It is found in Ceylon, Arabia,
and Egypt, and several species were admitted to exist
fPliny, '^Hist. nat.", XXXVII, xlv). In the Middle
Ages it was believed to possess the power of disjielling
the fears of night and of driving away devils; it was
also supposed to be an excellent cure for the diseases
of the eye.

C^TSOPRASUS, Greek xf^^P^os, the tenth foun-
dation stone of the celestial Jerusalem (Apoc., xxi.
20). This is perhaps the agate of Ex., xxviii, 20, and
xxxix, 13, since the chrysoprasus was not very well
known among the ancioits. It is a idnd of green
agate, composed mostfy of silica and a small percent-
age of nickel.

Coral, Heb. mT2KT (Job, xxviii, 18; Prov., xxiv, 7;
Ezech., xxvii, 1^ ; Sept. fLerdapa, ^iM0; Vulg. exceisa,
sericum. — ^The Hebrew word seems to come from CUT
or cn, "to be high", probably connoting a resem-
blance to a tree. It may be also that the name came
from a strange oountiy, as did the coral itself, j It is

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obvious that the ancient verstoos have comi}leteIy
miBsed the sense; they even fdt it so well that in one
riace they merely transUterated Uw Hebrew woxd.
In Eiech., xxvii, 16, coral is mentioned as erne of the
articles brought by the Syrians to Tyre. The Phceni-
dans mounted beads of coral on colfars and garments.
These corals were obtained by Babylonian pearl-
fishers in the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. The
Hebrews made apparently very little use of this sub-
stance, and hence it is seldom mentioned in their writ-
ings; tins explains also the difficulty felt by the trans-
lators in rendering the word. Gesaiius (Thesaurus,

S. 1113) translates D^J^OD (Job, xxviii^ 18: Plov., iii,
5; viii, 11; xx, 15; xxxi, 10; Lam., iv, 7) by ''red
coral"; but many maint^ that the p^l is meant in
these passages. The coral spoken of in the Bible is
the precious coral {corallum rubrum), the fonnation of
which is well known. It is a calcareous secretion of
certain polype, having a tree-like fonnation. At prf»-
ent coral is found in the Mediterranean, the northern
coast of Africa furnishing the dark red, Sardinia the
yellow or salmon-coloured, and the coast of Italy the
Tose-pink coral. One of the neatest ooral-fishenes of
the present day is Torre del Greco, near Naples.

CRYSTAL, Heb. (Job, xxviii, 18), ^^p (Ezech, i,
22) ; both words signify a glassy Bubstance; Sept. yaplt;
Vulg. emineiUia (Job^ xxviii, 18) ; d^iWToXXot, crystcjlxta
(Ezech., i, 22).-~This was a transparent mineral re-
sembling glass, most prcdMbly a variety of quarts.
Job places it in the same category witii gold, onyx,
B^ipnire, glass, conJ, topaz» etc. The Targum ren-
ders the niD of Ewch. by "ice"; the versions trans-
late by "crystal". We find crystal [^un mentioned
in Apoc., iv, 6; xxi, 11; xxii, 1. In Fa. cxlvii, 17, and
Ecclxis., xliii, there can be no question but that ice
is meant. The word n''313T, Job, xxviii, 17, wiuch
some translate by crystal, means glass.

DiAUOND, Heb. T')3tf : Sept. iiafiarrlMi; Vulg. ada-
mas, adamantinm (Ezech., iii,9; Zach., vii, 12; Jer., xvii,
1). — Whether or not this stone is really the diamond
caunot be ascertained. Many passages in Holy Writ
point indeed to the qualities of the diamond, espe-
cially its hardness (Ezech., iii, 9; Zach., vii, 12; Jer.,
xvii, 1). In the last Jeremias informs us of a use to
which this stone was put, which agrees admirably with
the use to which the diamond is put at this day: "The
sin cS Juda is written with a pen of iron, with tne point
of a diamond". But although diamond is used to en-
grave hard substances, yet it should be remarked
that other stones may serve the same purpose. The
Septuagint omits the passages of Ezech. and Zach.,
while the first five verses of Jer., xvii, are missing in the
Cod. Vaticanus and Alexandiinus, but are foimd in
the Complutensian edition and in the Syriac and Arabic
Versions. Despite the <]uaUtie8 mentioned in the Bible,
the stone epoken of in the places referred to may
be the limpid ootindon, T^ich exhibits the same qual-
ities, and IB used in India for the same piirposee as we
use the diamond. The diamond was not very well
known among the ancients; and if we add to this rea-
son the similarity between the words trfilpis, the Egyp-
tian osmir, "emery", a species of conndon used to
polish precious stones, and TTStf, the Hebrew word
summsed to mean the diamond, we may conclude with
prwability that the limpid oorindon was intended.
Aben-Eara and Abarbanel translate D?n* by "diar-
mond"; but U7Tf' we have shown above to be the
beryl. The diamond is made up of pure carbon,
mostlv of a white transparent colour, but sometimes
tinted. The white diamond is the most precious,
owing to its beauty and rarity. South Africa con-
tains the largest diamond fields.

EuxRALD, Heb. npi2 ; Sept. ritipaySn; Vulg. gmarag-
due; the third stone of the rational (Ex., xicviii, 17;
zxxix^ 10), where it represents the tribe <n Levi; it is
the mnth stooe in Ezech., xxviii, 13, and the fourth
loundsticni stone (tf the celestial Jeniralem (Apoc., xxi.

19). The same precious stone is also mentioned in
Tob„ mi. 1ft (VuSg. 21); Jud.^x,21 (Vulg. 19); ^ndin
the Greek text of Ecolus., xxxii, 8, but there is no indi-
cation of it in the MS. B. of the Hebrew text,
found in the Genizah of Cwro in 1896. That JvnZ
stands for "emerald" is verified by the fact that

Sraotically all versions, as well as Josephus (Ant.
ud., in, vii, 5; Bell. Jud., V, v, 7) translate it
thus. The Hebrew root pl2, from which it is prob-
ably derived, signifiee " to glitter", which qu^ty
agrees eminentiy widi the emwald. The word may
also come from the Sanskrit marakaia which is cer-
tainly the emerald; the Greek form vfidpaySot is not so
distant from the Hebrew that no similarity can be
found between them. In Job, xiii, 21; Jud., x, 19;
Ecclus., xxxii, 8; and Apoc., xxi, 10, the emerald is oei^
tainly uie stone spoken (tf . The word "ICJ also has
sometimes been translated by snutragdua; but this is a
mistake, for "pJ b the carbuncle. The emerald is a
green variety of beryl and is composed of silicate of
alumina and gluoina. Its form is a hexa^nal crystal;
its colour ia a brilliant reflecting green, llie stone ad-
mits of a high polish. The emer^d is found in meta-
morphic rocks, granitefl, and mica schists; the finest
specimens come from Miuo, BogatA, South America.
The ancients obtained the stone from Egypt and In-
dia. It has sometimes been asserted that they knew
nothing of the emerald; but this is plainly refuted by
Pliny, Theophrastus, and others, though the name
may have been used possibly for other stones. In the
Middle Ages marveUous powers were attributed to the
emerald, the most conspicuous being the power to pre-
serve or heal the sight.

Hyacinth, Greek Adtaven; ViUe. ta/adntittu (Apoo.,
xxi, 20); the eleventh stone of the foundation of the
heavenly^ city. It corresponds very probably to Heb.,
the ligurius of Ex., xxviii, 19: xxxix, 12 (St. Epipban.,
"De duodecim gemmia" in P. G., XLIII, 300). The
stone spoken of in Cant., v, 14, and called hyacirUhtts
in the Vulgate ia the Hebrew O^tiirv whioh has been
shown above to be the chrysolite. The exact nature
of the hyacinth cannot be determined, the name hav-
ing been applied to several stones of similar colours,
and most probably designating stones of the same
colours as the flower hyacinth. Hyacinth ia a zircon
of a crimson, red, or orange hue. It is harder than
quartz and its cleavage is undulating and sometimes
lamellated. Its form is an oblong quadrangular
prism terminated on both ends a quadrangular
pyramid. It was supposed to be a talisman against
tempests.

Jasper, Heb. nC5S^; Sept. taawa; Vul^. jaspia; the
twelfth stone of the breastplate (Ex., xxviii, 18; xxxix,
11), representing Benjamin. In the Greek and Latin
texts it comes sixth, and so also in Ezech., xxviii, 13;
in the Apocalypse it is the first (xxi, 19). Despite this
difference of position Jaajm is undoubtedly the DCtf ^
of the Hebrew text. The jasper is an anhy(u-ate quartz
composed of silica, alumina, and iron. There are jas-
pers of nearly every colour. It is a completely opaque
stone of a conchoidal cleavage. It seems to have been
obtained by the Jews from India and Egypt.

LiouRUS, Heb. Utlh; Sept. Xtytfpwr; Vulg. limtrtiu;
the first stone of the third row of the rationaj (Ex.,
xxviii, 19; xxxix, 12), representing Gad. It ie miss-
ing in the Hebrew of Ezech., xxviii, 13, but present in
Uie Greek. This stone is probably the same as the
hyacinth (St. Epiphan., loc. cit.). This identifica-
tion, admitted by tradition, rests on the remark that
the twelve foundation stones of the celestial city in
Apoc., xxi, 19-20, correspond to the twelve stones of
the rational, from which it would appear that the lig-
urus is the same as the hyacinth. Some have iden-
tified it with the turmaline, a view rejected by most
scholars.

Oktx, H^. onV; Sept. Mxw, Vulg. lapit orracfti-
nus; the eleventh stone in the breastplate inthe Hebrew

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BTOHINO

and the Vulgnte (Ex., xxviii, 20; xxxix, 13), represent-
ing the tribe of Joseph: in the Sept. it is the twelfth
Btone: it is the fifth in Biech.^ zxviii, 13, in the Hd>..
but twelfU) in the Greek; it is called sardonyx tad
oomcs in the fifth place in Apoc. lad, 20. The exact
nature of this stone is disputea. Many think, be-
cause the Greek word ^poWot occurs imtead of the
Hebrew cnt^ Uiat the beryl is meant ; but this is not so
(sec Beryl above). The Vulgate indeed gives onyx
as the equivalent of the Hebrew DDtf . True, this alone
would be a very weak argument; but we have other
and stronger evidences in the fiurt that the Hebrew
word occurs frequently in Holy Writ (Gen., ii, 12;
Ex., XXV, 7; XXV, 9, 27; I Par., xxxix, 2; etc.) and on
each occasion, save Job, xxviii, 16, it is translated in
the Vu^ate by ioms onyehintis (iapia aardonyehtu in
Job, xxviii, 16). The Greek is very inconsistent in its
translation, rendering DHtf differently in various texts;
thus in Gen., ii, 12, it is XWot xpdffwjj vipStot in Ex.
xxVj 7;xxxv,9;(r/«l|ptt7fof in Ex.^ xxviii, 9; xxxv. 27;
XXXIX, 6; vodn, a mere transcription of the Hei»ew
word in I Par., xxix, 2; and Jlivf in Job, xxviii, 16.
The other Greek translators are more uniform:
Aquila has <rapS&wi- Symmachus and Theodotion
have jraf; the paraphriise of Onkelos had bOrla, the
Syriac berUla, both of which evidently are the Greek
fi^\\ot, "beryl". Since the translations do not ob-
serve the same order as the Hebrew in enumerating
the stones of the ratioiuU (see Bertl above), we are in
no way bound to accept the Greek ^lipvXXoi as the
Ixanalation of QHtiiand relying on the testimony of the
various versions we may safely hold the onyx is the
stone signified by CH?. The on3^ is a variety of
quartz analogous to the agate and other crypto-crys-
talline species. It is composed of different layers of
variously coloured caraclian much like banded agate
in structure, but the layers are in even or puallel
I^anes. Hence it is well adapted for the cutting of
cameos and was much used for that purpose by the
ancients. The colours of the best are perfectly well
defined, and are either white and black, or white,
brown, and black. The best specimens are brought
from India. Sardonyx has a structure like onyx, but
is composed usually of alternate layers of white chal-
cedony and carnetian, although the camelian may be
asBoaiated with layers of white, brown, and black
chalcedony. The ancients obtamed the onyx from
Arabia, BgS^i and India.

Pearl. — ^The pearl can hardly be termed a stone;
we may nevertheless, by giving the word "stone" a
broad meaning, treat here of the pearl, as we Iiave
treated above of coral. It is comparatively certain
that the pearl (Greek iiapyaplrii, Vulg. margarUa) was
known among the Jews, at least after the time of Solo-
mon, as it was among the Phcsnicians. What word
designated it is uncertain. The following have been
suggested: l!j*23,which, however, signified "crystal" (see
above; also Furst, "Hebr. u. Chald. Wortorb.'' ) ; D" J' JD,
which Gesenius renders by "red coral"; n, EJsth.. i, 6,
which is translated in the Vulg. by lapis parius,
"marble"; the Arabic dar, however, means "pearl",
and thus also Fiu^t renders the Hebrew word. In the
New Testament we find the pearl mentioned in Matt.,
xiii, 46, 46; I Tim., ii, 9; etc. The pearl is a concre-
tion consisting chiefiy of carbonate of lime found in
sevwal bivalve moUusks, but especially in the avicuia
margaritifera. It is generally of a whitish blue, some-
times showing a tinge of pink; there are also yellow
pearls. This gem was considered the most precious
of all among the ancients, and was obtained from the
Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Persian Gulf.

Ruby. — ^This may have been either the carbuncle or
the choddiod (see above). There is, however, a
dioice between the oriental ruby and the sptnd rubv;
but the words may have been used indiscriminately
for both. The former is extremely hiird, almost as
hard as the diamond, and is obtained from Ceylon, In-

dia, and China. It is oonndered a moot prfr-

cious gem.

SAPPHmB,Heb.TCD; Septuag.mlr^Nfwi'; Vii]g.sap-
■phirw. — ^Tne sapphire was the fifth stone of the rsr-
tional (Ex., xxvui, 19; xxxix, 13), and represented the
tribe of Dan. It is the seventh stone in Kzech.,
xxviii, 14 (in the Hebrew text, for it occurs fifth in the
Greek text); it is also the second foundation stone of
the celestial Jerusalem (Apoc., xxi, 19). The genu-
ine sapphire is a hyaline corindon of a beautifufblue
colour^ it is composed of nearly pure alumina, its col-
our bemg due to the presence of oxide of iron. The
ancients gave the name of s^phire also to our lapis-
lazuli. which is likewise a blue stone, often speckled
with cAiininx pyrites iriuch give it the appearance of
being sprinkled with gold dust. It is coniposed of
silica, alumina, and alkali; it is an opaque substance
easily engraved. ' Which of these two is referred to in
the Bible? Both may be meant, but the lapis-lasuli
aeems more probable, for as often as its qualities are
described, it is spoken of as being eanly engraved
(Lam., iv, 7; Ex., xxviii^ 17; xxxix, 13). llie sapphire
was obtained from India.

Sardonyxj Sard. — These two words are often con-
founded by mtcrppeters. The sard is the camelian,
while the sardonyx is a species of onvx.

Topaz, Heb. nilSD ; Sept. tqwA^iav; Vulg. topazius, the
second stone of the rational (Ex., xxviii, 17; xxxix, 19),
representing Simeon; also the sectmd stone in Ezech.,
xxviii, 13; tne ninth foundation stone of the celestial
Jerusalem (Apoc, xxi, 20); also mentioned in Job,
xxviii, 19. This topaz is generally believed to have
been the chrysolite rather than our topaz. The orien-
tal topaz is composed of nearly pure alumina, siUca,
and fluoric acid; its shape is an orthorhombic prism
with a cleavage transverse to its long axis. It is ex-
tremelv hard and has a double refraction. When
rubbed or heated it beoomes highly electric. It varies
in colour according to the country from which it
comes. The Australian topaz is green or yellow; the
Tasmanifui clear, brif^t, and transparent; the Saxon
pale violet; the Bohemian sea-gre^ and the Brazilian
red, varyii^ from a pale red to a deep carmine. The
ancients very probably obtained it from the East.

St. EnpHAMttn, !>• duodeeim o*mmU in P. a.. XUII. 294-
80(: St. bmoKK, De laptdOnu m Avmol., xvi, 6-lS. in P. L.
LXXXII, 870-580: Kmro, AnHma Gtma (2d ed., Londoti, 1872};
Idbh, Th» NaUrai HUlorv ^ umm or Daooralim Stone* (3d ad.,
Loodon, 1870); Bsaon, KeaMtiM «a«rda<«m htbrmorum (Leyden,
1680); Babblon in DABUiBBita and Saouo, Diet, da ontiguiUa
grecqyM H nmaitttt, a. v. Onama; LEsftmB 10 ViOOT'ROtnc, Diet,
d« la BMe, a. v. Pieiret prteietuei; RoSKmCLLBB, Handbveh dtr
biblitehm AUtrthwrukunde (Leipnc); WufCR in Bibtitdut Btat-
wdrterbueh (Leipsig, 1847), B. SSattine.

Charles L. Sow ay.

Stoninff In Scripture. — Palestine being a very-
rocky country, the wundanee of sttmes made it natu-
ral to use them as missiles. Stone throwing might be
merely a mark of hatred and contempt (II Kings, xvi,
6-13), or the means of carrying out murderous inten-
tions against which provision nad to be made in the
Law (Ex., xxi, 18; Num., xxxv, 17). Stoning to death
which was at first an expression of popular fury anal-
c^uB to "lynching", later came to be a natural and
legally recognized method of execution. It was thus
r^ulated by law as an appointed means of capital
punishment (Deut., xvii, 5-7;Act8,vii, 58). Deatn by
stoning is prescribed in the Pentateuch as the penalty
for eighteen different crimes including Sabbath-break-
ing, but for one crime only — murder — is it the penalty
prescribed in ail the codes. The execution of the
criminal usually took place outside the city walls, and
according to Deut., xvii, 7, the witnesses in the case
were to cast the first stone: "Thou shalt bring forth
the man or the woman, who have committed that
most wicked thing, to the gates of thy city, and they
shall be stoned. By the mouth of two or three wit-
nesses shall he die who is to be slain. . . . The hands
of the witneasea shall be first upon him to kill him, and

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STONYHURST COLLEGE, WEST FRONT

FBOH THE POINT OF VIEW CHOSEN BT TURNER FOR HIS PICTURE OF STONTHURBT

STONYHURST COLLEGE, FROM THE SOUTH

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309

8TONTHUB8T

afterwards the hands of the rest of the people".
(Deut., xvii, 5-7). Stoning is also mentioned in Acts,
vii 57-58, as the means by which Stephen the first
Christian martyr was put to death: "And easting him
forth without the city, they stoned him."

Jambs F. Dbisooll.

Btozmes, Jaubs, English priest, b. 1513; d. after
1585. He was ordained at Durham by Biwop Tun-
stall in 1539- After Elisabeth's acceedon he never
ratered a church, but wandered about I>urham and
Yorkshire, with occasional visits to Lancashire, where
he was known as Uncle James, saying Mass as often
as the opportumty of time, place, and company gave
leave. He was eventually arrested by toe Ean of
X>erby about midnight 19 Nov., 1585, at the house <tf
a veiy poor man, a victualler, and an under-tenant,
living eight miles from the earl s seat, Newpark, in the
Parish of Ormskirk, Lancashire. As he would not
commit himself to the royal supremacy, though he
acknowledged the queen as temporal sovereign, and
wished she might have Nestor's years, and as he con-
fessed that he regarded her ecclemasticiU policy as
contrary to God's law and refused togive up saying
Mass, he was committed to the New Meet, Manches-
ter, where, as he was then aged 72, it is probable he
died. At the time of his arrest he had with him, an
alb, a surplice or amice, a thread girdle, a vestment,
a stole, a fannel, "a Con^us and a Corpus Case", a
super-altar, a tin chalice with a cover, three little pew-
ter boxes in a leather case for oU and chrism, a crewet,
two little pewter bottles for wine, three crudfixes, an
Agnus Deij "a porthouse with the pope's name in the
Callender m many places", a piece of an old primer
in parchment, a piece of an old book of sermons, and
an old Mass-book.

OiBSON, Lydiatt HaU and iU Ataodatima (privately printed,
Ediikbuigh ud London. 1876), 231-3.

John B. Wainewriobf.

Stonyhurst College. — The history of Stonyhurst
as a school dates back to a period considerably prior
to its foundation on English soil in 1794. Stonyhurst
is the lineal descendant of the coll^ founded by
Father Robert Persons in 1592, at St. Omer in Artois,
for English boys, compelled by the penal laws of
Elizabethan times to seek on the continent that reU-
gious education which was denied them at home.
Driven from St. Omer in 1762 by the hostility of the
Parlemeni of Paris, ^e college was transferred to
Bruges, where it remained imder the protection of the
Empress Maria Theresa till dispersed by the sup-
pression of the Society in 1773. Within liie same year,
nowever, the staff and students had reassembled, and
continueid their coll^ate life at Lidge under the
patronage of the prince bishop of that citi^. The
approach of the French revolutionary armies in 1794
again compelled the collie to seek a new home, and
this time it found one in its native land at the mansion
of Stonyhurst HaU in Lancashire, which had been
placed at the disposal of the community by Mr.
Thoraaa Weld of Lulworth, heir of the Shirebums
of Stonyhurst and himself a past student of the college
at Bruges. By a strange coincidence Stonyhurst
HaU had been rebuilt by Sir Richard Shirebum in
1592, the very year of the foundation of St. Omer;
so that the «;hokatic life of the coU^e, which has now
been established at Stonyhurst for 117 years, but
reaches back more than 200 years before that final
settlement, is coeval with that of its present domicile.

The character of the education given at Stonyhurst
has, needless to say, varied with the requirements of
Uic time. The predominant position occupied by
classical educational ideab in the earlier half of the
nineteenth century — a predominance so congenial to
the Ratio Studiorum of the Jesuits— 4ias gradually
been modified to meet the development of the study
of modmi languages and of science, and the dODaandi

of public examinations. Hence the curriculum of
Stonyhurst at the preset day differs in no essential
particular from that of the leading pubUc schools in
England. It includes classical Uternture and the chief
European languaces, histcoy, geography, mathe-
matics, pl^sios, cnemistxy, astronomy, philosophy,
and law. At the Stonyhwst training college more
advanced courses in these subjects are followed by
students of the Society, who are engaged in such addi-
tional subjects as pedagogy, biology, anthropology,
etc. The "Philosophers", numbering usually about
thirty, possess the status of university students.
They have private rooms and sundry privileges, and
are quite separate from the rest of the school, though
th^ laxy join the "Higher Line" in games. Their
studies include courses of philosophy, law, and polit'
ical economy, in addition to the usual hterary and
science classes. The rector of Stonyhurst is one of a
limited number of headmasters to whom t^e War
Office has granted the power of giving direct nomina-
tions to the Royal Mihtaiy College, ^ndhurst. This
privilege is reserved for those schooU where the
officers training corps — of which Stonyhurst has three
full companies — attains a certain standard ot strength.
The college has also been inspected and apiHrovetfby
the,R(^al College of Physicians (London) and the
Royal Coll^ of Sulveons (England) as a school for
preparing candidates for medical diplomas and exempt>-
ingthem from part of their professional course.

The influence exerted in the course of its history
on Church, State, science and art, by a coUeRC which
has for so long held a prominent place in the education i
of EMlish Catholics, may best be gauged by the num-
ber of distinguished alumni wlw have risen to emi-
nence in these departments. Among the eta\y sons of
Stonyhurst, when the establishment was still at St.
Omers, are eighteen martyrs now baring the title of
Venerable — fourteen Jesuits, three Franciscans, and
one secular priest — besides three who died in prison
for the Faith. Father Emmanuel Lobb, who received
into the Church the Duke of York, afterwards James
II, and Father Edward Petre, the confessor of the
same king, were St. Omer men. The unspeakable
Titus Oates also spent some time there as a kind of
"parlour-boarder' , and contemporary letters make
it clear that he was intensely unpopular with the boys.
The peculiar dress worn at that date by the boyH of
St. Omers is referred to by Massinger in his pky
"Hie Fatal Dowry". Conspicuous among the St.
Omer men of a later date are the first two arch-
bishops of Baltimore, John Carroll and Leonard Neale.
In more modem times Stonyhurst counts among its
pupila Cardinal Weld, Bishop Riddell (Vicar Apostolic
of the Northern District), Cardinal Vaughan^ Bishop
William Vaughan of Plymouth, Bishop Chfford of
Clifton, Archbishop Porter of Bombay, Archbirfiop
Gillow of Puebla (Mexico)^ and Archbishop Maguire
of Glasgow. Amcmg distinguished laymen who re-
ceived tiaeir education here may be mentioned Charles
Waterton, the famous naturalist (the " W " of Thack-
eray's "Newcomes"); Richard Lalor Sheil, the great

Erliamentary orator; Sir Thomas Wyse, a well-
own and successful diplomat of the last century;
Chief Baron Woulfe of the Irish Court of Exchequer,
the first CathoUc to be elevated to the Irish Bench,
axid Judge Nicholas Ball, the second Catholic to
enjoy that dignity; Uie Hon. Charles Umi^ale, one oi
tiie foremost CaUiolic leaders of Emancipation dsys;
"Dr. Geoi^e Oliver, the antiquary and Church annaJ-
ist; Sir Frederick Weld, successively Premier of New
Zealand, Governor of Tasmania, and Governor of
the Straits Settlements, in which last-named coloiQr
another Stonyhurst man, Sir Thomas Sidgreaves, was
Chief Justice; Sir William Hackett, Chief Justice of
Uie Supreme Court, Ceylon; the Rt. Hon. Sir Nich-
olas O'Conor, Brituih Ambassador at St. Petersburg
amdatConotantiDople; General Sir MoxdAgiMGaazf
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doyen of the foreign military attach^ with tiie Russian
army during the Russo-Japaoese War; General Sir
Charles Chichester, brigadier-eeneral under General
De Lacy Evans in the Briti^ Auxiliajy L^on in
Spain in 1835; Admiral Arthbr Jemingham, who
was attached to the personal guard of Queen Viotorta
duriiw the alanna (» the Qurtist disturbance; the
late Sir. Jostiee Walton; Edward de Romafia, a
former imsideDt of Pan; Thomas Francis Meagher,
the orator of the Young Ireland movement and sub-
sequently a ^ei^ on the Federal eide during the
American Civil War. To this selection may be added
in the domains of literature and art Mr. Percy Fitc-
Gerald, F.S.A.. a personal friend of Charles Dickens,
and author of many literary works; Father John
Oflrard, S.J., the widely known writer on scientific,
historitM^, and controversial subjects; Bernard Part-
ridge, the "Punch" cartoonist; Alfred Austin, the
Poet Laureate.

The fame of the Stonyhuist Observatory, built in
1838, has been kept alive in scientific circles by a suc-
cession of distingui^ed astronomers, several of whom
have been at various times selected by the British
Government to take charge of important astronomical
expeditions. The latest of these was the British
Solar Eclipse Expedition to the Tonga Islantls in 1911,
v^ch was placed imder the charge of Father Coitie,
one of the directors of the Stonyhurst Observatory.
Perhaps the best known of the Stonyhurst astronomers
is Fauier Stephen Perry, F. R. S., Francis Thompson's
"starry amorist", who met hia death in 1889 while en-
gaged on solar observations for the Government in
the West Indies. Among the contributions to Cath-
olic literature the best Known are the Ston^urst
Series of Philosophical Textbooks, written by mem-
bers of the professorial staff: Father Harper's pro-
found work, "The Metaphysics of the School"; and
Father Gerard's various writinm on natural science
and evolution, the Gunpowder Plot, and his remark-
ably successful reply to Haeckel's "Riddle of the
Umverse": the workis of Father Joseph Rickaby on
philosophic and ascetical subjects and the liturgical
and historical writings of Father Thurston.

Stonj^hurst, which is to-day the largest of ihe
Cathobc colleges in England ^ is the parent of a number
of other flourishing schools in Great Britain and Ire-
land, of which the following is a hst together witii
the approximate number of ooys in each: Beaumont
College near Windsor, and Mount St. Mary's College
in Derbyshire, with more than 200 boarders each;
St. Francis Xavier's College, Liverpool, a ds^-school
with nearly 400 boya: St Ahnnius' College, Glasgow,
witii over 300 day scholars; Wimbledon Coll^ with
some 150 scholars; St Ignatius' Day College, Stam-
fard Hill, London, with about 250 boys; the day col-
leges at Preston and Leeds with about 150 boys each;
and Clongowes Wood CoUckc, in Ireland, with 250
boarders. Including the Philosophers and the younger
boys at the preparatory school, the total number of
bimrders at Stonyhurst to-day is 345, with 4 pro-
fessorial staff of 40. At the training rollege the stu-
dents number about 70, with 8 professors. The col-
lege buildings, which are very extensive, are furnished
with libraries and museums, numerous lecture rooms,
physical and chemical laboratories, observatories,
recreation and music rooms, a theatre, swimming
bath, carpenter's shops and covered drill-hall. In
the larpe library, which contains over 40,000 volumes,
there is a very valuable collection of incunabula,
numbering 250, of which some are unique; a First
Fblio Sbtuiespeare; some priceless manuscripts; and
very complete geological, entomological, and other
scientific collections. In the museums and other
parts of the building are a large number of valuable
engravinRB by Rembrandt ancl Dilrer, together with
art treasures in ivory, alabaster, and precious metals:
relics of the days of prasecution ; paintings by some ot

the OM Masten; and vflBtmentB of gxeat intrinne and
hiatorieal worth.

QmMAMD, aiMUfkwrtt CoOw CmUnarv fUcord (BdfMt, 1894);
Oxooani and KaAViMO, Hiatom Stonvkurtt (LoDdoo, 1901):
JbMorwb of AMvAwrat CoiUgt (London, ISSI) : HswrnoH.
dtonvAvnt CoUve ntt and PrtMnt (Preitan. 1878): FmOnuLD,
8aMiUmnl:aStonfo/8du>oUay (London, 1901) ; BrM$k Aiaoeia-
UoK Bxeunipn to Stonj^wnt ami Whi^m (SouUiport, 1903);
Tk» iStMwAurjf Mofoxitu (adwd periodionl); StonnkwM and iu
nremittmiTy (Clitberoe); three urtidw is Cimntry Lift (L(hi-
don, October, 1910): Morai Itutruetion and TrainiTta im SOmU,
ed. Sadlu, I(New York utd London, 1908), the arUclea "Jmat
SyHtm of BdtiMtion", and "Stmvkunt", by Mahu in Tko
naektrt^gneuOopoditt {London, 1911).

Fbancis Irwin.

Stoik, Ahbrosi. See Pklabqus, Ambbosb.

Stott, Veit, sculptor, b. at Nuremberg in 1438; d
there in 1533. In 1477 he established a large work-
shop at Craoow, Poland, but in 1496 he returned to

Dbaib un> Amuhftiok or ixa BuiasMD Vnonr
Veit 8to», Church of Our Lwly, Ciwkmt, 1477-M

Nuremberg. With Adam Kraft and Peter Viacher.
he is considered the most important representative of
the late Gothic sculpture in Germany. A cjuick, skil-
ful workman, of great technical ability, in his youth he
carried naturalism to the extreme, while often there
was a lack of spirituality. Perhaps this may be
traced to a tnut m his own character as in the docu-
ments oS the same era he is spoken of as a "restless,
unquiet citizen". A certain lack of repose is evident,
especially in his treatment of the drapay, while in
his entire handling of the figure he is very indepaidakt
of the Gothic style and carries out his aewgna in his
own manner throughout. His later works, however,
show an undoubted depth of feeling. Moreover, the
question as to the number of his productions is not
yet satisfactwily settled; the latest investigation re-
gards him as the creator of most of the works of the
celebrated Vischer, whom it represents as merely the
bronze-founder who carried out Stoss's designs. His
earliest work ^1477) is the celebrated altar of the
BlMSod Virgin in the Church of Our Lady at Cracow,
which is made in three parts, as an altar with wino.
In the omtre is seen the almoat U^:«iie figure of um

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8T1UDITABI 3

Mother of God as she sinks dyin^ into the arms of
an Apostle. Anothrtr altar of his in this church has
reliefs depicting six scenes in the life of St. Stanidaus.
The fine qualitiett of this work, especially the anima-
tion of the portrayal and the effective composition,
obtiuned for him m 1492 the commission of making
the tomb of King Casimir IV in the Cathedral Cear
oow. Probably, however, he only |>repared the de-
sign of the marble sarcophagus; the kmg is represented
in his coronation robes, while statuettes showing the
people as mourners are placed on the sides. For un-
known reasons Stoss returned to Nuremberg, where he
accomplished a large amount of work; however, only
a few of the works attributed to him are authentic,
as in former times nearly every importuit piece of
carving in southern Germany was as(n^>ed to him.
Perhaps his best woric is the "Salutation of the Angel"
in the Church of St. Laurence at Nurembei^ (1518) :
the archangel, a finely conceived figure, and Mary, are
surrounded by a huge wreath of rosea m which are in-
woven the Seven Joys of Mary; the figure of the
Blessed Virgin is however somewhat commonplace.
Other excellent but less celebrated productions are
the memorial tfJsIet of Konrad Imhoff, now in the
national museum at Munich, uid the reliefe of the
Carrying of the Croaa and the Burial of Christ in
the Church of Our Lady at Nuremberg. Of the altars
which he carved, mention should be made of those at
Schwabach, Bamberg, and of that in the Church of
St. -Egidius at Nurembei^.

Daiin. Veil SU>n und itine Sehtde (Leipujt. 1903) : loan, Vtit
atoaa (Bielefeld, 1006): Svauak, Dit Wahrluit tiber PHtr Viteher
(Cnuxw, 1910).

BEDA KUUNBCHIODT.

Stndirar!} Antonio, the famous Cremonese vio-
lin-maker, b. in 1649 or 1650; d. at Cremona, 18 or 19
Dec, 1737. He was the son of Alessandro Stradivari
and Anna Moroni. As there is no evidence of his
birth and baptism in any of the parish registers of
Cremona, it is supposed that he was bom in some
vill^e near that town. In 1667 he b^an to make
stringed instruments. Some violins, dated in the
seventies, and signed by him, are supposed to exist,
but evidences of Stradivari's workmanship are to be
found in many violins of this date which are signed by
Nicholas Amati. It is probable that during the years
1667-79 he worked as a pupil in Amati's workshop.

In 1 680 Stradivari set up for himself in the Piazza San
Domenico, and his fame as a violin-maker was soon
established. He now began to show his originality,
and to make alterations in Amati's model. The arch-
ing was improved, the various degrees of thickness in
the wood were more exactly determined, the foima^
tion of the scroll altered, and the varnish more highly
coloured. From 1698 to 1725 Stradivari produced
his finest instruments, and carried his manufacture to
the highest possible nnish, the outlines are designed
with taste and purity, the wood is rich and carefully
selected, the arching falls off in gentle and regiUar
curves, the scroll is carved with great perfection, and
the varnish is fine and supple. The interior work-
manship is no less perfect, the degrees of thickness are
carefi^ adjusted, and are remarkable for a preci-
sion wtuch could only have been attained by much
study and experiment. Everything has been fore-
seen, calculated, and determined with certainty. The
instruments produced from 1725-30 are not so fine.
After 1730 many are signed "sub disciplina Stradi-
Tarii and were prob^ly made by his sons, Omobono
and Franceeoo.

Stradivari fixed the exact shape and position of the
sound-holes, and his model has been copied by most
makers since his time. He definitively settled the
shape and details of the bridge, which cannot be al-
tered in the slightest degree without in some way in-
juring the tone of the instrument. Hie only eaeen-
tial part of the violiu whidi has had to be changed

1 8TBADXVABI

since Stradivari's time is the bass-bar. On account
of the gradual rise in pitch the increased pressure of
the string demands an increased power of resistance
in the bar underneath the bridge, hence it has been
found necessary to re-bar all the old violins and vio-
loncellos. Stradivari was buried in Uie Basilica of
San Domenico.

Elizabeth Lokkin.

STBAniVABi Fauilt, Ths. — The name Stradivari
goes back to the Middle A^; we find it spelt in various
ways, Stradivare, Stradiverto, Stradivertus. F^tis
professes to find it in the mumcipal archives of Cre-
mona for the years 1127 and 1186. The name was
certainly borne by more or less distinguished citizens
of Cremona durit^ the twelfth and thirteenth cen-
turies. Signor Mandelli gives, as the earliest known
mention of it, a document dated May 1188, in which
it is recorded that certain pieces of land were leased
by the canon and chief warden of the catbednl of Ct«-
mona to one Giovanni Stradiverto and his heirs.,
Arisi, the Cremonese monk, who wrote concemintc"
Antonio Stradivari in 1720, mentions: Galiero Stradi-
vari, a learned Orientalist, who lived in the thirteenth
century: Alessandro Stradivari, another Orientalist,
about the end of the thirteenth century; Costanzo
Stradivari, of about the same period, a monk,
who wrote a treatise on the natural philosophy of
Aristotle. F^tis also mentions: Gughdmus Stradi-
vertus, an excellent lawyer, who dieoin 1439. It is
certain that the name was a common one in Cremona,
but we have no exact evidence to prove that Stradi-
vari, the viohn-maker, was directly connected with
the above^nentioned prasons. The earliest documen-
tary record of his anoestry is to be found in the mar-
riage register of the cathedral of Cremona^ where there
is an entry, dated April, 1600, of the marriage of Giulio
Ceaare Stradivari, of the parish of *S. Michele Vecchio,
to Doralice Milaiii, of tne parish of the cathedf^.
They had a son, Alessandro, christened in the church
of S. Michele in January, 1602; and in the register of
the parish of S. Prospero, is the entry of the marriace
of this Alessandro Stradivari and Anna Moroni — ^tne
father and mother of Antonio.

Vraneeaco Stradivari, son of Antonio, b. 1 Feb.
1671;d. 11 Mav, 1743. He followed his father's call-
ing, and was the only one of Stradivari's sons to in-
herit any of the father's skill in making stringed in-
struments. He made very good violins; some are
signed by himself, and others, made with the help of
his brother Omobono, are signed "sotto la disciplina
d'Antcmio Stradivari'*. His work is quite distinct in
character from Antonio's. Both Francesco and
Omobono were orershadowed by the genius of their
father; they produoed good wwk, if not work of the
highest quality.

Omobono Stradivari, son of Antonio, b. 14 Nov.,
1679; d. 8 June, 1742. He also followed his father's
trade, and made some violins in conjunction with hie
broths Francesco. His work was chiefly confined to
the Fcpair and fitting up of instruments; possibly he
made D0W8, instrumentHiases — which were specially
designed for wealthy patrons, and often things of great
value and beauty — and various fittings, such aa
bridges, pegs, tail-pieces, etc.

Paolo Stradivari, the youngest son of Antonio by a
second marriage, b. 26 Jan., 1708; d. 14 Oct., 1776.
He was a cloth merchant, and the only son of the
great Stradivari who married. On the death of Fran-
cesco, Paolo received the collection of tools, moulds,
patterns, drawings, correspondence, and memoranda
left by their father, and also several instruments, in-
cluding the famous "Alard" Strad of 1715, and the
unrivalled "Messie" violin of 1716. In 1776 this col-
lection of relics was sold by Paolo to the Count Cozio
de Salabue, and afterwards passed into the hands of
the late Marquis Alessandro Dalla Valle. Cesare

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312

8TRAH0V

StradiTari, a grandson of Paolo, b. in 1789, was cele-
brated as a pbysioian.

Obote, Didvmary of Uitie and UutieianM (London, 1898),
III; Fima, Hotiee of ^nMmv Stradiwi, it. Bibbop (London,

Eluabvtb Lobkin.

Strahov. Abbbt or, a Premonstratensian abbey at
Pracue, Bohemia, fouaded in 1140 Bishop Henry
Zdw a Ofanati, Bishop J<A]i (rf Ptafue, and ftince

St. Make wamira bib OiwnL
From the Strmhor Munnoript

Ladislaufl II. A colony of monks from Steinfeld,
near Cologne, was brought here, and Gero, a canon of
Colc^e, became ita firfft abbot. This new abbey in
a very Bhort time flourished to such an extent that
some of its members were Boon appointed bishops of
Prague.

During the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth cen-
turies the abbots of ntrahov took keen interest in the
public affairs of the kingdom, and their names are
often mentioned in pubho documents and grants of
special privileges.

On 19 Oct., 1259, the abbey was destroyed by fire,
but Abbot John I C1260-«6) built a new and ma»>
nificent church. The monastery sufifered greatly
during the plundering reign of the king's regent. Otto
of Brandenburg and that of Hrauy of Carinthia. It.
however, agfun flourished under Charlee IV. On 8
May, 1420, the Hussites set fire to the buildinj^
and looted and desboyed everything. The mam
cause of anger of the fanatics a^inst the abbey was
that John Zelezn^, Bishop of Leitomischl, a Pre-
monstratenaian, was one of the accusers of Hus at
the Council of Constance.

From this time onward Strahov continued to de-
cline, and its lands were gradually stolen and sold,
until in XSJi and IfiTS not cmeof itsmembersremained,
and the meagre inocnne was turned over to the chap-

lain of the Emperor Ferdinand I. lAter a Pr^on-
stratensian, John Lohelius, who subsequently be-
came Archbishop of Pra^e, gathered monks from
TOriouB monasteries, ooboised Strahov anew, infusing
mto it new physio^ as well as spiritual life. Lohelius
rebuilt the church and a greater part of the monastcffy,
and Abbot Caspar of Questenberg (1620-40) com-
pleted the work. During the bombardment of Prague
in 1842 Strahov suffered greatly; the damage, how-
ever, was soon repaired. When the Emperor Joseph
II BuppresBed 58 abbeys in Bohemia, Strahov was
saved from a similar fate by Abbot Wenceslaus Mayer
(d. 1800), who had won favour evoi at the hostile
Court by the interest that he took in fostering schools
and education. Abbot Zikmund Start (1879-1905)
built the new church and improved the old church.
The present f^bot. Method Zavoral, is a man of great
ability as a preacher.

The monastic Church of the Assumption, built in
1601-1605 by Abbot Lohelius, is beautifully decorated
by numerous frescos; the pictures on the arched ceU-
ing symbolize some of the invocations contained in
the Litany of the Blessed Vii^in, and on the side walls
are sdenes from the life of St. Norbert. These beau-
tiful frescos are the work of the Prague artist Georg
Wilhelm Neuherz (d. 1743). The Chapel of St. Nor-
bert has the saint's relics in a casket of copper and
bronze, richly gilded. The organ is the work of the
Strahov monk Lohel Oehlschlagel (d. 1774).

The monastic library contaii^ upwards of 110,000
volumes, <rf which X^SXi are tncunobuZa. Of these
there are about sixty tmique volumes. Of the many
rare manuscripts the most precious is the "Evan-

f;elistarium" of the sixth century, written in uncial
etters and still well-preserved. Among others may
be mentioned: "Gerlaci Chronicon", Codex Straho-
viensis from 1220; the " Pontificale" of Bishop Albert
of Sternberg, made in 1376; the " Missale" of the Pre-
monstratensian Abbey of Louky of 1480; the miniature
manuscript of the Bible of the thirteenth century,
written by a nun of the cloister of Doksany; "Sich'a
Graduale'' of 1610, weighing fifty pounds. The art

RxFwnoBT Of rsx Abbet or Strabov

, has the original painting of EMirer's "Blessed

/ii^in of the Rosary", of 1506, with the master's own
portrait; and paintings b^ Gorr^gio, Van Dyek,
Holbein, van Aachen, Reiner, SkrSta. Brand! eto.

Mateb, //utoTMcAa BMAttShung d4T »om AnL ifauwcrtfdk,
kJc. KammerwMtr.an BiblMM-GmiiOlbt dtr k»nM. Awm.-
Kanania am Bern Sion tu Prao tm Jahrt 1704 in rn»e» dtar^
taUlUm KaUtmaMtrti (Pncue, 1797); W^nM^.OMA,dm

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313

BTBASBVBO

btnioL prvmmtiaUnttr Chortierrtn SH/U* Strahow (Propw,
ISS3); Idbm, OniMehU und BuehrMv^o de* kenM. Siift jjro-
Aauw BiUiothtk (Prasuo, 1858); Bbonnm. Bin Chmrhtrreiihueh
CWdMburg and Vienna, 1883). M8-88: Hantich. Praffve (Paria
and Praciu, 190S), 62, 03; CbkmAk, /VwmotMtraf* i C»ehdeh a
AO A/ororf (Praciw. 1877); Eurt. J1»Mtnd mMta Jbvi. U. mitta
Prahy (Piague, 1883), AUuM n. Jima iVn>» llS-44.

Jos. SiNKMAJEB.

Strain, John, Archbiahop of St. Andrevra and
Edinburgh, b. at Edinbui^, 8 December, ISIO;
d. there. 2 July. 1883. Educated at Edinbm^ High
School, at Aqiihorties Seminary, and at the Scots
College, Rome, he waa ordained priest in 1833 and,
after work in EdinburKh and Dumfries, was appointed
to the misrioD of Dalbeattie, where he laboured foe
twenty-three years. Transferred to Dmnfriee m
1857, he was appointed in the following year preri-
dent of Blairs College, Aberdeen; and on liie death
of Bishop Gillia in 1864 he was nominated to succeed
him as vicar Apostolic of the eastern district, named
Bishop of Abila. and consecrated by Pius lA at the
Vatican on 25 Septen^Mr. During his nineteen
years' episcopate he saw tbs number of clergy and
missions largely increased in his district; many bew
schools were opened, and several religious communi-
ties, both of men and women, introduced. The
bishop laboured long and strenuously for the resto-
ration of the regular hierarchy to Scotland; and it
was greatly due to his effects that the restoration
took place, under Leo XIII. in 1878. He became
himself the first Archbiahop <d St. Andrews and
Edinburgh, and held bis first diocesan synod in 18S1.
Ws death occurred whilst Catholio Scotland was
preparing to celebrate with befitti^ honour the
golden jubilee of bis ordination.

DirtOom Jar Scotland (18U), 109-80; 7%a TabUi.
LXI (7 July, 1883). ».

D. O. Huntbb-Blaib.

Strazuham. Edward, Venerable, EngUsh martyr,
b. at Orford about 1554; suffered at Tybum, 21 Janu-
ary, 1586. He was educated at St. John's CoU^e.
Oxford, becoming B. A. in 1575-6; arrived at Douaa
in 1577, and went with the coU^e to Reims in 1578,
whence he came back to Endand oymt^ to illness. In
1579. however, he returned to Rams, and was ar-
dained priest at Soiasons in Dec., 1580. He left for
England, 30 June, 1581, mth his fellow-martyr, Nicho*
las Woodfen, of London Diocese, ordained priest at
Reims, 25 March^ 15S1. In 1583 Stransham came
back to Reims with twelve Oxford converts. After
five months there he went to Paris, where he remained
about eighteen months at death's door from consump-
tion. He was arrested in Bishopgate Street Without,
London, 17 July. 1585, wiiile saying Mass, and was
condemned at the next asazes for b^i^ a priest.
Details of his career will be found in the article men-
tioned below.

Wainswkiqbt in Domuida Snimo (1911) s. and tli* nuthoi-
Hies tbero dted.

John B. WAiNBWHiaHT.

Straaburg, Diocese op (Abgentinensib), a Ger-
man diocese immediately dependent on the Papal See.
According to leg^d the Diocese of Strasbun; was
founded in the third or fourth centiuy. St. ArtaoKast
and FkirentiiiB were distinguished bishops of the sixt^
or seventh century. The first bishop known to his-
tory is Ansoald, one of the signers of the Acts of the
Council of Paris of 614. His successor Eddo or
Heddo, the ducal family of Ettichos. organised his
ecclesiastical diocese in conjunction witii St. Boniface,
aided by the Carolovingians. The boundaries then

S'ven rraiained essentially the same throi^out the
[iddle ^8s. On the Mt bank of the Rhine the dio-
cese extended over the present Province of Alaaoe
with exception of the south-eastern part between the
III, Blind, and Rhine; on the right bank it extended
tona the Rliine to the crest of we Black Fewest, and

southward from the mouth of the Murg to the EIs-
This territory was divided into seven arcltdiaconates,
of which one included Strasbu^, and one the r^on
on the right bank of the Rhine. TUs subdivi^n
remained substantially the same from the eleventh
century to the French Revolution.

Ctiarlema^e granted Bishop Heddo unlimited
jurisdiction ip the valley of the Breuech, and in 775
the bishop received freedom from customs duty
throughout the ^pire for himself and his va.ss^a
(hominM eedeaia). By the Treaty of Verdun (843)
the Diocese of Strasburg fell to the empire of Lothair;
in 870 it became part of the e^ Frankish kingdom,
later the Holy Roman Empire, so that the German
character of the diocese was preaerved. Both Lo-
thair and Louis the German confirmed the privileges
that their forefathers had granted to the Church of
Strasburg. Bishops Udo (950-65) and Erchanbald
(06&^1) restored Church discipline which had fallen
into decay at the beginning of the tenth century.
Emperor Otto I granted Udo the ownership of the
royal mint at Strasburg; Otto II (974) confirmed this
gift and gave the bishop the right to establish a mint
in any town of the diocese he desired. In 982 Otto II
granted Erchanbald absolute jurisdiction over the city
of Strasburg and its environs, thus forming the main
foundation of the secular supremacy of the bishop.
Werner I of Habsburg (1001-29) received from em-
perors Henry II and Oonrad 11 a large number of
pants, including the old Abbey of St. Stephen with all
Its rights. A new cathedral, to replace the one de-
stroyed in 1002 by Hermann of Swabia, was begun by
Werner I in 1015 and dedicated in 1031. The oishop
gave to the library of the minster numerous manu-
scripts which be had ooUected in Italy. During the
conflict of investitures the bishops generally sided
with the imperial party: Werner II (1065-79); Theo-
bald (1079-82), who took part in the election of the
anti-pope Clement II; and CHto of Hobenstaufen
(1082-1100), who accompanied Godfrey of Bouillon
on the First Crusade. Gebhard I (1131-41) and
Burkhard I (1141-62) were zealous promoters of
Church reform; during the episcopate of Berthold I
of Teck (1223-44), about 1230, the new orders of
Franciscans and Dominicans settled at Strasburg.

The city Strasburg dev^nied under episcopal
administration, and in the twelfth century it pros-
pered greatly. Its dTorts to abolish episoopu su-
aerainty and to obtain new privileges were espe-
cially successful during the Conflict of Investitures.
The town-council acquired great independence and
the right of co-optation, although the right of the
bishop to appoint the coimcil hivi been reconfirmed
in 1214 by charter of Emperor Frederick II. At the
b^inning oi his ^iscopate Walter of Gerolt^eek
(1260-63J wished to enforce this right, to dispose of
communal prop^^, and to relate the taxes. The
populace, udin^ with the council and the patricians,
defeated the episcopal forces at Hausberger, 8 March,
1262, thus practically establishing the independence
of the city. The succeeding bishop, Henry of Gerold-
seck (12^73), made a treaty in 1263 by which at the
close of the official year the council elected its own
successors, and the oitiaens themselves had the right
to 'settle all questwns regarding communal prop-
erty. The bishop retained only the right to appoint
the town magistrate, the castellan of the castle, the
official in charge of the collection of the customs, and
the superintendent of the mint. These offices, ex-
cept that of magistrate, gradually sank in impor-
tance, and the bishop no longer appointed the officials.
Conrad of Lichtenberg (1273-99) completed the re-
building in Ck>thic style of the nave of the minster, and
b^n the construction of the beautiful west facade.
BiuK>ps Johannes of Dirpheim (1306-28), chancellor
of King Albert II, and Berthold H of Bucheck (1328-
63) were both capable administrators, appointed by

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8T&A8BUBO 31

the pope. Notwitbstandine their share in imperial

E>litics, these bishops found time to hold synods and
hour efTectually for church discipline in the diocese.
In 1359 John ll of Lichtenberg (1353-65) obtained
the Landgraviate of Lower Alsace from the Counts of
Oettingen. A land-register, that gave exact infor-
mation concerning the secular possesaions of the dio-
cese, was drawn up during his administration. The
diocese included: in Lower Alaace the districts of Ben-
field, Markolsheim, Schirmeck, Dachstein, Kochers-
berg, Wanzemau, and Zabem: in Upper Alsace the
stewardship of Rufach; in tne present Duchy of
Baden the districts of Oberjirch and Ettenheim. The ,
episcopal possessions in Alsace were only exceeded in
area by those of Hamburg. With shrewd policy the
bishops had opportunely broken the power of the
local governors, and had successfully opposed the
restoration of imperial administrative suzerainty over
diocesan territories. Under John's successors began
the decline of the diocese, promoted by unhappypo-
litical conditions and by the Great Schism. This
decay was especially rapid during the episcopate of
Wilhamof Diest (1394-1439), who, to carry on innu-
merable private and public wars, frequently mortgaged
and squandered the episcopal lands. His successors,
who, with the aid of the cathedral chapter, finally

?aid off his debts, were; Rupert of the Pfalz (1440-
8), who called the celebrated preacher Geiler von
Kaysersbei^ (q. v.) to the pulpit of the minster; Al-
bert of the Ffalz (1478-1506); and William III of
Honstein (1507-41).

Soon aStw IBSO the Reformation gained manv ad-
herents in the city of Strasburg, owing to the laooura
of Luther's friends, Wolfgang Capito and Martin
Bucer, the efforts of the preacher Matthias Zell and
of the Humanists Sturm and Hedio. In 1529 the
council abolished the Mass; in 1531 the city joined the
Smalkaldic League, whereupon the bishop trans'
ferred his see to Zabem. Despite the vigorous oppo-
sition of William of Honstein and Erasmus of Limburg
(1641-68), all the secular lordships of the diocese in
tower Alsace adopted the new aoctrine, except the
iandgraviate; even part of the cathedral chapter be-
came Protestant. John IV of Manderscheid-Blankenr
heim (1569-92) summoned the Jesuits to Molsheim to
check the apostasy, and encouraged the Counter-Refor-
mation. After his death there was a double election:
the Protestant cathedral canons choee John George of
Brandenburg as administrator; the Catholic ctmona,
Cardmal Charles of Lomune. The strugele between
the two candidates, callod the Bishops' Warof Stras-
burg (1592-1604), caused the diocese p-eat misery.
Charles of Lorraine was victor. Catholic ownership
was further secured in the successive election of two
Austrian archdukes as bishop: Leopold (1^7-25), a
brother of Emperor .Ferdinand II, and Leopold Wil-
liam (1625-62), one of Ferdinand's sons. During the
Thirty Yeftfs 'War the territory was so ravaged by E^mst
of Mansfeld, the Swedes, and the Frendi, that the pop-
ulation decreased 75 per cent. In 1680, during the
^iscopate of Charles £)gon (rf FOrstenbere (1663-82),
whose sympathies were French, Louis XlV seized all
the territory of the diocese on the left bank of the
Rhine under pretence of "reimion"; the city of Stras-
burg became a French possession in 1681. The
bishop retained the internal administration of his
possessions in Alsace and the title of landgrave. The
districts on the right bank of the Rhine remuned
within the German Empire, and Uie bishop was still
their ruler aa prince of the empire. The occupation
of Strasbui^ by the French brought the minster once
more into the hands of the Catholics. William Egon
of FUrstenberg (1682-1704) established the seminary
for priests at Strasburg and placed the Jesuits in
ohai^ of it. The succeeding four bishops belonged
to the French princely family of de Rohan; the last of
these, Louis Ken^ de Rohan (1779-1802), was in-

4 STKABBUBO

volved in the notorious affair of the diamond ntA-
lace. In 1790 the Constituent National Assembly
secularized the Alsatian possessions of the diocese and
Rohan transferred his see to the German portion of his
bishopric. In Strasburg Brendel, _ a constitutioaal
bishop, was elected; Eulogius Schneider, whom he ap-
pointed vicar-general, persecuted CathoUc priests who
refused to take the oath, until the overtmow of the
Reign of Terror in Paris put an end to this injustice.

By the Concordat of 1801 the Diocese of Strasburg
received new boundaries, extending the jurisdictioa ol
the bi^op over and b^ond Alsace to the Lake of

Virw or TSB Cathudr^u BrKAmuma

Bienne in Switzerland, and south-westerly' as far as
Montb^liard. Rohan having resigned at the request
of the pope, Peter Saurine (1802-13), former consti-
tutional bishop, became Bishop of Strasburg. The
districts on the right bank of the Rhine fell to Baden
on account of the seculuisation of the German
Church in 1803. The diocese, which had been a
suffragan of Mainz until 1802, became (1822) a suf-
fragan of Besancon; it was reduced in size towards the
south and south-west. Bishop Andreas Rass (1842-
87) endeavoured to revive Catholicism in Germany,
to promote the education of the clerm', and to estab-
lish religious associations. When Alsace became a
German possession in 1871, the diocese received its
present extent and was declared directly dependent
on the Boiy See by Decrees of 10 and 14 July, 1874,
and by the Treaty of Paris of 7 October, 1874. Rasa
was succeeded by Peter Paul Stumpf (1887-90), and
the present bishop, Adolf Fritzen, consecrated on 21
July, 1891. Bishop Fritzen has especially en-
couraged Catholic associations, the Catholic press,
Church liturn^ and psalmody. In 1902 he established
a theologicalfaculty at the University of Strasburg-

Statistics. — The Diocese of Strasbu^ includes the
departments of Upper and Lower Alsace in the Ger-
man Crown-Province of Alsace-Lornune. In 1911 it
contained 57 deaneries, 710 parishes. 283 curacies, 710
parish priests, 454 curates and ecclesiastics in other
positions, 92 priests retired or on leave elsewhwe, 106
regulars, and 846,100 Catholics, while 350,000 of the
population belonged to other faiths. The bishop i>
appointed by the pope in agreement with the German
Emperor, and the cathedral chapter is appointed by

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STBASBURQ 3

the bishop. In regard to educational and charitable
institutions and religious houses of the diocese, see
Alsace-Lorraine. The most important church is
the minster at Strasburg, the oldest parts of which
bdong to the eleventh centuiy. llie crypt is Ro-
manesque, the upper part of the choir and the tract-
septs belong to the Transition period, the nave is
Gothic. The famous facade is the chief work of
Erwin of Steinbach (1284-1318). The north tower,
about 465 feet hi(^, was completed in 1420^9 1^ Jo-
hann HtUtz of Cologne. The minster is rich in stained
^ass of the period from the twelfth to the fifteenth
century. Other churches are; St. Martin at Colmar,
St. George at Scblettstadt, St. Theobald at Thann,
St. Nicholas at Hagenau, St. Leodegar and the Chiirch
of Our Lady at Gebweiler, Old ana New St. Peter at
Strasburg, etc. Much frequented places of pilgrim-;
age are:Drd Aehrm near Colmar, St. Odih^i near
Barr, Dusenbach near Ri^^ltewefler, St. Morand
near Altkirch, etc.

For ootDpletc bibliography mo Mabckwalo, SUom-MA
ritiQi*eht Bibliognphie (Strasburg, 1389) ; ZnlseArifl far Oeieh. df

Oberrheins (Eartsnihe, 1890 ). Most important works: ChUia

dirMania. V (Paris, 1725): Scm&prnn, AUatia iUvamia (Col-
mar, 1751) : Grandidies, Hxitoire de t'ielUe tt da* Mguw da atrat-
hmtra. I, II (Strasburg, 177&-78), III (Colmar, 18021; Iran, ed.
LiBUN, (Euvret hittoriqaet intdile* (Colmar, 1800-68); Idem,
Altatia tacra (Colmar, 1898-99) ; lUtHRiCH, G—eh. dmr Ac^Wmott'on
in BUoM* (Strasburg, 1830-32); ChnmHem dm deuUehan SlOdte.
VIII, IX (Lapsie, 1870-71); Kraus, Kunat ti. AUtrtum in Sl-
tat-Lothringen (Stra^urg, 1876-92}; Urkunden u. AkUn dtr

Stadt StnuriiUTg, I-X (Strasburg, 1879 ) ; GlAcklkb, Gt*ch. de*

Bittvm* Strofburg (Straaburg. 1880-81); Geiobl, Da* framO-
riche 11. rnchldTtdiaeht Staaiskirehenr^Jtt (Strasburg, 1884,
1888) ; Die ailen Territorien dee Bleaee (Strasburg, 1896) ; Regeilen

der BieekOfe von Strruebvrg (Innsbruok, 190S ) ; Landmann, Dae

Sekulmien dee Bittumt Straetburg von 180M-I904 (Strasburg,
1906); voM BoRRiKB, Oeeeh. der Sladl Stmegburg (Strasburg,
1900): i>B i-A Hacrb, La caUiidTvU de Stratbourg (Paris, 1910);

Strateburger kaifud. Jahrbueh (Strasbure, 1906 ); Sirauburger

IheoL Studien ^^burg, 1892 ); Straetbureer BeitrOge cw

fwuA-en Oeech. (Strasburg, 1906) : Jahrbueh der OeielUehtift far
Oetut-iiflhringieehe Qeech. u. AlUrtamdeunde (Strasburg. 1888 ).

Joseph Lins.

Strasburg, Gotitried op. See Gottfbxbd tok
Strabsbdro.

S^tonlcea, a titular see in Caria (Asia Minor)
suffragan of Stauropolis. Stratoniceia or Stratonioea
was founded perhaps on the site of the more ancient
Idrias, in the mterior of Caria, south-east of Mylassa,
and south of the Mai^a^ by Antiochus Soter, who
named it a£t« his wile etrattauee. His sucoeBBon
embelli^ed it with magnificent monuments, and it
became one of the chief towns of Caria. Later it was
ceded to the Rhodians. Mithiidates Uved in it some
time, and while there nuuried the daughter of one of
the principal citizens. Later it sustained a vigorous
siege by I^ienus. It is mentioned as a free town by
Pliny. Some of its coins have been found. Near the
city was a temple of Zeus ChryBaoreus, where the
confederated Caritm towns hdd tiieir aBsembUes.
ToH]ay it is the small town of Esfci Hissu, in the caza
of Moughla, vilayet of Smyrna. It has extensive
ruins, a theatre, tomb, columns, etc. The "Notitia
episcopatuum" mention the see till the thirteenth
centur:' among the suffragans of Stauroi>oUs. Only
three of its biwiops are known, by their signatures at
councils: Eupeithus, at Chalcedon, 451 ; Theopemp-
tua, at ConstantiDople, 692; Gregory, at Nicaea, 787.

Le Qoibn, OrwTw cArwi., I, 911; Crandlkr, Traveie in Aeia
Uinar (2 vols., Oxford, 1825), 240; Leaks, Aeia Minor (Loo-
don, 1824), 229; FsuAWS, Aeia Minor (LoDdoo, 1852), 254 sqq.;
Idbm. Lv^iSOaqq.; Sttaa,Diet.«fOriAandBoma»Oeog.,».v.

B. PATBIDka.

Stxeber, Franz Iqnaz ton, numiBmalist and theo-
logian, b. at Reisbach, Lower Bararia, 11 Feb., 1758;
d. at Munich. 26 April, 1841. In 1783 he was made
court chaplain, in 1821 auxiliary bishop, in 1822 cathe-
dral provost of Munich. In 1782 he was appointed
curator of the cabinet of coins of the elector. His
work was to unite the Mannheim or Palatinal collec-
tion with tiie Munich or Bavarian collectim of

$ 8TBKB1B

Wittelabach line, which had been in disorder since the
Thirty Years' War, and to arrange the combined col-
lection in sdffiitififl order. On account of the dis-
turbances caused by war he was obli^txl to carry off
and conceal the cahinet of coins five times, each time
re-arranging it anew. He wrote a history of the royal
Bavarian cabinet of coins, and several treatises on
Bavarian and Greek numismatics, most of which ap-
peared in the transactions of the Acfulemy of Munidi.

Strebeb, Rede luwi Andenken an Ignai ton Striber, read at
the public aeoiioQ of th« Academy, 28 March, 1843.

Ado. v. Loehr.

Strabar, Franz Sbraph, numismatist and nephew
of the above, b. at Deutenkofen, Lower Bavaria,
26 Feb., 1805; d. at Munich, 21 Nov. 1864. He first
studied theoli^ and philosof^y, then archsolo^ and
numismatics, and wrote in 1830 as his dissertation for
obtaining the degree of Doctor of flulosophy at Er-
langen a paper on the geneak)gy of the Burgraves of
Nurembe^. In ^854 he became a member of the
Academy of Munich. In 1835 be was made professor
of archffiology at the University of Munich, of which
he was twice rector. In 1827 he was made clerk, in
1830 asustant, and in 1841 curator of the royal cabinet
of coins. He also worked on the numismatic collec-
tion of Vienna and prepared a critical catalogue of
18,000 Greek coins and a numismatico-inconogjraphio
lexicon with drawings of about 6000 Greek coins be-
longing to the Viennese and Munich collections. In
18^ he published the work "Numismata nonnulla
grsca", which corrected false and inexact designations
of coins; this was crowned with a prize by the Acad-
emy of Paris as was also his important investigation
conc^ing what are caUed the rainbow patina, which
he was the first to recognize as Celtic (vol. IX of the
papers of the Munich Academy). Further papers on
Celtic, Greek, and medieval coins, also on archsMjIo^,
mythology, and the histonr of art, appeared chiefly
in the publications of the Nlunich Academv. He alro
drew up a "Promemoria" that is preservea among the
records of the royal cabinet of coins, as to the expenbes
and the plan of a monumental work covering the en-
tire field of Greek numismatics that was to take the
place of the old work by Eckhel and be about one-half
lar^. Strebw was also prominent in politics as a
strong supporter oS the ecclesiastico-conservative
party. He founded the association for a constitu-
tional monarchy and religious freedom, and wrote
many political memorials at its request.

Tnauaelimu A* Aeadema JTunftA, I (1806), 2681 aq.:
fft«w.-fMU(it(Aa BUttar. liva86$, 85 aq.

Atro. T. LOIHH.

Stnber, Obbhahn, eon of Fnuu Seraph Streber,
b. at Munich, 27 Sept., 1839; d. at Tfilz, 9 Aug., 1896.
He entered the Ludwixsgymnasium in 1850, but a
nervous fever prevented him from qualifying for the
university throu^ the usual final scnool examination.
From this ailment he never completely recovered.
Entering the university by a private examination in
18^, he devoted over two years to the study of phi-
kwophy and theolofp^, attending bendes historical
lectures. During this period he compiled a descrip-
tion and catalogue of tne ancient coins in the Royal
Cabinet of Medals. In 1861 he entered the aruii-
episcopal seminary at Freising, and in 1864 was
ordained priest. Owin^ to the death of his father he
was unable to pursue his original intention of study-
ing numismatics. In 1867 he was appointed religious
teacher at tlie Wihehnseymnasium. Having re-
ceived WL mraiths* leave olabsence in 1868, he won
the dochwate in theolo^ in Rome (Jan., 1869). He
then resumed his duties as religioua teacher until
June, 1870, when he was dismissed for alleged "intrigu-
ing m favour of the dogma of infallibility". He
was then named pastor of Wolfersdorf, near Freising.
Invited by Professor HergenrOther to assist him in
editing the new editirai of the "Kirchenlexikon",

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8TUDI0II

Stieber resigDed his parish, and settled in WQrzburg.
When Hereenrother was sununoned as cardinal to

Rome, Strcber moved to Bonn to be near Kaulen,
the new editor, and perfomied notable services in per-
fecting the "^fomenclato^". He wrote many articles
for the "Kirchenlexikon", the direction of which was
for a time entirely in his hands. In 1892 illness forced
him to withdraw to his brother's house at TiAs, whrae
be lived in retirement until death.

Bdchbsroek, KinUidt. HaTulhxikon, e. v.; Kat7LEN in Kfrehen-
Uxikm, 9.V. , „ „

MOIRA K. COTLE.

Stratcher, Hknrt. See Victoria Ntanju, Vica-

EIATB APOSTOUC OF NoRTHEBN.

StrlkM. See Labour Unions, Moral Asfbctb op.

8tro8inujer, Joseph Georg (Jo&ip Jdraj),
Bishop of Didcov^, b. at Essegg in CroatiapSlavo-
nia, 4 Fd>ruatfy, 1815; d. 8 April, 1905. He came from
a family of German peasants wht) had immigrated
into Croatia. After attending the gymnasium of
his native town, be studied theology in the seminary
at DiakovSr and the higher seminary at Budapest,
where he obtained the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
when only twenty years of age. In 1838 he was
ordained priest and was for two years vicar at Peter-
warddn. In 1810 he went to the Auguslineum at
Vienna; in 18^ obttuned the d^ree of Doctor of
Theology, tmd was then made professor at Diakov&r.
In 1847 he became court chaplain, prefect in the
AuKustineum and professor of canon law at the
University of Vienna. On 18 November, 1849,
he was appointed Bishop of Diakov^, and/ was
consecratM on 8 September^ 1850. At the' same
time he was ApostoUc Adnuniatrator of Belgrade-
Semen(bia in Servia. In 1898 the pope oonferred
the pallium upon him. At the Vatican Council he
was one of the most notable opponents of papal
infallibility, and distinguished himself as a E;)eaker.
The pope praised Strossmayer's "remarkably good
Latin". A speech in which he defended Protestant-
ism made a great sensation. Afterwards another
speech, delivered apparentlv on 2 June, 1870, was
imputed to htm. It is full of heresies and denies
not only infallibility but also the primacy of the
pope. The former is said to have been a fmmer
Augustinian, a Mexican named Dr. Josi^ Agustin de
Escudero. After the coundl Stroasmayer main-
tained his opposition longer than all the other bishops
and kept up a connexion with Dollinger and Reinkens
until October, 1371. Then he notined them that he
intended to yield "at least outwardly". Finally,
on 26 December, 1872, he published tne decrees of
the council in his official paper. At a later date
he repeatedly prochumed his submission to the pope,
as in bis pastoral letter of 28 February, 1881, on Sts.
Cynl and Methodius, expressing his devotion to
the papal see at times in extravagant language.

In politics he was an active supporter of the
Croatian national party and Panslavism. He exerted
himself to advance his people in civilisaUon, yet he
strengthraed national hatreds by his political a^tation.
He used the lai^ revenues of his diocese to found
primary schools, a seminary, the academy for south-
em Slavs at Asn%m (1867), the imiversity (1874),
and a picture ^lery also at Agram. Under his direc-
tion Augustln Theiner edited the "Vetera monumenta
Slavorum meridionalium" (1863). During 1866-82 he
built a fine and splendidly ornament^ cathedral.
He aouj^t to ma the Servians who were not Uniats
for Rome by the use of the Old Slavonic liturgy.

SwciXUS, Sirotitnaver (Asrun, 1906}- DU kath. Kir<A»
untrer Zeit, ed. by tbe Lmo Socibtt. II (Berlin, 1900). 645-9;
QRAMitBun-KiaCB, Ot»eh. dw tatikanUekm KonaiU, II, III
(Praiborc 1903-06), jmaim; Scbdltb. D«r AUkaUwtintmu*
(Oionut, 1887),

Klemenb LOrpLBR.

HxMBT Benuuct SrviUtf
CudiDnl of YoA, Titular Kins of Onit
Britain ud ti«luid

Stuart, Henkt Benedict Maria Cuhemt,
cardinal, Duke of York, known by tlie Jacobites
as Henry IX, King op . Great Britain, France,
AND Ireland; b. at Rome, 11 March, 1725; d. at
Frascati. 13 Ju^. 1807. He was the second sod of
James Francis Edward Stuart, the Chevaher de St.
George, and Clementina, daughter of Prince James
Sobieski. In 1745,
when hopes of a
Stuart restoration
ran high, he vis-
ited France, hop-
ing to embark
with French
troops to the as-
sistance of his
brother Charles
Edward. Having
spent several
months at Dun-
kirk without
effect, he returned
to Rome viHh the
intention of en-
tering the eccle-
siastical state. In
1747, at the age
of twenty-two, he
was created car-
dinal, and during the followii^ year he received Holy
orders, being ordained priest on 1 September. He was
immediately made archpriest of the Vatican Basilica,
and shortly afterwaros cardinal cama-lengo. In
Nov., 1750, he was consecrated titular Archbisiop of
Corinth, and on 13 July, 1761, became Cardinal-
Bishop of Frascati . Bein^ sincerely pious and earnest ,
he proved a zealous administrator of his see, reform-
ing the clergy, and founding a seminary whidi be
endowed witii a magnificent library. At the French
Revolution he lost his French benefices, sacrificed
many other resources to assist the pope, and fin^^
was reduced to poverty by the seizure of hia Frascati
property by the French. Old and infirm, he fled
to Padua and Uienoe to Venice. King George III
then came to his assistance, aiding him with a life-
annuity till he was able to return to Frascati in 1800.
In return fbr this khidness the cardinal bequeathed
to the Prince of Wales, afterwards George IV, the
crown jew^ of James II. In September, 1803, be
became Bi^op of Ostia and Velletn, and Dean of the
Sacred College, thoiigh he still resided at Ftascali.
At his death the Stuart papers in his possesion were
bought by George IV for the RoyaJ Librarj-, luid
others are now in the British Museum. There are
three pkitures of him in the National Portrait Gall^,
London, and one at Blairs Collie, Aberdeen. Tbe
cardinal lies buried in St. Peters at Rome, vrben
Canova's monument preserves his memory.

Vavqbah. The Ltut ofth* Royol StvarU (London, 190S) : K>llt.
Li/e of Hmry Benedict Stuart, Cardinal Duke of York (London.
1899); Wiseman. Reeolieetioni of the La»t Four Fovea (Loodon.
1858) ; JnsE, Th« Pretmdera and ihair AdherenU (London. 1S45):
MABTROnNi, Oratione per la mart* di Enrico Cardinale Duca dt
York (Rome, 1807); Hkmoerbok in Did. Ifai. Biog.. s. v. Bnrt
Benedict Maria Ctonenf: Gillow. BtU. Diet. Bag. CoM.. •. v.
Siuart. Hanry Btnmtiet Meria Clement.

Edwin Bubtoh.

StUATt, Mart. See Mart Qubbn or Scots.

Studion (SruDnni), the'most important monasfeiy
at Constantinople, situated not far from the Propontis
in the section of the city called Psamathia. It was
founded in 462 or 463 by the consul Studios (Stu^),
a Roman who had settled in Constantinople, and was
dedicated to St. John the Bf^itist. Ita monks came
from the monastery of AcoemeUe. At a later date tbe
laws and customs of Studion were taken as models by
the monks of Mount Athos and of many other vMnas-
teries of the Byzantine Empire; oyen to-day they ban

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STTOLWEISSENBUEO 3^

influence. The Studites gave the first proof of their
devotion to the Faith and the Church during the
schism of Acacius (484-519); they also remained loyal
during the storms of Iconoclastic dispute in the dghth
and ninth centuries. Thfnr were driven from the
monastery oi Studion and the city by Emperor
Constantine Comonymus; after his death (775), now-
ever, some of them returned. Abbot Sabbas zeal-
ously defended the Catholic doctrine against the Icon-
oclasts at the Seventh (Ecumenical Council of Nicsea
(787). His successor was St. Theodore of Studion to
whom the monastery owes the most of its fame, and
who especially fostered study. During St. Theodore's
administrationalBO the monks were haraaeed and driven
away several times, some of them beinjg put to death.
Theodore's pupil Naucratiua re-established discipline
after the Iconoclastic dispute had come to an end.
Abbot Nicholas (848-51 and 855-58) refused to recog-
nise the Patriarch Photius and was on this account
imprisoned in the Studion. He was succeeded by five
abbots who recognized the patriarch. The brilliant
period of the Stiuion came toan end at this time. In
the middle of the eleventh cratury . durii^ the admin-
istration of Abbot Simeon, a monk named Nicetas
Pcctoratus (Stethatos) made a violent attack on the
Latins in a book which he wrote on unleavened bread,
the Sabbath, and the marriage of priests. In 1054
he was obheed to recant in the presence of the em-
peror and of the papal legates and to throw his book
mto the fire, but he began the dispute again later. As
retards the intellectuG^ life of the monastery in other
d^ections it is eepecialljr celebrated for its famous
school of oaligrapny which was established by St.
Theodore. In the eighth and eleventh centuries Ihe
monastery was thecentrc of Byzantine religious poetry;
a number of the hymns are still used in the Greek
Church. Besides St. Theodore and Nicetas, a num-
ber of other theological writers are known. In
1204 the monastery was destroyed by the Crusaders
and was not rebuilt until 1290: the greater part
of it was again destroyed when the Turks captured
Constantinople (1453). The only part now in exist-
ence is the Church of St. John Baptist, probably the
oldest remaining church in Constantinople, a basilica
which still preserves from the early period two stories
of columns on the sides and a wooden ceiling, and
which is now the mosque Imrachor-Dschamissi.

MOiXCit, Stadium ecenobivm Coiulantinepelitaniim (Leipiig,
1721); Saleknbero, AlUhrisU. BaudmUtmaUr sm» KontttuUinopH
(Berlin. 1S54). 30-41, plates It-IV; Mawm. Da lOudio eonoMa

CoiuUititinopQlUana (Piuis, 1897).

Kleuetnb LOfplbr.

Stuhlwelssenburft (Sz£kbs-Feh£rv1r) Diocese
OF (Ald.e REGALENSis), in Hungary, and Suffra-

fan of Gran. It was formed in 1777 from the
)ioce8e8 of Gyor and Vcfizprem. In earlier times
there was here a collegiate chapter of the Dio-
cese of Vcszprem, founded in 1006 by King St.
Stephen; it w;ts under a provost and was endowed
vrith great piivilcgcs, the provost being chosen by
ttie chapter, and the members of the chapter by the

firovost. Provost_, chapter, and church were exempt
rom the jurisdiction of the bishop and directly sub-
ject to the pope. The chapter members were re-
cruited from the chief families, and were once about
forty, but in 1543, during the invaaons of the Turks,
the chapter became exUnct, though the provosts and
canons wdre yet nominated. The Provost of Stuhl-
w^ssenbuig, accordii^ to the laws of the thirterat^
century, was royal chancellor. The archives of the
chapter were Uie most important in Hui^ary, and
preserved a copy of the Golden BuU of 1222, the
Magna Charta of Hungary. During the invasion
of the Turks these archives were destroyed. The
cathedral, in which the royal insiwaia were preserved,
was later oilaiiged by the Unas of Hungary and rich^
<lecorated. In 1601 it was deBtroyed by the Turks.

7 8TTLITK8

From 1380 to 1S27 Stuhlweissenburg was both
coronation and burial place for the Hungarian kings.
The diocese includes toe entire County of Fej^r and
a part of the ancient County of Fills, also the Island
of Cs^l in the Danube. Budapest, the capital
of Hungary, though territori^ty within this diocese,
is subject to the Archbishop of Gran.

The first Bishop of Stuhlweissenburg was Ignatius
Ni^ (1777-1789). Among his successors are
Joseph KopAcsy (1821-1825), afterwards Archbishop
of Gran; Viiicmt Jokelfalussy (1866-1874), the first
Hungarian bishop to promulgate the dogma of the
infallibility without previously asking the royal eon-
sent (j>Uicet regiiivi), and for which he was ranked.
In 1901 Bishop Julius Vfirosj' was appointed Arch-
bishop of Kalocaa. At present the see is ruled by
Ottokar Prohaszka, a famous preacher and leader of
the Hungarian Catholic movement. The diocese is
divided into arch-deaconries; the parish priests num-
ber 92, and the clorgj' 152. In the diocese are 8 abbeys
and 5 provust^ips, 4 monasteries for men and 12
for women, in all 109 members. Ri^t of patronage
belongs to 46 persons. Since 1841 the cathedral
chapter, at the head of which is a chief provost, con-
sists of 8 canons; the Catholic faithful are 230,305.

Dtukalhaliadte Vngam (Biulapest, 1902) in Hunmrian; Schema-
tinmit «/ Ute Dioutt for JfilO; KiaoLT. H<»l. of ih« Cmmtu
Fcr^r (8atin»-Fflh«rv*r, 1886-1901). In HunBuiac. .

A. AldjIst.

Stylitas (Pillar Saints) were solitaries who, tak-
ing up their abode upon tbe top of a pillar (rrfiXoi),
chose to spend their days amid the restraints thus en-
toiled ana in the exercise of other forms of asceticism.
This practice may be regarded as the climax of a ten-
dency which became very pronounced in Eastern
lands in the latter part of the fourth century. The
duration and severity of the fasts then practised al-
most pass belief, but the evidence is overwhelming
(Butler; Palladius, 1, 188, 240-1), and the general cor-
rectness <tf the accounts pressed to us is now hardly
disputed. Besides the mortification of the appetite,
submission to restraints of all kinds became at this
period an end in itself. Palladius tells us (ch. xlviii)
of a hermit in Palestine who dwelt in a cave on the top
of a mountain and who for the space of twenty-five
years never turned his face to the \\ est. St. Gregory
of Nazianzus (P. G., XXXVII, 1456) speaks of a soh-
taiy who stood upright for many years together, ab-
sorbed in contemplation, without ever lymg down.
Theodoret assures us tlu^ be had seen a hermit who
had passed ten yean in a tub suspended in mid ur
from poles (Htilotheus, ch. xxviii).

There seems no reason to doubt that it was the as-
cetical spirit manifested in such examples as these
which spurred men on to devise new and more in-
genious forma of self-crucifixion and which in 423 led
Simeon Stylites^he Elder (q. v.) first of all to t^e up
his abode upon the top of a pillar. Critics, it is true,
have recalled a passage in Lucian (De Syria Dw, cc.
xxviii-xxix) which speaks of a hi{^ column at Hier-
apotis to the top of which a man ascended twice a
year and spent a week in converse with the gods, but
even such an authority as Ndldeke thinks it uidikel>
that Simeon had derived any suggestion from this pa-
gan custom, which certaioly haid died out before nis
time. In any case Simeon had a continuous series ot
imitators, more particularly in Syria and Palestine.
St. Daniel Stylites may have been the first of these,
for he had been a disciple of St. Simeon and began his
rigorous way of life shortly after his master died.
Daniel was a Syrian by birth but be e8tEU>lished him-
self near Constantinople, where he was visited by both
the Emperor Leo and the Emperor Zeno. Simeon the
Younger (q. v.), like his namesake, Uved near Anti-
och; he died in 506, and had for a contemporary a
hardly less famous Stylites in St. A^ius, wnose pil-
lar had been erected near Adrianople m^Paphlafonia,

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Saint Alypiiia aftei Btanding upright for fifty-three
years found his feet no longer able to support htm, but
instead of descending from his pillar lay down on his
side and B|>ent the renuuning fourtera years of his life
in that position.

St. Luke the Younger, another famous pillar hermit,
whose life has recently been printed for the first time
in the "Analecta bollandiana" (1909, pp. 6-56),
lived in the tenth century on Mount Olympus, but he
also seems to have been of Asiatic parentage. There
were many others besides these who were not so famous
and even women Stylites were also known. One or
two isolated attempts seem to have been made to in-
troduce this form of asceticism into the West but it
met with little favour. In the East cases were found
down to the twelfth centuiy; in the Orthodox Russian
Church it lasted imtil 1461, and among the Ruthe-
nians even later. There can be no doubt that for the
majority of the pillar hermits the extreme austerity of-
which we read in the lives of the Simeons and of Aly-
pius was somewhat mitigated. Upon the summit of
some of the columns for example a tiny hut was
erected as a shelter against sun and rain, and we hear
of other hermits of the same class among the Mono-
physites, who lived inside a hollow pillar rather than
upon it; but the life in any case must have been one of
extraordinaiy endurance and privation. Probably
the best justification of these excesses oi austerity is to
be found in the fact that, like the great renunciation
of St. Melania the Younger (see Cu^nal Rampolla's
"Sta MelaniaGiuniore"), they did^ in an age of terrible
corruption and social decadence, impress the need of
penance more than anything else oould have done
upon the minds and imagination of Oriental Chris-
tians.

Dbuehate in Congrii leientifique inUmatiottai d«i Catholiipie*,
U (BniBMla, 1898), 191-232; Analtda bcUandiana (1900). 5-56;
NiiLDBU, akMehM^vmBaitem Hittory (tr. Loixioa, 1892), 210-
25; Euaun> in iEwcAmlsncoM, b. v. S^Uen.

Hbrbbbt Thdrbton.

S^xla (Geb. Steiebmaak), a duchy and Austrian
crownland, divided by the River Mur into Upper and
liOwer Styria. The province is rich in minerals, as iron
ore, brown coal. etc. Its area is 8980 sq. miles, and in
1910 it had 1,441j604 inhabitants. Of the population-
68 per cent are Qennans, and 32 per cent Slovenes.
The Slovenes, who are a branch of the Slavonic
race, live chiefly in the souttwm and south-
eastern portions of the province, in Lower Styria.
Ninety-eight per cent of the population is Catholic;
one per cent Protestant; the rest are Jews or belong
to the Orthodox Greek Church. The capital of the

Srovince is Graz (152,000 inhabitants); it is the red-
ence of the governor and the seat of the administr^
tion of the province. In the Roman era Styria was a
part of Noricum. During the great migrations vari-
ous German tribes travo^sed the re^on, and about
A. D. 600 the Slavs took possession of it.' Styria came
under the supremacy of Chu'lemagne as a part of
Karantania (Carinthia). Large numbers of Ger-
mans, especisklly Bavarians, came into the country,
settled in oolomes in it, and made it Christian. The
work of converaion was carried on mainly from Sab-
burg; Bishop Virgilius of Salzbui^ (74&-84), an IriiUi-
man, was largely instrumental in converting the coun-
try to Christianity, and uined for himself l^e name of
"Apostle of Karantania"'. The Patriarchs of Aqui-
leia aho shared in the work. In 811 Charlemagne
made the Drave River the boundary of the Dioceses of
Salzburg and Aquileia. In the tenth century a part of
Styria was separated from Carinthia under the name
of the Carintnian Mark; it was also named the Windic
March. The margavea ruling the mark took from
the name of the fortified castle of Steier the title of
Margraves of Steiermark, and the coimtry received in
German the name of Steiermark. During the reign of
Margrave Ottokar II (1164-92) Styria was raised to a

duchy by the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1180.
With the death of Ottokar the first line of rulers of
Styria became extinct; the region fell to the Baben-
berg family who then ruled in Austria. In a short
time this family became extinct also, and Styna then
passed under the control of Hungary (1254-60), and
of King Ottokar of Bohemia: finally in 1276 it came
into the possession of the Habsburgs, whose property
it still remains. During the years 1379-1439 and
1564-1619 it was ruled by princes of its own from a
branch of the Habsburgs. At the time of the Turkish
invasions in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
the land suffered severely. The Turks made incur-

Crrr Hall, Gkaz

sions into Styria nearly twenty times; churches, mon-
asteries, cities, and viUajges were dest^OTed and plun-
dered, while the population was eith^ kuled or carried
away into slavery.

Tne Reformation made its way into the coimtry
about 1530. During 1564-90 the country was ruled
by Duke Karl, Whose wife was the Duchess Maria of
Bavaria, a courageous champion of Catholicism. He
introduced the Counter-Reformation into the country
on the basis of the Religious Peace of Augsburg of
1555. In 1573 he summoned the Jesuits and in 1586
he founded the University of Graz. In 1598 his son
and successor, Ferdinano, suppressed all Protestant
schools and expelled the foreign teachers and preach-
ers. The common people again accepted with but
slight opposition the Catholic faith. The Protestant
doctrines were maintained only in a few isolated
mountain valleys, as in the valley of the Inn and the
valley of the Mur. The nobility were not forced to re-
turn to the Church; each could nave Protestant ser-
vices in his own house. After Ferdinand had become
Emperor of Gennany (1619) and had defeated his
Protestant opponents in the battle of the White
Mountain near Prague (1620), he forbade in 1625 all
Protestant church services. Ir 1628 he commanded
the nobility also to return to the Catholic faith. A
Ifljge number of noble families, consequently, emi-
grated from the country; but most of them either re-
turned, or their descendants did so, becoming Catho-
lics and recovering their possessions. In the second
half of the seventeenth century the Protestant spirit
broke out again, especially in the distant valleys in the
mountains, owing to events in the Duchy of Salzburg,
The agitators from the Protestant districts of Ger-
many were expelled, and the peasants who would not
give up Protestantism were condemned to compulsory
emigration to Transylvania. It should be remem-
bered that the harsh laws issued by the Catholic rulers
of Styria and Austria were the application of the
axiom then current in European national law: cvjua
regio ^ua religio, and that the Protestant princes sup-
pressed and persecuted Catholicism and its adher-
ents much more severely in their fa^tOTi^B. The

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SUABEZ

319

8UARKZ

FsAMoncAN CoN7mT or MABiA-Tstwrr,

G&u

£dict of Toleration issued by the Emperor Joseph II
in 17S1 put an end to the religious contest of moi«
than two hundred years. The Protestants then re-
ceived the right to found parish communities and to
exercise their religion there undisturbed. On account
of the constitutions gained by the German people in
1848 all the provinces of the Austrian Empire received
complete liMrty of religion and of conscience, parity
of religions, and the right to the public exercise of re-
hgioo. As regards the present relation between

Church and
State, the
Church and the
schools, condi-
tions are the
same as in the
other sections
of Austria,

Ecclesiastic-
ally the prov-
ince is divided
into two
prince -bishop-
rics, Seckau
and Lavant.
Ever since the
time of their
foundation
both have been
sufTragana o f
the Archdio-'
ceee of Salz-
burg. The
Prince-Biahop-
ric of Sekau
was established
in 1218; since 1786 the see of the prince^ishop
has beai Gras. The Prince-Bishopric of Lavant
was founded as a bishoprie in 1228, and raised
■to a prince-bishopric in 1446; since 1847 Marburg
on the Drave has been the see of the prince-
bishop. There are in the entire Duchy of Styria
06 dieaneries and 551 parishes, altogether 1163
parochial districts, each district contaming on an
average 1151 Catholics. Styria contains many old
and celebrated houses of the orders, as: the collegiate
foundation (tf the Reformed Augustinian Canons of
Vorau (founded 1163); the Benedictine abbeys at
Admont (1074): at St. Lambrecht (1066); at Seckau
ffounded as a house of the Augustinian Canons in
1140, suppressed in 1782, from 1883 a monastery,
since 1887 abbey of the Beuronese Benedictines);
the Cistercian abbey at Rein (1120); the Franciscan
monastery at Graz (since 1515; founded in 1230 as a
monastery of the Minorites), at Mariar-Lankowitz
(1456), at Maria- Nazareth (1632); the Minorite
monasteries at Graz (1526), and of St. Peter and Paul
at ^ettau (1239) ; the Capuchin monasteries at Cilli
(1611), LeibnitE (1634), Hartberg (1654),andSchwan-
berj^ (1706) ; the collegiate foundations of the Redemp-
torists at Mautem (dating from 1826; founded m
1670 as a Franciscan monastery), and at Leoben
(1844); the Trappist Abbey of MariarErlosung at
Reichenberg (1881; abbey since 1891), etc. lltere
are also many houses fif female orders and congr^a^
tions. The Catholic societies and confraternities
are lai^ and numerous.

Von i nucHAR, Geaehichte dtt Hatofftumi Steiermark (S vols.,
Gru, 1814-47): Geblur, GuehiehU det Hertoglums SUitrmark
(pias, 1862) : .Mates, Gexchichle det Steiermark mit btsonderen
R^Ukaieht auf dot KuUurleben (Grai, 1898); C^sar, StaaU und
KirthmoMchichle Sleiermarka (7 vols.. Grta, 1785-87); Slei«r-
wtark in Die OtttTTttdirtaiiiariKiu Mcmar^ie in W€>rl und Biid
(Vienna, 18S0); ImONDfiRnR, Lande^kunde von Steiermark
(Vienna. 1903). HbBUAMN SaCHIIB.

Su&rex, Francisco, Doctor Exihitjs, a pious and
eminent theologian, as Paul V called him, b. at Gra-
nada, 5 Jan., 1548; d. at Lisbon, 26 Sept., 1617. He

entered the Society of Jesus at Salamanca, 16 June,
1664; in that city be studied philosophy and theolqey
from 1666 to 1670, and was ordamed in 1672. He
taught philosophy at Avila and at Segovia (1571),
and later, theolo©' at Avila and Segovia (1576),
ValladoUd (1576), Rome (1580-85), AlcaM (1585-92),
Salamanca (1592-97), and Coimbra (1597-1616).
An his biographers say that he was an excellent
relwious, practicing mortification, laborious, modest,
and- given to prayer. He enjoyed such fame for
wisdom that Grwory XIII attended his first lecture
in Rome; Paul V invited him to refute the errors of
King James of En^and, and wished to retain him
near his person, to profit b^ his knowledge; Philip
II sent hun to the University of Coimbra to give
prestige to that institution, and when Suilrez visited
the University of Bwcelona^ the doctors of the xmi-
versity went out to meet him, with the insignia of
their faculties. ^ His writings are chuacterized by
depth, poietration and clearness of expression, and
they bear witness to their author's exception^ knowl-
edge of the Fathers, and of heretical as well as of
ecclesiastical writers. Bossuet said that the writing?*
of Suflrez contained the whole of Scholastic philoso-

§hy; Werner (Franz Sudrez, p. 90) affirms that if
udrez be not the first theologian of his age, he is,
beyond all doubt, among the first; Grotius (Ep. 154,
J. Cordesio) recognizes m him one of the greatest o*
theologians and a profound philosoijieT, and Mackin-
tosh considers him one of the founders dt international
law.

In Scholasticism, he founded a school of his owri,
"Suarism", the chief characteristic principles of which
are: (1) the principle of individuation by the proper
concrete entity of beings; (2) the pure potentiality of
matter; (3) the singular as the object of direct intellec-
tual cognition; (4) a conceptual distinction between
the essence and the existence of created beings; (5)
the possibility of spiritual substances only numerically
distinct from one another: (6) ambition for the hypos-
tatic union as the sin of the fallen angels; (7^ the
Incarnation of the Word, even if Adam had not
sinned j (8) the
solemnity of the
vow only in eccle-
siastical law; (9)
the system of*
Con^ism that
modifies Molinism
by the introduc-
tion of subjective
circumstances, as
well as of place
and of time, pro-
pitious to the ac-
tion of efficacious
grace, and with
predestination
aiUe prceviaa mer-
ita: (10) possibility
of holding one and
the same truth by
both science and
faith; (U) belief
in Divine author*
ity contained in
an act of faith;
(12) production of
the body and blood of Christ by transubstantiation
as constituting the Eucharistic sacrifice; (13) the final
nace of the Blessed Virgin Mary superior to that of
the angels and saints combined.

"Suarex classes" were established in several uni-
versities—Valladolid, Salamanca (1720), AlcalA (1734)
— and various Scholastic authors wrote their works
ad meniem Suarexii. Charles III suppressed those
elflsBBB tJirou^iout his dominions by ^i-jmyal decree

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From Deiroch«ra' "Recudl de Fortnits"
1773

SUBCINCTOBinH

320

ftUBDEACON

of 12 August, 1768, and prohibited the use of Jesuit
authors, and therefore of^ SuArez, in teaching. It is
obvious, says Cardinal Gonzalez, that, in so maxiy
volumes written by Su&res, there are to be found some
matters of little utility, or the practical or scientific
importance of which are not in proportion to the time

Sd space that SuArez devotes to them. He is also
arged with being somewhat diffuse. His book
"De Defensione Fidei" was burned at London by
royal command, and was prohibited by the Parliament
of Paris (1614) on the ground that it contained
doctrines that were contrary to the power of sove-
reigns.

WoRKB. — Sudrez published his first work, "De
Deo Incamato", at AlcaU, in 1590; he published
twelve other volumes, the last of which, "De Defensio
Fidei," written against the King of England, was
published at Coimbra, in 1613. After his death
the Jesuits of Portugal published ten other volumes
of his works, between 1619 and 1655. Of all of these
woi^, two different editions were made: the first,
at Venice, 23 volumes in folio (1740-1757) ; and the
second in Paris (Vives), 28 volumes (1856-1861).
In 1859 Mgr Manlou published another volume in
folio, containing six short treatises that had not been
previou^y published. Father De ScorraHle (Etudes,
Vol. LXIv, pp. 151-175) gave an account of the
manuscripts of Su&rcz, noting the fact that they were
numerous and that he himself possessed seventy-five
of them. Many of these and others besides were
found by Father Riviere. The works fif Su&rez were
held in the highest esteem in his day, as is shown by
the numerous partial editions that were made of
them (Lyons, Salamanca, Madrid, Coimbra, Mav-
ence, Cologne, Paris, Evora, Genoa), as also by the
fact, relat<« by his biographers, that one of the wings
of the old college of the Jesuits at Salamanca was
restored with the product of the sale of his meta-

ghysical works. A compendium of the theologv of
uarez was published by Father Noel, S.J. (Madrid,
1732); a short epitome of hia theological disputes, by
the Portuguese Father Francis Bo&rez, S.J. (Lisbon,
1626), and a compendium of the metaphysics, by
Father G^egorio Iturria, S.J. (Madrid, 1901).

DwCiLUPS or Dhcbaufs, Vida del V. P. Franciieo Svdret dt
la. CompaMa d» JuOa . . . <2 vols., Perpisnu. 1670-1671). It
{■ tba moat oomplete biocraphy of Siiiivs; Mambi, Vila di
Vtnerabiti wrai A Dio et tnmio ualago P. Fratumeo Sudret . . ,
(Rome. 1687); SAtrroLO (Bunaxdo), Et erimia Doctor y Vent-
TohU Padre Franciteo Svdn* . . . (Salfiiiuuie«, 1693); Ribhiso DI
Vabconcellos, Praneiaco Sudre*. CMaffto da daammtm, (Coim*
bra, 1897): Wernbr, Prana Svdn* «. dta Sdu^aitik dir UUUn
JtOrhunderU (Ratiabon, 1861); Hurter, ffotiundat&r, I, no. IIS
(Iniubruok, ISM); SoiiuKRvoaEL. BtMiofUvtM, Yll, 1661-87;
CoLniDGB in 3%< Month (I86S), 53-67. 172-185.

A. -P^BSZ GOIXHA.

Subdnetwium. See Maniple.

Subdeacon. — The subdiaconate is the lowest of the
sacred or major orders in the Latin Chinrch. It is
defined aa the power by v^ch one ordained as a sub*
deacon may carry the chalice with wine to the altar,
prepare the necessaries for Hie Euch(u*ist, and read the
Epistles before the people (Ferraris, op. cit. infra, No.
40). According to the common opinion of theolo-
gians at present, the subdeaconship was not instituted
by Christ, nor are there any sufficient grounds for
maintaining that it had an Apostolic origin. There
is no mention of the subdiaconate in Holy Scripture
or in the authentic writing of the Apostolic Fathers.
These authorities make reference only to bishops,
priests, and deacons. At the Council of Benevento
(a, d. 1091), Urban 11 says: "We call sacred orders
the deaconship and priesthood, for we read that the
primitive Church had only those orders" (Can. I).
Gratian (Dist. 21) says: "In the course of time, the
Church herself instituted subdeacons and acolytes".
It is true that the Council of Trent (Sess. XXIII, cap.
17, de ref.) says tJiat "the functions of Holy orders
Cram the oeaoonship to the ostiariate were laudably

sanctioned in the Church from the times of the Apos-
tles": but these words simply indicate that the "func-
tions were so exercised ttnat is as part of the diaco-
nate) ; it was only in the course of tune that they were
separated from the office of deacon and committed
to inferior ministers. This explains why some theolo-
gians (e. g. Thomassinufl, p. I, lib. II, cap. xl) speak
of the suodeaconate as of Divine institution, that is
they look on it as made up of functions proper to
deacons. Gasparri (o;>. cit. infra. I, No. 35) says:
"The Chxu-ch, in the institution [of the sutwleacon-
ship) proceeded thus. She wished to commit to
others the inferior functions of the order of diaconate,
both because the deacons, with the increase of Uie
faithful, could not suffice for their many and grave
duties, and because she wished that others, received
among the clergy and, marked with the clerical ton-
sure, should ascend through minor ordersj only ^ter
trial, to major orders. Imitating the Divine Law of
the first thi^ grades (bishop, priest and deacon), she
decreed that the power of performing these functions
should be conferred by external tites similar to those
by which major orders were bestowed."

The subdiaconate is most probably, some say cer-
tainly, not a true sacrament, but a; sacramental in-
stituted by the Church. If it can not be repeated, this
is because the Church has so wished, for she could
institute a sacramental similar to a sacrament exter-
nally without therebv obliging us to hold that it im-
prints an indelible character on the soul of the re-
cipient. Wemz (op. cit. ir^ra, No. 158) says: "Since
orainations below the deaconship are most prob-
ably not true sacraments, but rather sacramentals,
they do not imprint the tnie sacramental character,
hence, if they are conferred validly, they give a power
of order instituted solely by human law and circum-
scribed by its limits."

Historically, the earliest mention of the subdiaco-
nate seems to be foimd in the letter of Pope Cornelius
(a. d. 255) to Fabius of Antioch, in which he states
that there are among the Roman clbrgy for^-six
priests, seven deacons, and seven subdeacons. There
IS nothing to indicate, nowever, that the subdiacwate
is not older than the third century. That there were
subdeacons in the African Church in the same cent-
ury is evident from the letters of St. Cyprian (e. g.
ep. 8). The fourth Council of Carthage also mentions
them in 398. The Synod of i Elvira (.305) m Spain
does the same (c. 30). Their existence in the Oriental
CSiurcfa is testified to by St. Athanasius in 330 (ep. 2)
and by the Council of Laodicca (can. 21) in 361. At
present, among the Greeks and other orientals, as also
formerly in the Western Church, subdeaconship is
only a minor order. It has been counted among the
major orders in the Latin Church, however, for nearly
seven centuries. It seems to have been elevated
to the rank of a sacred order in the thirteenth centuvy,
but it is impossible to fix the precise date. Urban n,
at the close of the eleventh century, expressly limited
the sacred orders to priesthood and diaconate, and in
the middle of the twelfth century, Hugh of St.Victor
still calls the subdeaconship a minor order. But at
the end of the twelfth century, Peter Cantor (De
verbo mirifico) says that the subdiaconate had lately
been made a sacred order. Early in the thirteentb
century. Innocent III authoritatively declared that
the subdeacon^p was to be enumerated among the
major orders and that subdeacons could be chosen to
a bishopric without special dis^iensation (Cap. 9. x,
de St., 1, 14). The reason for this change of discipline
was probably not because subdeacons were bound to
celibacy, for this obligation began to be imposed upon
them in the Latin Church in the fifth and sixth cen-
turies [thus Leo I in 446 (in c. 1, dist. 32) and the
Council of Orleans in 538], but more likely because
^bfor f motions brouf^t them so closely into uie aerviee

Digitized by Google

SUBIACO

^1

SUBIAOO

Subdeaoonship is oonfarred wham tbe bishop gira
the empty chalice and paten to the candidate to be
toadiea, saying: "See what kind of ministry is girai
to you, etc. Two ceremonies foUowing, the presenta>
tion Of the cruets by the archdeacon and the imposi-
tion of the vestments, are not essential and need not
be supplied if omitted (S. R. C, 11, March, 1820).
Then the bishop gives the caoaidate the Book of
Epistles to be touched, saying: "Take the Boi^of
Epistles and receive power to read them in the htdy
Church of God for the living and the dead in the name
ot the Lord." In case oS omissioD, this rite must be
supplied and is probably an essential part of the or-
dination (S. C. C, 11 Jan., 1711). In the Greek
Church, there is a laying on of hands and a suitable
prayer, but there is no imposition of hands in the Latin
Church. ,It is true that a letter of Innocent III to
the Bishop of Ely in England (a. d. 1204) is cited as
requiring that if uie laying on of hands in the subdea-
conship be omitted, it must be afterwards supplied
(cap. 1, X, de sacr. non interand, 1. 6), but thue seems
no doubt that the word "deooonship" was in the
wiKinal text (Correct. Rom. ad cit. cap. 1).

The duties of a subdeacon.are to serve the deacon
at' Mass; to prepare the bread and wine and sacred
vessels for the Holy Sacrifioe; to present the chalice
and paten at the Offertory and pour water into the
wine for the Eucharist ; to dhant we Epistles solemnly ;
to wash the sacred linen. In the Greek Church, sub-
deacons prepare the chalice at the Prothesis and guard
the gates or the sanctuary during the Holy Sacrifice.
In the uicient Roman Church, the subdeaeons ad-
ministered in great part the temporal goods of the
Holy See and were often employed on important mis-
sions by the popes. A candidate for the siU>diaoonate
must luve beat confirmed and have reoeiTed minor
orders. He must have the knowledge befittii^ his
grade in the Church and have entered on his twenty-
second year. He must also have acquired a tiUe to
orders. After ordination, he is bound to celibacy and
to the recitation of the EHvine Office.

Gahparki. D» tacra ordinationt (Puis, ISM); WsBNt, Jua
decTti., II (.Rome, 1890); Fbrsuub, BOL CBnm., V (Roine,
1891), s. V. Ordo; Tadntoh, TIu htm aj M« Ckiutk (London.
1906), s. V.

WiLUAK H. W. Fannino.

Subiaeo (SuBLAcnu, Subucbitm, Sublaqubm),
a nity in the Province of Rome, twentv-five miles
from Tivoli, received its name from the artificial
lakes of Uie villa of Nero and is renowned for its
sacred grotto {Sagro Speco), the Abbey of St. Scho-
lastica, and the archiepiscopal residence and Church
of St. Andrew, which crowns tbe hill. When St.
Benedict, at the age of fourtem, retired from the world
be li^ tar three years in a oave above tbe Riw
Anio, supplied with the necessuies trf life by a monk,
St. Roman. The grotto became the cradle of the
Benedictine Order. St. Benedict was able to build
twelve monasteries and to place twelve monks in
each. The one at the grotto seems to have had but
a short exist^oe; in 854 we find a record ol its reno-
vation. In this year Leo IV is said to have conse-
crated an altar to Sta. Benedict and Soht^astioa and
another to St. Ss^vester. Another raiovation took
place in 1053 under Abbot Humboi of St. Scholas-
tica. Abbot Jdm V, created cardinal by Gregory
made the grotto the terminus of a yearly pro-
cession, built a new road, and had the altars reconse-
crated. ShfMtly before 1200 there existed a com-
munity of twelve, which Innocent III made a priory;
John XXII in 1312 appointed a roeoial abbot A
new road was buflt 1^ the cit^ in 1688. Tbe saered
grotto is still a favourite pilpimwe, and on 27 Oo-
tober, 1000, Phis X granted a dsAty plenary indul-
pnee to those who reoeive Holy Communion there
■Ml nay aooording to the intention of ib» HxAy
Father (Acta Ap. Sedis, II, 405). A short diMriptHNi
XIV.r-21

«£ the grotto, the church, and ohapeb, is given by
<AMKUery. "PilBim Walks in Rome" (New York.
1908), p. 409. The Abbey of St. Scholastiea, about
a mile and a half bebw the grotto, was buiH by St.
Benedict himsslf (about 520), and endowed by the
Roman patricians, TertoUus and iGquitius. The
secoiKl abbot St. Honoratus, changed the old monas-
tery into a chapter room and built a new one, dedi-
eating it to Sts. Cosmas and Damian. It was de-
stroyed by the Lombards in 601 and abandoned for a
oentury. Bv ordw of John VII it was rebuilt by
Abbot Stephen and consecrated to Sts. Braedict
and Scholastiea. Demolished in S40 by the Suaoens
and again in 981 by the Hungarians, it rose from its
ruins. Benedict VII consecrated the new church,
and henoeforth the abbey was known by the name
St. Scholastiea. In 1052 Leo IX came to Subiaeo
to settle various disputes and to correct abuses; a
similar visit was made by Gr^oty VII. Special
favour was shown 1^ Pascal II, who took the ehhey
fnm the jurisdictkm of the Bishop cS Tivoli sad made
it an abbacy tndlitu. Its temporal welfare was also
a care at we pc^ies. Thus, among others, Innocent
III, at his visit in 1203, increased the revenues of
the abbey. With the decline of religious fervour,
strifes and dissensions arose to such an extent that
Abbot Bartholomew in 1364, by command of the
pope, had to dismiss some of the incorrigible monks
and fill their places with religious tram oihet monas-
teries. Numbers were brought in from Germany,
and for many decades Subiaeo was a centre of Cjerman
thrift, science, and art. Still, it seems the discroline
was not satisfactory, for Urban VI (1378-89) aboluhed
the abbots for life, took away from the monks the
right of election, and gave tne administration and
revenues to a member of the Curia. - Callistus III,
in 1455, gave the abbey in commendam to a cardinal.
The first of these was the Spanish Cardinal Torque-
mada and the second Rodengo Bo^a (later Alexan-
der VI), who remodelled the Castrum SuUacence,
once the summer resort <tf the popes, and made it the
residence of the commendatoiy abbot.

Many of these abbots cared but litUe for the
religious life of the monks and looked only for the
revenues. As an example, Pompeo Colonna, Bishop
of Rieti, oommendat^ abbot since 1506, squan-
dered the goods of the w>b^ and gave the income to
unworthy subjects. On complaint of the cnnmunity,
in 1610, Julius II readjusted matters and restofed
the monastic possessions. For spiritual benefit a
union had been made between Subiaeo and the Abbey
of Farfa, but it lasted only a short time. In 1514
Subiaeo joined the Congregation of St. Justina,
whose abbot'^seneral was titular of St. Scholastiea,
while a eardinal remained commendatory abbot.
Even aft^ this imion there were continual quarrels
between Subiaeo and Faria. Subiaeo and Mtmte
Caasino, the Germans and the Italiuis. After this
but little is known about the abbey until the middle
of the nineteenth century. In 1851 some of the mon-
asteriee of Italy, with consent of the Holy See, formed
a separate province, though still belonging to tiie
Congregation at St. Justina. Soon other nKmsateriea
in various inrts of the worid wished to Join this unim,
and Pius IX, fay Decree of 9 March, 1872, eatabliabed
the Cassinese Congr^tkm of primitive observanoe.
This congregation, known also as the Coiwregatio
SublacensB, lias had a marvellous growth for, ac-
cording to the "FamilifB C3onfoederat«" of 1910, it
embraces 35 monaateriee in 5 provinces, with a total
ci 1050 religious. The troubles fA Subiaeo did not
eease few by (vder of 19 June, 1873, the jmmerty was
eequeetrated by the Italian Govemmoit the at]t>ey
dedared a national monument, and the religiouB
tolerated as custodians of the same. At first but few
monks noiained, but in 1897 there was amin a oom-
munitr of 26 and the "FamiUs Cqitfaiaerattt of

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1910 DOtes 21 prisHto, 10 clerioi, 8 lay bvoUMn, aad
3 noviooB. On 7 January, 1909, Fius X restored to
the naonks the right of electing their own abbot.
On the 28th thev eleoted Lawroaee Salvi. The
pope conferred on him the right of wearing the ooppa
magna on 17 Feb., and four days Utter Salvi received
the sJbbatial benediotioD. In 1004 Lutgi Cardinal
Macchi resigned his office as cwnmendattny abbot,
and Hub X retained the poeition for himseU, order-
ing the Acta of the Curia to bear the heading: "Pius
X Abbas Sublacensis". The abbacy nviUua oom-
prises 24 parishes, 91 priests (Benedictines, Francis-
cans, Cfq>uchinfi, and secular), and 23,000 inhabi-
tants [Annuaire Pont. Ecdte. (1911), 3391. The
episcopal functions are performed by Victor M. Cor-
vaia, O.S.6., titular Bi8ti<n> of Tr^Mlis. The Ubraiy
and archives were once of geeaX value. In Subiaco
the CSennan printers, Sweinheim and Pannarts, fotmd
a bwne and inrinted "Donatus pro parvulis",
"Lactantius" (1465), and "De Civitate DeS" (1467).
To-day the printing press is doing valuable work; in
1908 appeand " Petri Boherii in Regulam S. Bene-
dicti Commentarium nunc primum editum eurs et
studio P. Allodi".

Mann, Lum of tin Popu (LoDdoa, 1902), gSMim; I MoHotUri

di Subjaoo (Rome, 1904); AnnaU* O.S.B. (1909). 153; LraiN,
Abbatia Italice (Rome, 1893); Studien u. MitthHtmgen out dem
Btn0d. u. cut. OnUn. XIX, IM; XXIV, 789; XXVIII, 236;
KutMmkmaltr «m Subjaeo in Sttmmmt au» Uaria Laaeh, XLIII,
337; HMorUehes Jahrbueh. XXIV, 20; CmnwtudtnM StMaemMS
m JImt« BiiUdieliM. XlX 188.

Fhahcu MnSHHAIV.

Subreption (Lat. whrepUtdt in canon law the
oonceahnmt or suwreanon statements or facta
that acGor^ng to law or usage should be expressed
in an ^mlication or petition for a rescript. In its
^ects subreption is equivalent to obreption (q. v.),
which conssts in a positive allegation of what is
ftJse. Subreption may be mtentional and maliaous,
or attributable solely to ignorance or inadvertence.
It may affect the primary^ substantial reason or
motive dt the grant, or oonstitute merely a seoondaiy
or impellent cause of the ooncesrion. For the ^eot
of subreption on Uie vididit? ti grants see Rsbcbipts.

DttTtlnSa, I, 3, C. 20, £>e ReterilXit, and MnoniaU EenenJly.

A. B. Mbeban.

Subildiw. Efiscopai. (Lat. su&ndio, tribute, pecu-
niary aid, subvention); since the faithful are obliged
to contribute to the support of religion, especially in
their own diocese, a bishop may ask contributions for
diocesan needs from his own subjects, and particu-
larly from the ole]^. These offerings as far as pos-
sible should be voluntary, rather than taxes or aasess-
ments strictly so called. Of tlie contributions pven
to HrfiflTy*, some are ordinary, made annuaUy or at
stated times; others are extracvdinary, given as q>eeial
etroumstanoes demand. Under ordinary subsidies
are elaned the oathedraticum, a fixed sum given
anniially to the bishop from the income of the
churches (rf the diocese, and which in the United
States constitutes the chief revenue of bishops; em-
aus, w pennons, which a bishop may impose at times
in acowdance wiUi the law: bospitahty or procuration
(wocuniffo, eome$tw, eiroada, albergaria) extended to
tne bishop and his assistants canonically visiting
the diocese; contributions (tminariaticum, tdum-
naUcum) for ^e supp<nt diocesan seminaries,
or for the educatbn of ecclesiastical students; fees of
the diancery office (jiu rigiUi: see Taxa Innocin-
tiana). In r^ard to the maintoumce of students for
the priesthood, in sMne diooesta ci the United States
an annual collection is made of the voluntary offerings
(rf the people; in others an assessment is imposed on
each parish. Oianoery fees go to meet the expenses
ot the office; the surr^us, if any, is empk>yed in chari-
table works, snd not for the bishop personally. For-
meriy there too was a share falling to the Insoop frm
kgacisB, betpieits, etc. {quarto mortaaria, qiurtafuii*-

rum, quaria epiaoopaiis, porlio canoniea), and likewise
a portum of the tithes (qtiorta decimarum, quarta dec-
imatio), which accrued to the churches of the diocese.

The chief extraordinary tax, which a bishop may
levy, is a charitable subsidy (aubsidium carilaiwum).
This may be asked from ail churches and benefices,
secular or r^g;ulsr not exemi^ and from clerics pos-
sessing benefices, but not from lay persons. The ftA-
lowing conditions must be observed. There must be
a reasonable and evident cause for the subsidy, as,
for example, to meet the necessiuy expenses of the
bishop's consecration, his visit ad limina^ attendance
at a general council, prosecuting the nghts of the
diocese, or for the general good of ^ diocese;
this extraordinary tax, however, is permissible only
when other means are wanting (S. C. C, 17 Feb.,
1003)j the exaction, though varying acoonung to the
need in question, must be moderate, the amount be-
ing detennined chiefly by (ntstmn; tlie advice oi the
cathedral chapter or the diocesan consultcm must be
obtained; the poor are not to be taxed. In Italy it is
onlv when taking formal possession of his see that a
bishop is free to exact this tribute (Taxa Innocentiana,
8 Oct. 1678); on other occasions the consent of the
'HxAy See is required. Althoi^h tiie subvention is
asked in the name of charity, it is bindiz^, and delin-
quents may be compelled by ecclesiastical punish-
ments to meet this obligation. Such a tax, if imposed
for the benefit of the pope, is called Peter's pence.
Patriarchs, pimates, or metropolitans are not al-
lowed such tribute from the dioceses of their su^-agan
bishops. Abbots and religious superiors, through
privilege or custom, may exact a similar subsidy from
their mmiasteries or communities for the evident
good oi their orders. The Third Plenary Council
of Baltimore (n. 20) declares that abishop, having con-
sulted his diocesan advisers, must have recourse to
Rome, if a new tax is to be imposed for the bishop
beyond what is allowed in common law.

Dtcrtiaiia Ong. JX, I III, Ut. 3a,Z>eCtnMAtu, ExaetionibuM, M
PnairatiMtUmt; SsttnaagaiiUi Communet, I. Ill, tit. 10; manuftb
fd MUMm law.

A. B. Mbbhan.

Substance (Lat. mb-ntan, eubgtanlia), the first of
Aristotle's eateries, signifies bdng as existing in and
by itself J and serving as a subject orbasis for accidents
and accidental c^ian^.

I. — Substance, bemg a gentts guprgmum, cannot
strictly be defined by an analysis into ^enus and spe-
cific difference; yet a survey of the universe at large
will enable us to form without difficulty an accurate
idea of substance. Nothing is more evident than that
things change. It is impossible for anything to be
twice in absolutely the same state; on the other hwd
all the changes are not equally profound. Some ap-
pear to be purely external; a piece of wood may be hot
or ocJd, lyiM flat or upright, yet it is still wood; but
if it be completely burnt so as to be transformed into
ashes and gases, it is no Ioniser wood: the specific,
radical characteristics by which we describe wooo
have totally disqmeared. Thus there are two kinds
(tf obangee: one affects the nwUcal characteristics of
things, and consequeotfy determines the existence or
non-existence of tnese things; the other in no way
destroys these characteristiesj and so, while modify-
ing the thing, does not affect it fundamentally. It is
necessary, thereforcj to recognize in each thing cer-
tain secondary reahties (see Accident) and also a
permanent fundamentum which continues to exist
notwithstairaing the superfieial ehangps, which serves
as a basis or support for the secondary realities —
what, in a word, we terra the substanoe. Its fund^
mental characteristic is to be in itself and by itself,
and not in another subject as accidents are.

The Scholastics, who accepted Aristotle's defini-
tion, also distipguiwhed primary substance (tubtUmtia
pr^Mo) from Moraidaiy substanoe (su&sbHifta seeimd^ :

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tiie fanaet is the mdividiul tl:
so called; the latter dedguates the universal essence
or nature as contained in genus and species. And,
again, subetance is either complete, e. g. man, or in-
oonqilete, e. g. the soul, which, Uiough poeseBatng
existence in Itself, is united with the bo^ to form the
specifically complete human being. Tlie principal
division, however, is that between material substance
(all corporeal things) and spiritual substance, i. e. the
soul and the angelic spinta. The latter are often
called mbstarUitg separata, to signify that they are
separate from matter, L e. neither actually conjoined
with a matenal (maiuam nor reouiring such union
as the natural compIsDarait of tbedr oeinK (St. Thomas,
"Contra Gentes", II, 91 sqq.). St. Thomaa further
teaches that the name mbikmce cannot properly be
^pdied to Giod, not onfy because He is not the sub-
ject <^ any accidents, but also because in Him essence
uid existence are identical, and consequently He ia not
included in any genus whatever. For the same
reason, it is impossible that God should be the formal
being of all thmgs iuteformaU omnium), ot, in othor
wonu, that one and the same existence oiould be
common to Him and them (op, oit., I, 25, 28).

In the viaible world there is a multitude of sub-
stances numerically distinct. Each, moreover, has a
q>ecific nature which determines the mode of its
activity and at the same time, through its activity,
becomes, in some degree, maniieat to us. Our think-
ing does not constitute the substance; this exists in-
dependently of u% and our thou^t at most acquires
a knowlec^ of each substance by considering its
manifestations. In this way we come to know both
the nature of material things and the nature of the
^iritual substance within us, i. e. the soul. In both
cases our knowledge may be imperfect, but we are not
thereby justified m concluding that only the super-
ficial appearanoes or phenomena are aocessible to u^
and that the inner substantial b^ng, of matter or of
mind, is unknowable.

Since the close of the Scholastic period, the idea of
substance and the doctrines centring about it have
undergone profound modifications which in turn have
led to a complete reversal of the Scholastic teaching
on vital questions in philosophy. Apart from the
traditional concept formulated above, we must note
especially Descartes' definition that substance is "a
being that so exists as to require nothing else for its
existence". This formula is unfortunate: it is false,
for the idea of substance determines an essence which,
if it exists, has its own existence not borrowed from
an ulterico' basis, and which ia not a modification of
acme being that supports it. But this idea in no way
determines either the manner in which actual exist-
ence has been given to this essence or the way in which
it is preserved. The Cartesian definition, moreover,
is dangerous; for it suggests that substance admits of
no efficient cause, but exists in virtue of its own ee-
■mee. Thus Spinoza, following in the footsteps of
Descartes, decLued that "substance is that which is
omceived in itself and by itself", and thence deduced
his pantheistic system according to which there is but
cme substance — i. e. God — all thinf^ else being only
the modes or attributes of the Divme substance (see
pANTBaisM). Leibnix's definition is also worthy of
note. He oonsiderB substance as "a bein^ gifted wiUi
the power ctf action". Substanoe certamqr can act,
Binoe action f<dlowB heUng, and substanoe is banc par
erceUence. But Uiis property does not go to the basis
of reality. In every fimte substanoe Uw poww to act
is distinct from the substantial essence; it is but a
property of substance vrtdth can be defined only 1^
Its mode of existence.

II. — The most impcntant question concerning sub-
stance is that of its reality. In uioient di^ Hcoiusli-
tUB, in modem times Hume, Locke, Mill, and Tains,
and in our day Wundt. Maoh, Pmlien. Ostwald,

Kbot, ^xil, Htifiding, S^er, and several others deny

the reality of substance and consider the existence of
substance as an illusory postulate of naive minds.
The basis of this radical ne^tion is an erroneous idea
of substance and accident. They hold that, apart
from the accidents, substance is nothing a behig
without qualities, operations, or end. This is quite
erroneous. The accidents cannot be separated thus
from the substance; they have their being ontv in the
substanoe; they are not the substance, but are by their
very nature modifications of the substance. The
operations which these writers would thus attribute
to the accid^ta are really the operations of the sub-
stance, which exercises them through the accidents.
Finally, in attributing an independent existence to the
accidents, they simply transform them into substance,
thus establishing just what they intend to deny. It
can be said that whatever exists is eith» a substance
or in a substance.

The tendency of modem philosophy has been to
r^ard substance simply as an idea which the mind
iiueed is constrained to tenn, but which either does
not exist objectively or, if it does so exist, cannot be
known. AccOTding to Locke (Eskqt ii, 23), "Not
imagining how simple ideas can subdst by th^selves,
we accustom ourselves to suppose some substratum
wherein they do subust and from which they do re-
sult; which therefore we call substance; eo that if any
one win examine himself concerning his notion of pure
substance in general, he will find he has no other idea
of it at all, but only a supposition (tf he knows not
what support of such qualities, which are capable of
producing simple ideas m us; which qualities are com-
monly caUed accidents." He protests, however, that
this statement refers onl^ to the idea of substance, not
to its being; and he claims that "we have as clear a
notimi of the substance of spirit as we have of body"
(ibid.). Hume held that the idea of substance is
nothing but a collection of simple ideas that are united
b^ the imagination and have a particular name as-
ugned to them, by which we are able to recall, either
to ourselves or otners, that collection" (Treatise, fok.
I, pt. IV); and that the soul is "a btmdle oS con-
ceptions in a perpetual fiux and movement".

For Kant substance is a category of thought which
wplies only to phenomena, i. e. it is the idea of some-
thing that persists amid all changes. The substan-
tiality and immortality of the soul cannot be proved
by the pure reason, but are postulated by the moral
law which pertains to the practical reason. J. S.
Mill, after stating that "we may make propositionB
also respecting those hidden causes of phenomena
which are named substances and attributes", goes
on to say: "No assMtion can be made, at least with
a meaning, oonoemin^ those unknown and unknow-
able entities, except m virtue of the phenomena by
which alone they manifest themselves to our faculties '
(Logic, bk. i, I, c. v): in other words, substance mani-
fests itself tlm)i^ phenomena and yet is unknowable.
Mill defines matter as "a permanent possibility^ of
sensation", so that no substantial bond is required
for material objects; but for conscious states a tic is
needed in which there ia something "real as the sensa^
tions themselves and not a mere product of the laws
of thou^t" ("Examination", c. xi; cf. Appendix).
Wundt. on the contrary, declares that the idea (hyt>o-
thetical) of substance is necessary to connect the
phenomena presented in outer experience, but that
it is not i^>plicable to our inner expmence except for
the psycho-physical processes (Logik, I, 484 sqq.).
This is the basis of Aotualism, wliich reduces the soul
to a series of conscious states. Herbert Spencer's
view is thus expressed: "Existence means nothing
more than peraiataice: and hence, in mind^ that which
persiBts in spite of all changes, and maintains the unity
of the aggr%ate in defiance of all attempts to divide
it, is that owbich existence in the futksenae of tha

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word must be predicated — 'that which we must poetu-
(ate as the substance of mind in contradistinction to
the varying forms it assumes. But, if so, the impos-
sibility of knowing the substance of mind u manifest"
(Princ. of Psychol., Ft. 11, c. i). Elsewhere he de-
clares that it is the same Unknowable Power which
manifests itself alike in the ph)[sical world and in con-
sciousness— a statement wherein modem Agnosticism
returns to the Pantheism of Spinoza.

This development of the concept of substance is
instructive; it shows to what extremes subjectivism
leads, and what inconsistencies it brings into the in-
vestigation of the most important problems cS philos-
ophy. While the inquiry has been pursued m the
name of criticiam, its results, so far as the soul is con-
cerned, are distinct^ in favour of Materialism; and
while the aim was supposed to be a surer knowledge on
a firmer basis, the outcome is Agnosticism either open
or disused. It is perhaps as a reaction against such
confusion in the field of metaphysics that an attonpt
has recently been made b^ representatives of physical
science to reconstruct the idea of substance by making
it equivalent to "ene»y". The attempt so far has
led to the conclusion that enerfpy is the most univer-
sal substance and the most umversal accident (Ost-
wald, "Vorlesungen (iber Naturphilosophie", 2nd ed.,
Leipzig, 1902, p. 146).

Fot the theoic^cal significance of substance see

BUCHARTBT. SgE aIsO AOdDKHT I BaUt,; SnulTU AUSU -
BjULKU. Pmdammtnl naaraphp. It (ii«W «d.. N«W tvk.
noai; Jqbh RtcK&BT, Otnarei Metapiynet (3nl ed., Heir York,
WAtJCLDit. TAmrLM 0/ ^HouWfrr (Nkw York, 191(f): H^h-
m, TKt JVriap'ij^nc* o/rAe>Sc'idoF CLoaaon. 1679-94): Mneisn,

itmiiulimLti (Ruine, WlLlJiMs, ItutUiaionti phitoiapttlm.

t (Trier, IIXM) ; KLBurqKH, miaiophie Vansil 11; Piut. S«
fai.nolL0ad« ri'^>£»u« Bra^lElO^^ — Soo kIw the hiWitjermituipiir
relennoei io EutKi wmmudi Jtr pkihttpMKftm B^ffe. 1 1 [
tBariin. 1910). M. p. on MlTNISTWCIt.

SubUIe. See Tunic.

Subuniitt. See Hub and Hmsnas.

Sabnrbiouian IHoeeMi, a name applied to the
diooeses nearest Rome, viz. Albano, Frascati (Tus-
culum), Palestrina, Sabina. Ostia and Velletri,
Porto and S. Rufina, the bisnoM of which form the
order of cardinal bishops (see Cardinal). The See
of Albano {Alhanensis) has its cathedral, on the site
of a basilica built by Constantine, on the Appian
Way, about ten miles from Rome. The name corre-
ntondstothel^atin ager AVbanw whidi commemorated
tne ancient dty of Alba Longa, famous in Roman
history. The diocese now comprises twelve parishes,
and has a population of 41,000. Frascati, the ancient
Tusculum, is in the Alban HiUs, twelve miles from
Rome. The diocese {Tuaadcma) contains eig^t

C'shes and has a population of 16,000; within its
ts is the famous Basilian Abbey of Grottaferrata
(q. v.). The capital of the Diocese of Palestrina
{PrcBaa^neaMit) is the ancient Fleneste, on the Via
Labicana. The diocese, divided into twent:^-4our
parishes, has a population of 45,700. Hie Diocese
of Sabina {SabinenM) ^ was fonned out of three
oldest dioceses: S. Maria in Vescovio, Corese, and
Mentana. Corese is the ancient Cures, which was,
in remote ages, the Sabina coital; hence, obviousljf,
the name Sabina. This, the largest of the suburbi-
carian dioceses, contains some 55,000 inhabitants,
in thirty-five parishes. Ostia and Velletri (Oatien-
«u et Vmiemensis) was fwmed in the twelfth century
by the union of tiie Diocese iA Velletri (tiie ancient
Velitrse of the Vobcians) with that of Ostia. The
latter place was the seaport of ancient Rome. This
diocese has sixteen parishes with 34,000 inhabituitB.
Porto, opposite Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber,
was the Roman port (portus) constructed by the
Emperor Claudius. The Basilica of Sts. Rufina and
Secundus. about fourteen miles from Rome, on the
Via *T™'n»MS having become the see of a luihop in

the fifth century, this see was eventually unitod with
thatofOstia. The diocese (Portueiuu el S. Rufina) has
sixteen parishes with a p^ulation of about 5000.

llie term nAuriieariia is taken ftaax Roman pub-
lic law, the expression rtgima or provmaa mmiabir
carioB meaning the districto adjacent to Rome. The
term ecdeaia subwrbiearia occurs first in RuSnns
[Hist, eccl., I (x), 6], where he refers to the sixUi
canon of Nicsa treating of the extMision of the
patriarchal powo- of Rome. Rufinus certainty Hisea
the words in the sense of "all the Churches m facto
subject to the emseopus urbieiu, that is, of Rome",
meaning all the Ghunhes of the West. ThesoK»lled
Old ipriaca) Vermon of the Nicoie canons says that
the jurisdiction of Rome extends over "subuibiearia
loca et omnem provinciam suam", where tubwbi'
earius is certainly more restricted in meaning than in
the passage from Rufinus, and so must have oeen em-
ployed as it was used m Roman public law. In
fairly recent times the expression was used synony-
mously with aiiburbamu, that is "in the immedi-
ate Tidnity of Rome", to sonify the abova^nen-
tioned dioeeseB.

Naturally these diooeees had a certain importanoe
in the Church of Rome. Some authorities nave sug-
gested that the bishops were merely auxiliaries of taa
pope with jurisdiction, subject, however, to his.
Certainly they had some prerogatives. For instance,
the Bishop of Ostia, in the fourth century, and prob-
ably in the third, consecrated the pope: in the sixth
centniy the Bishop of Albano recited the second
prayer in the omseinaition oaremony, and the BislM^
of Porto the third. In the eighth century we read
(Vita Stophani, III) of the most ancient custom in
virtue of which seven of these bishops, called
domadarii, celebrated Mass in turn in place of the
pope and were called epiaeopi cardinalea, from be-
ing pmnanentiy attached to the eardo, that is the
cathedr^ church of Rome; but we are not told who
they wwe. In the eleventh century there wen
seven (ax after the nnion of Porto and Silva Candida) .
Besides the titles epiaeom htbdonutdarii (twelfth
century) and eanUnaUa Romanoe Sedia they were
also blown as Vicarii and OoovertUorea papa and
epiacopi Tomani. The last title must nave had
a wider signification, as it was used of other bish-
ops besides the seven, like the bishops of Tivoli,
Gabii (united later with Palestnna). Lavicum (united
with Tusculum), Villetri, Nepi, and S^ni. In addi-
tion to the districts already mentioned these bishops
had others. For instance the Bishop of Porto had
ordinary delegated jurisdiction in Trastevere, and the
Bishop of Silva Candida in the Leonine city and ^so
in the Basilica of St. Peter. Both had residence on
the Tiber island, and the Bishop of Albano had an
episcopal residence near the Lateran. Fri^bly as
early as the devoith century these bishc^ had the
right of i»rticipating in the election of the pope: the
Constitution of Nieholae II (1059), which fi:red the
right of electing the pope as belonging exchisivaly to
the bishops ana cardinal clerics m Rome, sappoees
that the former already enjoyed the right.

As the cardinal-bishops are largely afaeort>ed in the
business <^ the Curia, some of them, in particular the
Bishops of Sabina and Vdletri. have for centuries had
auxiliary bidiops. Pim X, in his Constitution " Apoa-
tolice Romanorum" (1910), ordained that there
^ould be suffragan bishops tor all the suburbicaiian
dioceees. The Constitution decrees that : (1) the
cardini^bishf^ is always the tarue bishop of the
Buburbicarian see; (2) each eardinal-bidiop shall in
future have a titular bishop as sufiFragan, (3) who
shtUl be nominated by the pope; to take possession of
his (rffioe the nominee moat prascmt to the cardinal
the doeument containing his wmination; (4) in virtue
of the present CoBstitutiim it is presumed that the
oardinal-bUKip has g^veb his soflnsRiv all the f aod-

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88 other resident bishops have, with the following
restrictioas: (6) the auxdiaiy governs the diooese in
the name and place of the cardinal^ ^6) with the
death or tranrfer of the latter the jurisdiction dUT the
aoziliaty does not cease, he continues to rule the dkh-
eeee as adminiatrator Apostolic; (7) he must make an
annual report to the cardinal on tiie moral and eco-
nomic condition of the diocese; (8) where possible, a
part of the episcopal palace shall be set aside for the
suffragan and the Curia; (9) the blessing of the holy
oils, the pontifical celebrations on the greater feasta of
the ^ear in accordance with the "Csremoniale" of
the bishops, is reswed to the cardinal, who may, how-
ever, delate the auxiliary; (10) the obligation of
edeorating Mass for the people is imposed on the
cardinal, who (11) has the right of having his coat-of-
arms on the palace, the cathe^^, and other customaiy
places; (12) the episcopal throne is reserved to the
cardinal whose name alone is mentioned in the
canon; (13) the cardinal, evm when absent from the
diocese, can ^rant an indulgence of 200 days; (14) if
the cardinal is in the diooesd he alone may officiate, or
grant permisrion to officiate, pontifically; (16) the
aujdliuy may not gnat benefices in the chapter and
parishes not reserved to the Holy See without the
consent of the cardinal^ (16) the cardinal may per-
sonally supervise and visit the diocese; (17) the car-
dinal retams the right of assisting at marriages and of
adnunisterin^ the other sacraments. The auxihary is
charged specially with examining candidates itx ton-
sure and the other otdeaai but he nuqr not oonfer or
authorise the conferring oi orders without the permis-
son of the cardinal; (IS) the diocesan synod is to be
held with the consent and in the name oi the cardinal,
who alone has the right of approving and promulgat-
ing its decrees; {19} uniting or dividing benefices,
even parochial, requires the consent of the cardinal,
^0 (20) is to be consulted on appointments to offices
and chaira in the seminary; (21) after the death or
toanafer of the suffragan, the cardinal tiiToiigh his
vicar geiural shall provide for Uie government oi the
diocese till the flmpointment of a new suffragan; (22)
when a canUnal-bisbop dies the same ceremonies shall
take place as are customary on the deaths of resident

cardinal-bishops.

Andsbdcci, HMnrchia 9ccL, I. tr. iii; Philups. Kirdunraeht,
VI (Ratidxm. ISM), 14&-2W: FtsRAXu, Promvia KM., s. v.
tar&aHa: Adtt Avom. AwKt (IBIO), fiM. 7, 279 Miq.

U. Bknigni.
BucccMion, Apobtouc. See Apostolic Succna-

BION.

Sudan, Vicabiate Apostouc of.— The Vicariate
of Sudan or Central-Africa (Sudanensus seu Apbica
Centraus), in North-Eastem Africa, includes the
whole Ando-Egyptiaa Sudan, the part of Egypt
south of KaBosn, the French territory from Fezsan
to 10^ N. lat., parts of Adamaua and Sokoto on Lake
Tchad, and uie NUe Province of Uganda Protector-
ate. It was erected on 3 April, 1846, by Gregory
XVI. In 1851 the Emperor Francis Joseph I of
Austria took the mission imder his protection. From
1883 to 180S the Sudan (then an Egyptian province)
was closed by the insurrection of the Mahdi Moham-
med Ahmed and his successor Khalifa Abdullahi,
and the missionaries were compelled to work outside
the circuit' of th^irjurisdiction m Egypt. On 2 Sept..
1898, the Anglo^E4Cyptian army, wwch in 1806 bad
begun operations for the recovery of the lost provinces,
completed the overthrow of the Khalifa, although he
was not alain until November of the foUowi^ year.
The country still suffers from the effects of the Dervish
oppression, durmg which it was largely depopulated,
wide tracts having gone out of cultivation and trade
having been abandoned. In 1899 mission work was
recommenced. The two relieoua ooDgregatioos, the
Sonaof the Baored Heart aod the Pioua HotbarB oC

Nigritsa furnish miaaonaries and sisters to the vicari-
ate, and the two periodical papers "La Nigrizia"
(Verona) and "Stem der >Jeger" (Brixen) print
articles about this mission. The number of inhabi-
tants is unowtatUj periiaps about eiglit millions.
Missionary work is limited to the southern and
heathen part with the Shillouki Dinka, Nuer, Jur,
(iolo, Nyara-Xyam, and other negro tribes. In the
nurthem and Mohammedan part are aome European
and Oriental Catholic immigrants. Statistics: — star
tioDS at Afisuan, Omdurman, Khartoum (central sta^
tion); Lul and Atigo (White Nile); Wau, Kayango,
and Cleveland (Bahrel-Ghazal); Omach and Gmu
(Uganda); beudee twenty-five loca^ties provided
excuneado. CaUmli^ 3000; catechumens, 1030;
miests, 35; brotiierB, 28; sistera, 45. Vicar Apostolic,
Francis Xavio- Gey«r, Bishop of Trocmade.

Francis Xavieb Gbtbb.

SufetlUa, fi titular i5ee of North Afripa. Sufetula
seems to hf Suttiiil where Ju|rurLhn h-id ficptiyited
his treasurrs ■SMllur.r. xxxvi) Tlif Lfitin naiiic is a
diminutiv>^ -if SuFc:- iShihai. tJic nu.mf of a amall
town 25 TDilvA furllicr north, frtim n liic-li many l^ilda

branched DKt to nei^bouiing towna. It became ik
Roman o^bny^ (n 547 It wtis the rapUctl of i&m
Bysantine pntrician, Gregaiy, who hod declared
himself indppriidcnt and was kitlrd in a i^eat batUa
with the Arulis fouKlit npnr the town, whi<^h WU!
stormed, pllliicni, ii.n*i rrm-lly wiL.«le. The:

"Roman ^^ l^^y^^lll■py " nu-ntlons on ^-(11 August the
martyrs of SiiiVi iln, -nlKi wt-m to belong ruthrr to
Sufes (St. AukukUjk;, "Letters", 30). Atanunkmiwm
date a council waA hi?]d at 8ufetula, one of its cAnons
bfong still preserved (HardoUia. I, 1512). Only
three bWitips *if thia 8«c are ioown: Pnvatian,
present at Xnc f'ouncii of Carthtige, 235' Jucundus,
at the Ci ini ll i.f CrtrlhiTigc, 411 and 419; St,
PrKsidius. ill 434 i^y Iliinrrifl afU'i- havitiR

been soouiii^ !, rui iilinncii in Ifae ^' Roman MtirtyKil-
Ogy" on I' Srfit.(>!iihir SnfftuVi is t■;Lll(^^ ^7)it'M'j
in Arabic; il ih a vUIlwj on itjad from TcIicA^a to
Kairwan shout 70 mUas easi fl£ Tebfltea (.ruuttiia),
It has impwtant Rinnan ruins: three temples, a
triumphal arch, a theatre, and an amphitheatre, etc.:
worthy of note are the ruins of four three-naved
churches, Bysanline fortifications, and numoroua
fragments of Qiristjan sculpture.

Skitb, Diet. </ OrtA and Ammii Omv., s. v.; Tovuvm.
Oita. itt CAfiitut dMUMUM.- Bytaeku H Tripplilaitu (Ztfontmiil.
18H), 176^; DiBBL, L'Afiivo humtUitM (Puis. 1896), purim.

S. FfinUDftB.

Suffragan. See Abcrbibhop.

Suffar (Sttker)j John, Venerable, b. at Wom-
boum, Staffordshire, 1558; suffered at Warwick,
16 July, 1604. He matriculated at Oxford from St.
Mary Hall, 30 October, 15S4, and is described as
derici JUiiu. He left without taking a degree, it is
said because he disliked the Oath of Supremacy; but
it appears that he acted as a Protestant minister at
Cajinock, Staffordshire, for some time. He was or-
dained priest from the English College, Douai (1601),
and sent on the mission tiie same year. He was ar-
rested 8 July, 1603, at Rowington, Warwickshire,
with Venerable Robert Greswold (Grissold), a native
of Rowington (in the service of Mr. Sheldon of Broad-
way, Worcestershire), who was in attendance on
him. After a year's imprisonment at Warwick Hvesy
werQ condemned there 14 July, Sugar for being a
priest, and Greswold for assisting him. Sugar was
cut down before he was fully dead. Greswold was
offered his life if he would promise to conform.

Cballombr, JAfMonary PrieaU, II, nos. 135, 136; Foster,
^lumnt Oxonimtu (Oxford, 1892); Knox, Douaa DiariM (Lon-
doD, 1878). 17, 32; PcwLunr, AeU oftkt fntfKth ifaijin (Lmidoa,
ISM), 821.

Joazr B. Wainswriobt.

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Sugvr, Abbot of St-t>enis, statesman aod his-
torian, b. probabhr at or near St-Denis, about 1081:
d. thm, 13 Jan., 1151. Towards 1091 he was offered
to the monastery ctf St-Denis where he became a (el-
low-student of King Louis VI. From 1104 to 1106
he attended another nvMiastic school, pernaps that of
St-Benolt-sur-Lo ire near Orleans. He became secre-
tary to Abbot Adam of St-Doiis in 1106, was named
provost of Bemeval in Normandy towards 1107 and
of Toury in Beauce in 1109. Louis VI sent him
(HIS) to the Court of Gelasius II at Maguelonne
in SouChem France, and later to that of CallistuB II
at Rome. During his stay at Rome (1121-^) he
was elected Abbot of St-Imus, and ordained to the
priesthood on hisretutn. He attended the First Gen-
eral Ciouncil of the Latoan in 1123, and so fovourabl^
impressed Callistus II that ei^teen months after his

return to France
thia pope, desirous
of coQierring new
honours (probably
the cardinalate)
upon him, invited
him to Rome.
Suger proceeded as
far as Lucca, but
retraced his steps
upon receipt of tne
news of the pope's
death. Henceforth
most of his time
was spent at Court
until 1127,whaihe
initiated, and sub-
seouently success-
fully accomplished,
the reform of his
monastery. He
continued to re-
main, however, the
constant adviser

^''■'^^'pJSi; n™^""^'' Lo^ VI and
of his successor

Louis VII. During the latter's absence on the Second
Crusade he was appointed r^ent of the kingdom
(1147-49). He had opposed the lung's departure on
the ground that the powerful and turbulent vassals
were a danger to the royal power, but so successful
was his administration that tne king, upon his return,
bestowed upon him the title "Fathv of the Coun-
try". Althou^ the crusade aided in failure, Suger
equipped an army and was about to depart for uie
Holy Land when he died . As a stateemwi he sought
to strengthen the royal power, to improve agricul-
ture, commerce, and trade, and to reform the admin-
istration of justice. As abbot he not only intro-
duced thorough-going reforms, but also completed in
1144 the new monastic church. He has left an ac-
count of the consecration of Uus edifice, "Libellus de
consecratione eccl. 8. Dionyeii", and a memoir on
his own i^batical administratioih "Liber de rebus in
administratione sua gestis". Of greater importance
for the knowledge of tne period are nis "Vita Ludovici
Grosd reg^", a eulo^tic but reliable life of Louis
the Fat, and "Histona Ludovici VII", a history of
Louis VII, which in its present form is the work of a
Burgundian monk of St-Germain-des-Pr6s. We also
possess of him some letters, official documents, and a
will of the year 1137.

Th« comptvte worka of SuosB wen publbbed by DC la,
Marchb, (EuvTtt eomvliUt dt SugarCPaiiM, 1867); tb«T mre aIbo
ID P. L., CLXXXVI. 1211-1468: Huoubkin, Stude tur robW
Suffer (PviB, ISfiS); Cabtbluebi, Abt SufMr ron Saint-Otttu
(Berlin, 1898); Masson, BaHv Chronidart of Evnp«: Franc*
(London, d.), 66-69; tAou«iMm,LuSotinMA*thiM.dtFTaMtt, I.
it, nM. IS45-6a

N. A. Wbbbh.

BCllCldB.— lUs article wfll treat the sabjeet undv
the following three heads: — I. The notions and
divisions of suicide; II. The principles aeoording
to which its morality must be judged; III. BtatisticB
and enyliuiatimis (tf its frequency.

I. NcmoH. — Suicide is tne act of one iriio causes his
own death, either by positively destrt^inghisowii life,
as by inflicting on nimself a mortal wound or injury,
or by (xnitting to do what is necessary to escape death,
as by refusing to leave a burning house. From a
moral standpoint we must treat therefore not only
the [>rohibition of positive suicide, but also the obliga-
tion incumbent on man to preserve his life. Suicide is
direct when a man has tiie intention of causing his
own deaUi, whether as an end to be attained, as a
means to another end, as when a man kills himsdf to
escape condemnation, dt^race, ruin etc. It is indi-
rect, and not usually called by this name when a man
does not desire it, eith^ as an end or as a means, but
when he nevertheless commits an act which in effect
involves death, as when he devotes himself to the care
of the plague<«tricken knowing that he will succumb
under the task.

II. MoRALiTT. — The teaching <tf tiie Catholic
Church concerning the morality of suicide may be
summarized as fofiows: —

A. Pontile and Direct Suicide perpetrated without
God's consent always constitutes a grave injustice
towards Him. To destroy a thing is to dispose of it
as an absolute master and to act as one having full
and independent dominion over it; but man does not
possess this full and indepoident dominion over his
life, sinm to be an omer one must be superior to his
property. God has reserved to himself direct domin-
ion over Ufe; He is the owner of its substance and He
has given man only the serviceable dominion, the
r^t of use, with the chai^ of protecting and pre-
serving the substance, that is, life itseU. Conse-
quently suicide is an attempt against the dominion
and right of ownership of the Cruitor. To this injos-
tioe is added a serious f>iEfenoe andnat the diarit^
which num owes to himselff sinoe his aot he de-
prives himself of the greatest good m his posseaion
and the possibility of attaining his final end. M««-
over, the sin may be aggravated by circumstances,
such as failure in conjugal, patermu, or filial piety,
failure in justice or chanty, if b^ taking his life one
eludes existing obligations of justice or acts of charity
which he oould and should pmorm. That suicide is
unlawful is the teaching of Ho^ Scripture and of the
Church, which condemns the act as a most atrociouB
crime and, in hatred of Uie sin and to arousethe horror
of its children, denies the suicide Christian burial.
Moreover, suicide is directly opposed to the most
powerful and invincible tendency of eveir creature
and eepeoially of man, the preservation of life. Fi-
nally, for a sane man deliberately to take his own life
he must, as a general rule, first have annihilated in
himself all that be possessed of spiritual life, nnoe
suicide is in ^isotute contradiction to evenrthing
that the Christian religion teaches us as to the nio
and object of life and, except in cases of insanity,
is usually the natural t«ainination of a life (A disorder,
weakness, and cowardice.

The reason we have advanced to prove the malice of
suicide, namely, God's right and dominion^ likewise
justifies the modification of the general principle:
Qod being the master of our life He may with Hisown
consent remove from suicide whatever oonstitutesits
disorder. Thus do some authorities iustify the con-
duct of certain saints, who, impelled by the desire of
martyrdom and especially to protect their chastity,
did not wait for their executioners to put them to
death, but Bou^t it in one manner or other titon-
Bcives: neverthSeas, the Divine will should be oertun
awl einrtjr manifested in eadt particular ease. 7w
qaaMloci to asked: Oan one iriio u eoodamned to dasth

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kill himself if wdorad to do bo by the judge? Some
authors answer this question in the amrmative, bas-
* ing their argument on the right which society poa-
aeeses to punish certain malefactors with death and to
commission any executioner, hence also the nmlef ac-
tor himself, to carry out the sentence. We share the
most widely accepted opinion, that this practice, prev-
aX&it in certain countnes of the East, is not lawful.
Vindictive, and for that matter all, justice requires a
distinction between the subject of a r^ht and that tA
a duty, hence in the preeent case between the one
who punishes and the one who is punished. Finalhr,
the same tuinciple which forbids anyone to personally
compass his own death also forbids him to advise, di-
rect, or ocanmand, with the direct intention of suicide,
that another should slay him.

B. Pontile but Irtdirect Suteide committed without
Divine consent is also unlawful unless, evfry^ing
considered, there is sufficient reason for doing what
will cause death to follow. Thits, it is not a sin, but
an act of exalted virtue, to go into savage lands to
preach the Gospel, or to the bedside of the plague-
stricken, to minister to them, although they vdio do so
have before them the jntMpeot of inevitiUile and speedy
death; nor is it a sin fw wc^kmen in the dischaige of
duties to oUmb on roofs and buildings, thus exposing
themaelvea to danger of death, etc. All this u lawful
precisely because tne act itaelf is good and upri^t, for
m UiecMy the persons in question have not m view
either as end or means the evU result, that is, death,
that will follow, and, mweover, if there be an evil re-
sult it is largely compensated for by the good and use-
ful remit wni<^ they seek. On the other hand there
is edn in egqMang onesdf to danger of death to duplay
courage, to win a wager, etc., because in aU.these casei
the end does not in any way compensate for the dan-
ger of death that is run. To judge whether or not
there is sufficient reason for an act which will appar-
ently be followed by death, all the circumstances
must be weighed, namely, the importance of the good
result, the greater or less certainty of its being at-
tained, the greater or leas daiu» of death, etc., idl
questions wmch may in a speeifio ease be very difficult
to solve.

C. NegaHve and Direct Suicide without the consent
of God constitutes the same sin as positive suicide.
In fact man has over his life only the right of use with
corresponding obligations to preserve the object of
God's dominion, the substance of his life. H«ice, it
follows obviously that he fails in this obligation of
uBufruotuaiy who n«^lects the necessary means for
the preservation of life, and this with the intention
ftestroyii^ the latter, and consequently violates the
ri^rtsof God.

X). Indireet and Negative Suicide without the con-
sent of God is also an attempt against the rights of the
Creator and an injustice towards Him whenever with-
out sufficient cause a man neglects all the means of
preservation of which he should make use. If a man
as usufructuary is obliged in justice to {reserve his life,
it follows that he is equally bound to make use of all
the ordinary means wnieh are indieated in tiie usual
course of things, viz.: (1) he should emi^y all theor-
dinaiy means which nature itself provides, such as to
eat, drink, sleep, and so on; (2) moreover, he should
avoid all dangers which he may easily avoid, e. g. to
flee from a burning house, to escape from an infuri-
ated animal when it may os done without difficulty.
In fact to neglect the ordinary means for pres«*ving
life U equivalent to killing one's self, but we suae is
«>t true with regard to extraordinary means. Thus
theokwianB teach that one is not bound in ord^ to pre-
serve fife to employ remedies which, considering one's
condition, arc regarded as extraordinary and involv-
ing extraordinary expenditure; one is not obliged to
umlerao a very puniul surgical opoation, nor a oon-
stdcnme amputation, not to go into exile in atda to

asdc a nuwe benefioial oUmate, eto. To on a ei»n>
parison, the lessee of a house is bound to take care of
It as becomes a good father of a family, to make use of
the ordinaiy means for the preservaticHi of the prop-
erty, for instance, to extinguish a fire which he may
easily extinguish, etc., but he is not bound to employ
means considered extraordinary, such as to procure
the latest novelties invented by science to prevent or
e:dinguiBh fire.

The prinoipkB wbiel^ have been outlined in the four
propositions or divisions above given should serve tat
the solution of particular cases; nowever, the applica-
tion may not always be equally easy, and thus a per-
son may by an objectively unlawful act take hib life
and nevertheless consider it pennissible and even an
act of exalted virtue. It may be asked whether
performing or mnitting a certain act a person may in-
lure his health and sDOTtoi his life. To ^>p^ tiie
loregtMn^prinoipIeB.'it is first of all dear (Ist and 3rd
propositiona, A and C) that one may not have in viefr
this hastening of death, but, this hypothesiB uadia, it
may be said on the one hand that to expose oneself
without sufficient reason to a considerable shortening
of life constitutes a serious injury to the rights of the
Creator; but on tiie other hand n the danger of deaUi
be not imminent, although it is to be feared that Itfe
may be shortened even several yean, it is not a
grave but only a venial sin. Hiis is the case witih the
drunkard who by his intonperance causes his prema-
ture death. Again it must be borne in mind that witii
the addition of a reasonable motive the tldug may be
entirely lawful and evrai an act of vhiue; thus the
workman does not sin by dsvoting hinwelf to the
rough lalwur of the mines, gitoss-wfuks, etc.^ and the
saints performed a veiy meritorious and highly vir^
tuous act when in order to overcome their passions
they lacerated and tortured tiieir fiesh by penance and
fasting and were thus the cause of their earlier deatii.

III. Freqcinct or Smcinii; CmEV Causes. — ^llie
plague of suicide belongs especially to the period <ii
decadence of the civilizra peoples of antiquity. Greeks,
Romans, and Egyptians. The Christian Middle Ages
were unacquainted with this moriiid tendency, but it
has reappeared at a more recent period, has developed
constantly siuee the Renaissance, and at jireaent nss
reached such an intensity among all civihzed natitms
that it may be considered the special evil of our time.
At present the increase in the tendency to suicide is,
with that to mental ali^iation, the saddest ana
therdby liie most important characteristic fact of our
era (Masatyk, 140). The officially establi^ed num-
ber of suicides during the nineteen^ oe&toiy was a
million and a half, which 1 ,300,000 were hi Europe.
Again Father Kroee estimates the real number for
Europe alone at two millions. Durii^ the last ten
years of the nineteenth century there were 400,000
suicides, of which France -and Germany idone fur-
nished half. The following details are given by
Nieuwbam and Jacquart. Taking the countries in
the order of the frequency of the rate of suicides, and
taking as a soak the nuinba qI ihe latter to the mil-
lion <n inhabitants, we have the following results for
the last ten years of the nineteenth century: Tnxux,
239; Denmaik, 234; Switserland, 232; Germany, 206
(in Saxony eq>ecial^ the sinister rate was 308. which
figure rose to 326 for 1901-06); Austria, 158; Sweden,
147; Hungary, 146; Belgium, 124; England, 84; Nor^
way, 63; Italy, 60; Scotland, 69; Low Countries, 66;
Russia, 32; Ireland, 26; Spain, 21. But, as is shown by
the indications furnished by Jaoquart for this period
of 1901-06 (64 sqc|.), this figure has risen is recent
yean to an alarming extent. For instance, England
m 1906 had risen to 103 to the million inhabitants;
Switzerland to 232; the Low Countries to 64; and Ire-
land to 33. In the United States the annual average
of suicides from 1901-5 was 4548 or 107 per million
of population; in 1906, tiie latest avaiU>le statisties.

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the number of mieideB waa 8832, or 110 par mfllkm

of population.

In this number must obvioualy be included the sui-
cideB attributable to madnees, but we cannot aeo^t
the (qiinion of a large numbw itf phvnciaDB, mor^
ifltB, and juiiBte who^ ted into mot a false phi-
loBoplqr.uqr it down as a general rate that suiciae is
ahr^ due to dementia, so great ia tlie hcnror which this
act inspires in every man of sane mind. The Church
rejects this theory and, while admitting exaeptiom,
considers that those unfortunates who, impeUed by
despair or anger, attempt ihsir life often act throufpfi
malice or ou^pabte cowardice. In fact, despair and
auger are not as a g/eaeral thin^ movements ot Ha
soul which it is impossibte to resist, especially if one
does not neglect the helps off^^ by rdigion, confi-
dence in God. belief in the immcntality of the soul and
in a future life of rewards and pimishmonts. Widdy
different reasons have been advanced to explain this
frequency of suicide, but it is more correct to say that
it does not d^)end on any one particular cause, but
rather on an assemblage of factors, such as the social
and eoonomic situation, Ihe misary of a ^reatnumberf
a more f everi^ pursuit o( whi^ is oonoctered bapfu-
ness, often ending in orael deceptions, the ever more
r^ned search for pleasure, a more precocious and in-
tense stimulation of sexual life, intellectual overwork,
the influence of the Press and the sensational news
with which it daily provides its readers, the influences
of heredity, the ravages of alcoholism, etc. But it is
imdeniiUjle that the religious factor is Dy far the most
imfjortanL as statistics prove (cf. the detailed investi-
gauons of Jacquart): the proportion d suicides in
Protestant countries beii^ as a general rule greater
than that in Catholic comitries, and the increase in
suicides keeping step with the de-Christianisation of a
country. France presents a painful example pan^el
to the systematic de-Christianization; the number of
suicides for each 100,000 of population has increased
from 8.32 in 1852 to 29 in 1900. The reason is ob-
vious. Religion atene, and especially the CathoUc re-
ligion, instructs us with regam to the true destiny of
life and the importance of death; it alone furnishes a
solution of the enigma of suffering, inasmuch as it
shows man hving in a land of exile and suffering as a
means of acquiring the glory and hwpiness of a fu-
ture life. By its doctrines of the efficacy of repent-
ance and the practice <tf confession it reUeres the
moral suffering <rf man; it forbids^ and prevents to a
kurge extent the disorders of lifej in a word it is of a
nature to prevent the causes which are caleolated to
impel a man to the extreme act.

QflQorml iroTki of sidtsJ ilic»>lcii;v as aJito of laonl phUiMDpby,
pappcially ill ixtcrn^ lit the pnnriplea m well U tha ftoquency aad
«aq»i of miJciidcK: W/nifOi in SigatlilitUKin (fiad ed., F^aibnrc,
1903>. *. r. StlbtiHtard: M^unk, Dtr Siftitausrrf att wofvU*
ManiifwnAnKunfi dw pwdirnw CvnUrofim fVicr^M. IS81): Mo^
ULLi, iSuicuh, JriUmaliomd ScitfMiJile Siria (New Y&rk, imii ;
BilcXTt Modern Saeinl Candilicina (Sinr Varli, 1906); SCHKiP^
m-Aimc, Jioeiat^atittikiljtipBt, ISOO): Kjiobb, Dta Sttbtt~

1^ JokrJbndM Cn^burg, 1909} : NiV7w»AWbJMi«(

utmenle,' I, Suteidr rBninwIs, 1908].

^ Vatjdkti Heeren.

Suidas (SovtSaf, X969at), author of, pertiape, the
most important Greek lexicon or encyclopedia.
Nothing IS known of Suidas himself except that he
lived about the middle of the tenth century, appar-
ently at Constuitinople, and that he was pn»^Iy
an ecclesiastical person devoted to literary studies.
But his lexicon is one of the most valuable documents
of Greek philology, grammar, and liteitirv history.
He usee material from the classical perioa down to
his own time; a long chain of later authors, from
Eustathius of Thessalonica (c. 1192), quote from hhn.
Suidas's lexicon is something between a grammatical
dictionary and an en^clopedia in the modon sense.
He explams the soxirce, doivation, and meaning of
wonla acoording to the philology of his period, using

such earlier authorities as Harpokration and Hella-
dice. There is noUiing specially important about
this part of his work. It is the articles on literary
history that are valuable. In these he gives a supply
of detaih, and to snne exteot quotations, mm
autiiors whose works are otherwise lost. He usee
older scAoIta to the classics (Homer, Thucydides,
Sophocles, eteO, and for lata writem, Polybius,
Jos^buBjthe"Chronioon Paachate",Ge(n^Syncellus,
George Hamartolus, and so on.

So his lexicon represents a convenient work of
reference for persons who played a part in polkicti,
eoolesiastieal, and litmry nistwy in the East down
to the toith century. Bis omef source for this
is the enoyclopedia ot Constaatine VII Porphyro-
genitus (912-69), and for Roman history the excerpts
of John of Antioch (seventh century). Krumbacber
(op. cit., 566) counts two main sources of his work:
CoDStantine VII for ancient history, Hamartolus
(Georgioe Monarchos) for the Bysantine age. The
lexicon is arranged, not quite alphabeticuly, but
aooording to a mnstem (formerly nunmon in many
lanniageB) oaSha anHtloidna {irrurmxia); namely
the iettns follow pbuietically, in order of sound («
course in the isfmuneiation m Suidas's time, which is
the same as modem Greek). So for instance u comes
afta* c; M, oome together after w after o, and
so on. The system is not difficult to learn and
remember, but in some modem editions (Bekker)
the work is rearranged fdphabeticaily. Suidas con-
tains much material for diurch history amons his
biographic^ arttdes. But there is very Ume of
this kmd that is not also known fn»n other souroes.
His lexicon still may fulfil its original purpose as a
convenient work of reference.

Dbmbtxiob Cha liondt 1X8 publisbed the tditio prw«p* at
Milan in 1499. Gajbfokd, Sttida Uxitim (3 vola., Oxford, 1634};
BsHNHAitDr, Suida lexicon (2 vola., Halle and Brunsvriok);
Bekkkb. Suida Uxieon (Bertio, 1854); FABRiciro-HAit£aB.
BiUiolhtea oraea (Hambutg, 1790-1809); Vi; 389-595; P. Q.,
CXVII, 1193-1424; Volxmann. De Suida biDgrapkuit qutulionei
tdeeta (Bonn. 1801). Kkitmbachkb, BytanUniMht tAtUratar
(Municb, 1897), 082-70.

AraOAM FOBtMCUB.

Sultbort (SuiOBEBT), Saint, Apostle of the Fris-
ians, b. in Engluid in the seventh century; d. at Suit-
berts-Insel, now Kaiserswerth, near DQsBeldorf, 1
March, 713. He studied in Ireland, at Rathmelugi,
Connacht, along with St. 'E^^oeti (q. v.). The latter,
filled with seal for the oonveraion of the Germans,
had sent St. Wihtberbt, cr Wi^bert, to avangelize the
f^ans, but owing to the (^position of tine pagan
ruler, Rathbod, Wintberht was unsuccessful and re-
turned to England. Egbert then sent St. WiUibrwd
and his twelve companions, among whom was St. Suit-
bert. They landed near the mouth of the Rhine arul
journeyed to Utrecht, which became their headquar-
ters. The new misBionariee worked with great success
under the protection of Pepin of Heristal, who, having
recently conquered aportion of fVisia, compelled Rath-
bod to cease harassmg the Christians. Suitbert la-
boured chiefly in North Brabant, Guelderland, and
Cleves. After some years he went back to England,
and in 693 was consecrated in Mercia as a misaiona^
bi^op bv St. Wilfrid of York. He returned to Frima
and meed his see at Wijkbij Duurstede on a branch cMf
the Rhine. A Utile later, entrusting his fiook of ocm-
verts to St. Willibrord, he proceeded north of liie
Rhine and the Lippe, among the Bruoteri, or Boruo-
tuari, in the district of Bo^, Westphalia. This mis-
sion bore great fruit at first, out was eventually a fail-
ure owing to the inroads of the pagan Saxons; when
the latter had conquered the territory, Suitbert with-
drew to a small island in the Rhine, six miles from
DQsseldorf, panted to him by Fepin of Hoistal,
where he mult a monastciy and ended his daqn in
peaoe. His rdios were redisooreredin 1626atKai8erB-
werth and are still venerated Uun. St. Suitlwt ci

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Kiiinnrardt is to be diirtingnitihed tnm » hotjr abbot,
Suitbert, who lived in a monuteiv near tne Bhrer
Dacwe, Cumberland, England, about forty yean
later, and is mentioned by Venerable Bede.

BoumwBK, Simdbert, Ar AvmM du htreUeJtm Landm
(BbtttM, 18S9J; Hoor in Anal. MfawKona, VI (18S7), 73-0;
Snmn. VOa aondonun, ni lUlA), 3-16; Baoa, Hitt. eed.. V,
^ Acta 38., I Mkreh. 07-85; BuTW, UMi tA« Ssuifi.

A. A. MacErUAN.

SaUiTCn. Albxahdeb Mabtih, -Irish politician,
lawyer, and journalist, b. at Bantry in 1830; d. at
Darty Lodge, Rathmines, Dublin, 17 Oct., 1884.
He received his early education in his native town.
Drifting into journalism in 1850, he became assistant-
editor of the ''Nation" in 1S55, and was subs^uentfy
editor and propriety. In 1861 he muiied fnncei,
dau|^ter of John Donovan of New Orleuis. "From
1861 to 1884, in conjunction with his elder brother,
T. D. Sullivan (still living), he made the "Nation'*
one of the most potent factors in the cause of true
nationality, and also issued the "Weekly News"
and "Zozimus". In 1874 he was elected M. P. for
Louth, and was afterwards M. P. for Meath. Called
to the Irish Bar in 1876, he was made Q. C. m 1881.
Aa a member (A the Dublin Corporatioa he aeeuied a
magnificent site for the Qrattan Mfmument, towards
which he generously gave £400, the amount of a sub-
aearq>tion by his admirers while he waa uudergoingun-
prisomnent for a political offence in 1868. This
monument was formally unveiled, January, 1876.
Between the years 1878 and 18^ he was engaged
in many notable trials. His last great case was on
30 November, 1883, when he was the coUeuue of
Lord RusacU of Kiliowen in the defence of Stride
0*1)01111611 for the murder of James Carey, ^e Irish
Informer. He was buried at Glasaevin. In addi-
tion to his labours Alexander SuIUtmi was a great
tenmerance reformer. He also wrote two notable
boota, the "Story of Ireland" and "New Ireland",
and contributed many sketches (including some

verse) tB "Irish Penny Readings" (ISTfrW-

MacDonaoh in Diet. Nm, Biog., a. v. ; private oom^mdnoe;
bmilr papers.

W. H. Gbattan-Floot.

SuUivaa, Pkteb John, soldier, lawya>, b. at Cork,
Ireland, 15 March, 1821; d. at Cincinnati, Ohio,
2 March, 1883. His parents broiuht him to Phila-
delphia when he was two ^ears old, and he received
his education at the University of Pennsylvania.
He served in the Meztcua W^f ■receiving the commis-
sion of major for meritorious services. After re-
tiring to civil life he became one of the official stenog-
raphers of the U. S. Senate and in 1848 went to
Uve in Cincinnati, where he was admitted to the Bar.
He was prominent there aa an opponent of the Know-
notl^ng movement. During the Civil War he took
a very active part in organizing several volunteer
regimoits and went to the scene of action as colonel
of the 48th Ohio reipment. On 13 March, 1865,
he was brevetted Bngader-Oeneral of Votunteors.
8o«i after he was appointed U. S. Ministo' to
Colombia and held that office until 1860. He then
returned to the praotice ci the law.

CaUulU T^^gnpH (Onolnnati) files; AppMm'* Cudop. of
Ant. Biog. a. v.

Thouab F. Mbbhak.

Snllf, Mattricb de, Bishop of Paris, b. of humble
parents at Sutly-sur-Loire (SoEacum), near Orl^uos,
at the b^inning of Uie twelfth century; d. at Paris, 11
Sept, 1196. as eame to Fans towaidi 1140 and
studied for the ecekaiastical state. He soon beoame
known as an able professor of llieolocy and an elo-
qoent preacher. It has been frequent^ asserted, but
witliout sufficient proof, that he was canon of Bmir-
ges. In 1159 he appears as Archdeacon of Paris and
oa 12 Oct., 1160, largely through ihe influence of
Louis Vn, he was elected to meceed Peter Lombard

in tbe epiaoopal see trf that city. The imaaat Cathe-
cbral ot Notre-Dame stands as a monummt to his
episcopal administration. Its constructicMi was be-

Sn and almost entirely completed under him.
exaoder lU, in 1163, laid the cornerstone of the
magnificent edifice, and in 1185 the Patriarch of
Jerusalem, Hexaclius, officiated in the completed sano-
tuary. Maurice de Sully also rebuilt the ei>i8C(HHd
palace in whidi the nobility and clergy met in 1170
at the ooronation of Philip Augustus as joint ruler
with his father Louis VIl, He enjoyed in a hi^
degree the confidence of both rulers, aooompanied
Louia to his meeting with Frederick Barbaroesa at
Saint-Jean-de-Losne in 1162, and was one of the
gaardiaas of the royal treasury during the crusade
(1190). ^ "6

In the oontrovermr between St. Thomas Becket
and King Hairy II he Bneneticalfy defended the
fbimer and, in uiree letters atill extant, pleaded his
cause with Alexander lU. He forbade %he celebra-
tion of the feast of the Immaoulato Conoe{>tion in his
diooeee^ but is said to have stron^^ supported by
appeals to Holy Writ (Job, xtz, 25-27) the dootrine
of the resurreotioa of bodies^ arainst some sceptical
noblemen. Although he retamed the administratioa
oC his duMeae, lie retired, lato in life, to the monas-
tery of Saint-Vkstor, wh«^ he died. ManiieedefiaUy
is the author itf atreatiae on the C^idod of the Mass,
preserved in manuscript at Bourges. Numerous ser-
mons, some in lAtin, others in vernacular, are also
attributed to him. Those written in the Latin tongue
were not directly deistined for the people, but rather
for the use and study of the clergy. The Frmoh
sermons do not seem to be in their iveaent form the
(vil^nal wwk of Maurice de Sully; they are more
cmmnonfy oonsidiered as remoductMna nude by efr-
demastics from his Latin ooileotioa. No critioal e^
Uon of these somona haa yet been published; hb
three letters to Alexander III are printed in P. L., CC,
1419-22, aa are alao some of his official dooumenta
(CCV, 8»7-914).

Baitnabd, iiauriee de SuUy (Orleans, 1862); Moxm, AfoKriee
de SvUvi iitqve de Pane, Jieo-9e (P&ria, 1390); Met eh, £«
manuacntt da eerrruma fmntais de Maurice de Stdlv ia Romania,
XXlll (1894}; HiATT, yotre-Dame de Pane (London, 1902).

N. A. Webbr.
Sulmona. See Valva and Sitlmona, Diocese or.

8nli>ieiaiu in tbe Unitad Statea.— The Sulpi-

oians came to the United States at the very rise of
the American Hierarchy. When the French Revolu-
tion was threatoiing to involve them in the impend-
ing ruin of the Church the Buperior-general, Father
Emcay, looking for a place of refuse abroad, was
meditating an establishment at Gallipolis, a froieh
settlement on the Oiaaj but the papal nuncio at
Paris, Cardinal Dugnani, made the happia" au^oe-
tion of Baltimore, which had juat been erected mto
the first American see. An interview in London
between Bishop CJarroU, who had come to England
(1790) for episcopal consecration, and Father Nagot
resulted in the bishop gladly accepting the offer of
Father Emery to found a theolc^ical seminary at
Baltimore. On 10 July, 1791, four Su^iicians landed
at B&ltunore: fVancis Charles Nagot, Superior,
Anthony Gamier, Michael Levadoux, and Jolm
Tessier. They purchased the One Mile Tavern on
the e(tee of the cit;^, dedicated the house to the
Blessed Viigin, and in October opened classes with
five students whom th^ had broi^t from France.
This was Ote beginnfaig of St. Mary's, the first Ameri-
can seminary, which still stands on the same spot.
The number of Sulpicians was aupnented the follow-
ing year by the arrival of Flaget, David, Chicoianeau,
Marshal, Richard^ and Ciauard, and in 1795 by the
accession of Dubourg, nearly all of whom were des-
tined to become important figures in the liistwy of
Ibm Ammcan Church. These tm or eleven new

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worlura mn m lugs aooeBrimi to tlw maXL body of
American pricBtfl, then on^y about thirty-fire, who
were endeavouring to serve a diocese ext<Hidina from
the Atlantic to the Mississippi Vall^. The Church
was in its infancy; there was no oi^aused community
of priests (since the supinvBsion of the Jesuits), no
teaching sisterhood, no Catholic schools. An academy
for boys was about to open at Georgetown. Non-
Catbouc education in Maryland was aunoet as back-
ward as the Catholic. In these conditions Bishop
Carroll's greatest need and most difficult task, as
he had long recognized, waa to recruit a sufficiently
niunerouB and fit cler^, if poesible native, which he
could hope for only from a seminary. Natural^,
he welcomed the coming of the Sulpiciaiw as a
great and auqucious event" for his diocese.

But the time was not ripe foe a semiuaty as there
were no students preparea to enter it. Georgetown
Academy, founded chiefly to develop prieetly voca-
tions, instead of being an aid to the araninary drew
on St. Mary's few students to recruit its teaching
staff. The natural remedy of opraiing a uvparatmy
seminary at Baltunine waa forbiddeii (see bdow).
The ahnost fa<^le88 condition m^ be judged fmn
the fact that during each of the first three yean
then were only five students and in the next year,
1794, only two, nearly all of whom were from Europe;
from 1705 to 1797 there were none at all. So with
little or no opportunity of cultivating their own
field, the Sulpicians offered themselves to the bishop
for any work at hand. Flaget, David, Mar^chal,
and Dubourg taui^t at tin Get^ptown Academy;
Dubourg, an enterprising and mmetic man, being
made president (1796-90), greater increased its
numbraa and ineetige. Ciquard worked among the
Indians of Maine; Levadoux, Dilbet, and Richard
amon^ .the French and the Indians of Illinois and
Michigan. Kiehard, still well remembered at Detroit,
which some years ago placed his statue on the city
halL deaaree speciiu mention. He restored religion,
eetabliahed Catholic schools, founded a young ladies
acadony and a pre^Miratory seminary for young
clerics, set up the first printing press in the West,
published the first newspaper in Michigui and the
first Catholic paper in the United States; was a
founder, vice-preaident, and profeesor of the Univer-
sity of Michigan and the only Catholic priest ever
dected to Congress, Qallitzin, a pioneer priest in
Weetorn Pennqrlvania, converted six thousand non-
Catholics. The Subieians at Baltimcm miniaterad
in the churches toe eity and the miBBKmB of the
country. They were considered aa cle9|ar of the
cathedral and are credited with having introduced
into the United States some of the dignity and splen-
dour of old-world Catholic worship.

St. Mary't Seminary. — After a trial of ten or eleven
years the seminary at Baltimore had no proepeeta
of succeas; an academy which Dubouif had opened
for forei^ boys was not allowed to reoeive Anurieans
(aee below): the Sulpicians there had no meana of
euppcnrt. Mnnwhile, the Bevohition in IVanoe had
psnedf religion was restored by Napolecm, and the
aeminariea wen being reopened. In theae oiroum-
stancee of 1802 only one course seemed poasible to
the superior-general in Puis: to recall his subjeota
to France gradually. Bishop Carroll, who had the
highest esteem for the Sulpioans and regarded them
aa the hope of hia dlooeae, waa vary de^y afflicted
by tJbis reaohitton, and in many letters begged Fbtiier
E^nery not to carry it out. it be neceaaary for
me", he wroto, "to bear the ten^Ie trial of seeing
the greater number of them dc^>art, I implore you to
leave here at least a germ which may produce fruit
in the season decreed by the Lord." Nevertheleas,
Gamier (who afterwards became superior-^^eral),
Mar6chal, and Levadoux departed for Fnmoa in
1808, though with the graateat reluotanoe; Nagot

was detained from going by ill^ealth. I^fae seminary
aeamed doomed. It waa saved 1^ Phia VII, whom
Father Emery, moved by the biahop'a wpeals,
consulted at Faria in 1804. "My son," aud the
pope, "let it stand, let that seminary stand. It will
bear fruit in its own time. " Father Emery accepted
these words as the voice of God, and the Sulpiciaos
ranained. But progress waa alow; St. Maiy's
Coll^, Baltimore, and Mt. St. Mary's, E^nmita-
burg^ both founded by the Sulpicians (see below),
furnished few students to the seminary. SttU,
Bishop Carroll had the consolation of seeing thHy
priests ordained from there before his death m 1815.

Under the second superior, Fatho: Tessier (1810-
20), the seminary became solidly established, although
the number of ordinations averaged only two or three
a year. His chief support up to 1817 was Father
Ambrose Marshal, whose abiuties raised him in that
year to the Archbishopric of Baltimore. In 1822 St.
Mary's Seminary was endowed by Pius VII with all
the privil^es of a Catholic university. The thud
aupmor, father Louis Regis Deluol (1820-49), a
man of exceptional ability and charaoto-, exerted a
strong influence not oidy on the seminary and college
over which he presided, but on the general affairs of
the Church in America. St. Charles' College was
founded during his administration, St. Mary's Col-
lie was Btippressed under his successor, Father
Francis L'Homme (1849-fiO). The Irish immigra-
tion, the spread of Catholicism, and the foundation
of St. Charles' Coltege, contributed to render the
seminary as fruitful in vocatitm in ^bib one decade of
Father L'Homme's administration aa it had been in
the preceding sixty years. Two directors at St. Mary's,
Fathers Alphonse Flammant (1856-64) and Francis
Pauliaus Diasez (1857-1907), deserve mention here aa
saintly men who deepiv influenced Cardinal Gibbona,
the first Archbishop Keane of Dubuque, and othv
leaders of the American Church. A half-century of
teaching at St. Mary's made Father Diaaea one of the
beet known and most venerated priests of America.

St. Mary's prospered and fakw under the fourth
superior. Father Joseph Paul Dubreul (1860-78), and
BtUl more under his successor, Father Alphonse Ma^
nien (1878-1902), who saw an enrolment (rf over three
hundred students. Father Dubreul built the central
portion of the present seminary in 1878: the building
was completed Dy Father Magnien. All that remains
from the old days is the sisters house, in which Mother
Seton began her work as a Sister of Charity, and the
anninarv chapel, built in 1806, which kmg smred aa a
parish church and was rM»rded in those days as a gem
of architecture. Both Dubreul and Magnien were
marked types of the true ecclesiastic, and moulded the
character of hundreds of priests now living. Prob-
t^ly no priest in our day was better known or better
loved by priests than tne good and genial "Abb4"
Mwnien. He waa the cloee friend and trusted adviser
of Cardinal Gibbons, who said <tf him some time aftor
his death: " I had beoi so much accustomed to consult
the venerable Abb£ on important questiona, and to
)ea!a upon him in every emergency, that ... I fed
as if I bad lost myright arm . He was indeed dimidivm
tmimm mea." The present superior, FaUier Edward
Randall Dyer, D.D., was appointed in Aug., 1902,
after Father Magnien's health had failed. St. Mary's
Seminary has given over thirty bishops and eighteen
hundred priests to the Church (tf Ainerica, oi whom
more thui fourteen hundred are still linng. Hie
largest of our American seminaries, and mttional in ita
scope, it drawB its students fraai every quarter <tf the
oountiy. It has always taken a leading part in the
seminary oonferenoes of the Catholic Educational
Association. It waa the scene of the Third Plenary
Council and of many notable ecclesiastical ntlkerinn.
Its archives and librBry are rich in materius of eany
American Chnrdi Hiatory.

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Si. Marg'* HolUm, B&ttiiiiwe.— TbelfhpoualbiUty of
getting 'students for the Beminary led the fathers to
teach Latin to a fev boys in 170^-^, in the hope of
recruiting vocations; but thia was discontinued
through 7 ear of injuring the Georgetown Acadeony.
Fadier Dubourg resigned the presidency <rf George-
town in 1790 in order to found a college at Havana.
Unsucoaasful in the attempt, he returned to Baltimore
in Ang^ 1799, with three youujg E^Mniards; these, wHh
ft few nrendi bovs, he lodgea and instructed at the
seminary. In the folbwmg year a buildinK was
erected tor them alongside the aeminary, and the in-
stitution was named St. Mary's CoU^. Iji defer-
ence tothewiahesof the bishop, no Amencan boys were
admitted, but many students came from Cuba, San
Domingo, Jamaica, and Porto Rico, besides French
bc^ from the United States. In 1803 the doors were
opMied to Amorioan studoitB, irithout distinction (rf
med ; and in 1806 the cdl^ was raised to tlw rank (tf
a univecsity by an act ^ the kgistfttuie. The stu-
dmtB numbered then, or in the following year, 106,
which was considered a remariwble suocess; for the
history of all higher education in Maryland up to that
time had been, almost without exception, a Teoord of
failures. It drew students from tin whole country,
but chiefly from Maryland and the neig^ibounng
states, north and south. Many were non^latiioliGs.
Some continued to come fnnn the West Indies and
from Central Ameriea. Hie college had vidssitudee.
cAUefly financial, but it maintained a hi^ standara
and oijoyed a high reputation, for it was emtducted
by able men who brou^t the culture of France to a
country where education was still m a very crude con-
dition. Its student roll rose at times to two hundred
or over. Among its eleven OTesidents are numbered
Ardibishops Dwou^ and Ecckston, and Bishops
David, Brut^, and Chance; and the names <tf many
bishops and notable priests and citisens are found
on the list oi its professors and students.

Despite its half-century of useful and distinguished
vork, It did not adequately fulfil the main purpose of
its foundation; a oolleee, fi'equented by sons of rich
parents, and containing many ncui'-Catholics, was
found imf avourable to the fostering, and even to the
preservation, of priestly vocations. Aocordind^ it
was resolved in 1848, on the oocasion of the <»Scial
visit of Father Faillon from Paris, to suppreee St.
Mary's College and start an ecclesiastical college. In
the autumn of that year, St. Charlee' College was
op^ed (see below) ; and in 1S62 St. Mary's College by
order of the supenor^eneral, Father de Courson, was
closed at the height of its prosperity. By an under-
staading wiUi the Jesuits, Loyola College supi^ed its
place.

Mount St. Marj^t, Emmitsburg. — The necessity of
a stricthr clerical school had forced itself upon the
mind of Father Na«ot in the first years of St. Mary's
College. In 1806 this saintly old man of over seventy

fkUiered about a dozen boys around him at Pigeon
ill, Adams Co., Pennsylvania, in a Catholic re-

S'on that had U>ok been ministered to by the Jeeuits.
rter two years o7 instruction, they were transferred
to the care of the Rev. John Dubois (q. v.), pastor
EnmiitsburK, Maryland, who himself was aliready in-
structing a few boys. In 1808 Father Dubois, who
had become a Smpician, acquired land and built
Mount St. Mary's Colleee, in the name o( the Society
of St.-8ulpice. He did naroie work, sinf^handed, as
teacher and as pastor. In 1812 he was joined by
Father Brutd. Together they were the main factors
in creating a flourishing college where the spirit ci
Catliolic piety reigned and was veay fruitful in vocfr-
tions. Mfwnt St. Mary's, founded to supply voetk-
iiom to St. Mary's Seminary, became a rival by force
4^ ciroumstanoes, tm it oould obtain teacbers only by
retaining the gradaatss of the coUMe who taudit the
youoger bovs at tha same time way pumuia thair

deiioal BtadiBS. It ahn became a lival of St. Mary's

College when it began to admit boys who did not as-
pire to the priesthood, and even non-Catholics. For
these, and also for financial reasons, the Society of St.-
Sulpioe in 1826 made an amicable separation from
Mount St. Mary's, which has continued the noble
spirit of Bmt6 and Dubois and done invaluable aeav
vioee to the Church oS America.

St. Charle^ CoUbm, ElUoott City.— Pendstii^ in
the effort to establish a pur^ dmcal coll^, acrard-
ins to the sinrit (tf tbdr vocation and the mind of the
Church, the Sulpioians, in 1831, laid the cornerstone
of St. Qiarles' College, near Elhoott Citv, Maryland.
The ground, togetb^ with a small sum of money, had
been donated by Charles Carroll of CarroUton, who
survived to witness the comerstcme laying. Lack of
funds long delayed Ibe completion of the college. It
was (^Koed iq 1S4S with four students by the Rsr.
Olivw JcokinB, who became its first preadent. In ten
or fvrelve years the Ktudoits numboed over a hun-
dred. Here, at last, was a strictly clerical coU^ge,
firmly established, giving a solid classical education
and maintaining the purest traditions of clerical dis-
cipline and spirit. St. Charles' became well known
tJuoughout the country, no section of which has not
been well represented among its student body. The
omdment iot years has been about two hmuued. It
has trained ovor fourteen hundred priests fat the'
American Church and pointed the way to the clerical
colleges now beccnuing numerous and most helpful.
Father Jenkins renuuned president till 186^ thou^
he had been temptnarily replaced by the Revs. Q.
Raymond (1849-51) and S. Fert^, D.D. (1851-fi2).
His suooeesors have been Father Fert^ (1869-76),
Revs. P. P. Denis (1876-^), F. M. L. Dumont
a8S&-94), Charles B. Rex (1894-97), Cbaries B.
Sohranti (1897-1906), and F. X. McKenny. To the
oldo* g^erations of students the best remembered ot
the professors is Fatho- J. B. Menu, who for forty
years (1849-88) "hammered Latin and Greek into
the mc«t stubborn heads". The beet known to the
outside world is FaUm John B. Tabb, a true poet,
whose exquisite lyrics have won him a secure place
in Engli^ literature. The ^acious building, with its
beautiful diapel, its lUiranes, and valuable docu-
ments, was destit^ired by fire on 16 March, 1911.
Classes were resumed in a few weeka in temporary
quarten at Cloud Gap, near Baltimore. On that
spot the fathers have now b^n (1912) the con-
struction of a new and greater St. Charies.

St. John'i Seminary, Brighton, was opened in 1884
and entrusted by the Most Rev. John J. Williams,
ArcU}isbop of Boston, to the care of the Sulpidans,
whose p^nl he had been tA Montreal and Pans. Its
presidmtB have been Uie Very Revs. John Hogan
[1884-89, 1894-1901), Charles B. Rex (1889-94),
Dimiel E. Maher (1901-06), and Francis P. Havey
(1906-11). In June. 1911, at the request of the Most
Rev. WilUam H. O'Connell, Archb^op of Boston,
the Sulpicians wiUidrew from the seminary.

St. Jouvh's Seminary, Yonkers. — Archbisbco
Hughes, wno had been their pupil at Mount St.
Mwry's, had desired the Sulpieians. in 1862, to assume
idiarge (rf the seminanr about to be <^ned at lYoy,
New York. This wish was carried out only in 1806,
under Arehbishop Corrigan, when St. Joseph's Sem-
inaiy was transferred to Dunwoodie, Yonkers, New
York. The first rector was the Very Rev. E. R.

Sirer, 1896-1902. Called to the presidency of St.
ary's Seminary, Baltimore, he was succeeded by the
Very Rev. James F. Driscoll. In January^ 1906.
FaUHT Drisooll and four of his associates withdrew
Akmu tbe Society of St-Sulpioe, and wen accepted b^
Ardibishop Farley into his diocese, eontinuing their
work in we smninary, which thus passed from the
dnrge of the Sulpicians.
St. PatrieVB Semimanf, Menlo P^k.— The. Sul-

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suifionrs

pioiMU^ wboae bouaee bad hitherto been located in the
Atlantic states, accepted a call to the Far West in
1898. Most of the studoits for the San Francisoo
archdiooeae had for numy jrean beeo sent to St.
Mary's Seminary, Baltimore. A loiuj-cherisbed de-
sire (A Archbishop Riordan was realised when St.
Patrick's Seminary was opened 20 Sept., 1898, under
the care of the Sulpicians. The institution was to
comprise a preparatory seminary or oolle«e and a
semmary propra-, of philosoplqr and tbeoloKy. It
began with only three classes of the college depart-
ment, the succoeding claases in the college and sem-
inary beinjs added aeanding as the students were pre-
pared. Vwy Renr. A. J. B. Vuibert was the first presi-
aeat of the college department,and had under him,
at the b^pming, seven professors, fomr of whom were
Sulpicians, and twenty-eidit stuaente. He was suc-
ceeded in 1911 by Rev. John J. Doran, S.S. The
theolofdcal department was opmed in 1901, when
Very Rev. Henry A. Ayrinhac, S.S., D.D., became
Iffeeident of the seminary. The magnificat structure
was greatly damaged in the earthquake of 1906, but
was soon restored, thanks to the characteristio energy
of Archbishop Riordan. Tfaero are at inresent over
one hundred studaits in tina flouriBhing and b(^>rful
young seminary.

CtMolic University. — Leo XIII, in granting a
constitution to the Catholic Universitjy of America,
laid upon the Sulpicians the duty of carmgior the dis-
cipline and ipiritual direction of the ecclesiastical stu-
dents and of asBisting Uiem in the choice and pursuit
of ihiar studies. Dmnitp Ccdlwe was openea in Oo-
tob«, 1889, under Venr Rer. John B. Hc^an, i^o re-
mained president till 1894. His successors luive been
Very Revs. F. M. L. Dumont (1894^-1911), and John
F. Fenlon.

St. Austin'a CoOxge. — The aef>iraDts to the Society
of St-^ulpioe pursue their studies in the seminary,
undistinguished from the oUier students; until re-
cently, the American aspirants generally were sent to
Rome or Paris for post-graduate studies after ordinal
tion and to the Solitude at Is^, near Paris, for their
novitiate. In Oct., 1901, the American scholasticate
of the Sulpicians, known as St. Austin's Colle^, was
opened near the Catholic University, Washington.
Ilie students, who are received onW aito' having com-
pleted tlwir seminary studies foUow courses at the
university in philosophy, titteoM^, soence, or letters,
to prepare tbemsclvee for work m college or seminaiv.
It has been presided over by Very Revs. James F.
Drisooll (1901-02), Daniel P. Duffy (1902-04), John
F. Fenkm (1904-11), and Francis P. Hav^. In 1911
the first American novitiate of the Sulpicians, known
as the Solitude, was begun in -this house under Father
Hav^ as director.

The sovemment of the Sulpician houses in the
United States was, untQ lecmt years, depoident di-
rect^ upon the superior-general in Paris. In 1903
tiu President of St. Maiy^s Seminary, Father I^er,
was appointed vicar-general of the Superior of St-Sul-
mce, an office resembling that of provincial in a re-
KgiftiiH order. He governs ordinary Sulpician affsirs
in the United States with the advice and assistance of
his council. In the early days of the American hier-
archy several Su^icians were among its members:
Marshal (1817-28), and Ecoleston (1834-51), Arch-
bishops of Baltimore; Flaget, first Bishop <h Bards-
town (1810-50), with David (1819-41), and Chabrat
(1834-47), as coadjutors; Duboui^, Bishop of New
Orieans (1815-26), died Archbishop of Besancon in
1833; Dubois of New York (1826-42); Brut^, first
Bishop of Vincemiee (1834-39), who, with Flaget and
David, is well remembered for great sancti^ of life;
Chance, first Bishop of Natchez (1841H52); Virot,
Bishop of Savannah (1859-70); aftervanls first
Biab^ of St. Aogastme (1870-76). of which he had
bew vkar ApMt^e in 186S; and O'Fansll, Bishop of

Trenton (1881-94). More than twenty AiDerican
ardibishops, past and present, and more than sixty
bishops have received their clerical formation, at least
in part, in Sutoician houses at home or abrottd. All
the rectors of the Catholic University have ben tbeir
pupils. Father David, sent by Father Eknery with
Bishop Fh^t to establish a seminary, founded St.
Thomas's Seminary at Bardstown, and taught its stu-
dents almost single-handed for many years. The dio-
cese had cmly three [niests when he arrived in 1810;
he trained up forty-seven, mostly natives, cl whom
the most illustrious is Martin J. Spalding. To this
little-known sanmaiy is attributelTtiie greatest part
in tlie preserration and i^Kead of CatlroliofaBn in
Kentucky.

Six seminaries in all, Baltimore, Bardstown, Brigh-
ton, Emmitsbuig, Dunwoodie, and M^o Park, were
founded or directed by Sulpicians, and their tramtions
and spirit have been earned into many new institu-
tions by their abtmni. Largely through their efforts,
the Propagation of the Faitn was established in this
country and for a lona time developed. The Sisters
of CSiuity at Emmitsbu^ were es»blished bv their
direction and co-operation, and united, tnroudi
Father Deluol, to the foundation of St. Vincent de
Paul at Paris. Father Joubert found^ the coloured
sisterhood of the Oblates at Baltimore, and Father
David the Sisters of Nazareth, in Kentucky. Bishop
Dubouig introduced the Vincentians into Uie United
States, also the Relitdous of the Sacred Heart. He
was the founder St. Louis Latin Academy which
devek>ped. under the Jesuits, into the St. Louis Uni-
versity. On Flaget's invitation the Good Shepherd
Sisters came to this country. In the early days the
Sulpicians ministered to the coloured Catholics of
Baltimore, and since the foundation of St. Joseph's
Seminary for work among the negroes, its students
have made their seminaiy studies at St. Mary's. The
secretarial work of the Negro and Indian Commission
has always been carried on in connexion with St.
Mary's Seminary. The fathers of the seminary have
acted as secretfu^ee or theologians in the eynods and
in the provincial and plenary councils of Baltimore.
The literary productions of the Sulpicians have, al-
most without exception, grown directly out of their
work as ^ucators; they have written books on Latin
grammar, history, ancient and modon, Enslish lit«r-
ature, liturgy, rubrics, dogmatic and moraltheology.
Holy Scripture, devotion, etc. Th^ have translated
many standard French works into English, and Ekig-
li^ into I>ench. Their bee^-known writera are
Father Hogan, whose "Clerical Studies" is the classic
of its subject, and Father Adotphe Tanquer^, ■mboob
text-bocks on dogmatic and moral theology are used
in numerous seminaries throughout the world.

Shka, Uiavry of Ih* CtUkolie Church tn lAe Vailed Statu (N«w
York, 1888); O'OoBiiAN, A HUtorj/ of Oie Roman Catholic Churth
in lh« United Statu (New York, 1805); SL Mary't Stminarv
(Memorial Volume of the CeDtenar>-, Baltimore, 1801); Coto-
logMt of St. Mary'' Setninary, tit. Jotetui't S*mi»aru vf Aew York,
St. Patrick's Seminoru of San Franeitco, and SL Charlea't Catle^t.
BUtory of Education in Maryland, published by the United Btatea
Bureau of Education (Wasbington. 180J), vii, ix; Tht CatKolie
Church in the United Slaiex, I, publinhod by tbe Cathtrfic Editinc
Company (New York, 1908); Bulletin trimettrid du andttu
ttize» deSt.Sui '
the Sulpicians
MoSwUNBT, Thi Story «.
Emmitsburg, 1911), i-ni; Spaldinq, Life of Biihop PlagH (Louis-
ville, 1852); BowLsrr, SL Thomas, Seminary, noar Batdttown
{St. Louis, 1906) ; Shea, Hutory of Gtorgelown CoOeoe (W aali
ton, 1911): MoKSA0, Let jtrt^ franeai* em^/rii (Piaia, IS
FiNOm, Bibliograp/ua Catholiea Ameruatia (N(!W York, U
CaihoUc gdueaiunla Rerime, I (Washington. 1911), 347-48.

John FhANCis F^enlon.

SuJpidus Baranu, an ecclesiadtical writer, b.
(rf noble parents in Aquitame c. 360; d. about 420-26.
The scanty infwmation which we DOSBeas eoncomnjg
his life is dwived mainly from the writinBa oi bis
fiieml Paulimis of Kola and Gcnnadius. He eniayed
nosDsnt aducatioDal advMitagM, itadiad jmiiini-

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dflDce, and was rcoowned as an eloquent lawyer. His
marriage with the daughter of a wealthy consular
family seemed to seal his earthly hiq>pine8B. His wife,
faowerer, was snatcbed away by a premature death
sodBboithr after 390 SeveruB renounced hia brilliant
career and followed hia friend PatlUnus into monastie
retirement. Through this sudden change of life he
incurred his father's displeasure, but was enoour^ed
in his detenniaation by his mother-in-Jaw. He oe-
came a personal friend and enthusiaatic disciple of
St. Martin and live<t near Eauae, at Toolouse and
Lot in Southern France. His ordination to the priest-
hood is vouched for by GeanatUus, but no details of
hia priestly activity have reached us. Acowding to
tie same GSennadiUrt he was eaught m the toils of
Pdagianism towards the close of lus life and, upon
discovering his error, subjected himself to lifelong
silence in expiation of his imprudence In speech.

Ihe following works are undoubtetuy genuine:
(i) "The Chronicle"; (2) "Life of St. Martm"; (3)
two dialogues, formerly divided into three; (4) uiree
lettoB. " The Chronicle " (" Chronicarum Libii duo"
or "Historia sacra") extends from the creation
rrf the world to a. d. 400, but tmiita the histcwical
events recorded in the New-Testament writimpi. It
woB published in or after 408 and has been pre-
iterved in a single eleventh-centmy manuscript. It
U & source of primary importance for the history
of Priscillianism and contains considerable informa-
tion respecting the Arian controveRfV. More poimlar
during the Middle Ages was his "Life trf St. Mutin",
as were also the dialogues and letters whieh relate to
the same subject. The biography was written during
the lifethne of the saint, but was ptU>lidied only aStet
his death. Like the dialogues, it abounds in miracu-
lous events. Beside the above-mentioned three
lettM^, seven others have been attnbuted to Severus.
These are rejected as spurious by some critics, whilst
the genuineness of the first two is admitted, TiAtW
it would seem, by others. The "World Chromcle^'
of the so-called Sulpicius Severus has nothing to do
with the subject of this biogrsphv; it was written in
^n in the sixth century. Sulpicius Severus has
been ri^tly styled the Christian Sallust; his diction,
notably in the "Chronicle", is el^ant and reminds
the reader of the classical age.

Hn woricB are to be found ia P. L., XX, 96-348; UtUr oditioa
» Haui in Corpu* seripi. «ccl. lui., I (Vienna, 1866); Bbrxats,
UbtrtHe ChrofUk <Us Sulpiciut Severus (Berlin, 1861); Bardbn-
SBwEB. tt. SHAH&tr, Pairoloa]/ (St. Louia, lOOS), 451-53 : Bennett
b Diet CkrUL Biag., a. v. Jfacmt (J«). K. A. WbBBB.

Sulpitius. — ^Two bishops of Bourges bore this
name. (1) The first, St. Sulpitius the Severe, wrongly
identified with Sulpicius Severus, the historian of St.
Martin, was raised to the see in 584. He was, says
St. Gr^ry of Tours, a man of high birth, one
of the firet senators of Gaul, of great oratorical talent,
uid expert in the art of poetical lii^thms. The
See of Boui^ having become vacant with the death
of Reoii^us, sevmJ candidates offered gifts to King
Goatnm to secure the assistance of hia mvour. But
the latto- rejected all these simoniacal gifts to favour
the election of Sulpitiua. He was elected, given Holy
ordets, and consecrated bishop. Shortly afterwards
he held a council in Auvergne, to adjust Uie dispute
which had arisen between two of his suffTBgans, In-
Docratius, Bishop of Rodez^ and Ursicinus, Bishop of
CahcffB, with regard to, panshes for whidi they ooo-
tfloded. The oounoil deeided that the Bishop of
Cabors should letam Uie contested piurishes, which the
Kshop of Rodes lud not proved that he or his pred-
ecenorshad long possaased. Sulpitius assisted at a
Council of M&conm 585; he died in 501, his feast being
inserted in the Roman Martyrology on 29 January.

(2) Sulpitius the Pious (or the D^bonnaire), o.
at Vatan (Diocese of Boui^),- of noble parents,
bafon the end of the sixth esotury, devoted himsdf

bom his yoot^ to good works and the study of Holy
Scnipture. Austregisilus, Bishop of Bourges, or-
dained him clmc of his church, then deacon, and
finally made him director of his episoopal school.
Clotture IL King of the Franks, who had heard his
mmts spfUEOi of, summoned him and made him
chaplain of his armies. But at the death of Bishop
Austregtsilus (c. 624) he was recalled to Bouraes to
take his place. Sulpitius thenceforth laboured with
much zeal and success to re-establish ecclesiastical
discipline, for the rehef of the poor and the conver-
sion of the Jews. In 626 he assisted at the Council
of CUchy and held several others with the bishops
bis province, but nothing of them remuna. He
intervcaied with King Dagobert in behalf of his flock,
of whom a too heavy tax was exacted. At the re-
quest of the same king he consecrated to the See of
Cahors his treasurer St. Didier, who was his person^
friend, and there are extant thr«e letters which he ad-
dressed to him. Towards the end of his life Sulpitius
took a coadjutor, Vulfolnde, and retired to a monas-
tery which he had founded near Bourses. There he
died 17 Jan., 646, which da^ several MSS. of the
Hieronymian Martyrology mdicate as his feast.
In his honour the church oearing his name was built
in Paris, from vduch the Society of St. Sulpioe de-
rives its own.

(1) Qrtmrii Turonem»i» Optra; HitL Franc, «d. Abhdt amd
Kriim», VI, 30; Acta SS.. Jan., Ill, S82; CoUfa ChriMoMi
CPariB, 1873). II,

(2) KatiBcH. Jfim. Qvm. MM.: Serivt. rentm «mtv*. (Han*
over, 1902), IV: Aela SS., II, 520; Catalotnu (wdfeum haoio-

aaphieorum biiniolhtea Bruxdlejitis (Bruaaels, 1889), II, 70;
:abilu»i, Aata SS. O.S.B. (Pam, 1669), II, 168; OaUia Chris-
tiana (Paris, 1873), II, xvi. ANTOnOB DitOBBT.

Sumatra, Prefecture Apoarouc of, erected by a
Decree of 30 June, 1911, and entrusted to the Dutch
Capuchins. Previousl;^ it formed part of the Vicari-
ate Apostolic of Batavta (q. v.), which is imder the
care of the Jesuits of Holland. The new prefecture
comprises Sumatra and the surrounding ijuands, in-
cluding BaaglcB (area, 4888 aq. miks: pcqmlation,
78,000). The Island ol Siunatra, referred to as
Jabadin by Ptolemy, and vi«ted by Maroo Polo in
1292, was discovered by the Portuguese navigator
Siqueira in 1508, and occupied by the Dutch in 1599.
It extends from 95° 16' to 106° 3' E. long., and from
5° 40' N. to 5° 59' S. lat., and has an area of about
181,000 square miles. The natives, of Malayan race,
numb^ about 5,600,(XX), exclusive of the little known
inland tribes. They are indolent and cruel; their
reli^on is a mixture <tf fetishism and Mabominedan-
ism. At the b^innin^ of 1911 the Jesuits bad four
chief mission centres m Sumatra, — at Medan, P^
dang, Koata Radja, and Tandjeong-Sakti,;— and six-
teen minor stations. The Sisters of Charity trf Tit-
burg (Holland) were established at Paduig. There
were two mission schools, and 4600 CathoUos d whom
3200 were Europeans.

MUwime* Catiioltca (Rome, 1907), 26S~6; Pia* Ahaanak
(AmHterdAm, 1912) ; Zondervan, Banka en nj'na betoottert
(Amsterdam, 189A); Yzebuan, Dwari door Sumatra (Haarlmii,

1S06). A. A. MacEbiaam.

SumnuB (Suuuuuc), oonmendiums .of theology,
philosophy, and canon law which were used both as
textbooks in the schools and as books of reference
during t^e Middle Ages. Some historians of theology
oite Origen's repl ipx&v as the first summary of
CaUiolic theology. Others consider that the first
ia point d time is '*De Trinitate" by St. Hilary of
Poitiers. Quite recently the distinction has been ac-
corded to Radulfus Aidens, an eleventh-century theo-
logian and preacher, a native of Beaulieu, author
of a comprehensive "Speculum Universale", still
in MS. In this wide sense of the word, however, the
encyclopedic treatises of St. Isidore, Rabanus,
MauruB etc., entitled "De Etymolo(dis" or "De
Univwso" m^t also be conefdwed to ne summariee

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of theology and philosophy. In the stricter sense of
the word, "Sununa" is ^plied to the more technical
iVBtematu) oompendiunis which tM^gan to appear in
the twelfth century. An altomtive title u "Sen-
ten«s" (L&m Senientiamm), the diminutive, "Sum-
muts". bein^ of later origin. What is peculiar to
these "summists" or "sententiaries", as the auUiora
of these works are c^led, is the adoption of the
method first suggested by Gerbert in his De Ration-
ali et Ratione Ijti", and used by Abelaid in his "Sio
et Non". This conaiBted in an expoaitioD of con-
tradictory views, the afiSrmatiTe and negative; and
progress towards the final fotm ctf the thirte^th-
century "Summse" is marked by the greater care
which was taken, as time went on, to e:q}IaLn in a
^rstematic manner the apparent contradiction among
the conflicting opinions preewted. Besides this
method of exposition, the tw^th-century sumnusts
adopted dialectic definitely as a means of elucidating,
not only philosophical, but also theoloecal truth.
FinaDy the summists adopted more w nes tmani-
mously a fixed division of the field of theology uid
philosophy, and adhered more or less closely to a
definite order of topics. Here, of course, there was
room for individual preferences in the matter of ar-
rangement and sequence of problems, as we see when
we compare with one another the ''Summffl" even
of the latest period of Scholasticism.

The first great eummist was Peter Lombard (died
1160), author of the "Books of Sentences" and bui^
named "Master of Sentences". The order of tmica
in the "Books of Sentences "is as follows: In the first
place, the topics are divided into res and si^na, or
thing^ and signs. "Things" are subdivided into I.
The object of our happiness, God — to this topic Peter
devotes the first book; II. Means of attaining this
object, viz., creatures — the topic treated in the second
book; III. Virtues, men, and angels, that is, qieci^
meaii!) d himpinesB and subjects (rf hwpinees— the
topic of tiie third book. The fourth book is devoted
to eigne, namely, the sacr^ents. How far Peter
Lombard was influenced by earlier summists, such as
Robert Pullen, Hugh of St. Victor, and the author of
the "Sumtna oententiarum" which was immediately
inspired by Abelard's work, historians have not de-
termined. It is generally admitted that the Lom-
bard was not entirely original. He deserves his re-
nown as the first threat summist chiefly because, in
n>ite of the omxmtion which his work met during his
lifetime, its influence grew greater in time, until in the
thirteenth century it was universally adopted as a
text. Notwithstanding all that hostile critics of
Scholasticism have said about the diyneos and unat-
tractiveneas of the medieval "Summie", these works
have many merits from the point of view of pedagogy,
and a phikeophical school which supplements, as
Schokisticism did, the compendious treatment of the
"Simmue" with the looser form of treatment of the
"QuffietionesDisputatie" and the "Opuscula", tmites
in Its method of writing the advantages which modem
philosophy derives from the combination of textbook
and doctor's dissertation. For a description of the
"Summa Theologica" of St. Thomas, the most per-
fect specimen of this kind of Uterature, see Thouas
Aqdinas, Saint. The term "Summulie" was used,
for tiie most part, to des^nate the lo^cal compendiums
which came to be adopted as texts in the schools dur-
ing: the thurteenth century. The beat known oS these
is tiw "Summuls Lt^calea" of Peter Hispanus, after-
wards John XXI.

Db Wvlt, ffMory t/ MedtntU mioBoplv. tr. Comr CStnt
Yorit. 1909); Obabhahk, OetA. dtr mAoI. Mtthoda (FratburK.
1909). WlLUAM TUBNBR.

Summer Schot^, Catholic. — A Catholic summer
aehool is an assembfy of Catfaofic clergy and laity
held during the summer months to foster intdlectual
eulture in nannony witii Qiriftian faith by means o£

lectures and special courses along imfverafty ezten-
aon Unea. It first took form in the Champliun Sum-
mer School which na founded at New Ltrndwi, Con-
necticut, 1892, and located permanently in 1893 at
Cliff Haven, N. Y. The Columbian Summer School
was established at Madison, Wisconsin, 1895, and is
now pmnanently located at Milwaukee; the Winter
school of New Orleans was founded in 1896, and the
Maryland Summer School in 1900. This interesting
feature of Catholic intellectual and sociok^cal work
in the United States is the natural development and
coateeoenoe of various tendencies previously exiating
in the Church, viz., reading circles, university extot-
sion, summer institutes.

(a) The reading drcle has its germ in the Christian
family. St. Phihp Neri strongly urged the advantage
of reading circles for people in the world. As a stu-
dent at the Sorbonne, Frederick Ozanam organised a
circle of this nature which was the origin of the Con-
ference of St. Vincent de Paul. In the United States
the reading circle iq>peared during the eaiiy part «f
the last oentury in the young men's lyceums where
courses of lectures and literuy exercises were h^.
In 1864 Very Rev. Isaac Hecker founded a library in
connexion with the Sunday-school of St. Paul's
Church, New York City, and prescribed that tJie
reading and discussion of a book should form part of
the Sunday-school class. Thus each class became
a reading circle. The graduates <A this Sunday-
school f<»ined in 1886 a reading cirele, in the qieoial
sense of the tnm, called Hie Osanam; its memboa
meet weekly. In 1886 the Young Ladies' Sodality
of Youngstown, Ohio, establishea a reading circle.
In Dec., 1888, Miss Julia Perkins of Milwaukee
strongly advocated through the "Catholic World"
the establishment of tiiese circles in every parish.
Warren Mosher took up the work, and in April, 1889,
omnized the Catholic Educational Union. In June,
1880, the Panlists founded the Columbian Rttdii^
Union with Rev. Tliomas McMillan as president.
These unions have for their aim the i»t)pagation and
unification of reading circles. The mov^ent spread,
and in Jan., 1891( the "Catholic Reading i Circle
Review" was established by Mr. Mosher as the organ
of reading circles; it afterwards became the organ
of the summer school. The Catholic Educational
Union, the Columbiui Reading Union, and the " Read-
ing Circle Review" were strong advoeatee of a summer
assembly. Thua, in Rrm, u« Cliff Haven Summer
School was an annual convention of the members of
reading circles.

(b) The purpose of university extoiaion is to biii^
the university into touch with the people and make
its influrace of wider scope. Thitf is attained throu^
a body of o^^inized teachers formed from graduatea
of the university, who travel through the country and
give series of lectures; attendance at these lectures
with examination may entitle to a university d^rae.
Thus the university is brought to people who other-
wise could not have access to it. The phrase itaelf
became current through discussion on university
reform in England, b^wi in 1850, and resulting in the
new statutes <A 1880. The movement spread to
America and became a part <rf Ameoioan univonty
life. Thus tbe Cliff Haven Sununer School reoeived
from ^e Rwrats <A the Univsrnty of tiie State of
New York, 9 Frf>., 1893, a charter by virtue ©f which
it received legal existence as a corpOTation under the
laws of the State of New York, and was classified
within the system of pubUc Instruction devoted to
university extension. Under university extension
should be included the Association Cathtdique de k
Jeunease Franeaiie oncaniied in 1886, the Sebool of
Social Scieooe of MundMO-Gladbaoh founded in
1893 undev the auspices of the Catholic Volksvcnin»
and the Institute of Social Science established by
Arofabishoip FariSy at New York in 1911.

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(o) The idea of Rummer institutes is not nev to
Catndie edaeation. It tons been a recognlied
feature m the reUgbus educational bodies of the Catii-
(dk Oiureh, each teaching coiwregation holding sum-
mer institutes of its own members. In more recent
years these teachers' institutes became diocesan in
form, e. g., in Rochester, Los Anceles, and the Arch-
diocese of Or^n. In 1911 the Catholic University
at Washington opened a summer institute which was
attended by 284 teaobna bom 23 refigious bodies,
representing 56 dioceses and 31 states wiUi 9 fmn
Canada and 1 from En^and. The same year the
De Paul University of Chicago opened a summer
institute for teachers witii an attendance of 125.

"Ilie coalescence of these three elements in the Cliff
Haven Summer School has made it a characteristic
and powerful factor td intdlectual and social Amer-
ican Catholic life. The Young Men's National
Union, wguiised in 1875, and the first Catholic
National Congress of Baltimore, in 1889, had created
the desire for lay Catholic national unity. At sug-
gestion o( Mr. Mosher, Mgr. James Loughlin, Presi-
dent of the Y. M. N. U . published, 17 Jan., 1802, in the
"Catholic Review" of New York City, a letter uiging
the establishment of a summer assembly. Cleigy,
laity, and the press endorsed the project with enthu-
aiasm. A meeting was held at the CathoHe Chib,
New York City, 12 May, 1892, undw the auspices
of Archbishop Corrigan and plans were laid' for an
<q}eiung session at New London, Conn., 16 July to
5 August, 1892. One thousand persons represmting
twenty states were in attendance. Among the pro-
motors were Mgr. James Louffhlin. Mgr. M. J.Lavelle,
Mgr. D. J. McMahon, Bishop Conaty, Mgr. John
Walsh, Mgr. Hemr Brann, Rev. Morgan Sheedy,
Rev. John F. Mulluiy. Rev. F. P. Siegfried, Rev.
Joseph H. MeMahon, Rev. P. A. Halpin, Rev. John
Talbot Smith, Rev. Thomas McMillan, C.S.P., Rev.
Denis O'Sullivan, SJ., Very Rev. James P. Kieman,
Rev. Thomas P. Joynt, Rev. A. P. Doyle, C.S.P.,
Rev. Thomas Hughes, SJ., Rev. Walter P. Gough,
Brother Asarias, Charles G. Herbermann, George
Parsons Lathrop, Richard Malcom Johnson, Maurice
Francis ^an, Mary ElisabeUi Blake, Katberine E.
Cwway, J«m A. Mooney, Richard D. Clartc, Thomas
B. Fitroatricfc, John D. Crimmins, Hon. John B.
Riley, John A. Haaran, George E. Hardy, John P.
Brophy, Wm. R. Claxton, Jacques M. Mertens, Wm.
J. Moraa. Permanent organisatira followed with

E resident, vice-president, secretary, treasurer, and a
oard of twenty-four trustees.
The folk)wing year an offer, made by the Delaware
and Hudson Company through its agent, of 450 acres
of land on the shore of Lake Champlain, three miles
south of Plattsburg, N. Y., was accepted. The ses-
aons of 1893, 1894, and 1895, were held in Plattsburg.
In 1896 the session was held on the assembly grounds,
named Cliff Haven. With the approbation of Leo
XIII and Pius X, of the Apostolic delegate Cardinal
SatoUi, Cardinal MartinellL and Cardinal Arch-
bishop Fateonio, and d the hierarchy of the United
States, the movement has grown with each year until
it now has property valued at SSO0,00O, courses <jt
lectures coveringeleven weeks, and an attendance d
about 10,000. With a daily prc^ram <rf lectures,
concerts, dramatic recitals, ana social gathering, it
brings together in social intercourse Catholics from
all parts of the countrv and offers a stimulus and an
flppOTtunity far ^ stuay along lines of advanced
thought. Its maul purpose is: to give from the most
autjunitative sources among our Catholic writers
and thinkers, the Catholie point of view on aU ^e
issues of the day in history, literature, philosophy,
art, political science, upon economic and social prob-
lems that are agitatmg the world, upon the relations
between sooMe and religion; to state ia the eleuest
poarible tenm the undccqring tnitii in ewA and all

of these Bubwots; to remove false assumptions; and
to correct fuse statements. It thus meets a recog-
nised want of clergy and laity, is an important popular
educational centre in America, and has contributed
much to otganise Catholie intellectual forces and to
solve the problems of American life.

Catholic Seadwc CireU RnUw; Mother'i Ma^fotine; Champlain
XdneaUtr. I-XII; BepoTt of U. 8. Commitumer of Bttucation
(18tM-95): Lavmlui in Amer. Coth. Quart. Btt. (Jan., 1892);
Bmmt in Bodfiattiml Anww (Oct, lOOt); Eoah in Att Maria

John T. Dbisoou.
Bummoni. See Cttatiom.

Sunday (Day of the Sun), as the name of the first
day of the week, is derived from Egyptian astrology.
The sevoi planets, known to us as Saturn, Jupiter,
Mars, tite «m, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon, eac^
bad an hour of the day assigned to them, and t£e
planet which was regent during the first hour of any
day of the week gave its name to that day (see Calen-
dar). During the first and second century the week
of seven days was introduced into Rome from Egypt,
and the Roman names of the planets were given to
each successive day. The Teutonic nations seem to
have adcqited the week as a division of time from the
Romans, but they changed the Roman names into
those 01 crareeponding Teutonic deities. H«ioe tlw
die* Salit became Sunday (German, SontUag). Sim:-
day was the first day of the week according to the
Jewish method of reckoning, but for Christians it be-
gan to take the place of the Jewish S^bath in Apos-
tolic times as the day set apart for the public and
solemn worship of God. The practice of meeting to-
gether on the first day of the week fw the celebration
M the Eucharistic Sacrifice is indicated in Acts, n, 7;
I Cor., zvi. 2; in Apoc., i, 10, it is called the Ixtrd's
dsv. In the Didache (xiv) the injunction is siven:
"On the Lord's D^ come t<^ther and break bread.
And give thanks [offer the Eucharist), after confessing
your sins thatyour sacrifice may be pure". St. Igna-
tius (Ep. ad Magnee, ix) speaks of Christians as no
longer observing the Sabbath, but living in the observ-
ance of the Lord's Day, on which also Our Life rose
■nan". In the Episue of Barnabas (xv,) we read:
"wherefore, also, we keep the eighth day (i. e. the
first of the week) with joyfulness, the day also on
which Jesus rose again from the dead".

St. Justin is the mst Christian writer to call the day
Sunday (I Apol., Ixvii) in the celebrated passage in
which De describee the worship offered by the early
Christians on that day to Goo. The fact that they
met U^ther and offered public worship on Sunday
neoessitated a certain rest from work on that day.
"Bsxvfsvet, TertuUian (202) is the first writer who ex-
inessly mentions the Sunday rest: "We, however
(just as tradition has tau^^t us), on the day <A the
Lord's Resurrection ought to guard not only agfunst
kneeling, but every posture uid office of sohcitude; de-
fying even our businesses lest we give any place to
the devU" ("De orat.",3t3dii; of. "Adnat^on.^I,xi^i;
"Apolog.", xvi).

'nieee and similar indications show that during the
first three centuries practice and tradition had con-
secrated the Sunday to the public worship of God by
the hearing of Mass and restmg from wwk. With the
opening of the fourth century positive Iwislation,
both ecclesiastical and civil, oegan to make these
duties more definite. The Council of Elvira (300)
decreed: "If anyone in the city neglects to come to
church for three Sundays, let him be excommunicated
for a short time so that he may be oouected" (xxi).
In the Apostolic Constitutions, which belong to the
end of the fourth century, both the hearing of Mass
and rest from work are prescribed, and the precept is
attributed to the Apostles. Thi^ express teachii^ of
Christ and St. Paul prevented the ^^y ChristunB

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SUFIBX&TinUL

from ftdling into the excessee of Jewish Sabbatarian-
iBm in observance of the Sunday, and yet we find
St. Cffisarius of Aries in the sixth century teaching
that the holy Doctors of the Church had decreed that
the whole glory of the Jewish Sabbath had been trans-
fenred to Uie Sunday, and that ChriBtians must keep
the Sunday ho\y in the same way as the Jews had
been comnianded to keep holy the Sabbath Day. He
especially insisted on the people hearing the whole of
the Mass and not leaving the church after the Epistle
and Go^>el had been read. He taught them that
they should come to Vespers and spend the rest of
the day in pious reading and prayer. As with the
Jewish Sabbath, the observance of the Christian Stm-
day began with sundown on Saturda;^ and lasted till
the same time on Sunday. Until quite recent times
some theolonsns tau^t that there was an obli^tion
under pain <n veniaj sm of assisting at Vespers as well
as of hearing Mass, but the opinion rests on no c^tain
foundation and is now commonly abandoned. The
common opinion maintains that, while it is highly be-
coming to be present at Vespers on Sunday, there is no
strict obli^tion to be present. The method of reck-
oning the Sunday from sunset to sunset continued in
some places down to the seventeenth century, but in
general since the Middle Ages the reckonmg from
midni^t to midnight has been followed. When the
parochial system was intooduced, the laity were
taught that they must hear Mass and the preaching
of Word of God on Sundays in their parisn church.
However, toward the end of the thirteenth century,
the friars began to teach that the precept of hearing
Mass might be fulfilled by hearing it in their churches,
and after Ioik and severe struKtes this was expressly
allowed bv the Holy See. Nowadays, the precept
may be fulfilled by hearing Mass in any place except
a strictly private oratory, and provided Mass is not
celebrated on a port^le altar by a privilege which
is merely personal.

The obligation of rest from work on Sunday re-
mained somewhat indefinite for several centuries. A
Council of Laodicea, held toward the end of the fourth
century, was content to prescribe that on the Lord's
Day the futMul were to abstain from work as far as
possible. At the beginning of the sixth century St.
CRsarius, as we have seen, and others showed an in-
clination to apply the law of the Jewish Sabbath to
the observance of the Christian Sunday. The Coun-
cil held at Orleans in 538 reprobated this tendency as
Jewif^ and non-Christian. From the eighth century
the law begw to be formulated as it exists at the
present day, and Uie local councils forbade servile
work, public buying and selling, pleading in the law
courts, and the public and solemn taking of oaths.
There is a lar^ lx>dy of civil legislation on the Sun-
day rest side by side with the ecclesiastical. It be-
gins with an Edict of ConstantinOj the first Christian
emxKror, who forbade judges to sit and townspeople
to work on Sunday. He made an exoeption in favour
of ^culture. The breaking of the law <rtf Sunday
rest was punished by the Anglo-Saxon l^^atton in
England like other crimes and misdemeanours. After
the Reformation, under Puritan influence, many laws
were paned in England whose effect is still risible in
the stringency of the English Sabbath. Still more is
this the case in Scotland. There is no federal legisla-
tion in the United States on the observance of the
Sunday, but nearly all the states (rf the Union have
statutes tending to repress imnecessaty labour and to
restrain the liquor trtmic. In other respects the legis-
lation c£ the different states on this matter exhibits
considerable variety. On the continrat of Europe in
recent years th»e have been several laws passed in the
direction of enforcing the observance of Sunday rest
the benefit of workmen.

Vnuma, Ritt. dn cmmapdmatU dtJSaliH (Puia. 1909);
Dpblancht in Did. dt thM. tafkal,, v. DtmaiuAe (Pnia, 1911) :

SUTBX, JUonuai of Moral ThacHan (New York, 1906); the monl
tbootoouuu (saerally. T. SUTSB.

SnponrocatUm, Wobks or. Sse Wobks, Good.

Sup«rior. Diocese of (Supebiobxnbib), situated
in the northern part of Wisconran, comprises the
following counties: Ashland, Barron, Bayfield,
Burnett, Douglas, Iron, Lincoln, Oneida, Polk, Price,
Rusk, Sawyer, St. Croix, Taylor, Vi]a», and Wash-
bum. In area it covers 15,715 squar<' inilee, and has
its episcopal reddence in Uie city of Superior. On
3 May, 1005, the diocese was established, being
formed from uie northern part of the Diocese of La
Crosse (see Li. Cbosse, DiocESB of) and the north-
western part of the Diocese of Green Bay (see
Ob££n Bay, Diocese op).

When Superior, which is one of the suffr^ans of
Milwaukee, was formed, there were 39 secular and
17 regular priests attending to the needs of the
people in 93 churches and 33 stations. The Catholic
population at the time was about 38,000. Besides
the English-speaking congregations lliiere were then
as there are at present churches in which the spiritual
wants of Gcffmans, Poles, French, Italians, Slovaks
and Bohemians were looked after. The spiritual and
other needs of the Indiana of the district have been
well taken care of. There are flourishing industrial
Hchools at Odonah, Bayfield, and other places, that
are undff the charge of the Sist^ of St. Francis and
are attended by the Franoiscan Fathm. The
bishop, ably seconded by his tH&tfsy, has started
throuuiout the diocese wherever it was possible
parochial schools for the Christian education of the
young. In consequence the various cities and towns
have one or more such bringing excellent results,
ronsidering the meagre resources available. At
Superior and Ashland especially the schools are well
.ittended.

The first bishop of the diocese, still in ofiBoe, is
the Rt. Rev. Augustin Panels Schinner, D. D. He
was consecrated 25 July, 1905, and appointed to the
nee of Superior 13 May of the same year. He came
to Superior from Milwaukee, where he had held the
position of administrator of the archdiocese after
the death of Archbishop Katzer. Bishop Schinner
was bom in Milwaukee 1 May, 1803. He entered
the seminary at St. Francis, Wis., and at the age of
twenty-two on 7 March, 1886, was ordained priest
by Archbishop Heiss of Milwaukee. For about a
year he was pastor of the Church at Richfield, Wis.,
and was then made a professor at St. Francis Semi-
nary, Milwaukee. In 1891 Archbishop Katzer
selected him as his secretary j and in 1895 he was made
vicar-general of the archdiocese, holding the same
position under Archbishop MesBmer, until his ap-
pointment as Bishop of Superior.

There are now in the diocese the following reli^ous
communities of men: Franciscans, Jesiuts, Servites:
and of women: Fransciscan Sisters of the Perpetual
Adoration, Sisters of St. Agnes, Sisters of St. Domi-
nic, Poor Handmaids of Jesus Christ, Sisters of St.
Francis, School-Sisters of St. Francis, Franciscan
Sisters of Charity, School-Sisters of Notre Dame,
Sisters of the Sorrowful Mother, Sisteis of the Divine
Saviour, Sisters of St. J(»eph. There an (1911):
secular* priests, 56; priests of reliaous orders, 23;
churches with resident priests, 55; misrions with
churches, 65: ch^ls, 8; stations, 23; hi|di school, 1;
parish schools, 23; pupils of parochial spools, 4869;
mdustrial schools, 2; inmates, 225; orphans, 46;
total number of young people under Catholic care,
6094; hospitals, o; Catholic population (Census of
1910): Wiiite, 48,028; Indians, 3015.

Ofieial CathoUc Dinetory, 1905-11; Th4 Calhotic Chtireh i»
Superior, Wit. (Suporior, 1905). JoHN J. DrisCOLU

8u:

.toral Order, the ensemUe of effeots
the powers of the created universe and

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SOPBBNATinUXi 3

' gratuitouily produced by God for the purpose of
raisins the rational creature above its native sphere
to a God'^ike life and destiny. The meaniiu 6S the
phraae fluctuates mth that tn its antitheaiB, tfie natu-
ral order. Those who oonoeive the lattw as the world
of material beings to the exclusion of immaterial
entities, or as the necessary mechanism of cause and
effect to the exclusion of the free agency of the will,
or again as the inherent forces of the universe to the
excluMOO of the extrinsic concurrence of God, quite
consistently call supernatural all 8j>iritual facts or
voluntary determinations or Divine operations.
There is no abjection to that way of speaking pro-
vided tbB assertion of the supernatural ao under-
stood be not made, by a fallacious transference of
meaning, to screen the negation of the supernatural
as defined above. Catholic theologians sometimes
call supernatural the miraculous way in which cer^
tain effects, in themselves natural, are produced,
or certain endowments (like man's immunity from
death, suffering, passion, and i^orance} that bring
the lower daw up to the higher though always
with^ abe limits of the created^, but they are careful
in qualifying the former as accidentally supernatural
(supematvrMe per accidens) and the latter as rela-
tively supernatural {prcetemaiur(Ue). For a concept
of the substantially and absolutely supernatural, they
start from a comprehensive view of the natural order
taken, in its amplest acceptation, for the ajKregate of
all created entities and powers, including me nigjieet
natural endowmoits of which the rational creature is
capable, apd even such Divine operations as are de-
manded by the effective carrying out of the cosmic
order. The supernatural order is then more than a
miraculous way of producing natural effects, or a notion
of relative superiority within the created world, or the
necessary concurrence of God in the universe* it is an
effect or series of effects substantially and absolutely
above all nature and, as such, calls for an exceptional
intervention and gratuitous bestowal of God aiul
rises in a manner to the Divine ord^, the only one
that transcends the whole created world. Although
some theolt^ans do not consider impossible the ele-
vation of the irrational creature to the Divine order,
V. g., by way of personal union, nevertheless it stands
to reason that such an exalted privilege should be
reserved for the ration^ creature capable of knowl-
edge and love. It is obvious also that this uplifting
of the rational creature to the supernatural order
cannot be by way of absorption of the created into
the Divine or of fusion of both into a sort of monis-
tic identity, but only by wa^ of union or participa*
tion, the two terms remainmg perfectly distinct.

Not being an a i>riori conception but a positive
fact, the Bupeniatural order can only be known
thrcni^ pivine revelation properly sum>orted by
such Divine evidences as miracle, prophecy^ etc.
Revelation and its evidences are culed extrinsic and
auxiliary supernatural, the elevation itself retain-
ing the name of intrinsic or, according to some, the-
ological supernatural. There are three principal
instances oi such elevation: the hypostatic union
or the assumption oT the Sacred Htimanity of Christ
into the personal dimity of the Son of God; the (Milling
of the faithful angels to the beatific vision whereby
they see always the face of the Father who is in
heaven (Matt., xviii, 10), and the elevation of man
to the state of grace here and glory hereafter. The
hypostatic union and the angelic supernatural are
both closely connected with our own elevation.
From St. John (i, 12-14) we know that the hypo-
static union is the ideal and mstrument of it, and
St. Paul declares the angels are "all ministering
spirits, sent to minister for them, who ehsSi receive
the ioneritance of salvation" (Heb., i, 14). Leav-
ing for separate treatment the auxiliary supernntural
fsee Rxtelation; Mibacle; Prophbct), the hypo-

xrv.— 23 .

S7 mEBJXATW^

■tallo union (see Incarnation), and the angels' ele-
vaticm (see Anqhu), this article deals with the
supenatwal order in man both in its faistocy and

Bttal^BlB.

^efly, the histwy is this: From the beginning,
man was raised, far above the claims of his nature,
to a life which made him, even heare below, the adopted
child of God, and to a destiny which entitled him to
the beatiQe vision and love oS God in heaven. To
these strictly supernatural gifts by which man was
truly made partaker of the Divine nature (II Pet.,
i, 4) were added preternatural endowments, that is
immunity from i^orance, passion, suffoing and
death, wnich left him "little lower than the angels"
(Ps. viii, 6; Hebr., ii 7). Through their own fiuilt,
our first parents forfeited for themselves and theii'
race both the God-like life and destiny and the angel-
like endowments. In His mercy God promised a
Rodeemer who, heralded by ages of prophecy, came
m the fulness of time in the person of Jesus Christ,
the incarnate Son of God. By His Inoamation.
labours, passion, and death, Jesus CSirist restored
mankind to its former Divine Boa8h^> and heavenly
inheritance, if not to its quasi-angehc prerogatives,
the virtue of Redemption bein^ applied to us through
the joint ministrations of the mner Spirit and of the
visible Church, in the form of actual helps, habitual
sanctity, and the power of meriting Heaven.

An analysis of the supematuru order, barely in-
augurated oy the Fathers, but brought to a point <rf
^<eat perfection by the Schoolmen and poet-Triden-
tine theologians, disclosee the various elements Uiat
make up OTder, that is an end, means, and laws
The end u man's destination to see God face to face
and to love Him correapondinglj^. If, as will be
shown, the intuitive vision of God is our true destiny
and moreover transcends our highest natural powers,
then we must be given means eauible of attaining
that eiul, that is suponatural. Those means can
be no other than our own actions, but invested with
a higher power that makes them meritorious of
Heaven. Grace, both aotui^ and habitual, is the source
of that meriting power: while habitual grace, with
its train of infused virtues or faculties raises our mode
of being and operating, to a sphere which is God's
own, actual grace spurs us on to justification and,
once we stand justified, sets in motion our super-
natural powers eausing them to yield good and meri-
torious winks. In the supernatural order, as in all
others, there axe also specific laws. The work of
man's sanctification depends in a manner on the
general laws of the universe and most certainly upon
the carrying out ot all the moral precepts written in
our hearts. Besides these laws, which Christ ciune
not to abolish, ihaee are paaitive or freely established
enactments ranging all the way from ihe Divinely
appointed conditions of salvation to the revealed
ODligations and even the rules govenung our growth
in holiness. Glory and grace, being the central
features of the supernatural order, special reference
will be made to them both in the exposition of errors
and the est^lishment of the Catholic doctrine.

I. Ebrobs.— The theories denpdag or belittling the
supernatural order may be dassified. from the stand-
point of both their historical appearance and lo^oal
sequence, into three groups according as they view
the supernatural (1) in our present de fado condition,
(2) in the origmal status of man, (3) in its possibility
and evidences.

To the first group belong Pelsffanism and Seml-
pelagianism. Influenced, no doubt, by the Stoio
ideal and their own ascetic performances, the Pela-
^ans Of the fifth century so magnified the capacity
of human nature as to pronounoe natural to H both
the beatific vision and the human acts by which it
is merited. They were condemned by the Councila
of Mileve and Carthage. 418. Less darimc. thr Kcrni-

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SmRNATUBAL 338 BUPBUUTinUL

pelagians, oensured by the Council of Orange (529), right to the aupernatural was claimed for human

subtracted fnxn the supernatural only certain pnaeeB nature. We have gone far beyond that. We have

oi man's life as the banning of faith and final pene* reached the point waeiK it is affirmed that our most

vwance. To tins group berong also, in a manner, holy religion, in the man Christ as in us, emanated

the false mystics of the fourteenUi oentmy, the Bt^ from nature apontaneouriy and entirdly. Than this,

hards condemned by the Council of Vienne (1312), there is surely nothing more dflBtnietive of the wh(de

for claimii^ that the rational creature possesaea supernatural order."

beatitude in itself without the help of the lumen II. Catholic Doctbinb. — From the above docu-
ghria and Eckhart, whoee idcmtificatMMi of the ments, it may be summarized in three points: (1) The
Creator and the creature in the act of contemplation fact ot man's elevation to grace and glory as against
was censured by John XXII in 1329. the Pelagian error; (2) the supernatural character of
To the seoond groiqi bekmg tiie eariy Refonners tJiat elevation as agamst the Irotestant and Jansenist
and the Jwseniat School, dtouui in different degrees, theory; and (3) as against Rationalism, its poesibiUtry
Misinterpreting the still impoieot terminology of the and the validity of its credentials.
Fathers who called natural, in the sense of original, (1) The fact of man's elevation, probably alluded
the elevation of our first parenti^ the early Refonneife to m the likeness of God imprinted in Adtun (Gen., i,
hdd that, according to Patristic teachmg and con- 26), in the tree of life from which he was barred in
trarily to the Schoolmen, that elevation was not consequence of his sin (Gen^ iii, 22), and in the inti-
supematural. Their error, rejected by the Council mate union of man with God, as described in the
of TVent (Sees. V, decretum de peccato originali, S^iiential and Prophetic books^ has its full expresuon
can. 1), was taken up again, but m a more refined in the discourses of Jesus Chnst {John, vi and xiv-
fcnin, by Baius who, indeeo, designated ae super- xvii), in tiie {>rol<«ue of the Fourth Gospel compared
natuial man's original condition but nullified tiie with John^ li and iii, and in the introduction to
meaning of the word by stating that our first parent's several Epistles like I Cor.^ £ph., and I Pet. The
elevation was demanded by am due to the nwmal direct and face-to-face vision of God is our future
condition of humanity. In roite of his oondemnation destiny (I Cor., xiii, 12; I John, iii, 2). In this
by Pius V (Denzinger, 9th ea., nn. 901, 903, 906, 922) world we are not in name only but in very fact the
he was followed by the Janeenist Quesncu and the sons of God (I Joho^ iii, 1), being bom anew (I John,
pseudo-Synod of Pistoia, the fonner censured by iii, 7) and having the charity of God infused in our
Clement XI Q)enzinger, nn. 1249, 1250) and tM hcurts by the H<^ Ghost who is avm to us (Rom.,
latter by Pius VI (Densingw, nn. 1379, 13B0, 1383). v,5). Ilie emphasis laid by the early Fatliers on man's
A confusion between the moral and the supernatural deification has been shown elsewhere (see Adoption).
order, frequently found in the Baianist and Jansenist In view oi all this it is not true that the Fathers
writings, was reproduced more or leas consciouely had not even a name to designate the supernatural,
by some German theologians like Stattler, Hermee, as is often asserted by modern critics. De Bn^t
GOntber, Hirsh, Kuhn, etc., who admitted the (Le sumaturel, p. 45) shows that tba% were at least
supernatural character of the other gifts but con- four different phrases to express the supernatural
tended that the adoption to eternal life and the par- gifts: 4>ivty (above nature), adscititia (super-
taking of the Di^dne nature, being a moral neoeasity, added), t^uStP »ArIa> (foreign to the esBence),
could not be supematund. That revival erf an old x^*, xcv^^'ta (gratuitous).

error found a strong and successful omxnwnt in (2) The gratmtous or supernatural character of

Kleutgen in the second volume ti his thecdogy on the beatific vision was placed in bold relief by St.

the supernatural. Paul (I Tim., vi, 15) and St. John (i, 18 and vi, 46).

To the third group belongs the Rationalist School St. Iremeus merely paraphrases their teaching in
from Socinus to the present Modernists. While the famous sentence: "Homo a se non videt Deum;
the foregoing errors proceeded less from a direct ille autem volens videtur hominibus quibus vult,
denial than from a confusion of the supernatural ^uando vult^ quemadmodum vult; pot^is est enim
with the natural order, the Rationalist error rejects in (HDjaU>UB Deus" (Contra lueres., v, 20). Neither
it in its entirety, on the plea of philosophical impoesi- can one rmd stuih passages as Epb., i, 1&-10 and iii,
bilityor critical non-existence. The Syllabus of Pius 14-21; Cd., i, 10 sq.; II Pet., i, 4; etc., without realii-
IX and the Vatican Ccmstitution " De fide catho- ing^ that the supernatural character of the intuitive
lica" (Densinger, n. 1655) checked for a while that visKm applies likewise to pnreeent charity "which sur-
radical Naturalism which, however, has rewpeared passes all knowledge". The transcendence of the
lately in a still more virulent form with Mooanism. supernatural order, not only above our present de
While there is nothing common between Roamini faelo condition, but also above our native constitu-
and the present Modernists, he mavp all unwitthigly, tion viewed philosophically in the elements and prop-
have paved the way tot them in the following vaguely erties and exigencies of human nature, is not em-
Subjectivist proportion: "The supomatural mda pbasiied in early Christian literature, which deals
consists in the manifestation o[ Being in the pleaiitwle not witli absteaotiona. St. Paul, however, describ-
of its reality, and the effect of that manifestation is ing the i61e of the Redeemer mich is to renovate,
a God-like sentiment, inchoate in this lifetlirough repair, and restore, comes very near the point by
the light of faith and grace, consummate in the next hintii^ that our present, clearly supernatural ele-
through the light of glory*' (36th Rosminian propoei- vation is but a return to the no less supernatural
tion condemned by the Holy Office, 14 Dec., 1887). condition of the "old Adam"; and while the point
Preserving the dogmatic formulie while voiding them is not fully discussed by the Fathers before the
of their contents, the Modemists oonstaiitly apeak Fdagian oontroversiee concerning orinnal sin, yet
ot the supematurd, but they understand thereby some paadi^ remarks by St. Irensua (Contra hserra.,
the advanced stages of an evwitive process <tf the m, xviii, 1, 2) «id St. John Chrysostom (X Homily
religious sentiment There is no room in ih&t on St. John. 2) show that there is no chasm between
n^stem for the objective and revealed supernatural: the eu-ly Fathers, St. Augustine, who presented a
tJbeir Agnosticism declares ft unknowable, their bold, if not finished, delineation of the_ supernatural
Immanentism derives it from oinr own vit^ty, their as such, and the Schoolmen and post-Tridentine theo-
symbotism explains it in term of subjective experience kwans (as Soto, "De natura et gratia"; Ripalda,
and their criucism deolarea non-authentic tae docu- "De ente supernaturali"; Suarez, *'De variis stati-
ments used to prove it. "There is no Question bus") who carefully distinguished the various states
now," says Pius X, in ^ Ent^dioal "Pasoeodi" oi of human nature. Ripalda's opinion to the effect
8 Sept.. 1907, "of the old error by whiob a snt of that the beatific vision which is defado supernatural

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vQPiBmuoniii

to the whole aeltial creation mUit beoom* natural
to some poemble higher creature, liaa never been fm~
mally condemned by the Church; it is however unani-
moiulv rejected by theok^ans, as it seems lees oon-
fcnnwle to Scriptural sayings and traids to destroy
the absolute transcendence of the supernatural order.

(3) 'the philoeophical possibility and the critical
ascertainment of the supernatural order are the
central point of Christian apologetics. Against
the prejudicial views of the Rationalists who pro-
nounce it inexistent, or unnecessaiy, or miaohieTOus,
or even impossible, Christian ^lotpstB vrgB, and to
good purpose, the critic^ value m the Teonds on
which it Te8t& its quasi^iecesnty for the correct con-
duct of life, the profits it brings to its recqiients, and
the utter want of foxmdation of its so-udled anti-
nomies. Having thus cleared the ground^ they
proceed to collect and inteipret and organise the
various data of Revelation, tne result being a luuv
moniouB and tjruly grandiose system of overlife.
From the commonly reoeived axiMn that *'graoe
does not destroy but only perfects nature" they
csteblish between the two orders a parallelism that
is not mutual confusion or reciprocal exclusion, but
distinction and subordination. The Schoolmen i^ke
freely of nature's posmbilities (poteniia obedientntUig)
and even conations {appetilua naiuralit;) towards
tiie supernatural. To uiose traditional methods
and views some Christian writers have, of late,
endeavoured to add and even substitute another
theray which, they claim, will bring the supernatural
hmne to tite modem mind and give it unquestimabte
credentialB. llie novel thecny consists in making
nature postulate the supernatural. Whatever be
the Intimity of the purpose, the method is ambiguous
and full of pitfalls. Between the Schoolmen's poten-
tia obediermtUis and app^us moralis and the Modern-
ist tmet aoocnrding to which the supernatural "ema-
nates from nature spontaneously and entirely" there
is spaoe and distance; at the same time, the Catholio
aptwE^ who would attempt to 611 some of the space
and cover some of the distance should keep in mind
' the admonition of Pius X to those "Catholics who,
while rejecting immanence as a doctrine, employ
it as a method of apologetics, and who do this so
imprudently that they seem to admit that there is
in numan nature a true and rigorous necessity with
ref^xd to the supernatural order and not merely
a capacity and suitability for the supernatural
such as has at all times been emphasiBed by Catholic
apologists" (EncycUcal "Paeceudi").

RUALDA, D« tnte ntvrnatwaii (Paris, 1871^; Bchkadxb, D*
tripiiei ordine (Viennm, 1864); Tebbibn, La gract tt la gtoirt
(Pma, 1897) i Baintel, JVolura tt •urnotural (Puis, 1003); Dx
Bboqub, Le twrnoturat (PBria, 1908); Liosakd, L« rapport d« la
natun at Au nemaiurd <raprit Ut IMologitnt »eeiattiqu4t du XXI J*
an XVIII* fiiclM (Pftris, 1910). A mon oomplete biblioKrftpliy
ia fouod in: Wilhslh and Scannhli., Manwd i4 Catk. Theo&n,
I (London, 1906), 430; Tanqcskkt, 8jp*opnt tkaol. dogmU., I
(Now Yoric), 345; Bauillbb, L$ eaUehitm* romain. III (Mon-
traieMi, lflOB)( 3&2; Luauors, . . . Ii'Aamhu ... in
£«o)W lUol. dssMoHaiM (Puii, 1008).

J. F. SOLUSB.

SuperpeUieium. See Sttbpuok.

Supentttlon If rom supersisto, "to stand in terrw
of the deity" (Cicero, '*De Nat. deorum", I, xlii,
117); or from ntperstea, "aurviving": "(Jui totoe dies
precabantur et immolabant, ut sibi sui liberi super-
stitee eesent, superstitioei sunt appellati", i. e. "Those
who for whole days prayed and offered sacrifice that
their children might survive them, were called super-
stitious" (Cicero, ibid., II, xxviii, 72). Cicero also
drew the distinction: "Superstitio est in qua timor
inanis deoniniu religb qus deorum cultu pio nmtin-
etur", i. e. "Bupentition is the baselefB fear of the
gods, religion the pious worship." Aoorading to Isi-
dore of Seville (Etymolog., I. 8, c. iii, sent.), the word
comes from mperstatuo or superirutttuo: "Superstitio
est fuperflua obeervantia in onhu super statuta seu

189 tominTioir

Instftttta mperiorum", i. e. "observances added on to
nmMribed or established worship"] is defined by St.
Thomas (XMI, Q. xoii, a. 1) as "a vice opposed to
relldim by way m excess; not because in the worship
of God it does more than true rdiipim, but because it
' offers Divine w<vship to beings other than God or
offers worship to God in an improper manner". Su-
pentition sins hy excess of reugion, and this differs
from the vice of irreligion, which sins b^ defect. The
theological virtue of rel^on stands midway between
the two. (II-II, Q. xcii, a. 1.)

DnmaoN. — Thore are four qwdes ot supersUtions:
(1) improper worship the true God (uidebtAu veri
Dei cwftu); (2) idolatry; (3) divination; (4) vain
observances, which include magic and occult arts.
This division is based upon the various wa.^ in whidi
religion may be vitiatea by excess. Worship becomes
indanhis cuUua when incongruous, meaningless, im-
proper elements are added to the proper and approved
peritHinance; it becomes idolatrous when it is offered
to creatures set iv> as divinities or endowed with
divine attributes. Divinatitm (q. v.) consists in the
attempt to extract from creatures, by means of reli-

fious rites, a knowledge of future events or of things
Down to God alone. Under the head of vain obser-
vances come all those beU^s and practices which, at
least by implication, attribute supernatural or pre*
t«iiatiual powers for good or for evil to causes evi-
dently inc^Mible <rf producing the expected effects.
The number and variety ot superatititmB iqipear from
the fdlowing list of those most in vogue at different
periods of hiBt<tty: astrology, the reading of the future
and of man's destiny from the stars; aeromancy,
divinations by means of the air and winds; amulets,
things worn as a remedy or preservative against evils
or mischief, .such as diseasea or witchcraft; chiro*
mancy, or palmistry, divination by the lines of the
hand; capnomancy, oy the ascent or motion of smoke;
oattoptomancy, b^ mirrors; alomancy, by salt; caiv
trananey, by playing cards; anthropomancy, by in-
Bpectton of human viscera; beloman<^, by the shining
of arrows (Esechiel, xxi, 21); geomanoy, by points^
lines, or figures traced on the ground; nydro-
mancy, by water; idolatry, the worship of idols;
Sabianism, the worship of the sun, moon, and stan;
Zoolatry, Anthropolatry, and Fetishism, the worship
of animals, man, and things without sense; Devi(>
worsbip; the wonhip oi abstract notims personified,
e. g Victory, F^aoe, Fame, Concord, which had tem-
ples and a priesthood for the performance of their
cult; necromancy, the evocation of the dead, as old as
tustory and perpetuated in eontempcMrary Spiritism;
oneiromancy. the interpretation of dreams; philtres,
potions, or charms int^ded to excite love; omens or
prcmioetics of future events; witchcraft and mi^po
in lul their ramifications; lucky and unlucky days,
numbers, persons, things, actions; the evil eye, speua,
iucantotionsjordeals, etc.

OmoiN. — ^The source of superstitkm is, in the first
place, subjective. Ignorance of natural causes leads
to ^e belief that certain striking phenomena express
the will or the an^ <^ some invisible overruling
power, and the objects in which such phenomena
^>pear are forthwith deified, as, e. m Nature-
worship. Conversely, many superstitious practices
are due to an exaggerated notion or a false mterpre-
tation of natural events, so that effects are souj^t
which are beyond the efficiency of physical causes.
Curiosity also with regard to things that are hidden
or are still in the future plays a considerable part,
e. g. in the various kinds <h divination. But the
chief source of superstition is pointed out in Scripture:
"All men an vain, in whom there is not the knowledge
of God: and who by these good thinn that are seen,
could not understand him that is, neither by attending
to the works have acknowledged who was the worionaa:
but haTs imagbed either the fire, or the wind, or the

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nrift tJr, or Uie drok of th« lUts, or tbe gre*t Trater,
or the sun and moon, to be the gods that rule the
world" (Wisdom, xiii, 1-2). It is to this igaonuwe of
the true God, coupled with aa inordinate venaratun
for human excellenoe and the love of artistic repre-
sentations appeiUing to the sensee, that St. Thranaa
aacribea the origin « idolatry- White these arc dis-
posiiiTe causes, the oonsummative cause, he adds, was
the influence of demons who offered thwiselvea as
objects of worship to erring men, giving anawers
throueh idols and doing things whioi to men seemed
marvellous (II-U, Q. xciv, a. 4).

These causes explain the origin and spj-ead of
superstition in the pagan worid. Th^ wwe to a
large extent diminateof^ by the preaching ci Chris-
tianity; but so deep-rooted was the tendency to which
they gave rise that many of tbe ancient inracLices
survived, especially among peoples just emei^;ing
from barbanam. It was only by d^rees, through
the legislation erf the Church and the advance of
Bcienlmc knowledge, that the earlier forms of super-
stition were radicated. But the tendency itself has
not wholly disappeared. Side by side with the Ra-
tionalistic philosophy and the rigorous scioitific
methods which ore characteristic oS modem thought,
there are still to be found various sorts of auperstition.
So far as this includes the worship of thmes other
than God, it is not only an essential part, out the
foundation also of the Positivistic sjystem (Comte),
which sets up humanity as the object of religious
wwihip (see PoairmsH). Nor can Pantheian (q. v.),
vHiieh idoitifies God and the wcuM, lead consistently
to any but superstitious practices, however- it may in
thewy diwflftj"* such a purpose. The human mind,
by a natural impulse, tends to wOTship something,
and if it is convinced that Agnosticism is true and
that God is unknowable, it will, sooner or later, devise
other objects oi worship. It is also ngoificant that
just when many sdentists supposed that behef in a
future life had been ilniUly proved an illusifXi, Spirit-
ism (q. v.)> witb its dootrinee and fwaotices, should
have gained audi a strong hold not only on the ignor-
wit, but also, and in a much more serious sense, on
leading i^reeentatives of science itself. This may in-
deed M interpreted as a reaction against Materiafism;
but it is none the less, at bottom, an evidence of man's
restless desire to penetrate, by any and every means,
the mystery that lies beyond death. While it is easy
to c<»aemn Spiritism as miperstitious and min, Uie
craidemnatitm does not do away with the fa4^ that
Spiritism has beotmie widaprcad in this «ge of en-
luhtenment. Nov as in the past tbe rejection of
Divine truth in the name of reason often opens the
way to beliefs and practices which are at once
unworthy of reascHi and dangerous to morality.

Sinfulness of SoPBHSTrnoN in Gkneeal.— Super-
stition of any description is a transgression of the
First Commandmoit: "I am the Lonl thy God,—
thou dmlt wt have strange gods befwe me. Tbou
shalt not make to thyself a graven thing, nor tba
likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or in tbe
earth boieath . . . thou shalt not adore them nor
serve them" (Exod., xx, 2-d). It is also against the
poaitiTe law of the Church, which visite the worst
kinds of superstition with severe punishments, and
agdnst the natural law inasmuch as it runs counter
to the dictates <rf reason in the matttr of man's rdir
tions to Ood. Sudi objective anfnlness is inherent
in all superstitious practices from idolatry down to the
vainest of vain observances, course in very different
degrees of gravity. With regard to the subjective
guilt attachmg to them it must be borne in mind that
no sin is mortal unless committed with full knowledge
of its grievous widEedneas and with full deliberation
and consent. Of these essential faotms tbe first is
<rften wanting entirdy, and the secoad is.only impei^
feotly prespnt. The numerooB OBSes in wmeh tbe

0 supiKSTrnoii

event seemed to justify tbe superstitious practice, \
and the imiversaUty of such incongruous belids and ,
performances, though they may not always induce
moulpable ijpiorance, may possibly (^cure the knowl-
edge and weaken the wiU to a point incompatible
wmi mortal sin. As a matter erf fact, many supersti-
tkms of our own day have been acts <rf grauiae piety
at other times, and may be so still in the hearts of
simple folk.

Special Sdpbbstitigns. — The principal species
of superstition, vis., idolatry, divination, occult arts,
have received adequate tr^tment in other articles. '
Something refnains to be said on CI) cullus indebUus,
or the pious vagaries which people intermin^e with |
CathoUo religion; (2) vain obs^vanoes in dwl^ life. {

(1) Improper wordiip (cullxis indt^fUw) consists in <
introdudnc false or mipo^uous elments into tbe
practice m true religion. Such false elements, be \
thdr origin culpable deceit or inculpable creduUty, ,
vitiate the virtue of relipon by substituting error for ,
truth in the service of God. A layman performing |
priestly functtons. a pardoner selling spurious indul- ,
gences, a fanatic aevotce inventing false miracles and
answers to prayers in order to introduce or spr^d his
own favourite devotion, wholesale believers in super- '
natural apparitions, visions, revelations, which serve '
no good purpose — all these are guilty of superstition,
at least matt^ial. As regards formal guilt, this is
often reduced to the vanishing point by the prevailing
credulity and common practice of the period. The
wOTship of imaginary saints or relics, devotion based
upon false revelations, apparitions, supposed mira-
cles, or false notions generally, is usually excusable in
the worshipper on the ground of ignorance and good
faith; but there is no excuse for those who use similar
means to exploit popular credulity for their own pe-
cuniary profit. The originators of such falsehoods
are liars, deceivers, and not rarely thieves; but a
mildw judgment diouM be pronounced on those who,
aftor duGOvenng the imposture, tolerate the imprc^ier
cultuB. Tot it IS no easy matter, even for the highest
auUiorities, to eradicate beliefs or to check the growth
of devotions which have taken a strong hold on the •
[Wpular mind: the long struggle of the Inquisition
with the Spiritual Franciscans, who, on the assump-
tion that the rule of St. Francis was a direct revela-
tion from heaven, attributed to the practice of pov-
erty an exaggerated importance,^ and cheerfully went
to the stake rather than relinquish their ways, is but
one example among scores that could be dted. Thov
is always the fear of uprooting the wheat with the
tares, and the hope of seeing the improper worship
die a natural death: for devotioni? also have their
changing seasons. The pope and the bishops are the
proper authorities to act in these matters, for to them
belongs the regulation of worship, both public and

erivate, and it is the duty of every Catholic to abide
y their dednon.

The same reflections appfy to another kind of im-
proper worship, the cuUus superfium which consists in
expecting from certain pre-arranged circumstances a
greater efficacy of the religious performance; e. g. to
e:q>ect a greater benefit from Masses said bd'ore sun-
rise with a certain number of candles disposed in a cer-
tain order, by a priest bearing a special saint's name
or being of the supposed stature of Christ. Triduums,
novenas, First Fndi^ Communions, nine consecutive
First Friday Communions^ Saturday fasting, though
they seem to attach enecial imx>ortanre to number
and dates, are approved by the Church, because these
dates and numbers are convenient for shaping and
rfg;ulating certain excellent devotions. The Catholip
devotions which are connected with bcJy places, hofy
shrines, holy wells, famous relics, etc. are cc»iui»mly
treated as sapwst&tious 'by non-CathoUcs who eitbei
reject all mrdiip at saints and rdios m osaume pious
frauds cm the put of the priests who benefit by the

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worriiip. It must be admittod that these haUowed
Bpota and thinsB have occasioned many legends; that
popular credulity was in some cases the principal
cause of their celebrity; that here and there instances
of fraud can be adduced; yetj for all that^ the prin-
ciples which guide the worshipper, and his good in-
tentions, are not impaired by an undercurrent of
error as to facts. If superstition there be, it is only
material. Moreover, the Church ia always careful to
remove any fraud or error inconsistent with true devo-
tion, although she is tolerant of "pious beliefs" which
have helped to further Clmstian piety. Thus, alleged
saints and relics are suppressed as soon as discovered,
but belief in the private revelations to which the feast
of Corpus Christ!, the Rosary^ the Sacred Heart and
many other devouons owe their origin is neither com-
manded nor prohibited ; here each man is his own judge.

(2) Turning now to vain observances in daily lue,
jaopedy so called, we first meet with the superstitions
obsenred in the administration of justioe during many
centuries (rf the Middk ^es, and Known as orowlsor
"judgments of God". Among the early Germans a
man accused of a crime had to prove nis innocence,
no proof of his guilt being incomoent on his aoeiucrs.
The oath of a free man, strengthened by the oaths
of friends, sufficed to establish his innocence, but
when the oath was refused or the required number
of "compurmtors" failed, the defendant, if he was
a free man, nad to fi^t his accuser in nngle com-
bat; bfuidmea and wtxaea had eithv to find a
champion to fight (or them or to underro some other
form of ordeal as fixed by ixw, airanged by the jud^,
or chosen by one of the parties. Besidee the judicial
combat the early German laws recognised as legiti-
mate means to discriminate between guilt and inno-
cence the casting or flrawing of lots, trial by fire in
several forms — holding one's hand in fire for a deter^
mined Iragth of time; passing between two piles of
biinuiv wood with no covering for the body except a
shirt imiffupiated with wax; carrying with the n^ed
hand a red'Aot iron weighing from one to three pounds
a distance of from nine to twelve paces; walking bare-
foot over nine red-hot ploughshares diefpoeed in a line
nine steps long. At the root of tbme and many
analogous pracnces (see Obdsals) lay the firm beti^
that God would work a miracle rather than allow
the innocoit to poish or t^e wicked to prevail.
Tlwse "judgments of God" gave rise to new supersti-
tions, whether guilty or not, peiBons subjected to the
trials would oltea put more confidence in charms,
magic fonnulas, and ointments than in the intervention
of ^ovidence. The ordeals gradually gave way be-
fore the rationalistic temper of modem times; trials by
torture, which survived the ordeals, seem to have
been inspired by the same idea, that God will protect
the innocent and give them superhuman endurance.

The power of the evil eye {^(udrtaiio) has been be-
lieved in for a long time, and is still dreaded in many
countries. The number thirteen sontinues to strike
terror into the breasts men who profess not to fear
God. The apparent Hucceea which so often attends a
superstition can mostly be accounted for by natural
causes, although it would be rash to deny all super-
natural intervention (e. ^. in the pheiKHnena of Spirit-
ism) . When the object is to ascertain, or to flifeet in a
general way, one ca two posdble events, the law of
probabilities gives an equal chance to success and
failure, and success does more to support than failure
would do to destroy superstition, for, on its side,
there are arrayed the rel^ous instinct, sympathy and
apathy, confidence and distrust, encouragement and
disoomi»ement, self-suggestion and — perhspe strong-
est of all-— the healing power of nature.

St. Tboku, Summa, II-EI, QQ. zdi-zovt; Sr. Alpbohbus
Lionow, TkeoL Mar., IV, i, ed. L> Noir (Lyom, 1878).
vadvl ndtea; FmsAJH*, Promvia BibtiMiea, m. v. Suvtntitiof
Bnuc AbnUmbt ad «L, 1894); Tbiuw, Traete dta Svptr-

1 SUPPER

immiiiiil Hudltton, but put on the Index by deoraea of 13 Febk,
170S, and 10 May, 1767); BrjLND. ObMrwtwn* on Popular Aw-
tuptUiet (Lottdon, 1S88) (s daaaic on Endtsh superstition);
QCvwm, iforaUUofo^, I C2nd mL, Padeibom, 1899). See klao
bibUoyphy uadar DmiMiiKHf; Nkiwomawct; Obdbau;
Bfuruh.

J. WiLUELU.

Supper, The Last, the meal held by Christ and
His diBciples on the eve iA His Passion at which He
institutea the Holy Eucharist.

TiMH. — The Kvai^idists and critics generally agree
dwt the Last Supper was <» a Thandar, that Cbist
suffered and died on Friday, and that He arose tttum
the dead on Sunday. As to the day of the month
Uiere seems a difference betwem the record <A the
syiH^tic Gospels and that of St. John. In conse-
quence some critics have rejected the authenticity
of dther acooimt or of both. Since Christians,
aoc^ting the inquration of the Scriptures, cannot
admit coiitru^<:tions ui the eacred writers, vuiious
att^o^ beat made to rooom^ the ^temeafes.
Matt., xxvi, 17, says, ''And m. the first o( the
Ai^ymos"; Alark, xiv, 13, "Now on the filflt day of
the uniejivf'Tied bread, when th<?y sacrificed the

E98ch" ■, L\ikff xvii. "And tlif dsiy nf the unleavened
rejiii fajiip an wliir h it wjuj iifi i'tsiirj' tliiit the pasch
Bhtiulrl be kiH^ t!'". Fniiii thiw piLssiijrc-'! it Mwms
in follfiw tliidl .Ih'SLi^i ;nul his tiiHciplrii fonfnrnifi! t«
the ordinal-}' cuF;k)iii, that thv Loel Supper t<xik pltLoe
on the Htfk ui Nir<a.n, a^d that the (Suoifixkm was
on the ISih, the great festival of the Jews. This
opinion, bcUi by Totet, Compliua a Lapidi.', Psitrizi,
Coring , Mvn^XssAtBteg, OblsltJlllsrli, and Tliolui-k, ia
confirnif^ by th<? f UHtom of the rii (.'hurch,

whiifh, ]ix>l<^nie I'T I'l"-- 'h\y of the iiuint.lii j i Irbrated
(hp romnif'iiK.inLTiim of Uit' Lurii'n h^mi ^uppiT ott the
!4lli of Xiwiii. \vilhout piAjinp; any iitlcntiun to the
day of tho ivtfJi. Tlii* waa done in cotifortuity with
the teaching of St. John the Evangehat. But in hia
Gospel, Rt- Jo!™ BpetnB to indicate that Fridi^ was
thp l-1th nf Niaiin, for (xvEii, 28) on the mommg of
Ihiii thy the "wxot nut into the h^l, that they

might not t* defiled^ hilt that thf^y might eat the
pasch". Various things were done on this Friday
whit^ could not be done on a feast, viz., Christ is ar-
rested, tried, crucified; His body is taken down
" (because it was the parasceve) that the bodies m^t
not remain upon the cross «i the sabbath d^y ^or
tliat was a great sabbath day)"; fbe shroud and
ointments are boui^t, and so <m.

The defenders ol ttus opinion dum that there is
only an apparent contradiction and that the differing
statements may be reconciled. For the Jews cal-
culated their festivals and Sabbaths from sunset to
sunset: thus the Sabbath began after sunset on
Friday and ended at sunset on Saturday. This
style IS anjdi^ed by the ^optic Gospels, ndiile St.
J<um, writing abont twoify-six years aft^ the de-
struotion of Jerusalem, when Jewish laws and customs
no longer preroiled, may well have used the Roman
method of computing time; from midni^t to mid-
night. The word ■aasch doee not exclusively app^
to the paschal lamb on the eve of the feast, but is
used in t^e Scriptures and in the Talmud in a wider
sense for the entire festivity, including the dtagigah;
any legal de^ment could have been removed by
the evenii^ ablutions; trials, and even executions
and many servile worics, though forbidden on the
Sabbath, were not forbidden on feasts (Num., xxviii,
16; Deut., xvi, 23). The word poroacaw may denote
the preparation for any Sabbath and may be the
common designation for any Friday, and its connex-
ion with pasch need not mean preparation for the
Passover out F^ay of the Passover seascMi, and
hence this Sabbath was a great Sabbath. More-
over it seems quite certain that if St. John intcaided
to 0ve a differmt date from that ^ven by the
Qyiwptifle and nnetioncd tqr tha sntoni cf hi* on

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supBna

CSiuroh at Epliemu, he would have said so tcanmiy.
OthoB aco^t the apparent statement of 81. Jomi
that tiie Last Supper was on the 13Ui of Nisan and
toy to reconcile the acoount the Synoptics. To
this class belong Paul of Butkos, Maldonatus, Petau,
Hardouin, Ullemont, and others. Peter of Alexan-
dria (P. G., XCII, 78) says: "In previous years
JesuB had kept the Paaeover and eaten the poisGhal
lamb, but on the day before He suffered as the true
Paschal Lamb He tau^t His diactplee the mystery
<tf the type." Others say: Snee the Pasch, falling
tiiat year on a Frida]r, was reckoned as a Sabbath,
the Jews, to avoid the inconvenience of two suoceesive
Sabbaths, had postponed the Passover for a day,
and Jesus adhered to the day fixed by law: otbere
think that Jesus anticipated the celebration, knowing
that at the JE^ropw time He would be in the grave.
Flaca — The owner of the house in wiiidi was the

iMnmoa or na Cbdbgb or Sum, mnr a MotQua
Oooupyiag the Trulitloiul Sita of the Houw in Jenmlem in
which the ImI Supper wm held

upper room oS the Last Supper is not mentioned in
Scripture; but he roust have been one of the disciples,
since Chnst luds Peter and John say, "The Master
■ays". Some say it was Nioodonus, or Jos^h of
Anmathea, or the mother of John Marie. The hall
was larse and fumidied as a dining-room. In it
Quist mowed Himself aft» His ReeiuTection; h&n
took place the election of Matthias to tiie Apostolate
and the sending of the Holv Ghost: hoe the first
Christiana aBs^:ibled for the breaking of bread;
hither Peter and John came when th^y had given
testimony after the cure of the man born lame, and
Peter after his liberation from prison; here peniaps
was Uie council of the Apostles bdd. It was for a
while tiie onhr church in Jerusalem, the mother ot
dl churches, Icnown as the Church of the Apostles
or of Sion. It was visited in 404 by Si. Paula of
Rome. In the elevmtii century it was destroyed by
the Saracens, later r^uilt and givm to the care of the
Augustinians. Restored after a seoond destnietion,
it was placed in ciiarge of the Frandseans. who were
driven out in 1561. At preamt it is a Mohanmiedan
mosque.

Sbqobnce or Evbmtb. — Some critics give the fol-
lowing harmonised order: washing of the feet the
Aposties, prediction of the betrayal and departure
(H Judas, institotion of the Holy Eucharist. Others,
bdieving that Judas made a sacrilegious oommunim,
daoo the institotion of the saciament before the
departure of Judas.

In Abt.— The Last Sumer has been a favourite
subject. In the catacombs we find repreaentatione
of meals giving at least an idea of the surroundings
of an ancient dining hall. Of the sixth century we
have a ba»4«Iief in the chuieh at Mtmia in Italy,
%piotiuema6|yzlaaoodex<tf the iMirantuD libniy

at flonDQs, and • mosaio in 8. ApoUinare Nqoto
at Ravenna. One of tha most pmnilar pteturet li
that of Leooanlo da Vlnoi in Santa Maria ddle
Grasie, Milan. Among the modam schod of Qsr-
man artists, the Last Siqiper of OeUurdt is reganled
as a masterpiece.

FooABD, Tlu Chrit. Son 0/ Ood, tr. OaimTB, II (LoikIim,
1890), 886; Madams Ceciua, Calk. Sffipten UmauUa: 8l.
MatOmc. n, 197; The Btvo*itor» Ttmt$, XX%linbur^ ISOQ),
514; TMoq. praltUdU OuwMMhrM <1877), 425;T^wm,
DU UMM LAiuUtoe Jetu (Freiburi, 1864), XT; KaAua, OmA. dm
etr. KwM, a. v. AbendmM; atimwtm nm Maria LaaA, XUX
14«; Chvouok in Mtm. da VAcad. imptt. Aetauu it Si.
Mltnhaun. 7tb aer., XLI, p. 87; Viqodboox. Diet, da la BibU
(Pub. 1809), a. w. Chu! Cteod*. whm % fuU bibliognpfay
may be fouad.

Feancib Mbbbhhan.

SupprtMioti of MoBMtariw. SeeMoNasnain,
SurpsBBsioM or.

SupraboMriinlim. See CALvmiBif; Ihvu^

LAPSAftUNS.

Suprraucy, Act of. See England; Oaths,
English PosT-RKroRUATioN.

Supremi dlse^iUiUB, Motu Froprio of Phu X.
[»omul^at«d 2 JuW, 191 1, relating to Holy Days of
obligation. On ^ly Days of precept a twofold
duty is incumbent on the faitliful, of hearing Mass and
of abfitaming from servile work. Owing particularly
to the high cost of living and to the neoeedty of car-
ing in due season for crops, fruits, etc., the discipline
of the Church has tended to lessen the number of
Hdv Days in certain oountriee. Pius X deemed it ad-
visable to extmd this policy to the Universal Church,
thus effecting greater uniformity. Aside, then, from
all Sundays, the d>ligiUion of hearing Mass and ab-
staining from servile work is now ctmfined to eig^t
days: Christmas, New Year's Day or the feast ai the
Circumcision, Epiphany (6 Jan.), the Ascension of
Our Lord, the Immaculate Conception (8 Dec.),
the Assumptitm of the Blessed Virgin (16 Aug.),
the feast of ots. Peter and Paul (29 June), and, fina&y,
the feast (rf All Saints (1 Nov.). Where, howevw,
any of the above feasts has been abolished or trans-
ferred, the new legislation is not ^ective. In the
United States oonsequemtly the Epiphany and the
feast of Sts. Peter and I^nl are not days of precKit
(see Third Plenary Council of Baltimore, tit. Ifi,
0. ii and p. ov). Feasts of pabnms are no kmger
Holy Days (rf obligation. Bishops may, if they
choose, transfer the celebration these patranad
feasts to the folloinn^ Sunday in accordance with
liturpcal laws. If it is deau^ m certain countries
or dioceses to retain as days of inec^ one or oUier
feast abrogated bj[ the Ccmstitution "Bapread
discii^inc", pennisnon must be obtained fonn the
H^See.

There is no longer any obligation, as formerly
in many oountriee, of assisting at the Holy Sacrifice
or t^lhft^iining from servile work on the feast of St.
Joseph (19 March), the Nativity of St. John the
Biqcitiet (24 June), or Ccupus ChristL According
to the preeent Motu Proprio tiie feast <tf St. Joeet^
with an octave, is to be celebrated on the Sunday
following 10 March, unless that date fall on Sundi^;
the Nativity of St. John the Bf^tist on the Sunday
preceding the feast of Sts. Peter and Paul (29 June) ;
Corpus Christi on the first Sunday after Trinity
Sunday. Scarcely, however, was the "Supr^ dis-
oiplime" uomulmted, when (S. R. C, 24 July) it
was modified as fouows: The stdemn eommcmoration
of St. Joseph without an octave ranains on 19 Manh.
The feast <A the Patronage of St. Jbs^, however,
on the third Sunday after Easter is raised to a double
of the firat class, a primary feast with an octave.
LikewMe the feast of Corpus Christi witii itq privi-
iMed oetave is observed as formerly on the Thurwlay
after Ttinilor Sunday, but tlie solemnity of the feast

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SURA

343

STJSPUGE

IB U-anrfored to the foUowiog Sunday. Uturi^oal
queetioQs, to which the above ehanges gave rbb,
were settied by a Decree of tiie Sacred Coneregation
of Rites, 28 July, ISU.

The present Motu Proprio institutes anoth* ink-
portant change in l^psIatMn. As feasting and fast-
ing are incompatible Piua X has abolished the obli-
gation of fasting as well as that (A abstinence for the
Universal Church, should such obligation coincide

ful transformation was juauifesl. Uis vigoroui
mind instantiy gained the ascendancy; his powerful
Toioe and facue oratwy vrm universal attention and
admiration. His pl^uoian declared it miraculous.
Even in writing or dictating his works he seemed
gifted with Divme inspiration. He was healed eight
years before his death and was thencefortii absorbed
in the ainmdance <A Divine commimications. Hit

principal works are: "Catfichisme ^irituel" (Paris,
with any of ^d^t feasts, as above. Acoording to the 1659), published by the Prince de Conti. anony-
"NouvdUe Revue llieologique", Novonber, 191t, by nxiuely: "Fondemoits de la vie spirituelle" (Fans,
- . _ _ . B^- . .i.y j^yj. «cantiqu«s spiritueb" (Paris, 1660); "Dia-

Iwues roirituels (Paris, 1704); "Lettres spirituelles"
muis, 1605). His "Gatdchimne spirituel^' is on the
Index, but with certain modifications soon to be
made, it will be taken from the list.

decree of the S. Cong. vtS t£e Council, 28 Augiist, 191 1»
tJiis dispcmaation is not for feasts already sumwesKd,
like the E|Mphai^ in the United States. The same
general diq>^i8ation from the laws of abstinence and
fosdng is granted by the Holy Father on patronal
feasts, aboushed by tibe iH^sent Constttutkai, should
they be celebrated solemnly and with a la;^ eon-
course of the faithful.

Amdbbw B. Mkbbam.

Sura, titular see in Augusta Euphratenss, suf-
fragan of Hierapolis. Sura, situated on the banks of
the Euphrates, at t^e intersection of the roads from
Palniyra and Beroea or Chalcis, was a military
station^ and at the banning of the fifth centiuy was
the residence of the prefect of the legio XVI rlavia
Firma. In hia second Syrian campaign Chosroes
assaulted the town; the Armenian, Araaces, the
maguter mUilum, directed the defence: when he fell
the inhabitants sent their bishop to Chosroes as an
envoy; but the latter, incensed by the reastance he
had met with, ordered the destruction of the town,
which had held out only half an hour. Justinian
erected powerful fortifications there. Its ruins, of
fittie importance, are near the present miUtary post
of El Hamman, not far from Rekka in the vilayet
of Alei^. Le Quien, "Oriens christianus", U, 949,
mentions three bishops of Sura: Uranius, represented
by his metropolitan at Chalcedon, 451; Marion,
exiled as a Monophysite in 518; and the one who was
envoy to Chosroes, whose name is unknown. The see is
mentioned in the "Notatiie episcopatuum " of the Patri-
art^te of Antioch in the sixth and tenth centuries.

TAiLHi In Schot d'Orient, X (Pftria. 1907), 94, 146; SudTB.
Dia.ofQr«4kandRtmanaeoo.,a.v.-, MOller, Nataa d Ptoiemv,
ed. Didot, I, 98fi; Chapot, La frotUiire tU rSutJiraU d Is am-
futte araiM (Paria, 1907), 286-88 and pauim.

S. PAnuDis.

Suiin, Jban-Josbph, b. 1600; d. at Bordeaux.
1666. He beloneed to the Society of Jesus, and
enjc^ed great cdebrity for his adinirable virtues,
his trials, and his talents as a spiritual director.
Bossuet declared him "consumed with etpiritufdity".
At the suggesticHi of the FathNs of the Provinoe of
Aquitaine, assembled in provincial oongrc^tiaa
(1755), the father genial ordered his name mscribed
in the " MSnologe de I'assistance de fVance". At the
age of eight he took a vow of chastity at ten he was
tauj^t to meditato by a Carm^ite. Having been sent
to Loudim to exorcize certain Ursulinee tormented
by the evil one, he was so horrified at the terrible
sacrileges intended for three desecrated hosts that he
immediately made on offering of his own roirit to
be possessea by demons in expiation for this nightf ul
crime. His prayer was granted, and for more than
twenty vears he was hara^ed by evil spirits, plunged
in the depths of despair over tus eternal damnation.
At times he was unable to use tus hands, h^ feet, his
eyes, his tongue, or was impelled to commit a thou-
sand extravagances, which even iba most charitably
inclined deemed foolish. The wrong impression
under which he laboured at such times caused him
the greatest joy. At no time, however, did this
state of obsession prevent his devotii^ himself to
preaching. It is true he was unable to prepare him-
self for wis by ainr reading or stut^, but on entering
the pulpit and maldng the rign of tJie eroas a woniler*

Booix, VU dii Pire Svrin (Paria, 1870), an abridKmant of tha
Bfe pubUahed by Boudoh (Pana, 1689); db Guilhebht.
JOnolive d*taC.dt J„ AmiiUum d» Avne* (Paris. 1892).

A. PoUIiAIN.

BuiiiU, LAXJHENTiua, hagiologist, b. at the Han-
seatio city of LQbeck, 1522; d. at Cologne, 23 May^
1578. It is not certain whether his parmts were
Qitholics or Lutherans. According to a remark made
by Peter Canisius ("Epistolffi", ed. Braunsberger, I,
36), be was bom a ho^o and was brought into the
Church by Canisiua. Surius studied at the univer-
sities of frankfwtHMO-the-Oder and Colt^e. In the
latter university Peter Canisius was a fellow-student.
Surius also met there Johannes Justus Lan^>erger,
who induced him to enter the Carthusian monastery
at Col<^e, in 1542. The greater part of his life
aft«r this was spent in his monastery, where he
a model of piety, of rigid observance of the rules of
the ordet, and m eam«t work as a scholar; (or these
reasons he was held in high esteem by St. Hus V.
He devoted himsdf chi^r to the domains of church
history and hagiography, and wrote a large number
of works on these subjects. He also translated into
Latin many works, mainly ascetical and theok^cal.
Among these trandations should be mentioned writ-
ings by Tauler, Heinrich Smise. Ruysbroeck^ropper's
work on the reahty of Christ s Flesh and Blood, t^e
sermons of Michael Si^mius, the apok^ies ctf Fried-
rich StaphyluB, and an (uration by Martm Eisoij^^.
He ecHnimted the "Institutiones" of Florentnis of
Hatflon, prior of the Carthusians <rf Louvun, and
edited a new edition of the "Homiliarium" of Charle-
magne. He wroto a^iinst Sleidanus his "Coinmen'
tanus brevis rerum in orbe gestanim ab a. 1500 ad a.
1564" (Cologne, 1566), which was continued by
others. He was also the author of a collection of the
Acts of the councils: "Concilia omnia turn generalia
turn provincialia" (4 vols.. Cdogne, 1567).

His most important and still valuable work is his
oolleetton at the Uvee Uie saints, "De probatis
Ssootorum historiis ti> Al. Ijpomano olim oonscriptis
nunc pnmura a Laur. Surio emendatis et auctis", the
first edition of which appeared in six volumes at
Colognein 1570-77. He b^an a second edition which
was finished after his death by his colleague in the
monastery, Mossnder, who added a seventh volume
(Cologne^ 15^). A third editkm with an improved
text iqipeared at Cok^e in 161S; a new and revised
edition was published (1875-80) at Turin in thirteai
volumes. Notwithstanding Uie liberties taken
Surius with the text of the manuscripts he used, bis
work has rendered great s^^ce and has furnished
many narratives concerning the lives of the saints
that have been published in various languages.

Huflm, Nomtnclaior, III (Sid ed.). 111-115; SjuasBwm,
BOMoOuoaColonientU (Colotne, 1747), 218«q.; At^/emebudaOadtt
Biaaraphie, a. v.

J. P. KiBSCH.

Suzplloe, a large-deeved tunic of half lengtib,
made of fine linen or cotton, and worn 1^ all the cloisy.
The wide deevas diatangubJi it from w rodiet and

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tlie alb; it <UfferB furtiier from tbe alb iiuumueh as

it is shorter and is never ^rded. It is ornamented
at the hem and the sleeves ather with embroidery,
with lace-like insertions, «r with lace. The lace
■hoidd never be more than fifteen inches wide, as
otherwise the real vestm^t is neoessaril^ too much
shortened by this merely ornamental addition. The
surplice belongs to tbe Utursieal vesbmmt in the
stnet smse, wd is tbe vestment most used. It ia
the choir dress, the vestment for proeesdmu, tike
official priestly dress of the lower cle^, the vest-
ment worn by the priest in administering the sacra-
ments, when giving blessings, at Benedicticm of the
Blessed Sacrament, etc.; in the last-mentioned cases
it is the ButMrtitute for the alb, which, according to

ftresent custom, is worn only at Mass and a f«w other
unctions. The blescdng of the surplice by the bishop
or by autboiiied priest is iHY^er, but not strict^
presoibed. As the distinctive sacerdotal dress <rf tbe
lower clergy the bishop, after ^ving tfie tonsure,
places it on the candidate for orders with these words:
"May the Lord clothe thee with the new man, who
is created in righteousness and true boGness after
the image of God."

History. — The time of the introduction of the
flurpHoe cannot be exactly determined. Without
doubt it was oiig^iudl^ merely a choir vestment and
a garment to be worn at {HDcessions, burials, and on
nmilaf occaraons. As a htui^cal dress in this soise
it is met outside of Italy (in EngUmd and France) as
early as the eleventh centmy, but is not foimd in Italy
until the twelfth century. The surplice may have
been used in isolated cases during the twelfth century
instead of the alb in administering the sacraments and
at blesaii^p, but this use did not become general
until the thirteenth century; it ^peared latest
probably in Italy aad especially at Rome, where it
was baldly customary at these ftmctions before the
end of the thirteenth century. Towards the ciose
of the twelfth century the surplice was already the
distinctive dress of the lower clergy, even though this
was not the case everywhere. However, the placing
of the Bun>lice on the clerics after the giving of the
tonsure (cf. above), is first testified by the Pontificals
at the fourteentb and fifte^tb centurka.

"nie name of the surplice ai^es from the fact that
it was worn by tbe clergy, especially in nortbem
Europe, over (super) the universally customary fur
olothinfi; (p^tces). This is stated by Durandus and
by the English grammarian Gerlandus, both of whom
lived to the thirteenth century. The fur clothing
not only led to the name of the surplice, but was
probab^ ^so ^e cause of its appearance. For it is
evidmt that a large-deeved, ungirdled tunic was better
suited to go over heavy fur coats than a narrow-
sleeved, {draed alb. It seems most probable that the
■urplioe nrat t^pcared in France or England, whence
its use graduaUy spread to Italy. It is possible
that there is a connexion between the surphce and
the Gallican alb, an unajirdled litui^cal tunic of the
old Gallican Bitie, which was superaeded durit^ the
CWlovin^^ era by the Roman Rite. The founding
ci tiie Ai^ustinian Canrais in the second half of the
eleventb centuiy may have had a q>edal influmce
upon the spread of the surplice. Among the Augus-
tinian Cwons the surplice was not only tbe choir
vestment, but also a part of the habit of the order.
In addition to the surplice we find frequent early
mention of a "cotta". It is possible that between
the superpeUiceum and the coUa there may have been
some small differrace (perhf^ in lengUi or width),
but moat prc^l>ably these terms were only different
names for tbe same Utur^oal vestment (cf. Braun,
op. eit. in bibliography, p. 142).

Originally the surplice was a full-length tunic
—that is, it readied to tbe feet. In the thir*
tMOth omtuiy it bsgan to be shortened, althou^

in the fifteenth craituty it stall readied half-
way between tbe knee and ankle. lo the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries it became steadily shorter
until it fell a little aoove the knee; in the eighteenth
oentuty, however, it was so short that it frequently
reached only just below the hips. As the length of
the surplice was lessened, the l«igth and breadth
(A the sleeves were naturally reduoed, so that in
this respect also them is a great diffoence between
the origmal surpUce and that of the ei^teenth cen-
tury. More striking than theee mere alteratjons of
use were other changes made in the surplice, some
of which appeared as eariy as the thirteenth century,
and by which its entire shape and appearance was
more or less altered, various forms of the surplice
being produced. Thus, surplices f^peared with
sht-up sleeves (tbus wiw wings of materials rather
than deeves); then surplices wiiioh, bemdes bong
slit iq> on tbe under mde <A the sleeve, were also open
at the mdee, the surplices being thus like sci^nilarB
in form. Also surplices without sleeves, having mere
slits for the arms; finally surplices resembli^ the
medieval bcll-shaped chasuble with only an opening
in the middle for the head — this shape was customary
in the ^xtecnth and seventeenth centuries, especially
in Venetian territory. These variations met with the
dis^>proval of provincial and diocesan synods, but
th^r prohibitions had no permanent ^ect. The seap-
ular-hke band that took the place of the surplice
among Augustinian Canons on non-litui^cal oc-
casions is not a curtailment of the surplice, but a
substitute for it.

Obnambntation. — In the Middle Ages the surplice
apparently seldom received a rich ornamentation.
In pictures and sculpture it appears as a garment
han^n^ in many fold^ but otherwise plain throu^iout.
There is a surplice at Neustift near Brixen m the
Tyrol that dates back to the twdfth (or, »t least, to
the thirteenth) cmtuiy; it is the only medieval
surplice that we possess. This surplice shows
geometrical ornaments in white linen embroidery
on the shoulders, breast, back, and below the should-
ers, where, as in the albs of the same date, lai^ full
goree have been inserted in the body of the ^armsit.
After the lace industry devdoped in the aucteenth
centuiy the hem and sleeves of toe surptice were <tften
trimmed with lace — at a later p«iod, unfortunately,
too often at the expense of the vestment itself. It
apparently did not become customary to lay the
surplice in folds until the close of the Middle Ages.
This custom had vogue especially in Italy, but it
frequently degenerated into undignified straming
aft^ effect and effeminate display.

Braun, Dit lUurg. Gewandunn im OmCdoU u. Mm! (FMborg,
1907); RoHACLT de Fuurt, La Mute, VII (Pub, 1888);

Bock, GtAch. der tittirg. Gcwander, U (Bonn, 1806).

Joseph Bbaun.

Susa (Heb. ]tV6; Gr. ZtOvw, ZoOm), the capital of
the Kingdom of Elam^ and from the time ai Cyrus, or
more probably of Dartus the wint^ residence of the
kings of Persia. It was situated on tbe River Ulai or
Eufeus (Dan., viu, 2, 16; Plinv, "Hist. Nat.", VI, 27),
which was probably a branch of the Choaspes, now
the Kerkha, formerly connected with the Pasitigris,
now the Karun. After an existence of more than fif-
teen centuries the city was destroyed by Assurbanipal
about 647 b. c, but it rose from its ruins, and under
Persian rule enjoyed great prosperity. It began to
decay under the Seleucids, and after the destruction
ci the Sassanid monarohy by the Arabs it was gradu-
ally abandoned. The "castle" (II Ead., i, 1; Dan.,
Tiii, 2), or acropolis, was distinct and eeparated from
the city, thou^ in the Book of Esther the Vulgato
neglects the distinction (in i, 2, 5; ii, 3, fi, 8.; iii, 15;
viii, 14; ut, 6, 11, 12, the "castle'', and not the
dtv, is meant). Here Darius I buOt a vast palace, in
which wider his successor oemrrMl^tha «v«nta naiv

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rated in the Book of Eether. The ruins of Ute acropo-
covering about 300 acres, have been explored oy
Williams and Loftus, and more thoroughly by Dieula-
foy and de Morgan. The excavations have yielded
some important finds, among others the oode of
Hammurabi.

homsK. ChaUaa and SunoM (London, I8S7), 344 sqq.; Diau-
UKWOT, La Ptrtt, ta ChaUtt. tt la SuaioM (Puis, 1887); Idem,
L'AeropoU dt Sum (Paria, 18S3); Jank Dieuupot. A Sv*«:
Anntw dM FimiOM ^arii, 1888); 0> Moroan. DtUgatim tn
Ptrn (Pkris, 189B — Biluusck, Aue (Leipsis, 1893).

F. Bbohtkl.

Snu (Sequbin), Diocbsr or (Sequbienbib),
in the Province of Turin, Piedmont, Northern Italy.
The city is situated at an elevation of about 1600
feet above sea-level, in a wide valley to the right of

^ »

1

CAHPAMtLa or TB> Catbedbal, Sdsa

the Dora lUparia; near by are some valuable mari)le
quarries {verde di Susa). The cathedral, dedicated
to St. Justus and founded by Ulderico Manfredi,
(1029) contains much of interest: specimens of very
fine inlfud vork in the choir stalls; the baptismal
font and the bronze group of the "Madonna del
Roccia Melone" (Mfidonna with the Child, St.
Geoi^e transfixing the dragon, and a knight on bended
knee); in a chapel may be seen the tomb of the
Countess Adelaide, with her statue in wood, an ex-
cdlent example of eleventh-century work. In an-
cient times the dty was called S^^o, and in the days
of Augustus it Btill had a king, who held sway over
fourteen other towns. This king submitted volun-
tarily to the Romans and erected, in honour of Au-
gustus, a triumphal arch, which still exists. Under
Nero the kingdom was abolished and became a muni-
cipium. In addition to the arch, there still exist
the ruins of the Themue Gratianse constructed by
Videntiniui I. Susa bdng situated near one of the
prind[Mtl Alinne valleys was alwa^ a place of great
sbrategic importance. Constantme destroyed it
iiiiUe advandng agunst Maxentius; after the Lango-
bard invasion, the Byzantine garrison remained there
till 593. Later it came into possession of the Franks.
It was captured twice by P^nn and once by Charle-
magne (774), who Iqr a skilful manoBuvre cmnpelled

the Lombards to fall back on Pa via. From that

time it formed part of the Kingdom of Italy. In 942
it became the reeddoice of Ardoino Glabrio, Count of
Susa and later Marquis of Turin, who was succeeded
by Manfredo (975), Olderico (1001), and Adelaide
(1034). The latter having married Odo of Savoy in
her third mami^te, Susa passed into the power <rf
Savoy. In the tirafth century it acquired communal
liberty; though destroyed (1174) by Barbarossa,
it soon rose again, and in 1197 had already
adopted new statutes. In the wars of the thir-
teenth century it sided with the Guelphs, and was a
subject of dispute between the marquises of Saluszo
and the counts of Savoy; it was definitely given to
the latter in 1295. Later durmg the wars of the
sixteenth and ei^teeuth centuries it fell on five oc-
oawons into the hands of the French (1536-62;
162&-31; 1639-42; 1704r-7: 179S-1814); in 1798
the fwtifications omisttuoted by the dukes of Sav^y
were dismantled.

In early days, Susa seems to have belonged to the
Diocese of Maurienne. The Abbey of St. Justus
having been erected in 1029, the aobot had quasi-
episcopal jurisdiction. The Benedictines succeeded
the (>nons Regular, and under Benedict XIV were
replaced by secular canons. In 1772 this prelacy
nttUius became a diocese, and the territory of the
famous Abbey of Novalesa was added to that of
Susa. Tlie first bishop was Francesco M. Ferraris.
Napoleon suppressed the see in 1803, but it was re-
stored in 1817, and its territory increased by the in-
clusion of the Abbey S. Michele della Chiusa. Th«
diocese, suffragan of Turin, contains 61 parishes
with 75,000 inhabitants, and 130 secular and regular
priests; 5 religious houses of men and 7 of women;
3 institutes for boys and 3 for girls.

Capfellbtti, Le Chiete d'llalia; Sacretti, Memorie dtUa
Chieaa di Siua (Ttirin. 1786); Genoi, II marcheaato di Suta
(1891); Bacco, Cmni atonci nt Avighana t Stua (8iia&, 1881).

U. BENioin.

ffirti""*. Saint. See TiBUimus and Sdbanma,
Saintb.

Susanna. See Daniel, Book of.

Buso, Henby. See Henrt Scbo, Blessed.

Suspension, in canon law, is usually defined as a
censure by which a cleric is deprived, entirely or par-
tially, of the use of the power of orders, office, or
benefice. Although ordinarily called a censure be-
came it is generally a medicinal punishment inflicted
after admonitions and intended to amend the delin-
quent, yet it is not necessarily bo for it is occasionally
employed as a chastisement for past offences. As
early as the time of St. C7}rprian (d. 258), we read
of clerics deprived of the income of their charges
and also of suspension from the determined func-
tions for which one had been ordained. We know
also that clerics were sometimes temporarily de-
prived of Communion (Can. Apost., 45; Cone. Illib.,
c. 21). The Council of Neocssarea (Can. 1) in 315
decrees perpetual suspension from all functions for
certain misoemeanours, while the Fourth Council of
Cartha^ (can. 68), by forbidding a delinquent bishop
to ordam, J^ves an example of partial suspension.
Again, the Third Council of Orleans (can. 19) in 538
decrees sun>ension from orders but not from stipend,
and the Cx>uncil of Narbonne (can. Ill suBpends
certain clerics from reoHving the fruits of their oene-
fices.

When a suspension is total, a cleric is deprived of
the exercise of every function and of every ecclesias-
tical right. When it is partial, it may be only from
the exercise of one's sacred raders, or from his office
which includes deprivation of the use of orders and
jurisdiction, or from his benefice which deprives him
<rf both administration and income. When a bus*
pennon is decreed absolutely and without limitation.

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346

SWAM

it IB uDderetood to be a total stupemioQ. A partial
auspension deprivea s olerio of the uae of that power
only which is expressed in the sentence. A cleric
does not incur an irr^ularity when he violates a
suspension imposed fm afwmer truufpoaBtiHaj, beewue
then there is do violation of a censure. Trie same
holds good if he has beoi suspended for some defect
of mind or body not blameworthy. Irregularity is
contracted when a cleric perfonne a solemn act ai
sacred orders, from the use of which he had been
suspended. Thus, if a bishop forbidden to celebrate
Mass pontifically were to penonnsuch a function, he
would not incur irregularity because he does not
thereby exercise any substantial act of Qpiscopal
orders. As the Church can not deprive a suspenaed
cleric of the power of sacred wdets, but only forbids
their use, it follows that acts of sacred orders remain
valid after suspension. On the other hand, acts of juris-
diction become null and void

after asuspended cleric has been i A
denounced by name, because
the Church has power to de-

frive one totally of jurisdiction,
uspension ex itiformata con-
8cienlia has the same effect as
a fonnal suspension, but it is
not inflicted by judicial sen-
tence, but as an extraordinary
remedy, without the canonical
monitions being necessary, and
it is imposed for occult but
grave cnmes.

When a cleric has been
suspended from the income
of nis benefice, it is not the
Church's desire that he be
reduced to actual want. Con-
sequently sufficient support is
to DC given to him, provided
he have no means of his own
and be willing to amend. Even
when he does not turn from his
evil ways, the clerical dignity
requires that he be not suf-
fered to fall into extreme want
or danger of starvation. The
principal grounds on which
suspension is incurred ipso
facto in the jpresent discipline of the Church are
found in the Decrees of the Council <^ Trent and in
the Constitution "Apostolics Sedis Moderatitaii",
though a few others have been added. A cleric
is reheved of suspension, if it was a censure, by the
absolution of him to whom it was reserved in case of
reservation. When it was inflicted for a deflnito
time or under a certain condition, it ceases of itself
when the limitation is fulfilled. If the suspension
was perpetual and decned on account of a former
crime, it may be removed by mere dispensation
the proper authority.

Tauntom, The Law of the Church (London, 1B06), a. v.; SutTS.
Ths ffea Procedure in Crimi/tal ar\d Dueiplinarj/ Cauta (New
York, 1800); Suteb-Mahtiv, Manual of Monl Tluelon, 11
(N«r York. 1908). WlLUAM H. W. FaMMINO.

AND SutkI.

Button, Robert, Venvbabub, priest, nuur^,
b. at Burton-on-Trent; qumtered at Stafford, 27
July, 1587. He is not to be confused with the Ven-
erwle Robert Sutton, who was a companion of the
Venerable William Hartley (q, v.). He took the
degree of M. A. from Christ Church, Oxford, 9 July,
1507, and became Rector of Lutterworth, Leicest^-
shire, in 1571, but was converted by hisyounger
brother William, aft^wards S.J. With his younger
brother Abraham, who matriculated from Hart Hall
in 1S76, afl»d 25, he arrived at Doaai, 23 March, 1575
(1576). They were both ordained subdeacons at

Casabru in September, deacons in December, and
priests in the following Februaiy; having said thdr
first Masses, 7 March, they left for England, 19
March, 1577 (1678). Robert was arrested at Stafford,
and condemned merely for being a priest. He was
cut down alive. After the la^ of a year CathoUos
mamu^ to secure one of lus quarters, when the
thumb and index-finger were found to be intact.
Abraham Sutton gave Father John Gerard the thumb,
which is now at Stonyhuist College.

PouxN, AeU of the Bngliah MoHyrt (Loadon, 1891). 323-6
Icra, BneliMh ttariyrt ISSi-iaOS (London, 1908), 288, 201
Challoxbe, Miuimam Fnttt, I (Edinbui^ 1877), no. 44,
Kkox. Z>otM|r DiariM { lAndtm. 1878) ; Fcwna, AbutuU Os-
omanaM, early aeiMe (Oxford, 1882).

John B. WAmEWRTOHT.

Sutton, Sut RicBABD, co-founder of Brasenoee
College, Oxford, dato of birth unknown; d. Septem-
ber or October, 1524. He was
the younger son of Sir William
Sutton, of Sutton, Leicester-
shire. It is not known where
he was educated, but he de-
voted himself to tite Iwal
profession, became a menw^
of the Inner Temple, and
achieved considerable success.
In 1498 he was a privy coun-
cillor and held the valuable
position of steward of the
monastery of Sion, near Lon-
don, to which house he B^n
benefactions of land. The
chief work of his life was the
building and endowment of
Brasenose College, which he
carried out in conjunction
with Bishop Smyth of IJn-
coln. Their pkms were laid
in 1508, and during the follow-
ing years Sutton bought for its
endowment estates in Mid-
dlesex, Leicestershire, Oxford-
shire, and Essex. These he
formally made over to Brase-
nose in 1519, and in May, 1523,
Sis RicmBD Sirmnr Brasenose Hul and Little Uni-

Fromuancnylns by JohMiFKbor.tlw Elder vCTSity Hall, which he had
leased from the univeratty, were conv»redto the new
ooll^. His oUier benefactions dining life or at death
inctiuted the foundation of a chantry at Macclesfidd or
Sutton, the TnHV''"g of a hi^way at St. Giles-in-the-
Fields, London, and donations or legacies to Corpus
CluTsti Coll^, Oxford, the Temple (wherein he held
high office) and Clement's Inn. London, the monas-
tery of Sion, and Macclesfield Grammar School. He
was knighted by Henry VIII between May, 1522, and
March, 1524. From his will it would seem that in
earlier life he had been of strong Yorkist sympathies.

Churtox, Livtg of William Smyth and Sir Richard SvUon
(Oxford, 1800) ; Inderwick, Calendar tho Inner TVmpI* Rwrde
(London, ISM): Buobak, Brtu*no»e CMw (Oxford, 1888).

Edwin Burton.

Swftn, Obdeb of thb, a pious confraternity, in-
dulg^ced by the pope, which arose in 1440 in the
Electorate U BnuuGenburg. ori^nally comprising,
with Uie Elector Frederick at their head, thirty
gentlemen and seven ladies united to pay special
honour to the Blessed Virgin. It spread rapidly,
numbering in 1464 about 330 members, as well as
branches established in the Margraviateof Anroach
(1465) and in the possessions of the Teutonic Order
in Pruasia. But Protestantism, by suppressing devo-
tion to Mary, abolished the confraternity's roison
(Tetn. la 1843 Eing Frederick William IV (tfPnisBa,
in his Infatuation for the Middb Ages, thou^t of ie>
establishing this onlbr, but this was never more than a

i

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347

infeet. lliftQMDeliduetothefaatthattheinBadMn
mre ft medal <rf the BlesBed Vireiii to iriileh wm
ittAcbed a inran, the symbolic meanrngbebigTarioudy

ioi0pretod>

SBunnD-HXjnia, Da» .

Charlks Moblub.

Smitlfca. See Ceobb and CBuanx, Th».

Sndva, the largeat o( the three Soandiiumaa
(osntriee and the eastern half of the Scandinavian
penEisuIa, lies between 55° and 08" nortii latitude
and 12° and 24° east loi^tude. It is bounded
on the vest by Norway, the SQcager R&ok, and
the Cattegat, on the east by Rusaiaii Finland and
tk Battie. ^Vw map see Dbnhask.) Inehiding the
Uudxtf Gotland and Oland. Sweden has an area of
173^ square miks, of which 73,040 are forest
hud; 15,000, watery ot» 20,000, fanning and gran
hud, while what is leit oonststs of barren und,
moorland, and pasture land. AHhoueh the deration
of the land is on the whole oonsidersbly higher than
that ot Denmark, still the country lacks l^e raoun-
Uioous districts of Norway; it is only in the northern
part that there are found some mountain pei^, as
Solitehima, which rises to a height of 6150 ft. and
gluiOT Buch as g^lf j^. The ground consists chiefly
of primitiTe rock, granite, and gndss, the disin-
legmted parts of which form the soil. In Gotland and
Ohnd chalk also appears, and in Sk&ne ooal ta fcmnd.
No country in Europe, with exception of Russia, has
htgtt lakes than owisden. The largest is take
WeiKni (2200 square miles), the most beautiful is
tbe Wettem (733 square miles) , the one containing the
ceatest number of islands and most frequented w
lake Mfilar. Stockhohn, tiie beautiful capital of Swe-
den, IB situated on the outlet that connects Lake Mft-
hr with the sea. The ooimtir's many, and generally
ivift, rivers not only form beautiful waterfalls, as
l^tdOurttan, Ttennforsen etc., but also contain in
tbor gnat abundance tA water about 5,000,000 horae-
vmr. Lakes and rivers are frequesit^ connected
with one another and with the sea Dy cajials; one of
tbe most important is the Qfita Canal, llie climate
ii relatively mild, especialhr in the southern provinces
aod Gotland. The rainfall is fairly regular. In sum-
ma the days are not only long and bright, but also
nrj warm. In the northern part of 8weden the sun
4o» not set from the end of May until ihe middle of
Ad^. Maturely the wmter is a otunplete contrast to
lu: tar months the land is oowni with heavy snow,
ad the water has a thick covering of ice.

Sndai u very heavily wooded; in the south the
forests consist chiefly of beeches and oaks; in the
tiigher latitudes conifers take the place of these;
wrcbes are found below 69* N. lat. The forests
u^opoi country give shelter and food to large num-
POT of wild animals; besides hares and deer tnere are
un reindeer and squinels. F<Hmerly woItob and
htin were numerous, but now they are only found in
we mort unfrequented parts of the northern provinces
*m win before long dia&{)p(»r. In Southern luid Cen-
tnl Swedrat the same varieties of grain and vegetables
w eohivated as are grown in Germany, Denmark,
ud Korthan France. In dieltered places grapes are
povnashigh as 60° N. lat. and at timet are sweet in
WB latitu^ but are not suitable for wine. Much at-
tntini b given to llie breedioK of cattle and the nudc-
^^buner and cheese. Tdb mines, especial^ at
*f™ivBre, yield a lar^ quantity of fine iron ore. The
TinT and nigh-eea &hing (salmon, cod, herring) has
I*™?*! Isi^ TO^rtions. The Scandinavian ex-
(UDitio&heldm 1897showed the extraordinary develop-
Dot of manufacture during the last hundred yeara.
The nnst v^hiable exports are wood, either in the
^ w woriced, and iron in the <»e or in bars; the

»wra«l vahe of the eaqjort of the fiwt is 200,000,000

krcneD and of th« seoond 100,000,000 kronen: Bni-
ta and cheese to tbe value of about 40,000,000 kro-
nen are exported annually; live-stock, hides^ and fish,
20,000,000 kronen. The value of the most important
imports is as follows: coal, 66,000,000 kronen; all
kinds of KTOoeries and manufactory 50^000,000 kro^
nen; gram, ^,000,000 kronen. 1>ame and oom-
merce are pronrated by tiie numerous oanab and the
excellent roads : by a large number of railways, having
a length altogether of 8604 miles and owned {urtiyby
the State and partly by private citizens; by an excel-
lent postal, telegraph, and telephone system. In
1909 the Swedish mcaMihant marine includea 1800 sail-
ing vessels with 200,000 tons, uid 120O steamships
with 583,000 tons. In 1908 more than 35,000 shtiM
entered w left Swedish ports. The unit of ooimKe is
the kKMie, whidi equab 100 or 1*12 marks of the
German oinnage, and equds 27 cents in U. S. money.
Wdghts and measures loSkm the metric system.

The great majority of the population of 5,500,000
persons consist o£ Swedes (Svtar and Odlar), and cf
people of Danish descent settled in the southern

firovinees who are now Swedish in speech and thou^t.
n tbe north Finns and I«pp8 are found who, al-
though they understand Swedish, still hold to ueir
own customs and languages. Offiaally nearly the en-
tire population belongs to tiie Lutheran St^ CSiurch.
Nevertheless, large numbera are indifferent w have no
belief; the sects are steadily multiplying. The few
thousand Catholics are scattered through the entire
country and regularly organised parishee exist only at
Stockholm, Gothenburg, Malm6, NorrkSping, and
Gefle. The number of marriages (33,000) is in-
creasing, while tbe annual birt&rate chafes but
little. Divorce has become quite frequesit. Emi^r^
tion, however, has declined. As re«trds education
and training, there are five schools of high rank, in-
cluding the two well-endowed universities Upsala and
Lund; a lam number of technical schools, gymmuia,
primuy ana itinerant schools. The natiimal wealth
IS estimated at four milliards; the natiomal debt in
1010 amounted to K!7,000,000 kronen.

Sweden is a constitutional monardiy; the orown is
hereditary in aeoordanoe with the law of primoKeni-
ture. The Parliament oonsiBts of two houses, and the
king has tiie r^t <rf veto. Administration and jus-
tice in Sweden, like the same departments of govern-
ment in England, have retained many German pecu-
liarities. For administration the kingdom is divided
into twmty-five districts, called ketu, each <rf which is
governed by a landahorfding. Justice is administered
by district and upper courts. For ecclesiastioal piu>
poees Siredea is oivided into twelve dioceses, each
containing a large number of parishes; at the head of
each diocese is a bicAop. The primate of Sweden w
the Archbishop of Upsala; the king is the summu*
epiaeojnu. In Sweden liability to military service
lasts twenty years; twdve years are spent in the first
levy (Benenng), eight years in the reserve. The
time « aetual sorioe is short, being barely one year
in most instanoee. Nattu^y the officers receive
a thorough military training. In times of peaoe
the army numbers 66,000 men, of whom 6000 serve
in the oavaby, 7000 in the artillery, 2000 in the engi-
neeroorps. Inwartimethearmycaneasilybedoublea.
The Swedish navy is small but good ; it is o^yused for
coast defence. Its equiiKnent oonsMts of 1000 offieen
and non - commissionea officers and 4000 marines
andsaibrs. The national ocdoors are ydknr and bine.
The battleflag is bhie with a vellow horisontal oross
that runs out into a tongue; the two blue seotions of
the flag likewise end in ttrngues. The flag of the mer-
chant marine is square, blue in colour with a yellow
horisontal cross. There are several decorations of
honour, the hi^est being the Order of the Sera^im.
The Oraer (rf CharleB Xfil is only intended for Free-
mafltnu. The prMsat Kfaig of Smdoi is Guitainii T,

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34S

wbo WBs bom 16 Ji^, 1868, and ia a member of the
Bemadotte family; in 1887 be married Princess Vio-
toria of Badm.

Qpmieii by ihe Topograph iral Cjjrri.-] : NATfU'iJ^T. ,'^i-ifi-ijjrii fftnloei

the ffUfltry; N'TSTtuui, .Si-mflr. gr-iurifi (Stockholm,
Hi'NtiaEKtf. S\'>-Hi!f^ f.KiJ fn-A JaUc <atop[tbeiliii, IBOl)^ UiM.
tlnli'l. ii-inilhiirii: Scerinhi TurMfareniiuitni Hftthandhix^l-tr
^Slnpkhi.lni, 101)1!, pappiiioJly yol, IV, Suwd-a: ^Ti'nvfal TvrUl'

SlOfkliiilnir Ci>nlaiDiiij! many lIlUatratiniL.*; .S'r^jMfra T\iTiiUff)TJr\.-
inatnx Affr-irUti r i 18^7^1; SrYn-'t, .•itiitifi'mriM* unvJ'rirarrii-

run I riliiiliiifi Ut tiiytivrii'ii]
JM(rB.phv: ('.'. ■"-■I I'.-f 0Mirnrtjfjjtf >r.^fi.fi'-<-i lrril;itu i./rf

SwniH ^'nl.-. mJeit. SkinkLolui, llS5(M5it(; Cl^i'iiDAliTNh^ii,
Monlurkr fiihrlmr Durrii Si^iiiKli'uivmi nocfl St. }'-.lcri.Lur^i. [
(FreiburK, IS'.HI.i, ;i7-"j-2-l^ Injutd 'jf Sweden; Wittminv, Fiihrtr

boliii. i-Ji i>, Willi .■} srimll n)ii]'!",

EocLBsusncAL HiSTOBT. — Nothing positive ia
known as to the religious ideas of the prehistoric in-
habitants of Sweden during the Stone and Bronze
Ages. It is hardly possible, however, to doubt that
they believed in a life after death, as they were accus-
tomed to offer sacrifices at the graves of their dead,
and to place in these graves the weapons, tools, uten-
sils, and ornaments of those there buried. Their re-
ligion was an ancestral worship. Light or its chief
repesentativej the sun, ai^iears to have received as
IV-deus, equivalent perhaps to Zeus, the veneration
<H a divinity. This is shown by two symbols derived
from the Stone Age, the wfa^ and uie axt. Subor-
dinate to this may have been a form of worship paid
to individual trees, springs, rivers, and lakes, as stiik-'
ing natural phenomena, which is not entire^ extinct
even yet. For example, sacriiicea are offered in
"fairy-mills" (d^ibwirTiar), and despite attempts to dis-
pel superstitions by the schools the belief in house
spirits and forest spirits is still to be found here and
there. Great fires are still kindled about Easter time,
just as was cuBtomaiy thouaanda of yean ago. At a
later date than that abovB-maiti(mea the sun-^od was
regarded from varyii^ points of view and received
various names. This led gradually to a number of
gods : Thor, Odin, and Frey, or Freyr, However, Thor,
not Odin, always remained the chief eod; he was the
god of lightning and of strength. It is indeed as-
serted that the worship of Odin came from the South;
this, however, is oonUradicted by the fact that his
KTeatest teiiq>le stood in Upaala, and that the Scan-
dinavians were the chief worahippers of this god.
Among the Germans Wodan, as he was called by
them, was treated with but little respect; this is espe-
cially true of the tribes of Southern Germany. More-
over, the Scandinavian mythology, as it has come
down in the two Eddas, is totuly lacking in unity
and is in part influenced by Christian ideas. Bloody
wcrifices, senerally animals^ as horses or dogs, were
<sB.mA to the gods to oonciliate them ot to gain gifts
from them. At times human bongs were sararifioed,
as bondsmen, freemen, and ev^ kings, who in the
literal sense of the word were killed with the sword.
Those dedicated to Odin were hung in his groves.
Once in nine years the feast of tbe equinoxes was cele-
brated with special and horrible pomp. On each of
the nine days of sacrifice at least one hiunan being
was killed, besides large numbers of animals. Dozens
of bodies often hung from the trees. A distinctsao-
erdotol <nder aeenia to have bom unknown, and the
chi^s of tjie tribes offered the aacrifioee themselves.

The first contact with Christianity arose fnnn the
expeditions of the Vikings. In this way the Scandi-
navians became acquainted with , and learned to appre-
ciate, the higher civilization of the southern races;
some of the northern warriors were bi4>tised. Thus
oadually the ground was prepared for the seed of the
Qo^)d. Hie first effort to convert the country to
Chnatianity was made by the Frank, Anse;ar. At
ttie nqpiest of Swedish nobles he was comipiasioned

by Idle Bmpflror Louis the Pkms to go to Sweden and

reached the oommercial town of Birka in Maelarsee
in 630, aft«r a hard and dangerous journey. Here
with the consent of King Bj^ he preached zealously
for m<»e than a year. Twoity-throe yean later Ana-

Sj", who had in the meantime become Archbishop of
amburg-Bremen, returned to Sweden, and hy his
shrewdness and gentleness overcame the hostile ef-
forts of the worshippers of the heathen gods. His
Buooessor as uchbishop^ Rimbert, also sought to oarty
on the work of converting the Srandinavians. How-
ever, internal turmoils and wars soon destroyed what
the two pious men had built up. It was not until the
b^pnniiu of the eleventh century that the Church »•
sumed the work. Gwmau and En^Ush nusaioaaries
ocmqMted with one another in preaching the Word,
and not without results. In 1008 OUf Skfitkonung
was baptized by Siegfried atHusaby in Western Got-
land. ^ But the Church made very slow progress. In
the reign of King Stenkil a diocese was founded at
Skara. In the reign of Ynge the Old, the new faith
gained the mastery. The English nussionaries David
and Eskil, the German missionary Stephen, and the
Swede Botvid preached chie^ in oodermuilaDd.
Vestmanland, aiid Norrland. The firat^entionra
died a natunU death, the others gained the crown of
martyrdom. Still heathenism muntained itself for a
long time in isolated spots in the vall^ ammg Uie
mountains.

Natural^ the leaven of the Gospel penetrated the
hearts of the battle-loving warriors very slowly, and
the majority of the baptised wero only half Chris*
tians. Their knowledge of relish must have re-
mained very limited on account of the lack tA print-
ing and of schools. The secular clo^, and later tlie
monks especially, sought with praiseworthy zeal to
raise the neophytes to a higher spiritual and moral
level. They opposed with growing success drunken-
ness, violence, polygamy, ud the e^qwsure of chil-
dren. A second diocese was establiidied at Link^ing
in the rei^ of Sverker the Old. Both here and in tibe
monastenes (Alvastra, NydaJa, Vamhem, etc.) prom-
ising youths were instructed in religion as wellas in
secular knowledge The lack of the written word
was supplied by zealous preaching of the doctrine of
salvation. The poor and sick were tenderlv cu^
for. Chriatian festivals took the place of the heathoi
ones, and the oiganization of the Chureh made r^d
pn^esB. The first national synod was held atUn-
kopmg in 1152 under the presidency of the pwal
legate. Bishop Nicholas of Albano, Soon after tnia
Upsala was made the see of a diocese; its first bishop
was an Englishman named Henrik. Before long he
joined a crusade to Finland, remained in that country,
and was killed for the Faith. In 1164 Pope Alex-
ander III raised Upsala to an archdiocese and placed
the Swedish Church provint^ under it. As early as
the national synod just mentioned the collection of
Peterspence was sanctioned; the power of the Church
was still further increased when m 1200 Sverker the
Younger freed the clergy from the secular jurisdiction
and made the payment of tithes obligatory. By the
decisions of the national synod held at Skenninge in
1248 the influence of the bishops became greater stiU.
At this synod the election of the bishops was trans-
ferred to the cathedral difv>tera, the study of canon
law {uid the ri^d observance of the law of celibacy
were made obligatory, while the synod also released
the entire cleri^ body from taking the oath of lay-
alty . to the secular authorities. In 1281, during the
reign of Magnus LaduUs, the clei^ were released
from the payment of taxes, and thus was laid the
foundation of their too abundant possessions which
were only in part ^splicd to good purposes, such as the
building and adornment of churches and the founding
of schools and homes for the needy. Birgitta or Bri^t,
the fbuoder vi the Brigittine Order, labouxvd during

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the rdgn of King Mugmia EViksaon; she also ex-
erted influence as a writer on n^stiaJ aabjeets, eead
died at a great age at R(»ne during the lattW [nrt of
the fourteenth oentoiy. At a liner date she was
oanonind.

He dvil wars which wasted tiie eotmtiy for hun-
dreds of years were alike injurious to faith taui morals.
In the course of time the possesnons of both nobility
and cler^ became very neat; consequently Mar^
garet, queen of the united Scandinavian countries at
the end of the fourteenth centuiy, found it necessary
to confiscate a part of these l&ndfi, which frequent^
had been gained doubtful means. On the other
hand there were also exodlent princes of the Qiurch,
as for example, Archbi^op James Ulfsson, for whom
nuty be claimed the honour iu>t only of ostablishing
the first printing press in Sweden in 1483, but, what is
more, that of founding the University of Upsala.
The last CathoUc Bishop of LinkAping, Hans Brask,
also showed much abUity and was as seakms in his
^iscopal duties as in his promotion of learning. How-
ever, the great lack of the true Apostolio spint among
the other Church dignitaries is sMwn by tlie fact that
Archbidiop Bengtsson and Bishop Carisson led troops
against their kings. In addition, Biahoo Hemming
Gkd did everything he could in 1500 and the following
years to overthrow the union of the three kingdoms,
and then made oonunon cause Tith the Danes, while
Archbishop Gustavus TroUe, who was a strong wp-
porter of the idea of unity, was d^osed on this ac-
count bv the Swedish nation^ oounod. This last pro-
cedure led to the interference of thepope, an act
which though just was ill-timed. The viotmious
King Christian II was guilty of great cruelty to his
former foes, large^ due to the influence of Arohbisfaop
Treble, and this made the Church very unpopuhu-
among a lai^e portion of the population. Oonso-
quenuy Gustavus Eriksson (Vasa), who was elected
king in 1523 on account of having incited and led a
sucoessful revolution against the doniinatkm of Den-
mark, found Why ojdy too well prepared for the
overthrow of all religious conditions.

The first r^resentative of what is called the " ideas
of the Reformation" was Olavus Petri, the aoa of a
smitJi, who was bom in 1407 at Orebro. He was a
pupil <rf Luther at Wittenberg and xetunied home in
1519. As cathedral canon at StneognasB he won
over to his opinkMis the ardideaeoa Laoientius An-
dreas. Very soon the new ruler saw how advantage-
ous it wiMild be to him if he were able to crush the
power of the bishops and to confiscate the lands of the
Church. As early as 1524 Gustavus Vasa broke off
the official cotmexicm of the country with the Roman
Curia and permitted Olavus to preach the heretical
princiries of his formw teachra open^ in the chief
(ditvoa of Stockholm. Frdates who hdd strict^
to the Faith, as Bishop Peter Jakohnoii (Sudimd-
wftder) and tiie cathedral provost Knut of VftBteris,
were accused <A treason anci executed without any fur-
ther l^al process. At a diet at Vaster&s three years
later Gustavus Vasa was able, by skilful dissimula-
tion, to obtain the passa^ttf laws which made him the
gummue epUcojnu of the Swedish Church and brought
the Church into helpfess subordinatioti to the State.
In order to dupe the peo|^ the Mass, veneratioa ot
BftintSf and pilgrimages ware not discontinued at fint,
ecdeaiastioal vestments and eeiemonies were also re-
tained almost without change. But at the same time,
the king and the nobility [q>propriated as much of the
Church limds for themselves as was possible, taking
twdve thousand laive peasant farms. Even the sa-
cred utensils and bells were seised by Vasa. Many
monks and nuns were driven out of their monasteries;
a nuxnber, including all the members of the Fraacis<
can monastory at Raumo, wwe killed under drcum-
■taacea (rf great crudtjr. In order to win over the
pomitted to many, and a great ef-

fort was made to win over the oomnMMi pei^ to the
new doctrine by translating the Bible into the vemao-
ular. The attempts of the DaleoarUans and Sm&-
JftndcrSiWho held to the Church, to chedc tfaer^ud ad-
vance of Protflstantism was defeated with bloodshed.
The iQOHt prominent leaders of the Catholic party,
Bbbop Brask of LinkOping, Bishop Haraldsson of
Skara, "Lagman" Ture Jonsson, and others, were ob-
liged to flee. Nils Dacke, a peasant of SmUand, who
for some time suoeenfully led his countrymen against
the king, was finally killed in battle. At a second diet
held at Vfister&s in 1544 near^ all the feast days were
wuppnmed and all Catbdio customs excepting a few
were done aw^ with. The declaration was also made
that the oountry would "never again abandon the
word of God ana the pure Go«pd"-

The two chief reformers of Sweden were Olaf and
his brother Lars (Laurentiua). Gustavus Vasa had
made the latter Archbishop of UptsaJa after the flight
of the last lawful bishop, J<^ Magni. lliree years
before the second Diet of Vtlst^^ the two brothers
leU into disgrace with the king and were condemned
to death; however, upon the payment of a large fine
they w^ pardoned. They were replaced as coun-
cillors of the princely tyrant by two Germans, Kon-
rad o( Pyhy and Geon Normann, until Konrad was
also sent to pristm. Tbs skill and succcm with which
Gustavus "purified" the Church is shown by the fact
that, although originally almost penniless, at his
death he possessed 1,300,000 thai era in coin (about
16,250.000 at the present value of money), and 5000
large farms. This landed property was aftermrds
called the "Gustavian patrimony". After his death
ecclesiastical matters remained for a time as he had
left them. However, his son, John III, who had mar-
ried a Cathcdio prinoess, Katherine Jagellon of Fo>
land, was strongly inclined to the Catholic Church.
At the diet held m Stockholm in 1577 he forced the
Protestant clergy to consent to a new lituRv iR6da
Bckm) and new ecclesiastical regulations. The neea-
tiator for the papacy, Antonio Possevino, S.J., was
evea able to persuade the monarch to enter the Catho-
lic Church and to begin negotiations with the pope.
As, howeva", the pope could not consent to the Swe-
dish demands, no pwmaoent agreement was made.
After John's death his brother Charles called a diurcfa
aawwnbb at Upsala in 1503 which was large^ com-
poeed of pveamos (135) from the Diooeee m Upsala,
while the other dioceses were only scantily repre-
sented. The members of the assembly repudiated
Jt^'s Utxugy and, in order to avoid all dissension, the
"unchangfioT Augsbuig Confession" was made the re-
ligion of the State. Severe puniabmeat was the pen-
alty of ^>ostai|y from it, while the exercise of any other
form of worshm was strictly forbidden. In the Prov-
ince of Finland, just as in Sweden, Protestantism was
introduced by force; it was not until towards tbs end
of the sixteenth century, however, that there w»e no
longer nuns at Vadstena and Nftdendal and that
Catholicism came to an end.

In this period the intolerance of Protestantism was
80 great that Sigismund, son of John III, who was also
King of Poland and a Catholic, was not allowed to
b(W Catholic services in inivate, and the exiHikion of
all uMk-Luthoaos was deseed. After Sigiamuiid'B
overtiiivw in 159S and deposition in 1599 a number of
the nobleet men of the oountry w&6 executed on ac-
count of their loyalty to their king and their Church.
Draconian laws were to put an end forever to ' ' popery ' ' .
Conversion to Catholicism was punished with
loss oS all civil rights and perpetual banishment.
Foreign ecclesiastics who remainwl in the country to
cany on a iKopaganda were to be punished with se-
vere in4)riBonment and heavy foiea, and even to beex-
pdled. Condltioiw did not become better until two
hundred years later when, in 17S0, Kins Gustavus III
at the request of the EstHtes granted m free exerdit

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of their nligion to "CfariBtuns of other faitfai" who
desired to settle in Sweden for the sake <rf oanryinc on
oonuneroe or manufactureB. In ooneemuDOe cf tJus,
Rome in 1783 appointed a vioar Apoitono for Sweden,
who, however, oould effect but little, aaup to the year
1860 natives of Sweden were forbidden to enter the
Catholic Church under penalty of expulsk)n from the
oountni'. Since the year 1873 members of the na<
tional Church who are over ei^^teen years of aee may
join other rehgious aooietiea. All proeelytixinKOjr the
diBsenten is forbidden. Moreover, thwe still exist &
■nies of ji^ling enactments, whum have lately been
multijdied, so that there is very little actual religious
freedom. According to the hto^ interpretation of the
Constitution Christians of all faiths may be appointed
to all offices, excepting the Council of State, but this is
not carried out m practice, and in this regud no
change will be made within the near future.

Those desiring the history in detail of the devek^
ment of the Lutheran State Church <rf Sweden will
find it given very exactly and with oomous foot4M>teB
in the excellent work of the Anglican Bidwp of Salib-
bury, Dr. John Wordsworth, quoted in the bibli-
ography. It is only necessary to remark here that
nadually new life sprang up from the ruins of the
Catholic Church oraamiation. The University of
Upeala was revived and another university was
founded at Lund; in these schools as well as in a num-
ber ot sees men excellent in thdr my earned od
fruitful l^KMirSf misrions to the heathen were begun
in Sweden earher than elsewhere — for example, the
missionB to the Laplanders and the Indians. How-
ever, there was no lack of strife and sectarian move-
ments in the Church (Pietism, Moravianism^ Sweden-
borgianism, etc.)j since the middle of the eighteenth
century Rationalism and InfideUty have assumed for-
midable proportions. Freemasonry is strong in Swe-
den, and amon^ its members are many clergymen,
diuTch dignitanee, and evm bislK^. The majority
of teachers in the tuKher schools and many preachors
TQject belief in the Irinity and regard Chrigt simply
as a sage and philanthropist. Even the instruction
for connrmation is at times made use of to sow the
seeds of doubt in youthful hearts; matters have gone
so far that a bishop declared, without exciting much
oppositun, that the Apostles' Creed was unneoessary.
The nundwr of the unb^itised is oonstantiy increas
ing. Attendance at church and at the CommunicHi
service (8 per cent of the normal attenduioe) is rapidly
declining of late years. Among many intense love of
pleasure and unbridled sensuality prevail. Notwith-
standing^ the practice of abortion in numy places, every
third child is illegitimate. These things tead many of
the better classes to join the sects, among which the
largest memberships belong to the Methodists and
Bwkists.

The number of clergy grows omtinaal^ less, and
those who still hold to the Confesaton of tiie State
Church are hampered in thejr efforts to maintain
religion by the fact that theur energies are largely
absorbed by matters of secular administration. Conse-
quently the men who courageously fight for their con-
victions deserve all the more credit, even though Uiey
are at the present opponents of RcHne. It is due to
them that of late far more than foniMriy efforts luive
been made to renovate aH the churdieB, and to buiM
new ones, and to improve ehuroh musio and religiouB
art; as regards the uturgy, a desire to revive the old
forms has of late become apparent. Much is done for
missions both by the State Church and by the fol-
lowers of ValdenstrOm, who, notwithstanoing their
separatistic inclinations, work in union with the State
Church in this mattn-. The various missionary asso-
ciations labour among the heathen in Soutii Africftt
the Congo State, India, China, and Japan. In Fake-
tine the effort u made, with but di^t suooeaB, to
Mi«the ^'pure Gospel" to Roman CathoBn and Or-

thodox Qxesln. The same effort in Abyssinia is de-
feated by the aooservatism of the Coptic Qiristians.
Missions are also sstablished for converting Jews and
Mohammedans although little has been aooomplished>
On the other hand, home misswns and work among
the Swedes, espeoiaUy in America, have made consider^
able progrees.

lur«-<, XlX (Loodoo. OaSoid. Uitwuikee, ISll}. 4S9'; RKimd»-
DAHU .S'rrujka Kyrkan* kitl. (5 vote., Qer. ti., Berlin, \S37)tgom
back Ui Cohmxudj^ Sntuka Kyrkaru Hid, efirr nfarm^

Honen (UpHia. 183A] ; Tbxinbh, ScA-IMSMii. inn* Stillung mm B.

U tiiat H la Suidt, I (Puia, 1906) i Ashbt. IUdtav till bitkirp
Hha* ithUJt* bt/naiUtdbnipur ClBOtJi BuHtcnaT, Hen frufeM
RarUkn^k^mMm i Jneripe luujtr nudtHiden Dui>-
bkrO, Bvtrnt tiil SMUtka. /oUiglag^iflniTigena hisi. (Ifiga.]; HjLU^
ffidras im MimWcwn om CietrrrienMrarfien i Steriti* (1S99);
I-rcyBBSG, Do jtiMlB Uortr^nf hiilaria HSK))^ ^moiTMSlf
Ar6oca KTOnika [2 toIh,. ]StS?-&'S) ; Idhu, Hasina Biiffiffa <lB»5f ;
FM.VIONT, AniMr BireUtr iJf SuVe <Pjiiw, Hi^irca. Cw

KM. BiTi'Uta von Schwedrn (Muniet, lh91J ; HtiaiTi, IWtJtna,
Onbrro, Alrailra (ISftO); BcKfcK. O^tiot Ptlrt {Sltu^choiia. IdOOJ:
LuTNOQCiar, Det rtanorlisll {ulha-ata KvrttmiflmAtt OcA ttktttna
I Sttriai, witlt ibe HupcfJeiiieoi, Den fcvntlua g^dUjni-ien wtd
KiirkeAta. (JBSOj : Rcnlciuk, &taiittitka ttvdtat rbmdi .SmiuAd

iEvr^dBST}; TTrwurBfi " \ i rTm \ iwimi ■iif Titlnmf*

(1863): RODas. De 5B«n«b Pif rriftififlniinii iiiifiliiMii. tCutftrngmK*

JJt'inimra (1873^), [iiMiii. Fi I III I lin I riiiii 1 1 iii wmuL

HLN^ ,ViMWM(idi)ifl04 for ianiga nAimiaaa', Idem, fftidhtVom. for
tiomf miMdonR; AvKKWTEnr, Ijpgala tLnitertilett hiUeni (S Ttllfc,

U90a— JK Qslrxn, Vp^ii wiittrfiUt IltTt~lS07 i\W7)\ Vfirt-
Mjtsa. WiUiliurstT JtOchrr in litr k. (cAuctf. VnnerriUtMbliaUuie

PotancAL HiaroBT. — It wiU probabW never bepoa-
sible to detoToine when Sweden was first inhabited.
However, the large number of objects found by exca-
vating iiutif y the bdief that several thousand years
before Christ there were people living along the sea-
shore (Baltic, Catt^at) and by the lakee to whom Uie
use of metals was unknown. With constantly in-
creasing skill th^y manufactured weapons and uten-
sils fnHD bom, stone, and clay. Their only food was
gained by hunting and fishino. The raising of cattle
and agriculture seem to have oeoome customary very
slowly. The dead were buried either in a recumbent
or sitting position, in curiously formed stone duun-
bers over which at times mounds of earth of consider-
able aise were raised. Scientific men do not agree as
to the (Migtnal home from, which the prehistoric in-
habitants of Sweden oame. It seema hudfy ixi^MMe
that they all spread &om the south to die north. StUl
this may be true of the inhabitants of the present
Provinces of Sk&ne, Blekinge, and Halland. The
Stone Age at last gave way to the Age of Bronze.
Some two thousand years before our era men learned
how to fuse ooppOT and tin, as is proved by great num-
bers of utensils, as knives, daggers, swords, and
shields that have been fnaemd, which were some-
times Toy ingeiuous^ made. Gold also b^an to be
used in this period. Bronae was gradual^ replaced
by iron. Roman tradere brou^t into the country not
only articles produced by Roman skill in art but also
gold coinage. Up to this time the people had tried to
preserve l£e memory of important events bv primi-
tive marks {haUrUiningar) scratched on rocks; they
now learned from the Roman traders the use of let-
ters, but turned these to suit their own taste into the
Rimio writing that was long in nae. The eariieat hla-
torieal knoinedge of Soandmavia and its inhabitanta
w due to Rc»nan antiiors. Tacitus (Qermania, o.
xliv) is the first to call the people "Suiones". How
ck>sely this tribe living north of Lakes Wett^ and
Roxen was related to the Ooths living to the south
and west, and how it. was able to absorb the lattw and
give its own name to the oomlKined body will alwagn
remain obeoure.

About the fifth century of the Christian era the civ-
ilisation of the country had greatly advanoed; thia
is proved Inr numenua remains of gold utensilir Ofii^
msnta, nmM Btmes with inaoHptionSpburial urns, and

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other articles. Just as in the later Bronze Age, the
bodies of the dead were sometimee burned, some-
times buried; however, the latter custom had the
greater prevalence. The Swedes had only a small
share in the viking expeditions which, from the eighth
century onward, were the terror of the peoplw of
Europe. Besides, in their expeditioDB they gained a
firm Kwthold in Fmland and also came into closer con-
nexion with their neighbours the Russians. The first
e^orts of missionsriea to convert the Swedes to Chrift*
tianity occurred in the ninth century. It was not
until about the year 1000, when Olaf ^dtkonui» was
baptised by the Anglo-Saxon missionary Siepried,
that Christianity was fairly established. Olaf 's family,
of whose deeds little is known, died out with Emtma
the Old (1060). At that time the Kingdom of Sweden
included only the present northern provinces, while
Sk&ne, Blekmge, and Halland belonged to D^unark
and remained united with this cftimtry for centuries.
The vast forests were lar^y the cause of the indi-
vidual development of the tribes, who were separated
from one another by them, raidering a comroon ad-
ministration for all much more dimcnlt. As roads
were ladcing, the rivers and lakes were used to connect
tiie different parts of the country. In r^ard to the
government the election of the kii^ customary in
earUer times gave way to a settled succession to the
throne. Naturally the machinery of government in
the modern sense did not exist. Everything de-
pended upon the initiative and force of the ruler,
whose commands might, indeed, not be oarried out at
an or only in part by the great officials or jar2i. The
various provinces had each its own laws {&g), and the
li^men, or expounders of the law, exerted much influ-
ence. They were often able to make their office
hereditary. The provinces were divided into hun-
dreds {hdrrads) at the head of each of which was a
hdfding, whose chief duty was to maintain peace and
ord^. For a long time the father of the family still
remuned the master within his house. The petnde
were divided into the hidio* and lower freesnen (oom-
b&nder and &0nder) and tne serfs iMUar), and generally
lived to^ethtf on farms or in villages. The houses
were built of wood or clay and were covered with
shingles or straw. Even at this time, however, there
were larger places with occasional stone buildings, as
Skara, LmkSping, Orebro, Straengnaes, Vester&s, Up-
sala, Sigtuna, a^, at a little lat« era, Stockholm,
which rose rapidly into prraninenoe. The national
chwacter sho^red sharp omtrasts: hanimeae and gen-
tleness, loyalty and deceit, magnanimity and revenge-
fafatesB. No obsover doubts that the gradual um-
provemeut in public morals was due to the influence of
the Church.

After the old ruling family was extinct a chief
named Stenkil was chosen kin^. He was connected
with the former rulers by his wife who was the
daughter of Emund the Old, and was an ardrat sup-
porter of Christianity. Dunng his rei^ the first dio-
cese, Skara, was established in eastern Gotland. How-
ever, as the actual Sweden {Ujnmear) still held to
heathenism, rival rulers appeared, and for more than
twenty years internal strife prevailed. Finally Inge,
the second son of Stenkil, was able to defeat his oppo-
nents and bring about a complete victory for Chris-
tianity. With the death of a nephew, Inge the
Youni^ in 1125, the fami^ of Stenkil came to an
end. Toe East Goth Sverker, who miuried In^'s
widow, was able for a time to re-estabhsh the unity
tliat had been disturbed, but his son Charles could not
maintain himself. On the other band Erik, a Swede
from the northern provinces, won universal reeooii-
tion. Erik undertook a crusade in Finland and after
bis return was killed in a battle (1160) with a Danish
pretender Magnus Henriksaon. In the following year
Magnus was killed by the people. Svccker^ son
Qianea (Attained the aBoeodenoy, but he had to ghre

way in 1167 to Knut Eriksson. During Knut's ad-
ministration the first Swedish money was coined and
Stockholm was founded. After Knut's death Sver-
ker Karhscni, the soiMn-law of Birger Brosa, Knut's
chief oounMllM', obtained the throne (1195), although
Knut had Wt diildr^. Birger owed this success to
the clergy, whom he favoured on all occasions. A war
broke out between Knut's sons and Sverker after Bir-
ger's death; Sverker was obliged to flee, and when he
sought with Danish aid to regain the throne he suf-
fers a deoiaive d^eat in 1208 near Falkoping. Two
years later he also lost a battle near Gestitrsn, when he
waa lolled. His Baeeeasful rival £^ Knutsarai, the
firstKingof Swedaitobeon>wned,diedin 1216. He
was followed 1^ John Sverkersson, at whose death in
1222 the family of Sverker became extinct. Erik, the
poethimious son of Erik Knutsson, now came to the
throne, but he proved an incompetent ruler and was
for a time deposed. By the marriage of his sister
Ii^^eborg with the vigorous Jarl Birger of the Folk-
imger family he sou^t to gain Birger for his cause.
In 1249 Birgw wim FinlamT which never before had
bem conqua«d, for Erik. While Birfjer waa in Fin-
land Erik died, and the nobles of the kingdom elected
Birger's son Waldemar. During Waldemar's min-
ority his father carried on the administration with
success and skill, maintained good relations with the
adjoining countries, and sought to preserve peace at
home by wise laws. His son Waldemar, who ruled
fn»n 1266, was very unlike his father and had, there-
ion, to yield the acuninistration to his mum strenuous
brother Magnus, later called Ladul&s.

Magnus was me first to call himself "King of the
Swedes and Goths'\ He continued the work of his
father, was able to protect the common freemen (all-
mogm) against the encroachments of the higher no-
bility, and in 1286 was able to gain the valuable is-
land of Gotland without a Uow. When Magnus died
in 1290 his heir Birger was a minor: the lord chamber-
lain, Torgil Knutasni, cairied on the govemmoit ex-
odlentiy and without self-advantage. Aitet Birger
himself came to power Torgil oontinued to be his most
trusted adviser. Finally t£e king's brothers were able
to so arouse Biiger's suspicions of Torgil that he seized
and beheaded him without trial in 1306. Punish-
ment for such a shameless act did not fail to foUow.
Left without his one true friend, Birger was made a
wisoner by his intriguing brothers and lost his throne.
The unfortunate quarm between the brothers ended
apparently four yean later witli a settlement whraeby
Birger received a part of the country. However, he
misnsed the power he had regained to obtain reveiig;e,
and allowed his two brothers to die of starvation in
prison. At this the indignant people drove him from
the throne and elected Magnus {1319), the three-year-
old son of the late Duke Erik. Shortly before this
Magnus had become heir to the throne of Norway; by
the deatii of his childless relative King HakiHL When
in 1332 MaBius came to jMwer he had Uie c^ortu-
nity for the first time to unite temporarily the Danish
Provinoee of Sk&ne and Blekinge with his kingdom.
His reign was marked by many misfortunes; in par-
ticular, the pneumonic pjague carried off two-thirds of
his subjects. Although the king did much for Swe-
den by mtroducing common law and suppressing serf-
dom, yet he was hardly able to maintain himself in his
own eountry, still leas in Norway, especially as he
came into disagreement with the vow. He found
hitaBdf obliged to recognize his son Hakon as King of
Norway (1343) and to accept his son Erik as co-r^nt
of Sweden (1356). After Erik's death he reigned
jointly wil^ Hakon over both countries. By Hakon's
marriii^ with Margaret, the youthful daughter of
Kiiw Waldemar of Denmark, the way was prepared for
the future union of the three countries.

Diaoontent with the powing power of the king led
the SwediA ndto to revi^ aomst Maaraajukd o'

agamst Maom andcmcr

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the crown to Duke Albot of Meoklenburg, who was
able, witn the aid of German ruling princes, to over-
throw Magnus and Hak<m (1364). Howevo-, as
Duke Alb^ was obliged by aneements made before
election to leave unpunished the ^^test exoeeses of
the nobles, while the brutahty of his vassals and mer-
cenaries aroused universal intugnation, it was resolved
to elect Margaret Reg«it of Sweden. In 1375 Mar-
garet had folbwed her father in the government of
EUngdom of Denmark, and in 1387, after the death of
her son Olaf^ had been reccwnized in N<Mrway as the
fully authorized and rightful ruler. Albert was de-
feated by Margaret's army (1389) and was taken
prisoner. For a time his adh^^ts continued the
struggle for supremacy as pirates (the Vitalians), but
GoBSy, in 1395, Queen Margaret came into poeseesion
of Stockholm. Before this event the nobles of all three
kinedoms at an assembly held at Calmaif 20 July,
1397, had crowned as king of the united kii^doms a
boy of seven years, Duke Erik of Pomerania, son of
Margaret's niece. At the same time it was settled
how the "Union" was in future to be carried on. On
account of the great difference in interests and char-
acter of the three peoples it is evident that the Union
could never attain tgsA strength. As long as Mar-
garet ruled, which was only for fifteen years, every-
uiing wmt smoothly. A woman of great twnta and
masouline energy, she personally superintended the en-
tire ^vemment, saw to the prompt administration of
j\istiee, and sought to increase the power of the Crown
at the expense of the nobility; her one mistake was
that she granted the Danish element too much influ-
ence and thus estranged the Swedes. During Mar-
garet's last years Erik b^an to share in the gov^-
ment, and it was owing to him that a kmg war broke
out with the CTounts of Holstein. His attempt to
wring a tax from all vcflssls passing the Oresund made
the Hanseatic Le^^e bis enemy. Only the ability of
his wife, Philippa, the daughter of an English noble*
man. prevented Copenhagen from falling into the
hanoB of the enemy. Under Erik's autocratic rule the
internal government grew worse from year to year,
and the growing discontent of the people found vent
in bloody revolts. Under the leadership of Engel-
Invchtsson the Dalecarliana drove away alt the Dan-
idi supervisots and chose a bead of their own (until
1435). The nobles alone for the time being held to
the king, but they sought to weaken his power by
means of agreements, and as Erik did not keep these

Eromises, allegiance to him was declared to be no
n^er necessary at the Diet of Arboga (1436) and
Charles Knutsson was elected as administrator or
stadtholder of the kingdom. Although the demo-
eratie Engelbrecht was murdered soon after this, yet
the dTorts to reconcile king luid people had no lasting
success, and Erik was deposed in 1439. He ^so lost
the crowns of Norway and Denmark. Denmark
elected Duke Christopher of Bavaria king; he was
recognized by Sweden in 1440, and later by Norway.
The chief event of lus short rei^ (1440-48) was a
famine. The condition of the peasants also grew
worse. His efforts, however, to establish a settled
flode of law are very creditable to him.

After Christopher's death the Union fell nqiidly to
pieces, as the Swedes dected Charles Knutsson, who
nas already been mentioned, as king, and the Danes
and Norw^ians Christian of Oldenburg (1448). In
1457 the latter was able to obtain his election in Swe-
den also, but he could not make any headway against
King Charles or Sten Sture the Old, the successor of
Charles in the administration of the country. Chris-
tian I was followed in Denmark by his son Huu
(1481), who gradually gained reoognitjon in Norway
(1483) and Sweden (1497). When, however, be was
defeated in a battle with the Dithmarsohen, Sweden
again abandoned its allegiance to him (IfiOl) and on
the death of Stra Sture the Old in lfi03 the SwedM

made Svante Sture the adminiBtratw d the country
(1503); after this Utter's sudden death in 1512 the
government passed to Sten Sture the Younger. The
son of the late King Hans, Christian II, now sought
by arms to force Sweden to re-enter the Union. In
this policy he was supported particularly by Arch*
bishop Gustavus Trolle of Upsala, against whom the
hatred of all the friends of Sture was naturally ii-
reoted. The Danish troiHiB which landed at Stock-
holm in 1517 were soon defeated and driven back, and
tiie next year Qiristian's tioops suffered a still severer
defeat at Btfinnkjn'ka. The national Swedish party
deposed and imprisoned the dignitaries of the Church
without any r^ard to canon law, consequently the
pope excommunicated its leaders, placed Sweden un-
der an interdict, and commissioned King Christian to
carry out the punishment. Early in 1520 King Chiia-
tian sent a lai^ army into Weston Gotland, tad after
sucoessful riurmisheB the Swedes were overwhdm-
ingly defeated at Upsala. Stockholm alone held
out for a time, but wnen Christian, approached the
city with a strong fleet, it was obliged to surrender.
The conqueror had been recognized by a part of the
council as king before this; he entered the city in state,
was able to obtain homage as hereditary ruler, and
was then crowned. Unfortunately the adherwts of
the Union were not content with what had been at-
tained; Archbishop Trolle demanded the punishment
of his enemies, and Christian made short work of
these. Bishops Matthias of StreengnGes and Vincent
of Skara, ana a lai^e number of nobles, councillors,
and citizens were executed as proclaimed rebels and
heretics, and their property was confiscated. While
on his return to Detunark the king had various persons
executed^ hoping in this wajr to suppress the spirit of
insurreetion forever. In this he was mistaken.

In January of the next year a peasant insurrection
broke out in Dalame, which spread rapidly. Qua-
tavus Eriksson (Vasa) became the leader of the in-
surgents, who soon numbered 15,000 men. Vasa had
lost his father and brother-in-law in the slau^ter at
Stockholm, and had been taken prisoner at Brtenn-
kyrka as the chief standard-bearer, but had made his
escape. His strength grew as leader of the rebellion
throu^ several f ratunate skirmishe^ and as he suc-
ceeded in winning over the influential Bishop Hans
Brask to his cause, a popular assembly at Vadstena
apptnnted him stamhotaer of the kingdom (1521) ; two
years later he was unanimously elected king at Stnen-
gnffis. He gained Stockholm and Calmar during the
summer months of 1523, and Oland and Finland also
acknowledged his sovereignty. At the same time
his position was by no means a favourable one, for he
lacked the monety to meet the most neceasanr at-
Tpenaea, while the constant civil wars had largely de-
stroyed the sense of order and respect for law. The
bishops were powerful and wealthy l(nrds and only par-
tially satisfied with the new conditions; neither could
mucn dependence be placed upon the nobility.' Gus-
tavus, however, was never at a loss for expedients.
By means of clever dissimulation and deceitful prom-
ises he was able to make the citizens and peasants his
adherents. The introductioa <tf Luth^ 'b doctrines
not only freed him from the tutelage of the bishops,
but in particular offered him the possibility of gaining
control of the Church lands and ti^asures. As the
nobility also gained large sums by this confiscation,
community of interest bound them to their princely
ruler. Resistance, wherever shown, was crushed me>
cile«8ly, generally by foreign mercenaries. Gustavus
repaid the knralty of the Daleoarlians, to whom above
w he owed bis success, by the execution of their best
men. He was an unusually powerful man of coarse
instincts; in old age he married for his third wife a
very young woman, and had little interest in higher
moral «ms when they were of no benefit to his prac-
tioal sohemm. For schools he did not care «t all, and

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he aDmred the (hw mdvoflity, Upsala, to idiik mtoile-
eay. The preachers frequently reoehred men pit-
t&noea, and in many cases stood on a low moral and
intellectual level. On the other hand much was done
to improve agricultm«, mining, and commerce, as
well as to strengthen the defences of the country.
However, the monarch gave much more thought to
his own advantage than to the welt4>efi^ of t£e na-
tion. When he died in (1500) he waa the ncliest prince
in Eiuope.

Among the later rulers of Sweden only one was a
Catholic, Sigismund; two princesses of the royal fam-
ily, Cecilia Vasa, daughter of Gustavua I, and Chris-
tina, daughter of Gustavus II Adolphus, became
converts in their later years. The nation was perma-
nently separated from Rome, consequently it is only
necessary here to treat the later history of the coun-
try very briefly, especially as during the period oS the
"great powers it is closeb^ connected with that of
Europe. The sons of Gustavus Vasa ruled Sweden
from 1560 to 1611. Erik, the first to come to power,
was half-crazy, was soon deposed by his brother John,
and died in prison. On account of mental deficiencies
Magnus never came to the throne. On the other
hand Vasa's youngest son. Duke Charles, who had in-
haited both the good and bad quaUties tA his fa&er,
was able to drive nis Catholic nephew Sigismund from
the throne and to leave it to bis son Gustavus II Adol-
phu8, whose share m the Thirty Years War was of
such faivreaching importance. The conversion to
Catholicism of his daughter Christina was of as httle
political importance as the earher conversion of the
most beautiful of Gustavus Vasa's daughters,Cecilia.
Cecilia was the ancestress of the CathoHc heroea, Mar-
nave Leopold William and Louis William of Baden;
aiB outtived all her hmtbetB and Bisten and died at
Brussels in 1637.

The guilty family of Vasa was succeeded by rela-
tives who were descendants of the Wittelsbach Pala-
tinate famiW (1G54-1718). The successful warrior
Charles X Gustavus reigned only six years. During
the reign of Charles XI a lai^e part of the earUer ter-
ritoritu possessions was, lost: the imprudence and
recklessness of his son Charles XII almost ruined Swe-
den, although at firat he gained some temporary and
brilliant successes. These two kings ruled as abso-
lute monarchs and cut down greatly both the rights
and possessions of the nobility. The succeeding
kings, however, Frederick of Hesse and Adolphus
Frederick of Holstein Gottorp, were limited in their
sovereignty by political parties (Hats and Caps).
Gustavus III (1771-92), son of the last-named sov-
ereign, restorea the former splendour of the mon-
archy, but was assassinated when barely forty-six
years old. During his reign the first breach was made
m the rigid system of the state Church. His son and
successor Gustavus IV Adolphus (1792-1809), of
honourable but obstinate character, was naturally not
the one to direct state affairs skilfully in an era of
universal upheaval. He was deposed by a military
conspiracy (23 March, 1809). His uncle and suc-
cessor, Duke Charles (King Charles XIII), sou^t to
secure peace for the country by the surrendw of ter-
ritory which he could not hold. As he was childless,
he first adopted Prince Christian Augustus of Augus-
tenburg ana, after the sudden death of this heir, the
French marshal, Jean Bemadotte, who accepted the
election as crown prince and became a Protestant to
secure the succession to the throne for himself and his
descendants. Even durii^ the lifetime of his ad^ted
father he wis the real ruler. As the representatiTe of
the interests of his country he came into collision with
his former protector Napoleon, joined theallied powers
m 1812, and sent 30,000 men to the Army of the
North. After the battle of Leipzig he led ms troops
(of whom he had taken great care) against the Danes.
Domark was made to sign the Treaty of Kiel (1814)
XIV.— 33

in which it yielded Norway to Sweden. The unwill-
ing Norwegians only consented undo- pressure of dx-
cumAances, and their differences with Swed«i wen
never fully settled. Finally, in 1905, the Norw^an
Storthing proclaimed the independence of Norway,
and Sweden had to consent to the separation.
Conditions in Sweden have greatly improved under
the new ruling family, althou^ friction, especial^
at first, arose between ruler and people. Jean Ber<
nadotte reigned as King Charles XIV John (181S-44).
Especially prosperous was the reign of Oscar I (1844-
59); bis wife Josephine, a Cathuk: princess of Ba-
varia, was univ^^lly beloved on account of her chari-
tablenees. During the reigns of their sons Charles XV
(1859-72) and Oscar II (1872-1907) the country de-
Y'cl'p'^'i cr'?;r.ly iu nil dtrecfions, ffTitv^i-ilIv rf^canJa
liu]i!ii:\-il iitid n.'ligious frcedoiTK (iacSir l] was jl

^intinguished author. The prcaent king k OuBtaru*
V Adolphus.

brtftorm f»jim Siucimmm mtiii oti {a mtk, tfptal%_iail^
1838, 1876); SmM ZXphMMlnrium. JjUwuOai mad BiuB-
BUKDp t-Vm (8kwkbolgn, ISStHIOOa}; SMtaka Aitertinb
pfTDommtibrnr frin odi vwd £r SS9t ffrircJtvj^ mil ondi/nM^
nfmmh^ (BuHdibotu. lw6-T»tgHwrtnirii>iMtaBiBhiftgt ffi^^
bssiLiift> fw tbft yMti Ja31~17U. AoaOiiufeiiuL by wicMKih

WsEBETLt., rlr. OKocUxriiB^lSTTHftDT «d., revtant anUrnd,
and wiLh more thu 3008 IhiiiliiihiM, Haanmuni (BtadEMtOh

HuAUBfLLini, Srtriet4 »tdHiid (VnrpM.. iw-^tK^ OaasMi,

Lirubi^k iOdmmlamdth huiaria: Hn.DEBiuini, nriMd a4l
vupii: pt, I (1907} MvBta heu,th«n ami QiUumlc tfvnadttjgLU
tl90H) ttwtoperiOTWilWtlittintrodiKtfonofPtOWstmtisBUWiW-
HAEfH. Karnr Afifisi dtr idmd. OtMli {Bm^. isM), EnTfra,
Sknmti^Tien unUff uFt^MMUto '^iQUadtib 1981); BMUs.li,
GuMbtt Vana (Stockholm, IWt.iehuC Vom idrur ISIovk^

holm, 190n;ODWiio,(?MBrpHMmCaiwaJFM^
Baden -RodfwmteAgrTt (StndOlCi^ IBH^; WCVWIiaQKir. V^"
fiAuian CteiHa, GmlaJ WamilUmiiiit^tu3maJlrei/tna'. .^,

BiaLq,M^iagiiOdminntlUfitnaltnirigaiuhisiana under Gwttifl,
(18B3); CHnrttCui, Sttngas kutoria. tmrfcr Ountaf it. rrgtrvia
(nvate., »too^bobn,18aT~n}iFcnu«u,fiiwhr//.jU<4^
tir tm. ia9i};ST>VBno«. Gv*ta/ II. Adoif. Hana vvimt&Mddk

u'ldfT kaiHiti itf woo— tattt in ttrm, H*imdal» folk»-

ikrijtfT, xjJCUi, sxKiv (ISUDr &raDB£N, Kari XI. fck Meruit*
JoliM p&iiaat Hd (Stooltholm, lsf>51-, lora, Kart XII. «ck fmu
w4n [18991; CAiiw>?t \yi> VrFmKm, Sfrnstt hiumi vdJiP
jttfAunpm^ a/ FJdUitka huiel (3 roLa., Sttx^kooEu, 18&5~19lQ>$
SiW^NOW, f^^hnilidiM (tioUicnburr, 1B98>: InEair Kenutw
<nuU4 III. (ibid., 1901); OoHNfib, Sarrigtm prAHUha hUima.
unJrr kanttnf/ Gwlaf Illf rryrring <2 voh., StwTchoIrn, ISS^WWlj
fit: f [ = i!n NPT.^H, /.! ^ri-i -.ffrnr /^l^v,^Kllr (I'iin«, IBl I);
^ANDbiuiiE'.N, Tiil Aiiilnrim om t(<vithT<}l/iiinaln i SKfrije iudd
(1893); Alu^Nj AUen BemadoUe (1B93); Nordlund, Dm
wtensh-nonka krwm (Upaata, 1905); Setterwall, Stentk. hitt.
biblioQTafl (1907). includins the yean 1S73-1900; HMoruk
Tidtkrift (Stockholm, 1881 — ), 30 vols., in no renilar order, cod-
tainiDx bUtoric&l material from early tunes until the Bereadotto
famiW ascended the throne, also criticisms of works On Sweden.
For further biblioBTapby see Dakuiann-Waitk, <}iieIleAJhiiH[«
d«r d«ulwAen Ofch. (7th ed., Gfittingen, 1906).

Abt. — Even as early as the end of the ancient
Stone Age, probably a thousand years before Christ,
the people of Sweden showed a desire to 'mprove
the shapes of utensils in common use, as is evi-
denced by the discovery of numerous utensils belong-
ing to this loiw past era. There was a steady im-
provement in Uie forma of tools, especially of the
axes. Vessels of clay were not only adorned with
grac^ul designs, but at times they were also orna-
mented with more or less Wilful drawings of animab.
In the Bronze Age the swise of beauty rapidly in-
creased; weapons and ornaments (rings and diadems)
reached a high degree of correctness and beauty, al-
though in part this was plainly due to the influence of
foreign skill in art. On the other hand the represen-
tations of the human form showed decided chunsiness
ftn- a long time. In this period use was also made of
the higher metals, gold and silver, especially in orna-
menting the we^wns for defence and attack. The
weapons were first made of bronze and afterwards of
iron. Apparently articles made of glass were brought
from other lands. The Runic alphabet was Gnt em-
ployed in the early Iron Age; the runee were cut on

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memorial otonea that had been formerty without in-
acriptiooB. During the era of the Migrations and of
the vikktg expeditions the esthetic sense of the Swe-
dish petite developed as they became acquainted with
artistic models; this is shown espedally in the orna-
mental work. The final victo^ of the Romano-
Christian civilisation e^^tod aprotound influence upon
teclmioal artistic skiU and the tendencies of art.
Ahbmigh goldsmiths and armourers were still held in
faj^ repute, and the memory <rf unusually skilful
masteTB was preserved in song, neverthdess from now
on art was above all employed in the service of reli-
gious ideas. The royal palaces and prinoely dwellings,
which were chiefly built of wood, nave (usappeared.

In Norwa;^ a nimiJber of the old wooden churches
are stiU in wostence^ut in Sweden on^ the unassum-
ing little chapel of Hedared, situirted oetween Borfts
and Alingsfis, has withstood the storms of time. On
the other hand there are a number of tasteful stone
churohee in various architectural styles and some-
times very interesting details such as doorways, ar-
cades, tabernacles etc. Some, as the Romanesque
cathedrals of Lund and Linktemg (Transition Period)
and the Gothic cathedral of Upsala, fall but little
below the celebrated ardiitectural works of more
southern coimtries in size and splendour. Among the
churches worthy of notice are those at Skara, YSs-
ter&s, and Str&n^nfis; the monastic churches at Vam-
hem and Sko (Cistercian), Sigtuna (Dominican), and
Vadstena (Brigittine) , also several churches, which are
in good condition.as the Ty^Kyrkan or the Church of
Uie Vugin at Vi«nr, and some preserved as ruins, es-
pecially on the I^bnd of Gotkuid. The majority of
the coimtry chinches were built in the Romanesque
period; many of them were altered later during the
Gothic era. At times the churches are round in
shs4>e with remarkably heavy walls; apparently they
were used when occasion required for purposes of de-
fence. A number of churches, as those at R&da,
Rif^e, Arboga etc., were adoruM with frescoes,
which wm aftorwards covered with whitewash. Of
later years the whitewash has at times been re-
movea and the pictures thus exposed have been skil-
fulhr renovated. The churohee were also adorned
with stone and wood carvinKs, such as images ot
Christ, of the Madonna, and the saints^ carved altars,
bt^tismal fonts, of stone or metal, rehquanes, hang-
ing chandeliers and standing candelabra, chalices and
patens, costly ciboriums, monstrances, and ostenso-
ries, i^ocessional crosses, censen, cngaiu, bells, Bupert>
vestments, etc.

Fortunt^«ly, notwithstanduw the thorough "puri-
fioation of the Church " undertaken by Gustavua Vasa,
enough remains to show that in Sweden also during
the Middle Ages there was a sense of pious sacrifice
and of purifiecTart. As everywhere else the effect of
what is called the "Reformation" was at first de-
structive, and for centuries nothing new of impor-
tanee was produced in the domain (» ecclesiasticafart.
It is onty of late years that a more and more marited
change for the better has appeared. Here and there
altars of Catholic origin have been brought from old
lumber-rooms and garrets and restored to their
former }>laces. Mosaic work is also used. A con-
tinually increasing number of orthodox pastors make
use of embroidered vestments in the^ services of the
Church and there are signs of a ritualistic movement,
which, however, is energebieally attacked by the Lib-
eral and unorthodox clergy.

The development of secular art since the twelfth
oenbury does not he within the province of Uie present
article. Instead of building churches Protestant Swe-
den has very largely erected castles and citadels; these
have been filled with weapons, gorgeous furniture and
table equipments, ancestral portraits and pictures
on pan^ ; on sMiulchres, hig^-sounding epitaphs
wore tKHnman. In isolated inBUnoes artists ham

ventured to represent BibUo^ sobjeota. There is do
Catholic art; the poverty and small memberahips (rf
the Catholic communities forbid tlie aioouragement
of such an art. Still the Church of St. &ik in Stock-
holm is a well-decorated building. The other Catho-
lic churches, as St. Eugenia at Stockholm, those at
Gdteborg, Malmd, etc., have been able, in the course
of time, to obtain better vestmuits and utensils.

Mdntkucb, KvUuraeuA. Sehwtdau (190S), with 640 cuto:
HiLDKBBAND, Kvrklioa kontUn wndv 8vtrige$ mtdMd (Znd
ed., Stookholm, 1907, with 300 outa); HAUutn, Bidng till
tdr odlmfit hajder, umtinustion by Saun, Fttahmm (1881);
BerostbAii, MtiitUidmdlnin^na i Arboga-ttadthirka (1808);
WunaXL, Ci*tereienitnuu tnfij/landt pd mttUtideiu bymna^
tkoiut i Smtw* (1899); Inni, T^MrtiUklurtn i Norm
Bvropa oeh Uppaaia Damkt/rka in AnApt. TitUkrift far 3t«rl0»
(which dvci OD p. e further suthorities), d«L 15, no. 1; JtJtam,
UeddticUmiAwrt frin OtUrgMand (Stoel^ofan, 1908) ; VutaOnima
of aldr* kurUic kofut /rdn SMtwwla tUfi; Mtalogw of tiM Mm*

O: CoBMAM AMD RooavAL, SMfiam Kyrktr: ErUn^uatdra
n (UpaalK, 1912), fasc i;
remplum Cathedral* Vaitmmu (1888), oootuna Moounta
of other cburobea — Orben, Slcenniiige, etc; Ripa. Vadalmia
oek d*M MinruMNdrJkm (18S3); LiNMmfiM, AittPekninav om
Gotiandt mtdeUid, I, II (1892, 1895); Hilqcbsand, VMy oeh
dfu minnnm&rkm (1803); STEmif, Rtmantka mSkyrkor i
(MtroMandtrna mad tirikiU hOnim UU uimika JOrhdUandmt
Q901); UpniABx, Die ArchUtktvr 3tr JUnaiuoMX w Sehwedtm
(1897—). LnoludM the yeara 1530-1700; NrSLOy, I7pMla
univeriiuta koTUttamiinoar (1902); Hamxlosen, t^tUtbrngtm
i SiMkholm; Bukrifyiiing % ord oA bild BfMr aUmdrma Jtenit
oek inditmnuUialtniitam (1697); Bnrpus, Th« CaUuMt t/
Nortoajf, Svedm, and Dmmark (New York, 190^.

LrTBRATURB. — In pre-Christian times there was
no real literature in Sweden as neither written
lan^xiage nor runes came into use until quite a late
period. The oldest known writing of a historical
character, the so-called "RAksten" from East Got-
land, appeared probably about the year 900. It re-
counts in alliterative verse the heroic deeds of a king;
later inscriptions have also the same theme. It may
be assumed with certainty that there were songs of
gods and heroes that were orally preserved, but of
which next to no traces now remain. The first to
arouse the intellectual life of the nation were Catholic
priests, especially monks; in doin^ this Uiey both
praictised and taught the art of writing with mtenae
ene^. ,Th^ wrote chiefly in the language of the
Church; in all countries these Latin and excluaivdy
religious works are very similar and therefore wiU
not oe considered h^. Gradually, however, the lan-
guage of the people came more and more into use for
Eteraiy purposes. It became a sm^iceable instru-
ment for the expression of higher ideals and noble sen-
timents. Thus the way was raepared for a literature
in the Swedish language. The eariy writings in
Swedtdi were very largely practical. Thus iba cur-
rent conceptions of law were brought together into
codes of law in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, as
the "Vfistg5talagen" and "Ostcotalagen", the "Up-
plandalagen" and "Gutalagen". A treatise of the
thirteenth century called "Om styrilsi Konunga ooh
hOftinga" gives rules for right living. The "Revela-
tions''^ (UppenbaTeUer) of St. Birgitta (d. 1373),
^oh are at times very extravagant in style, have
been translated into many languages. Of the writ-
ings o( Magister Mathias, cathedral canon of - Link6-
ping and father-confessor of St. Birgitta, there is still
m existence a translation of the Bible, besides several
sermons and edifying treatises.

The first connected accounts of historical events
were two chronicles in rh^e, the ohronicle of Erik
and that (A KarL The ttret relates in doggerel the
quarrels of the Folkunger family up to the year 1310
and gives, in particular, a vivid deemption of the ac-
tions of King Magnus Ladul&s. The other chronicle
covers the era, 138^1452. Poems of imitfinary ad-
ventures and French metrical romances, as " Ivan and
the lion", "Fleur and Blanchefleur", were imitated
in Sweden, and history in a romantic garb, as the l^end
of Alexander or that of Duke Fredmck <^ Normimdy
etc., was also recast by Swedish writers. AsoneoftlK
most important of these early poets should be men.

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tiiHied BiAap Thomas ISmoctMoa of StrfingnAa (d.
1443). He wrote an account in fairly ^ood verae of
the national horo Engelbrecht, and tn his songs
praised the virtue of loyalty and the blessings of free-
dom. J6n8 Budde, a Brigittine monk, who was by
birth a German, prepared while living first at Vada-
teoo and then at N&dendal, Finland, various versions
of aaoetio works, Hvee of saints and similar treatises,
and also translated several books of l^e Bibl& aa Ju-
dith, Esther, Ruth, and Machabees. Feder MSassoq
wrote tex1>4M>okB on mining. Bishop Brask of Lin-
kdpiDg wrote two works now lost; one a chronicle of
his diocese, issued in 1523, the other a genealogy of the
Swedish nobility (1530). Lastly many remioiscenoes
of the heroic and Catholic eras are still found in the
FoUtviaoTTM (foUcHBoags). Acoounts of the five peri-
ods oi Protestant Swedish literature may be found in
works on the subject. Mention should be made h^
of John Messenius. autiior of "Seandia iUustrata",
the chronicle <d a oishop, and various dramas. He
was impriaoned for twenty years on account of Catho-
lic tendencies and on his death-bed openly joined the
Catholic Church. He left a work in manuscript
called "Hertig Carkt Slagtarb&nk" (Duke Charles's
Shambles), now in the royal library at Stockholm,
which, although perhaps somewhat too severe and at
times exaggerated in tooe, describes the Uoocty pose-
oution that Catholios who were faithful to kmg and
Church suffered from the cruel father of Gustavua
Adolphus. It should also be said that Erik John
StagneliuB (d. 1823) belongs with Wallin and, in part,
Tesner, to the foremost Protestant poets of Sweden;
in his drama "The Martyrs" Stagnelius produced a
work which is of value particularly to Catholics.
Naturally there is nothing to be said of a Catholic'
Swe^^ish literature of the madem oa. The missionr
ariee, howevco-, have not been idle. Besides pray^
boolu^ contemplative works, and catechisms, tnc^
have issued several apt^ogetio works, as Gibbons in his
"Vira faders tro" (Faith of our Fathers): also Ham-
mfflvtein, who has written "Edgar", and devotional
treatises (pAtlolAsa), and has been a successful trans-
lator of Latin and Goman hymns into Swedish.

ScsOCK-WABStma. lUuttrmd ntruk LUtrahtrhittoria (Stock-
holm, 18BS-97): 8chOck, Sttntk TManturkUtaria (Slookholin,
ISeO) : BaBMABDim. La tmratm Soandtoaw (1894) ; NtaiuiiN,
Da» Kenemdbmdt <190»). «n iottaduotioo toSoaadiMvbui aatural
hbtMr and dviUMtion; Axdsmboh, CataJeffue th FapetilitM
SttldriM d> rmaeifffanmt *uvlriew» (IWO). 0OQt«iiu maov
airthoritiM; OnOdb a/Mr •tMuta «pxUc(, isaoed bjrtlM Swediih
Anademy; Tamu, ^vmokgiM imimA ordbok rUpuU, 1800-—);
SSbbbwau, Ordbtk afimr facMte madtHidupnUett.

P. WrmiANN.
8irad«ii| VicAUA-ni ^omauo or. See SwxDvtt.

SmdaiAorgtem, the believers in the relii^oas
doctrines tau^t by Emanuel Swedenborg. As an
<vgaiuaed body they do not call themselvee Sweden-
btny^aiu, which seems to assert the human origin of
their religion, but wish to be known as the " Church of
the New Jmisalem", or "New Church", claiming for
it Divine authorship and promul^tton through hu-
man instrumentality.

I. Life or SwBDiMBfma. — ^Emanuel Swedenboi^
was b. at Stockholm. 29 Jan., Id88; d. in London,
29 March, 1772. His father was Dr. Jesper Swed-
who later became the Lutheran Bishop of Skara.
enborg's life falls into two very distinct periods:
the first extends to the year 1745 and reveals him as
an adept in the mathematical and physical sciences:
in the second he appears as a writer on theological
subjects. Endowed with extraordinary talents, he
completed his university course at Upsala in 1710
and trnvelled for four years in En^&nd, Holtood,
France, and Qerntajxy. Shortty after his return to
Sweden, he was appointed by King Charles XII to an
aswKsoishm ou the Board of Mines (1716). He
aignal procN of his engineering ability during the siege
oT PraMcUudl (1718) hy inrestiiig « mcaiie to

»5 SWIDENBOBQUNS

transport boats and galleys overland for a distaooe of
fourteen miles. His fanuly was ennobled in 1719, a
distinction indicated in the change of the name itim
Swedbe^ to Swedenborg. He decUned (1724) the
chair of mathematics at the University of Upsala and
published at Leipzig in 1743 his important "Philo-
sophical and Mino'sIWorks" (" Opera philoaophicaet
mmeralia"). A year later appeared his treatise "On
the Infinite and Final Cause of Creation" which in-
cludes a discussion of the relation between the soul
and the body. Another scientific Journey took him
to Denmark, Germany, Holland, France, and Ita^,
and in 1740-41 appeared at Amsterdam one of his
larger anatomical works ("CEconomia regni ani-
maus"). The trend of his thoughts became dis-
tinctly religious in 1734 and exclusively so in 1745.
He alleged that at the latter date Our Lord ai^eared
to him in London, initiated him into the nnritual ■
sense of the Scriptures, and commissioned nim to
expound it to his fellow men. With this vision there
began, he declared, an Interoourse with God, angels,
and spirits which was to terminate onlv with his
death. In 1747 he resigned his assessoreuip aad, at
his request, received as a pension the half of his salary.
He now spent his time between London, Amsterdam,
and Stockholm, and wrote in Latin his voluminous
theological worka. Theee soon attracted the attri-
tion <H the Luthoan clergy oS Sweden; a oommissbn
was instituted in 1771 to examine them, but took no
action against their author. At his death Sweden*
borg received the Lord's Supper from a Protestant
cler^man, to whom he affirmed his final attachment
to his religious principles. He was never married,
was simple in his habits, worked and slept without
much mcard to day or nighti and lay at times in a
trance for several consecutive days. In 190S his
ranains were transferred from Londot to Swedoi and
deposited in the cathedral at Upsala.

II. DocraiNAL Principles. — Swedenborg and his
followers hold that as the Christian religion succeeded
the Jewish so the Swedenboi^an teaching supple-
mented the Christian. This new dispensation pro-
mulgated by Swedenborg is, according to them, based
on a Divinely revealed mtarpretation of the Sacred
Soqituree. Some of the charactoistio features aS
this new religious eystem are presented in the follow-
ing outline. God is Love Itself and Wisdom Itself.
His Power is from and according to these as they flow
forth into creative act. The Tnnity does not consist
of three distinct Divine persons as Catholics main-
tain; but is understood in the sense that in the Incar-
nation the Father or Jehovah is essentially the Divine
Being; while the Son is the human <or sub^iritual)
etement aasumed by the Godhead in ordor to become
imsent among men. The Holy Spirit is tiie Divine
Presence and Powo: oonBeM]uent upon this assumption
and resultant trans&curation (glorification in Sweden-
borgian lanwa^e) of the human element whidi thus
became "a Divme Human" with all power in heaven
and on earth. Jesus Christ is, therefore, not the
Incarnation of a second Divine person, but of the
Divine as a whole; he includes the Father (Godhead),
the Son (assumed humanity), and the Hi^ ^irit
(Divine^iuman power). Uie does not enstexo^t in
Him or from Him, and eauiot be created. Its pree-
enoe in created ffnrnsisaocounted f or by ctmtiniuMs
Divine influx.

On this earth man enjoys the highest participation
of life, but he is greatly inferior, in this respect, to the
races iindoubtecUy iiuiabiting other planets, e. g.,
Jupiter, Mercury. His three constituent elements
are soul, bo^, and power. Originally granted fuU
freedom in the use of nis faculties, he erroneously con-
cluded that he held them (rom no one but himself
and fell away from God. The Lcml, after the fall,
did not abandon the sinner, but ^ipeared to him in
the form of an angel and gave him the W to reclaim

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turn from his evil waya. These efforta were uBelees,
and Qod clothed Himself with a human organinn and
redeemed man, openins anew his faculties to the
influx of Divine life. Men are admitted into the New
Church through baptism; they are strengthened m
Uie enpiritual life by the reception of the Eucharist.
Justification cannot be obtained by faith alone; good
works are likewise necessary. The seclusion of the
cloister is not a help but a hindrance to spiritual
growth; the healthiest condition for the latter is a life
of action in the world. Miracles and visions produce
no real spiritual change because they destroy the
requisite Iflierty. The hope of reward is not to be
reooounended as an incentive to virtue, for good
actions are vitiated when pnnnpted by motives of
■elf-interest. Death is the caetin|^ off by man of his
material body which has no share m the resurrection.
Immediately after death all human souls enter into
the intermediate state known as the world of spirits,
where they are instructed and prepared for their final
abodes, heaven or hell. We need not expect the Last
Jud^ent for it has already taken place; it was held
in 1757 in Swedenborg's presence. No pure spirits
exist; both angels and devils are former members of
the human raoe, have organic forms, and experience
sensation. The Utui^ of the New Church is mod-
elled on the Anglican service. The Church organiza-
tion in Great Britain is congregational; in the United
States most of the various religious societies are
grouped in state associations under the chai^ gen-
eral pastors, while the "General Church" (aee bwnr)
is avowedly episcopal in government.

III. HiSTORT OF THE NbW ChURCH; STATISTICS;
BDirCATIONAL AND PUBLISBINQ ACTIVmBS. — Sweden-

boi^g made no attempt at founding a separate Church ;
he presented his doctrinal works to university ana
semmary libraries in the hope that they might be of
B^vioe; how far ahead he thought is uncertain, as he
seemed to hold that his followers might be members <^
any Christian denomination. But nis views were, in
many respects, so entirely new that their adoption
made the foundation of a distinct religious body
inevitable. Few accepted his opinions completely
during his lifetime. They found zealous advocates,
however, in two Anglican clereymen, Thomas Hart-
ley, rector of Winwick in Northamptonshire, and
John CloweB, rector of St. John's at Manchester.
These divines rendered his works into English and
tiuourii the efforta of Clowes, who never separated
from the Church of England, I^cashire became at an
early date the Swedenborgian stronghold which it
still remains to-day. The formal organization of the
New Church took place in 1787, and James Hind-
marsh, a former Methodist preacher, was chosm by
lot to officiate at the inaugural meeting. The first
ptdiUc serrice was hdd in 1788 in a chapel at Great
Easteheap, Lomdoa. Bwedenboi^an soetetiee were
soon formed in various Eiu^h cities, and in 1789 the
first gene^ conference of the New Church met in
the pbce of worship just mentioned. The number of
adherents did not mcrease rapidly. The conference
has held annual meetings ever since 1815. Its min-
utes for 1009 contain the following statistics for En^
Ifljid: 45 ministers, 70 societies, 6665 re^stered mem-
bers, and 7907 Sunday scholars.

In America the Swedenborgian doctrines were first
introduced in 1784 at pubhc lectures delivered in
Philadelphia and Boston. The first cot^regation was
organized at Baltimore in 1792. Since then the prin-
ciples of the New Church have spread to many states
of the Union. The first general convention was held
in Philadelphia in 1817. It meets annually at presoit
and is mainly composed of delegates sent by the v»-
riooe state organizations. In 1890 the General Church
ol Pemuorlvania severed its connexion with the con-
TsnUon and assumed in 1897 tiie name ctf the General
CSiurohof the New Jerusalem. It numbered, in 1911,

24 ministers, 16 ohorcfaes, and 800 communicants;
whereas the main body had 107 ministers, 130
churches, and 8500 communicants (Statistics of Dr.
H. K. Carroll, in "The Christian Advocate", N. Y.,

25 Jan., 1912). Congre^tions of the New Churdi
are to be found in aU civilized countries; but their
membership is small. In Germany the Protestant
prelate Ottinger translated (1766-86) numerous
writings of Swedenbor^, but the most important name
identified with the history of the denomination in
that country is that of Immanuel Tafel (179ft-1863),

Erofessor and librarian of Tubingen, -who devoted
is life to the spread of SwedenborgianlBm. His
efforts were mainly hterary; but he also 'organized a
congr^tion in Southern Germany. The religion
was proscribed in Sweden until 1866, when greater
religious freedom was granted; the churches are still
very few, and the membership insignificant. New
Churchmen claim, however, that there as well as in
all other countries the influence of Swedenborg can-
not be gauged by the enrolled membership, because
many communicants of ottur denominationB hold
Swedenboi^ian views.

The denomination m^ntains for the training i^
its ministry the New Church Coll^ at Islinf^oo,
London, and the New Church Theological School at
Cambridge, Mass. A preparatory school is located
at Waltham, Mass., and an institution for collefpate
and university studies at Urbana, Ohio. The Gen-
eral Church conducts a seminary at Bryn Athyn, Fa.,
and maintains several parochial sdiools. The denom-
ination has displaved a remarkable publishing activ-
ity. Hie SweaenSor^ Society was founded in London
in 1810 for the printing of Swedenborgian literature
and in celebration of its centenary the International
Swedenbot^ Congress met in the English metropolis
in 1910. Other publiBhinK agencies are the New
Church Union of Boston, the American Swedenborg
Printii^ and Publishing Society oS New York, and a
publishing house at Stuttgart. (Germany. A monu-
mental emtion of Swedenborg's scientific works is in
course of publication under the auspices of the Swed-
ish Royal Academy of Sciences. His theological
works are available in complete Latin and English
editions and have been partly published in numerous
modern languages, including Hindu, Arabic, and
Jainneae. llie New Church publishes two quarterly
reviews, some monthly magazmee, and aev&tal weekly
pu>ers.

I. Tafzl, DoeummitM wiuM'ntnQ th4 Lifi and CharaeUr of
StotdtiiborB (London, ISTS-TT). Numerooe Biographie* of
Swedenborg have been written: io English by Douohtt (Loitdon,
1S67); FuncBKB (ibid., 1869): aTDBfibid.. 1S63); Wens (Sbid.,
1867>; WoBCESTEB (Boston, 1883); wilxinsok (Lcadoii. 1886);
Odonhb (PhiUdelphia, 1893): Tbobbidob (Lohob, a. dOi <n
French by Ballct (Paris, 1809); Brsa (Paris, 1901); In Qermsn
by RaNb (Sohwftbisch Hall. 1851).

II. These biographies usually oontaio an exposition of Stredes*

bora's doctrine ; a more complete presentation will be found in his

.... — 5., - - . - - -

own works, particularly in: The True Chrialian Raligion; Areana
Crltstia: The Apoealvpte RectaUd; The Apoealypte Brjiaintd;
Divin* Lov4 and Wisd»m, Dim'ns Providmee: Hmttn and HeU,
PjUiaoHB, OvUinee of the Reti^im and Philoeaphii 0/ SwedeHbcrff
(Boston, 1894); TrantacUont of the InterTuUi^TuU Stcedenborg Con-
grw (London, 1910).

III. HiNouABSH, Sitsand i>aaressd/(As ATmsCAukA (London,
1861); DOLK, Th» N9» CAurcA, What, Hou>, Whi/f (New York,
1906).

For further blbliocraphical details consult Htdb, Bihtioemphi-
eal Index to lite PtMUhed WrUinat of Bmanud Swedenbors (Loo-
don, 1807). Catholic writen on Swedeoborc and his doctrine:
QAbbbs, Mmanvd Smtdtntorg, setne Vinonm u. tein Vtrhdttniot
nr Kirdu (Speyo; 1S27); I^bub, tr. RoBBRnoit, Sjpubolim
(3rd ad.. New York, s. d.). 3S8, 486-«7.

N. A. WXBSB.

SmeOieart Abbay* See New Abbbt.

Swvlxfhine, Sopbh^-Jbannb Sotuonov, writer, b.
at MoBoow, 22 Nov., 17S2; d. in Paris, 10 Sept., 1857.
She was a member at a noble family, uid became asscH
dated with French literature through her oorreepond-
ence and other writings. Impressed by her preoo-
flioui inteHigaioe, hat father favaJi^ a vwy^ouiivl

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357

swztbui

edueation in eraything except religion, which he
ignored. At fourteui £e was ai^inted maid of hon-
our to the empress. At seventeen she was married
tq_ General Swetchine who was forty-two. By birth
she belons^ed to the Gredc, or Orthodox Oiiiroh, but
from the time that her triak, her reading, andherown
reBectioDs had naade her a Christian, she felt the ne-
cessity of following to the end the path which was lead-
ing her to the truth, and she became a Catholic, de-
spite the anguish of her heart. "My Faith," she
said afterwanlfi, "is to me what Benjamin was to
Rachel, the child of my sorrow. " At the time of her
convenion she was thirty-three years old. She had
already left the court, her husband having heea dis-
graced, with his father, aa^fae result of a plot of which
he was the victim. Thoiceforth she had to leave even
ber country, since as an avowed Catholic she could
not remain at St. Petersburg. With her husband she
went to reside at Paris at the beginning of the Resto-
ration. She had been preceded by a letter from Joseph
de Maistre, who wrote to Bon^d: "In a short time
you will see at Paris a Russian lady whom I especially
oommend to you. Never will you see such moral
8tr«igth, wit, and learning joined to such goodness."
In her aiUon in the Rue Saint Dominique, open from
three to six, and from to nine to midnight, she saw ^
the most distingui'^hed men of the period: Chateau-
briand, Bonals, Cuvier, Cousin, Donoso Cortoes, and
among her intimates were AuKustin Cochin, Tocque-
Tille, Falloux, who wrote her bic^aphy, Lacordaire,
aad Montalembert, who were like her smntual sons.
Hw influence was incontestable. She died as a d&<
Tout Christian in 1857 at the age of seventy-five.

She was remarkable more for the beauty of her soul
than that of her countenance. Her intellect was
Wty, quick, and penetrating. She read a great deal,
and always with oer pen in hand. She was pious to
the verge of mysticism, and although constantly ill —
for she was one of those who never pass a day without
suffering — she was resigned to the will of Providence.
While kmd to all she was an incomparable friend. True
modesty prevented her from publishing anything, but
at her death she left enough to fill many volumes.
De Falloux collected extracts from her manuscripts
irhich were published: "Mme. Swetchine, sa vie, ses
fEUvres" (2 vols.; 1800). There have since appeared:
"Lettres de Mme. Swetchine" (1861); "Journal de sa
conversion" (1863); "Correspondance du P^re La-
cordaire et de Mme. Swetchine" (1864); and "Nou-
velles lettres de Mme. Swetchine" (1875). Although
a Russian Mme. Swetchine wrote well in French; her
style m delicate and original, even studied.

Gborqes Bertin.

Sweynhelin (Schweinheim), Konrad, printer, b.
at Schwanheim, Frankfort, Germany; d. in Rome,
1477. Sweynheim and Arnold Paunartz of Prague,
both oS whom were ecclesiastics, were the first printers
in Italy. At the invitation of Cardinal John Turre-
cranata they established a printing-press for books in
1494 at the Abbey of Subiaco; in 1467 they removed
their prees to the Massimi Palace at Rome, and car-
ried on the business jointly until 1472. The first books
they printed were: "Donatua" (1464); Cicero's "De
OTatore" and the "Divinarum institutionum libri
astern" of Lactantius (1465). During the years
l4iS4-72 they issued over 12,0(X) copies of thirty-seven
works, these works bemg chiefly the clae^ and the
Fathers. This shows the remarkable skill of the two
ramters, who were entirely dependent on themselves.
BeiiM ; an engraver Sweynneim was prob^Iy the die-
cutter, the type-founder, and tlie type-setter of the
undralaking, while Pannarts had charge of the actual
printing and of matters connected with it. The
dies out by Sweynheim deserve especial attentu)n as
they embody the inreliminaty stepe at the present
type for iMon dunctm. Sw^ynheim's typosnq^

oal centals are the first to show the forms used in the
Roman inscriptions on stone, while some of his small
letters repeat the characters used in manuscripts of the
ninth to tenth centuries. He also cast the first (3ire^
type ; it is to be found in his third book, that of Lactan-
tius, and the type cojiies the fnms m Greek charac-
ters found in manuscripts of the seventh to the ei^tJi
centuries. Notwithstanding the greatest industry
and technical skill the two printers had no pecuniary
success. In 1472 their patron and fellow-worker afl
editor and proofreader, Bishop John Andreas Bussi of
Aleria, secretary of the Vatican Library, asked Sixtus
IV to aid them. The papal assistance was given in
the form of an expectancy. Sweynheim received a
cimonry in the collegiate Church of St. Victor at
Mainz to whose secular brotherhood the inventor
Gutenberg also belonged. In 1472 Sweynheim and
Pannartz dissolved partnership, Sweynheim worked
until his death as engraver on the maps of the "Cos-
mography " of Ptolemy. He was the first to apply
copper engraving to the production of maps; twenty-
seven of the beautifully executed plates of the edition
of the "Cosmc^aphy'' of 1478 are his work. £cpe-
cially^ characteristic of Sweynheim as a maker of mat-
rices is the fact that the beautiful even writine of the
names of places are stamped in the en^aved plate by
means of individual dies. It is certam that Sweyn-
heim w^as in close connexion with Mainz until his
death, although he did not return there to enjoy his
benefice. There is no doubt that he learned the art
of printing at Mainz.

HABrrwia, FeHtduift ctm SOOjahr. GehurUlage ton J. Gutenberg
(M^Bk, 1900).

Hbdouch W. Wallao

8wlnoinl8hIndlaiu.~AtribeofSaU8han linguistic
stock, clr^ly connected with the Sk^t. They
formerly held the territory about the mouth of the
river Skagit together with the adjacent portion of
Whidbey Islwd, and are now gathered upon a reserva-
tion in the same territory, near Mount Vernon, Skagit
County, north-western Washington. They were
missionized about 1850, by Father Casimir Chirouse
and the Oblates; Skagit the entire tribe, to the num-
ber of 267 in 1910, u now civilized and Ca^dlie.
They are one of the tribes included under the juiia-
dictton of Tulalip agency. For history and genmtl
description see Tulalip Indians.

Jahbb Moonbt.

Swithin (Switrdn), Saint, Bishop of Wmchestv;
d. 2 July, 862. Very little is known of thissaint's life,
for his liiographers constructed their "Lives" long
after his death and there is hardly any mention «
htm in contemporary documents. Swithin was one
of the two trusted counsellors of Egbert, King of the
West Saxons (d. 839), helping him in ecclesiastical
matters, while Ealstan of Sherborne was his chieif ad-
visor in secular business. He probably entrusted
Swithin with the education of bis scm Etnelwulf and
caused the saint to be elected to the Bishopric of
Winchester in succession to Helmstan. His consecra-
tion by Ceolnoth, Archbishop of Canterbury, seems
to have taken place on 30 Oct., 852. On his death-bed
Swithin begged that he should be buried outside the
north wall of his cathedral where passers-by should
pass over his grave and raindrops from the eaves drop
upon it. More than a century later (931) his body
was translated with great pomp to a shrine within the
new church erected by Bishop Ethelwulf (d. 984).
A Bumbn* of miraculous cures took place and Swithin
was canonized by popular acclamation. In 1093 his
remains were again translated to the new church
built by Bishop Walkelin. The shrine was destroyed
and the relics scattered in 1538. It has often been
said that the saint was a Benedictine monk and even
prior of Winchester but there is no evidence for this
8tiM«ment. Fima the first translation of his relics in

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SWITZIBLAND 3

984 till the deetmction ^ the Bhrine St. Swithm was
the patron of Winchester CathecbaL He is beet
known from Uie Jrapular superstition attadwd to his
name and expressed in the following rl^me:

St. Swithin's day if thou dost rain
- For forty days it will remain:
St. Swithin's day if thou be fair
For forty days 'twill rain nae mair.

There have been many attempts to explain the origin
of this belief J but none have proved generally satis-
factory. A sunilar belief attaches in Fiwce to 8 Jun^
the feast of Sts. GervasiuBand Protasius, and to other
feasts in different cotmtries (see "Notes and Queries",
1885, XII, 137, 253). St. Swithin's feast is kepi on 15
July, the date of his first translation, and is retained
m the Anglican Calendar.

Tbe inat«ri»ls for tbe aunt's Uf« will ba found in Atla SS.,
July, I, 321

Diet. Not. Biog.. a. v. Sinttim; Habdt, D—eripti— Calalanu, I

0862). ii. 613 sqq. .

Rathuitd Webbteb.

Switzerland, a confederation in the central part of
Western Europe, made up of twenty-two cantons,
three of which are divided into half-cantons. The
country lies between 45- 49' 2" and 47° 48' 32" north
latitude, and 5" 57' 26" and 10° 29' 40" longitude east
of Greenwich. Its area is 15,976 square miles. The
name comes from the designation of one of Uie ord-
inal cantons, Schwyz (Schwiz), which was extended m
the course m time to the entire confederatkm.

Phtsical Geography and Ethnography. — As re-
gards its physical geography Switzerland is divided
into three divisions: the Alps, the central region, and
the Jura. The Swiss Alps form a part of the great
curve of the Alpine chain of centnd Europe; they
extend from Mont-Dolent in the eh^ of Mont
Blanc in the west to Piz Mondin, in the Lower En-
gadine in the east, and have a lengUi measured in a
straight line of 170 miles. The smaller part of the
Jura range, including, however, its highest peaks, is on
Swiss sou. Between the Alps and the Jura e?ctends
the central region, which is traversed by countless
valleys and includes about 30 per cent of the entire
area of Switzerland. The highest peak of the Swiss
Alps is Monte Rosa, 15,217 ft. The rivers which
have their sources in Switzerland bebnig to one or
anoth^ of the following four riv^-baains: the basin of
the Rhine, tbe waters of which flow into the North Sea;
the basin of the Rhone, which carri^ its waters to the
western Mediterranean; the basin of the Po, which
empties into the eastern Mediterranean, and the basin
of the Inn, which empties into the Danube and with
this into the Black Sea. The three river-basins first
mentioDed have a common watershed, the range of
the Gothard. Switzerland also contains a large num-
ber of lakes, the largest of which are on the edges
of the Alps and Jura, such as Geneva or Lenian,
Constance, Neuehfitel, Lucerncj Lugano, Mf^giore,
and Zurich. The lofty mountain chain of the Swiss
Alps above a definite height is permanently covered
with snow which feeds the glaciers. Switzerland con-
tains altogether not 1^ than 1077 glaciers, which
cover an area of 709 sq. miles. TsuKen altogether
?5.2 per cent of the area of Switzerland is completely
unjOToductive.

The climate of Switzerland is not uniform. The
differences in temperature of the various parts are
conditioned by the differences in altitude, which
vary from 581 feet to 15,217 feet above sea-ievel, and
by the Alps, the southern slopes of which have a Medi-
terranean climate, while their northern slopes ebow
that of central Europe. These strikii^ differences
determme the character of the flora and fauna. With
the exception of the vegetation which flourishes on a
seashore all European types of flora are to be found.
The species of animals characteristic of the Alps are:

58 fWITBIBUirD

the chamois, tiie ibex, the marmot, the golden eagle
and severe other epwaeB of birds. 0£ the productive
area 3390 sq. miles are oovered with fonrt& 8427
eq. miles are farm and pasture laoda, aad 106 sq.

miles are planted with vineyards.

In 1850 the total population of Switserland was
2,392,740 persons; the census of 1910 showed 8,753,-
293 inhabitants; on 1 December, 1910, the resident
popuhition (those actually present in the different
localities) was altogether 3,765,002 persons. The
(Higinal inhabitants of Switzerland were predomi-
nantly of Celtic race, althou^ south of the the
Italian Lepontii lived in Ticmo, and the ChiacHis was
apparently inhabited by Etruscan Rhsti. A mixed
population appeared in most parts (tf the territory
owmg to the Roman supremacy, tJie arrival of the
Burgundians in the south-western district and of the
Alamanni in other parts of the countij. Four differ-
ent languages appeared: German in the districts
inhabited by the Alamanni, French in the western
regions, where the scanty Bu^undiui pt^ulation
intermarried with the itMnanised Helvetii, It^ian
in Ticino, and Riueto-R(Hnanic in the Grisons.
According to the last census the inhabitants- were
classified, by native tongu^i, as follows: Of 3,765,0(K2
inhabitants, 2,599,154 spoke German; 796,244 Fretich;
301,325 Italian; 39,834 Romanic; 28,445 ^ke other
languages.

Political History. — In the prehistoric era the
territwy of the present Switzerland was partly inhab-
ited far up into the valleys erf the Alps, as is erident
from remains found in various caves uui graves.
Switzerland entered its historical era with the over-
throw of the western Helvetii by Csesar in the year
68 B. c. The entire country came under the control
of the Roman Empire after the eastern districts were
conquered by Drusus and Tiberius in 15 b. c. On
the oT^ization trf the Roman wovinces before
Diocletian the north-weetem part of the teiritory of
Switzerland belonged to the Province of Germania
Superior, the soutn-westem section (Geneva) to the
Provincia Nart)onen8is, the eastern and the greater
part of the south-eastern region to the Provmoe of
Rluetia. The region of the south-western Alps was
divided into special administrative districts, oi^wfai^
the district ot the "Alpes Poenime" included tine
present canton of Valais and the adjoining portions
of Savoy. In the reoi^anization of the empiie by
Diocletian the Province of Rhsetia and the district
of the "Alpes Pocninffl" were left as they were, the
north-western part of the country was included in the
Province of Maxima Seauanorum, the south-weetem
section in the Provincia Viennensis, the southern point
of Ticino to Liguris, a province of Northern Itaw'.

Dtuing the migrations the territory of Switienand
was occupied by two German tribes. The Burgun-
dians, who had settled in 443 south of Lake Geneva,
pushed nOTthwards and occupied the south-western
and western regions of Switzerland. They mingled
with the Romanic population and quickly adopted
the Romanic tongue and customs, so that the language
of this section remained Romanic (French). In the
fifth century the Alamanni pushed forward as far as
the Alps and completely destroyed Roman dvilisar
tion, so that the I^guagc o( this section became Ger-
man. At the beginning of the sixth century all
Switzeriand north of the Alps fell under the suprem-
acy of the Prankish Kingdom. At a later date,
when the Lombard Kingdom was conquered by the
Franks, the districts of Switzerland south of the Alpe
also came under the Prankish mastery. Thus Swits-
ertand belonged to Charlemagne's great empire and
shared its fortunes. In the pcutitioD of the Frankidi
Empire by the Trea^ of Verdun in 843 the central
and eastern parts of Switiorland fell to the Kingdun
of Alamannia, the weeton to the Kingdom of hat'
raine, and later to F^ce, fbe power ot the ootmts

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8WITIEBLAMD

350

BWi'fZKBLANS

menr constantly, and in 8SS Oount Rudolph of the
Guelphio family foundtd the Kingdom of Burgundy,
of which western Switso-land formed a part. The
German regions of Swftaerland fell to the Duchy of
8wabiain9l7. In the nintli and tenth centuries several
dvnastiefl rose to isower and importance, as ; the Houses
of Zfthringen (extinct 1218), of Lenzburg, ot Kyfourg,
and of Savoy. The inheritance of the Len2but«
family fell to the counts of Habsburg. In the twelfth
and thirteenth oenturiee there were some twenty great
feudal ruling families in the present Switzerland. The
counts of Zfthringen sought to secure their supremacy
a^nst the attacks of the rural nobility by founding
cities, as Pribourg in 117S and Berne m 1191. The
dioceses and abbeys also gradually acquired secular
power and rich possessions. When Duke Burichaid
of Swabia died childless in 973 the duchy reverted to
the German Empire. In 1033, after the death of
King Rudolph III of Burgundy, his kingdom also fell
to Germany, as Rudolph left it to the empire by will.
Consequently the whole fA pree^t Switzerland, with
tlie exception of Ticino, which was a part of Lom-
bardy, belmi^ to the Gennan Enqnre.

Hie inhabitants of the Alpine toU^ of central
Switzerland sought to protect their ancient rights
against the growing power of the counts of Habs-
burg. In 1^1 the people of Uri received from Uie
German emperor, Henry, a charter which released
Uiem from the control of the counts of Habsburg:
ttife is the first document by which the freedom of
the ew-ly Leanie of Switeerlaud was established.
Schwyi received a similar diarter in 1240 txam Ekn-
peror Frederick II. In this wur the territoriee oS
uri and Schwys were immediately dependent on the
empire. Like the people of these two territories,
the inhabitants of Unterwaiden had also founded a
provincial confederation. During the era of the
struggle over the empire Rudolph of Habsbui^
strengthened his power in Switzerland; when in
1273 he became Emperor of Germany, his conquests
tatmsf erred the centre of the power oi the Habsburgs
to Austria. Nevertheless, toe emperor vigorous^
maintained his supr^acy over his possessions in
Switzerland. Directly after Rudolph's death (1291)
the inhabitants of the districts combined in the
original Swiss League sou^t to make use of the
opportunity to secure their rights and privileges.
On 1 August, 1291, the representatives of the provin-
cial asBodations formed by Uii; Schwyz, and Unter-
waiden met and renewed the htaxae that had htea
formed earlier. The purpose of the League was by
united acUon to protect its members as far as possible
against all attacks. The establishment of the League
hasbeen poetically embellished by thewell-known story

the struggle of William Tell and his companions
again.«>t the governor, Gessler, who oppressed thepeople.

Adolph of Nassau, who was elected King of Ger-
many after the death of Rudolph of Habsburg, con-
fimied the charters of Uri and Schwyz, as did King
Heniy VII ol Lu^remburg on 3 June, 1309; at the
same time Henry extended the rights and privileges
contained in them to Unterwaiden. After the death
of Henry VII (1313) an old dispute as to the rights
over the march between Schwyz and the Abbey of
ESnsiedeln broke out again and the confederated
Swiss attacked the abbe^, for which they were ex-
communicated by the Bimop of Constance and put
under the ban of t^e empire at the same time. Louis
of Bavaria withdrew the ban in 1315 and obli^ the
Archbishop of Mainz to recall the excommunication
of the inhabitants of the forest districts (Uri,
Schwyz, Unterfralden, and Lucerne). In the struggle
for the imperial throne between Louis of Bavaria and
i>Vederick of Austria the Swiss League, made up of
these districts, held to Louis. Frederick's brouierf
Duke Leopold of Au^ria, attonpted to overtiirow
the League and to punish its members for the attack

on ESneledeItt, but fais army was defeated by the
Swiss at Moivarten on 15 November, 1315. On 9
December, 1315, Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwaiden
renewed the League and confirmed the same by addi-
tional regulations. In the truce concluded with
the Duke of Austria the independence of the League
was in some dep;ree recognized. The further devel-
opment of political conditions and the struggle with
the Habsburg connected with it led to the union with
the forest districts of the city of Lucerne in 1332,
the city of Zurich in 1351, and the district of Glarus
and the city of Zug in 1352, all these new mem-
bers joining the League. , In 1353 the city of Berne
also joined the League, so that now the old Conf ederar
tion (tf eight cities and districts came into existence.
The war with the League was renewed by Duke Le<^
pold III of Ai^ria, but in the battle near Sempach
m 1386 his army was defeated and he himself was
killed. This victory greatly strengthened the inde-
pendence oS the eight members of the Swiss League.
The Austrians were a^n defeated in 1388 at NSlels,
during the war with Glarus, which had declared its
inda>endence. In this way the freediun and ind^
pendenee of the eiriit communities were secured and a
new compact maoe on 10 July, 1393.

The success of the Confederates encouraged the
inhabitants of nei^bouring tcrritoriu in their
struggles for pohbical freedom. The city of St-
Gall, which had been a free city of the empire from
1281, sought to make itself as independent as possible
of the mastery of the prince-bishop. The inhabitants
of AppenieU, who were subjects of the Abbot of St-
Gall, also did the saihe: they sained their freedom
and ovcai^hrew the lordsmp of tne abbot by suecess
in battle. In 1411 seven of the confederated com-
munities (Berne not taking part) formed an agree-
ment with Appenzell, by which it was taken unda
the protection of the Lea^e; in 1412 a similar agreei-
ment was made for ten years with the city of St-
Gall, and in 1455 these treaties were changed into
the "Everlasting Compact". The inhabitants of
Upper Vfdais, who were subjects of tiie Bishop <st
Sion (Sitten), also gained for themselves a certain
amount of political freedom, which they successfulhr
defended in battle^ they then formed a compact with
the districts of Un, Unterwaiden, and Lucerne (1403
and 1416). The districts of Uri and Obwalden won
territories south of the Alps in the Val Leventina
(1403); sMne years later (1411) the League occupied
jointly the Val d'Ossola and in 1419 bought the
Countship of Bellinzona. However, in 1422, the
League was defeated by the Duke of Milan and in
1426 it gave up its rights to the Val Leventina and
the Val d'Ossola. During the Council of CoAstance
Duke Frederick of Austria was declared under the
ban of the empire by Emperor Sigismund. The
Swiss Lewue, by the order of the emperor, SMzed
the Swiss lands of the duke; Berne took the cities
of Aargau; Lucerne and Zurich took other cities and
territories; the Lewue conquered jointly other cities
belonging to the Habsburgs. Thus the members
of the League obtained subject lands, sometimes
subject to the authority of an individual member <^
the League; sometimes ruled jointly by several
membera; thU changed the former basis of theXeagu&
Count frederick of To^enbui^, who had ^ean
possessions, had made various treaties with different
members of the League. When he died without
heirs in 1436, a dispute arose as to his domains,
and Zurich became involved in a war with Sch^vys.
Zurich formed an alliance with the Emperor Freder-
ick III against the other members of the League, and
in the war which followed (1443) Zurich was dmeated,
while a general of the emperor defeated the League at
Basle. In 1450 Zurich made peace by abantuming
its alliance with the emperor. Various distriots that
had been subject to the counts vt To^suiburg fdl

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SWnZKKLAlID 3<

to Schwyz, Glanis, aad AppeattHL In 1460 the
districts of Thurg&u and Sargam were occupied
the League as comnKm property.

A Mw opponent of the Swiss Conf edentes now ap-
peared in Duke Charles the Bold, of Bummdy.
The Confederates formed an alliance with France
and declared war a^nst this powerful prince, who
was allied, on his side, with the Duke of Savoy.
The Swiss severely defeated Charles in the batUee
of Grandson and Murten in 1476. The city of
Fribourg had taken part with the confederated Swiss
and the two dties m Berne' and Fi^urg now took
poesesrioa of several cities of Vaud, while the inhabi-
tants of Upper Valais conquered Lower Valais, that
belonged to Savoy. In 1841 the cities of Fribourg
and Solothum (Boleure) were taken as members into
the League of the Confederates. The Burgundian
War had brought the confederated districts into alli-
ance with France, and consequently their connexion
with the German Empire grew weaker and weaker.
When in 1495 Emperor Nfaximilian sought to reor-
ganize the empire, the Confederatee were unwilling
to reoc^ze the changes. In the struggle, called the
Swabian War between the Swiss Confederates and the
imperial troops the Swiss were victorious. The
Treaty of B^e of 1499 granted the Confederates
almost complete independence from the German Em-
pire by releasing them from the jiu-isdiction of the
imperial chamber. Later, in the Peace of Westphalia
<rf 1648, the political separation of Switseriand fn»n
Germany was expreeely declared. On aooount of the
Swabian War, the oities of Basle and SchaEfhauaen
joined the Confedetation in 1501, and in 1513 Ai^n-
adl also was accepted as a district belonging to it,
BO that the Confederation now included thirteen
districts. In addition the Courtship of Neuch&tel
became an associate member, and the Confederation
was joined as associate members by the three leagues
of the Rhstian Alps: the "Graua Bund", the "Zeh»-
gerichtenbund" (League of Ha Ten JurisdictimiB)^
and the "Gotteshausbund".

Upper Valais and other spuritual and secular lord-
ships also became associate members. There was no
central organized authority over all. The individual
members formed special alliances among themselves;
their common affairs were discussed at the assembly

the members, which was a congress of sovereign
states. In addition to the representatives of the
thirteen members of the Confederation most of the
associate districts of the Confederation had also the
right to send representotivee. Other territories were
subject lands of one or several memb«s of the Con-
federation, or belonged in common to the entire Con-
federation of the thirteen districts. Geneva had
formed an alliance with Friboing and Berne for the
protection of its liberties against the bishops and
dukes of Savoy; t^is made it an assodato member.
From this time on the Swiss Confederates took an
important part in the general poUtics of Europe, espe-
cially in the wars in Italy. The Confederates ao-

Suired new possessions south of the Alps in Tioino.
[owever, at the battle of Mariraiano in 1515, the
Swiss troops were severely d^eated, which put an end
to Swiss interroitifHi in JSuropean j>olitios.

The inner ot^sanisation of the differait districts of
the Cmfederation varied greatly. Some had a demo-
cratic oiganization; in oth^ the rule of the patrician
town council was aristocratic. In the course of the
dghteenth century many disputes arose in the cities
on account of the despotic patrician government.
After the outbreak of the French Revolution this state
of affairs led to the interference of France, and in 1798
llw toRittnies of the Confederation were occu^iied
French troops. After the dissolutiwi of the ohgarchio
governments, the "indivisible Helvetic Republic"
with a new Constitution was proclaimed. All the
oonfedtfaitad diitriots and ibm lovmer subject lands

0 flWimRLAlID

were inoorporated in the Republic. The opposition «f
the origmal Swiss League was crushed by the French
am^, the Helvetic Republic was mtinSy dependent
on Fiance. New quarrels constanthr arose in Switser-
land over the Constitution. Napoleon, therefore, on
19 February, 1803, issued the Act of Mediation,
which Switzerland was changed into a Confederation
of nineteen cantons under the protection of France.
The Diocese of Basle, the city of Goieva, Ticino, and
Valais were annexed by France; the Principality of
Neuch&tel was given to Marshal Berthier. In 1816
the Congress of V ienna gave back to SwitsolaDd the
districts of Gmeva, Valais, and Ticino. Berne ms
obliged to grant freedom to its former sid>iect lands (rf
Aaigau and Vaud, and received as comp«uation the
greater part of the territories of the Bishop of Basle in
the Jura; Neuch&tel was at the same time a Prussian
principality and a Swiss canton. The seccmd Treaty
of Pans gave further districts of France and Savoy to
Geneva. Thus Switzerload received its present ex-
tent, of territory, and fonned a ocmfederation Ot
twenty-two cantons, united in c<nnpleto equality.

The inner political development of several cantons
led to disputes concerning the Constitution, especially
after the outbreak of the French Revolution of July,
1830. Half the cantons received democratic con-
stitutions; this caused a civil war in Basle that divided
the canton into two half-cantons (city of Basle and
rural Basle). At the same time a movement for toe
revision of the Trea^ of Confederation o£ 1815 was
started by seven (femoeratie cantons wludi had
formed an agreement among themselves. The Catii-
olic cantons opposed a revision because they feared that
it would not only result in a reduction of cantonal
sovereignty, but also lead to interference with their
religious freedom. The Articles of Baden, agreed to in
1834 by several cantons, introduced Joeephinism into
the relations between Church and Stato and greatly
impaired ecclesiastical rights. In December, 1846*
the seven Catholic cantons, namely, Uri, Schwyi,
Unterwalden, Lucerne, Zug, Fribourg, and Valais,
united in a league, called the "Scmderbimd" (separate
league), for the protection of their sovereignty and of
their territories. The majority of the cantons decided
at the Diets of August, 1846, and of July, 1847, Uiat
this league should be dissolved, because it was not
compatible with the Treaty of Confederation of 1815.
At the same time the same majority voted fw a re-
vision of the Constitution, and also voted against the
continued presence of the Jesuits in Switzerumd. The
seven Catholic cantons made ready for war. At the
Diet held in October, 1847, their representatives
moved that their sovereignty and their ecclesiastical
ri^te be recognized, and that the question as to the
Jesuits be removed from the subjei^ for fliecusuon.
lie motion was rejected, fud the protesting dowties
of the seven cantons kit the Diet. The oivil war,
called the War of the Sonderbund, now broke out*
The Catholic cantons w^ defeated, and the war
ended without much bloodshed. Radical govern-
ments were now fwced upon the conquered cantons,
but these administrators were later set aside by the
popular majorities of the Cathohc Conservative
part^. The exposes of the war to the amount of five
miibcHi francs were imposed upon the defeated can-
tons, the remilt of which was their ecoDomie impair^
ment. The Jesuits were driven out and about fift^
monasteries and religious foundations were suppressed.
Itwasavictory of Radical Liberalism over the Conser-
vative party. In 1848 Neuch&tel freed itself from
I^Bsia and adopted a new republican Constitution.

On 12 Sept^ber, 1848, the new Conetitotion of the
Cuifederatum was produmed and put in force. , It
transformed Switzerland into a Confederation anulsr
to the United States. The individual oantons re>
tained, indeed, their soverei|;nty and their separate
CoasUtutions, but the eKUOse oi sovereignty was

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limited hj the federation. There was ao aMembly to

represent the individual states called the Councft of
States (Stdnderai), and one to r^resent the entire
Swiss nation called the National Council (Natumal-
niOi vbicii (oaaed togiatbex the legislative body of the
Craifederaticm. Hie executive authority was in the
hands of a body called the Federal CouneU. The
cantons, however, still retained the right of levying
taxes, ca police supervision, of the admimstration of
justice, and religious affairs, and all legislation regard-
mg schools. The universities of Switzerland also all
remained cantonal institutions; thev exist at the pres-
ent time in Basle, Zurich, Beme^ Ceneva, Lausanne,
Fribourg, and Neuoh&teL Fore^ affairs, the anny,
eustoms, postal administration, and coinage were
transferrea to the federation. The Constitution was
revised in 1874, and on 9 April of this year the now
Constitution was accepted; with a few partial changes
it is still in existence. It rests on the principles of a
decided centralization as regards the army and the
judiciary, and, unfortunately, contains also severe
articles directed against the Catholic Church (pro-
hibition of bouses of Jesuits, of the founding of new
miHiaBtenes, etc.). A federal supreme cmirt waa
established for the entire Confederation. In many <rf
the cantons a strong movement began for nuking the
cantonal constitutions more democratic, and during
the last decades new constitutions have been intn>
duced in a large number of them. The creation of a
common code of law for civil and criminal cases was
transferred to the Confederation. The railways were
made state property by the purchase of the lai^er rail-
wajn from the companies owning them, the purchase
being confirmed in 1898; in this way their administrar
tion belongs to the Confederation.

Tbod Commonwbalth. — Switzerland forms a con-
federation made up of the following twenty-two can-
tons, three being divided into half-cantons. The can-
tons have sovere^ authority in all matters which are
not under the jurisdiction of the Confederation.
These competencies, however, frequently conflict, as
in matters respecting the army, sanitary otGcers, and
nalioe supervision of foreigners. The decisions of the
Federal Government a^e generally executed by the
cantonal Qovemments. The main matters under the
jurisdiction of the Confederation are: Intercourse with
otiier countries and the exclusive right to make
teeaties with them and to direct the for^n policy;
since 1898 the entire domain of dvil and criminal law,
for the purptffle of unifying these two codes, although,
with the exception of the Federal Court, the organiza-
tion of the courts belongs to the cantons; the army, all
l^islation, and the supervision of legislative workj the
right to carry out public works that nenefit a consider-
able part of the country; further, the right of general
mipervision ova* water and forest inspection. The
Confederatiim fdso established a federal polytechme
high sdiool at Zurich, the supervision of wmtsh belongs
exclu^vely to the federal authorities, while all other
sdiools are cantonal and recdve in part subventions
from the Federal Government. The Federal Govern-
ment owns and has the control of the customs, post-
office, telegraph and telephone, coinage (since 1905 the
monopoly of the issuing of bank-not^ has been given
to the federal national bank)^ the mauufacUire and
■ale of powder, wholesale sellmg of alcohol. Trade
inspection is also laigelv regulated by federal law, and
the Government has the nght to introduce sickness
and accident insurance ; a law in reference to these was
accepted by the nation in 1912. Since they' were
made state property the larger, standard-gauge rail-
ways h^ve been carried on by the Federal Govern-
ment. The Constitution of the Confederation guar<
autees freedom of faith and conscience, as well as
freedom of worship. Notwithstanding this, tiie Con-
stitntion forbids the reception of Jesuits and affilliated
ordns and the founding of new monasteries, while the

establishmmt of new dioceses in Swltserlond Is mode
dependent on the o(»isent of the Confederatitm. All
these speditl ovdinanees refer omiy to the Catholie

Church.

The federal authorities are: (1) kcddatfre; (3)
e»eutive: (3) judicial. (1) The lefpdatire autMnt^
is the Federal Assembly, composed of two concurrent
chambCTs: the National Council and the Council of
States: The National Council is elected <lirectly by
the people for three years, there being a deputy for
each 20,0(X) inhabitants, or for a fraction over 10,000
inhabitants of a canton. For this purpose Switser-
land is divided into federal electonu districts. The
eleeticm is direct and ^e ballot secret. All Swiss
citizens over twenty years of i^, who are not pre-
vented by cantonal laws from exercising jwUtical
rights, are entitled to vote. All citizens entitled to
vote are also entitled to hold office. The Council <rf
States consists of 44 deputies, of whom each canton
appoints two, and each nalf-canton one. The mem-
bers of the Council of States are elected, according to
the law of each canton, either by the people of the
canton, or the cantonal council, which is the can-
tonal legislative body. The passage of a law requirce
iha agreement of both the States and National Coun-
cils. These two councils unite in the Federal Assem-
bly for certain matters, especially for the election of
the executive authorities and of the members of the
Federal Court, for voting upon petitions for pardon,
for settling disputes as to jurisdiction between federal
authoritiea The nation has the right of the referen-
dum; when 30,000 citizens entitled to vote, or eight
cantons of Switzerhmd, make the demand, an^.
federal law and any ifenerally binding federal ordi-
nance, if not of a pressing nature, must be laid before
the nation, so that the latter by a majority vote can
accept or reject ft. In 23 cases during the years
1874-1906 in which the referendum vote was taken,
the law or the federal decision was rejected in 19 cases.
The people also have an initiative in matters respect-
ing toe Federal Constitution, inasmuch as SO,(XX) citi-
zens entitled to vote may petition fw a change in the
Constitution' upon a dennite point. The Federal
Assembly also can present a sunilar demand fax a
change in the Constitution.

(2) The executive authority is the Federal Council,
whicH) is composed of seven members, elected by the
joint Federsi Assembly for three years. A^y oitisoi
eligible to the National Council can be elected to
the Federal Council. The president of the Federal
Council is elected each year by the Federal Assembly,
as is also the vice-president; the president cannot be
re-elected for the ensuing year. The Federal Council
is responsible for the exercise of its office to the Federal
Assembly, yet the rejection by the chambers of a
bill off^ed by a member of the Federal Council
does not necesmtate the dimnisaal of the respective
member. The executive administration of the
Confederation is divided into seven departments
each of which is under the direction of a member of
the Federal Council; the Department of Foreign
Affairs, which is always under the direction of the
president of the Confederation ; the Department of the
Interior, which controls the numerous federal subven-
tions, supervises game and fish inspectors, weights and
meamires, and directs the sanitary inspectors, and the
execution of the laws respecting food; the Depart-
ment of Justice and Police; the Military Department;
the Department of Finance and Customs; the De-
partment of Commerce, Industry, and Agriculture;
the Post-office and Railway Department. (3) The
judicial authority is the Federal Court at Lausanne,
tip to 1912 the court consisted of nineteen members;
when the numbca* was raised to twenty-four, to which
diouM be added nine substitute members. The fed-
oal judges are eleoted for six years by the Federal
AaHOBb&. The court js dividea into Uiree sections;

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SWXTZIBLAIID 31

one for 'app^bk in the domain of put^c Jaw and cer-
tain mattm of civil law, the second for the other
appeals in civil law, the third Ua complainta respect-
ing the law of bankruptc:^ and the law of obligation.
For eriaumd cases there is a ciiminaJ court of three
judgei and twelve assesaors. The fedmtl attomey-
general is ap^inted by the Federal Council.

The Constitutions of the Swiss ciuitons are. in all
cases democratic. However, great differences -are to
be found in the various cantons in regard to the can-
tonal Constitution, taxation, oommimal Government,
etc. In the laneer cantons the Iwslative body is a
council elected W the pei^Ie, called the Cantonal
CounciL or the Great Coune^. Hie members of the
cantonal Govemmmts are elected ather by this
council or directhr by the people. The smaller can-
tons have as the l^islative body^ the cantonal ajasem-
bly, composed of all the active citizens of the canton,
which elects the cantonal authorities. The chief polit-
ical parties of Switzerland, as represented in the
Federal Assembly, especially in the chamber called
the Nation^ Council, are: (1) The Radical txc Pro-
gressive-Democratic party that avowedly strives after
greater centralization; this principle ia especially ad-
vocated by the Radicals of German-Switzerland. At
times this part shows anti-Catholic tendencies, as was
particularly evidenced in the War of the Sonderbund,
and in the turmoil caused by the Old Catholic move-
ment; during the last twenty years, faowew, this bo»-
tilit^ has not been so marked. Una party is the dom-
inating one throughout the entire Confedaation.
(2) The CathoUo-Conservative party. (3) The Lib-
eral-Conservative, or Protestant part)^. Both the
Catholic- and Liberal-Conservative parties are Feder-
alists, but lay stress upon the rights of cantonal
sovereignty. (4) The Social-DemocraUc party.

ElccumABTicAx. H18TO8T. — There k no doubt
that Christian misdons were started in the territory
of the present Switzerland as eu-ly as the third
century, but it was not until aiter the Constantinian
era that they made decided pn^rees. The mission-
aries of Christianity entered the country by three
main roads: by way of the valley of the Rhone to
Geneva, from Italy over the Great St. Bernard to
Valais and into western Switzerland to the Helvetii,
and over the passes of the by way of the Gristms
into eastern Switzerland to the Rhgtians. Aftw
the political repartition of the Roman Empire during
the reign of Diocletian, the earliest Swus diocesee
appeared in the course of the fourth century: in
Valais the Diocese of Ootodunim (Martigny), the
see of which was transferred in the sixth century to
Sion iSitlen) ; in the south-west the Diocese of Geneva
(Genava) was founded in the Civitat Gmttvensium,
which belonged to the f^eat tenitories of the Allo-
l»<pges; westran and central Switzeriand recdved the
Diocese of the Helvetii, that was establi^ed in the
Cwitaa Helvetiarum; its bishop lived now at Aven-
ticura (Avenchea), now at Vindonissa {Windisch),
until at a later date, betweoi the years 6S5 and 650,
the see was transfen^d to Lausanne, and the northern
part of the r^on, that had been taken by the Ala-
manni, was assigned to the Diocese Constance.
In the north-west the Diocese of Basl^ tlw otwin d
which is obscure, was establUAied in the Civiku Saara-
comm. A part of the present Swiss Jura belonged
to the Diocese of Besan^on; towards the east, in
Rhsetia, the Diocese of Chur (Coire) was established.
The territories south of the Alps belonged in part to
the Dioceses of Como and Milan. A famous shrine
was the church built over the graves of the martyr St.
Mauritius and his compuiions (St. Maurice in ValaiB) ;
in 615 the Burgundian King Si^smimd founded an ab-
bevL at this spot, the oldest monastery on Swiss sc^

The occupation of western Switzerland by the
Burgimdians, although they were Arians, led to no
aoiouB intari^tifMi « the life of the Oiiirch. At the

2 awiTKiRTiAire

beginning of the sixth century King Sigismund be-
came a Cathdic: this was quickly fcdlowed by Uie
adoption of the CaUudic Faith by the Burgundians.
F^m 534 the entire teiritoiy <tf the BurguMians be-
longed to the Kingdom of the Franks, as tlwy took
part in the reJigious developanent of this kingdmn.
The Alamanni were still heathen and when they
migrated into northern and north-eastern Switzer-
land they destroyed, along with the Roman civiliztr*
tion, almost the entire oi^anization of the Church.
After the Franks subjugated the Alamanni in 496 tlie
Irish missionaries began to labour in their territories.
In the sixth century the Diooeee of Constanee wm
fotmded for Alomannia; it included those parts of
Switzerland occupied by this people. St. Colund>a
and St. Gall from the Irish monastery of Bangor
laboured on the shores of Lake Constance and on
those of Lake Zurich. When about 612 Columba
w^t to Italy, Gall remained behind and founded a
monastery, from which developed the cel^rated Ab-
bey of St-Gall. The monastery ot Reiohenau was of •
great importance in the further spread of Christiaiiity
on Lake Constance. Other monast^ies were founded
in eastern Switzerland, among them Haters and
Dissentis, and in the tenth century Einsieddn. In
western Switzerland famous abbeys were established
in the territory of the Burgundians, as St-Imio', St-
Ursanne, and Itomainmotia>; these, howev^, did not
appear imtil the Frankish era. As time went on the
growth of rdiffon and civilization brought rich posses
sions and large secular power to the bishops and abbeys.

The great movnnent for the refcHmation of uie
monasteries during the tenth century, in which Cluny
led the wa^, reached western Switzerland and caused
the foundms of new and important abbeys, such as
Fayon in Vaux, St-Victor in Geneva, St-Alban in
Baiue, and others. Several more Benedictine abbe^
were establidied In the twelfth century; among these
wae Muri in Schaffhausen, Fischingen at Thurgau;
some Cistercian abbeys were also founded, as Haute-
rive in Fribourg, St-Urban in Lucerne, and Wet^
tingen in Aargau, while the Premonstratensians and
Carthusians established numerous monastic houses in
various districts of Switzerland. The change in mon-
astic life introduced in the thirteenth century by the
Franciscans and Dominicans, who settled in we ctties
to exercise pastoral care, extoided throuf^out Swit^-
erland at an early date. Both Franciscan and Do-
minican monastenesMprang up in numerous citi^ at
Bssle, Zurich, Berne, SchfUffhausen, Solothum, Chur,
Friboui^, Lausanne, Geneva, and others. Among
the kni^tly orders, the Knights o( St. John of Jeru-
salem had t^e latest number of houses, some of which
were endowed with large revenues. Other orders had
a few monasteries, llaen were tieo Ime/s madam of
oonvents for winnen. Besides the minusteries there
were houses of Au^timan canons in Switzwland, a
few of which still exat in the Catholic cantons. Thus
a rich religious life mrang up in the various distriets of
Switzerland around the numerous religious founda-
tions of various kinds, the sees <rf the dioceses, the
abbeys and other monasteries, and the reiigious insti-
tutions of the dtiee.

Hie Protestant sehlon of the axteenth oentury
began in German Switzerland with the position tatoi
by Zwingli in Zuridi at the same time tiut it appeared
in Germany. At first the religiout innovation met
witib but Uttle success. On 8 April, 1624, the five dis-
tricts of Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, and Lucerne
decided to retain uie old, true Christian Faith and to
suppress the erroneous doctrine within their terri-
tories. At the Diet oS the Confederation Jtteld at
lAiceme on 20 April of the same year this decifflon was
adopted by all the distriets excepting Zurich and
Schafifhausen. During this period An^aptists made
their appearance, especially in St-Gall and the Ori-
sons, and Anabaptist communUies wae established in

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8WITZIKLAND 3

Bsveral districts including Schaffbausen and Appen-
kSL a peasant revolt broke out, partly in connexion
with the Anabi4}tiBt movement; this outbreaki how-
ever, was mainiy settled by negotiaticms after s«fd<Mn
had been abolished. Notwithstanding the decisious
of the Diet of 1&24 and all efforts made by the Cath-
olic districts of central Switzerland, Zwinglianism
spread to other Swiss cities and territories. The
bi»^tical doctrine was introduced into the city of St-
by Joachim von Watt (Vadianus) and his fol-
knren: in 1528 all Catholics were ezduded from the
coondl, and only the abbey renuuned loyal to the
Catholic Faith. Zwinglianism extended from St-
Gall into Ameniell and spread among the communes

Appenzelt-Ausserrhoden. Througn the influence
of Zurich, Protestantism was introduced into Toggeo-
burg, which belonged to the Abbey of St-Gatl, anA
into Thurgau, so that in 1525 the majority of the
inhabitants of both these districts belonged to the new
faith. Protestantism also found entrance into Glarus,
Saigans, and the valley of the Rhine, as well as into
the (Mkmis. In these districts, however, the adher-
ents (tf the heretical doctrine oould not attain absolute
rontrol. The cities of Basle and Schaffhauaen also fell
away from the Catholic Faith; much was done for the
spread of Protestantion at Basle by (Eoolampadius
(q. v.). For a considerable time Berne wavered, but
in 1528 the new doctrines urged by Francis Kotb, N.
Manuel, Berchtold HaUer. and Johann Haller con-
quered, and the heretical doctrine was introduced by
force in all the territories of Berne.

The districts that had become Protestant united
both with one another and with foreign Protestant
cities. The five Catholic districts of Switserland.
mentioned above, had also united in defence of the old
Faith intiieir territorial, and bad formied an alliance
with Austria. Zwingli now sought to (oroe them to
submit to hi« erroneous teachings. This resulted in
the two wars of Kappel (1528-31), which ended in the
victory of the CaUiolic districts by Uie battle near
Kappd in 1531, in which Zwingli was kflled. In the
second Peace of Kappel which was now signed (1531)
the Catbc^ic Faith was comptetdy restored in the
common dependencies of Baden, Ireiamt, and Rap-
penwyl, and numerous parishes in Tha^sau: the
valley of the Rhine became Catholic again and the
monasteries were re-established. The Protestant
Pait^ was recognized by the Constitution; in the re-
ligiously mixed districts and in the German subject
luids me individual parishes could decide to which
faith to belong, but the free exercise of the religion of
the minority was protected; the districts which were
entir^ Protestant or entirely Catholic retained their
reqiective oonf essioiijB, and the allianoe oi the Zwin^
lian districts was dissolved. In the meantime the
ba^ticaJ doctrine had been carried from Berne into
French Switzerland. Among the lordships belonging
to the Bishop of Basle in the Jura the new faith made
its way into the MUnsterthal, Biel, the city of Neu-
eh&t(d, and also in the district of Neuch&tel. In
1535 Berne conquered the district of Vaux and intro-
duced iStitestantism into it by force, as well as in the
lands that Berne owned in common with Fribourg.
Bone abo supported the adherents of the new faith,
which in 1535 had gained the supremacy in the poases-
tions of its idly G^eva, where Calvin soon made his
appearance and where he established a new centre of
mtcBtantism.

la religious matters the Confederation was now
divided as follows: the five districts of Uri, Schwyz,
UotawaJden, Zug, and Lucerne with their dependen-
des (amoMC than Ticino), also Fribourg, Solothum,
ttie dOied Valais, the Abbot of St-Gall, and the com-
mon dependencies <^ Bad^, Freiamt, and R^mer-
■vyl remained Catholic; Zurich, Berne with Vaud,
Baale, Schaffhauaen, the city of St-Gall, and Geneva
me Froteitant; both eonfeasions existed together in

3 SWirZIRLAMP

Appenzell, which in 1597 was divided into Catholic
InnerriiodiBn and Protestant Auaaerrhoden, Glania.
the Griaons (where onl^ the "graue Bund" remainea

Catholic), and in the dependent districts of Aargau
Thui:gau, Werdenberg, the valley of the Rhinc^ and
Toggenburg. True inner religious reform, based on
the pure Catholic Faith, found zealous promoters in
Switzerland in the era of the Council of Trent. St
Charles Borromeo (q. v.) laboured with great suoces^
as did also Bishop Christopher Blarer of Basle. Of
great value in this woriE was the summoning of the
Jesuits, of whom the most important was Peter Cani-
sius (q. v.) ; in the years succeeding 1574 they erected
flourisning collies in numerous cities, as Lucerne,
Fribourg, Porrentruy, Siders, Brig, Sion, and Solo-
tfaurn. The Capuchins also entered Switzerland at
the same time, and erected their first monastery on
Swiss soil at Altori in 1579; this was gradually fol-
lowed by the founding of nearly thirty more houses, so
that their qiirituat labours embraced the larger phrt
of the Catholic districts of the Confederation. An-
other important factor in the revival of ecclesiastical
and reh^ous life was the establishment of a permanent

Eapal nimciature to the Confederation with its seat at
luceme (from 1579). The Collegium Helveticum at
Milan and the Collegium Ciermanicarum at Rome,
both of which had a number of free scholarships for
Swiss theologians, didmucb for the thorough education
and earnest relipous training of the clergy. The re-
vival of Cathohc life was vigorously supported by
zealous and orthodox priests, such as provost Sch-
neuwly at Fribourg, and Catholic statesmen, such as
L. Pfyffer, of Luceme, and M. Lussy in the forest
districts that had formed the original Swiss League.
The internal reform of the Church based on the de-
crees of the Council of Trent made its way throu^-
out Catholic Switzerland to the great benefit d the
loyal Cathohc population. The seven Catholic dis-
tncts formed the Borromsean League in 1586 to pre-
vent the further advance of Protestantism.

The subject lands of Bormia, Chiavenna, and Val
Telhna, wnich had belonged to the Grisons since
1513, remained loyal to the Catholic Faith. They
were hard pressed, and the attempts to spread the
heretical doctrine in these regions also were supported
in eveiy possible manner by the Protestant majority
in the Gnsons. During the violent political disputes
which raged in the Orisons during the seventeenth
century a revolt broke out in Val TclUna. The knight
James of Grossoto marched into the valley in 1620
and a large part of the Protestant population was
killed (the Valtelline Massacre). This led to a war
between the Protestant and Catholic districts and
thear foreign aUies, the final end of which was that the
Val Tellina and the other Italian subject lands were
lost to the Confederatea. After the Peace of Kappel
of 1531 the Catholic districts had the majority in the
Diet of the Confederation, a point of much import-
ance in the garrisoning of the lands held in common
liiat separated Berne and Zurich from each other.
These two powerful Protestant members of the Diet
sought an occasion to change this state of affairs.
The suppression of a Protestant community in Arth,
that belonged to Schwyz, gave rise to a dispute be-
tween the Catholic and Protestant districts which led
to the two Vilhnei^n wars (1656 and 1712). The
Catholic districts conquered in the first war; disturb-
ances in Toggenburg fed to the second war, in which
poUtical questions were especially prominent. This
latter war ended in the victory of the Protestant dis-
tricts, and it was followed by a new partition of the
common lordships in favour of the conquerors, as well
as by the ^antmg of complete parity to the Protest-
ant inh^itants of the subject lands. This treaty
divided the Confederation into two disUnot confes-
■ioaal groupa.
The hoatuity to ibe Church shown in Ui$ French

Digitized, by VjOOQ

SWITZERLAND 3<

Aevt^tion was aleo evidenced in the measures
adopted by the Hehretio Republic in Switzerland. By
a decree oiF 1798 the possessions of all Swiss monas-
teries were declared to be national property, and a
further decree suppressed, in theory, all monasteries.
The papal nuncio was expelled, and foreign bishops
were permitted to exercise their ecclesiastical jurisdic-
tion only through delegates who were nominated by
the Helvetic Directory. The decree respecting the
monasteries was not executed. By the Act of Mediar-
tion aS 1803 the property of the monasteries was re-
turned to them, and the monasteries oould be re-
opened. Only the venerable Abbey of St-Gall was
definitely suppressed. Part of the abbey lands were
incorporated in the state property of the Canton of St-
Gall, and part were reserved as a special fund for the
Catholics of the canton. After tne turmoil of the
Napoleonic era and after the suppression of the Dio-
cese of Constance the ecclesiastical administration
was gradually reorganized during the period of the
Restoration. By an agreement of 28 March, 1^,
the Diocese of Basle was re-establishedj with the see at
Solothurn (Soleure). The Swws portion of the Dio-
cese of Geneva was united with the Diocese of Lau-
sanne, and the bishop, whose see was Fribourg,
received the title of Bishop of LausEinne and Geneva,
"nie Diocese of Sion (Sitten) was left essentially as
before. In 1836 Pope Gr&roir XVI erected the
Vicariate Apostolic of St-Gall, which was later
chaiued into a bishopric. The old Diocese of Chur,
which continued to exist, received new boundaries by
agreements made with the cantons that had formed
the original League. In 1888, after long nc^tiations,
the Canton of Ticino was released from its diocesan
connexion with Como and Milan and made a diocese
which was, however, united with Basle; it is ruled by
an Apostolic administrator with the rank of a bishop.

The War of the Sonderbund greatly damaged Cath-
olic interests in Switzerland. Not only were the
Jesuits driven out and their flourishing schools sup-
pressed, but most of the monasteries in the Catholic
cantons were also suppressed by the violent radical
Governments that had fcome into power. Even at a
later date the Cantons of Thurgau, Zurich, Solothurn,
and Aargau secularized the monasteries in their terri-
tories and confiscated the monastic possessions.
During the nineteenth centunr some sixty monastic
institutions were suppressed throughout Switzerland.
In a number of the cantons a strong spirit of Joscph-
iniam became apparent, and the free exercise of
ecclesiaatical authority was frequently prevented.
The Catholic minority in the Protestant cantons was
oppreraed in various ways. This was es^ially the
case on the appearance of Old Cathohdsm which
caused a regular persecution of X/atholic priests and
people in some cantons, especially Berne and Geneva.
The opposition which sprang up in various countries
to the definitions of the Vatican Council also mani-
fested itself in Switzerland, and small Old CathoUc
parishes were formed in various places. The Old
Catholics of Switzerland united to form the "Chris-
tian Catholic National Church" which received for^
tttal recognition both from the Federal Council and
from the Governments of several cantons. The Gov-
ernments of the Cantons of Berne and Geneva settled
renegade priests over" Catholic parishes by force;
churches, parsoni^es, and the church property were
given to these priests and their few adherents by the
administrative authorities. A Christian Catholic
theological faculty for the training of Old Catholic
priests was established at the University of Berne;
this faculty still continues a languishing existence.

When Lachat was appointed Administrator Apos-
tolic of Ticino, and Mermillod, Bishop of Lausanne
and Geneva, the authorities of the Confederation and
some of the cantonal Qoveroment« be»ui to yield
mnewhat in the sbi^^ wit^ the CatboUos. loany

4 SWITZIKLAND

ohurobes in the Bemeee Jura and in Geneva wwe
returned to the Catholics, frequently, thooz^ under
neat material saerffice by the latter. The Old
Catholic movement in Switzerland, as everywhere
else, began very soon to decline. Of late yews the
attonpt has been made in different Swiss cantons to
separate Church and State. This separation has
been carried out practically in Geneva and Basle.
Catholic life has greatly developed in Switzerland not-
withstanding the difficulties caused by the War of the
Sondobund and the [>ersecution caused by the Old
Catholic movement. Among the larger Catholic or-
ganizations whidi extend over the whole of Switzer-
land menticm should be made of the Catholic People's
Union; this society unites the individual organizations
into one large association, and labours with much
Btfticess in the fields of religion, charity, social work,
and education. The section for home missionfl, that
aids Catholic parishes in the diaspora, distributed for
this purpose the sum of 202,720 francs in 1910, and
helped ICS mission parishes. The historical section
supports the "Zeitscnrift fOrtchweizerischeKirchen-
geschichte". In addition to the People's Union men-
tion should also be made of the "Association of Swise
CathoUc Students", which is active in all of the
Swiss universities, in several foreign ones, and in the
Swiss lyceums, and which has a large membership.
A matter of much importance for Catholic life was the
founding of the cantonal University of Fribourg (q. t.).

REUQiotrs Statistics. — Of the 3,765,002 actual
inhabitants of Switzerland on 1 December, 1010,
2,108,590 were Protestants. 1,690,792 were Catholics,
19,023 Jews, and 46,597 belonged to other confessions
or to none. A coinparison of the number of Catholics
with that of the Frot^tants at the census of 1900
shows that the Catholics have increased 'at a more
rapid rate within the last ten years than the Protest-
ante. This arises mainly from the fact that the adja>-
cent parts of the neighbouring countries are all
Catholic, so that immigration almost always increases
only the Catholic population. The Catholic ioh^i-
tants of Switzerland belong to the followine dioceses:
(I) Baste-Lugano; in this double bishopric the Diocese
of Basle includes the Cantons <tf Solothurn, Lucerne,
Zug, Berne, Aa^au, Thurgau, Basle, and Scbaff-
bauaen, while the Diocese of Lugano embraces the
Canton of Ticino. (2) Chur, which includes the Can-
tons of the Grisona Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden (both
Obwalden and Nidwalden), Glaxus, Zurich, and, in
addition, the Principality of Ltchtenstein. (3) Lau-
sanne-Geneva, which includes the Cantons of Fri-
bourg, Vaud (with exception of a few parishes whidi
belong to Sion), Neuch&tel and Geneva. (4) St-Gall,
which includes the cantons of St-Gall, and Uie two
half-Cantons of Appenzell. (5) Sion, which includes
the Cimton of Valaia and the Catholic parishes of the
governmental department of Aigle in the Canton of
Vaud. In addition there are: the exempt episcopal
Abbey of Saint-Maurice in Valais, the abbot of which
is always the titular Bishop of Bethlehem, the exempt
Abbey of Einsiedeln, the exempt priory of the Great
St-Bemard, and (wo prefectures Apostolic in the Gri-
Bcnis, namely Misox-CalancL and Rluetia.

With the exception of the Moravians and two
Lutheran parishes in Geneva, all the Protestants of
Switzerland belong to the Evangelical R^onned
Church. The great majority of these belong to the
"National Churches", of which there are fifteen,
which are organized according to cantons. There are
numerous dinercnces in details in the constitutions
these cantonal National Churches. Besides these there
are also large independent Protestant Churches and
Evai^dical sects ot the most varied kinds. In the
census the Old Catholics are not counted as inde-
pendent confessions, but are enumerated among the
Catholics. Altogetha> they ntunber about 30,000per-
flons (more «aet etatistiCB are not obu^iable). Four

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SYDNXY

yearBf^thelistof OldCatlH^ clereygave66iiameB;
m the summGT half-year of 1910 the Old Catholic
theological department at Berne had three SwiM and
mx foreign students. In addition to the Old Catholic
-bishop^ the Christian Catholic National Church is
administered by a national synod which meets annu-
ally; besides the Old Cathohc priests and the bishop
its membership includes delegates elected by the
parishes. The Swisa Jews are united for worship into
twenty-two communities which are organized m ac-
cordance with the laws of the Confederation for
associations.

Stddmb, GmlogU der SehvtU (Zurich, 185I-fi3); Hbeb, Dia
Vnatit der Setona <3nd ed., Zurioh, 1879); Sciib6t>b, Dot
Matumhbeit der Alpenwell (Zurich, 1907); VOH TscHOlXi, Dot
TitrbAm der AlpenmeU (llth ed., Leipsig, IS&Of; Zmumau, Die
dMitAjrmatitehe Svraehgrente in der 8di^^ (Baale, 1891-09) ;
TOM EUuB, BundeareM (5 vob., 2Dd ed., Berne. 1003—); Mnn,
QmA. da tdiveiamadim Bundetreeht (Winterthur, 1875-78),
MtpplBmeDt (1881): AmUicker Satnmluno der alteren ^daen9^
afdutf Xbaeftmds ton IS47 Mt r7as<17 vol8.,ZurichandLiioenw,
1839-1880); Amit. Sarnmlun^derAlaenauederZmt der HettetimAen
tUmMik (10 vols.. Berne, 1886-1907) ; Hidbbb, SchxDeUeriaehee
XJrkwndmreoititr (Benie. 1863-1877); QuMen
jeUdU*(BDCe 1877^; HCrbin, /fawj&HcA der <8c&«wiMrip«M&. (Statu,
1900-1908], with k full list of authorities and bibliography; von
HOllsk, Gneh, der aehweu. Bidaenoiemeelmft (15 Vole., Zurich,
1806-1853), eon^Dued by sevenT writers, by Dahuxeh (3 vols.,
1000—), DiBKAUSR (1887-1007): Oelpke. KvAeimaek. der
Stkweie (Berne, 1866-61): ton MCumen, Hdvetia aocni (Benw,
1868-1801); LOtolt. Dte Olaiiberuboten der Sehtaeia vvr St.
OaUu* (Looenw, 1871); Bou, KirehengeuA. der Sehtoeit bia aitf
Karl d. Or. (Zurich, 1893); BOchi, Die kathot. Kirdte in der
SdiiBeii (Munich, 1903); Hubtbr, Die Befeindung der kalM.
Kirehe in der SehmtM (Schaffhausen, 1842); CsiniWEAO-JoLT.
Biel, du Sonderbund (Fribourg, 1850); BiEawAin<-MOLu:a, Der
Krnnpf einadten Rechl u. GewaU (Altorf, 1863-1866) : Gareib and
ZORK, 9taatu. Kirekein der ScAwni (Zurich, 1877-78); f/itf. de la
nentadUm rtiiffieuee d Genite CParia, 1878) ; Troxlu, Die "toAo-
liaeh"-tiuole(n*d»e FaiulUt an der HoekeekuU Bern (Basle. 1903);
Idbk, Die neuere Bntioietlune dee AttkaOulutiamue jColocne,
1908) ; of. also the Ubliognphiea to the articles on the Swiss cu»-
eeees and to the artielea Calvik and Zwinou.

J. P. KiBSCH.

Sword, Knights or thb. See Miutabt Obdbbs,
The.

Sydney, Archdiocesb of (Stonetbnsis). — ^The
vast territories formerly known as New Holland
and Van Diemen's Land and since 19(X) as The
Commonwealth of Australia were ^ected into the
Vicariate Apostolic of New Holland in 1834. John
Bede Folding (q. vO, a Benedictine, was appointed
vicar Apostolic. He was coneecrated bishop in
London on 29 June, 1834. Dr. Folding visited
Borne in 1841-2, and at his su^estion new sees
were erected in Hobart and Adelaide. A few years
later Melbourne and Brisbane were also detached
from the archdiocese. In New South Wales dio-
ceses were erected at Maitland, Goulbum, Bat-
hurst, Armidale, LismOTe, and Wilcannia; these form
at present the suffragan sees of Sydney, which was
^ected into an arehdioceae on 15 F^ruary, 1842.
The archdiocese stretches along the Pacific coast from
Red Head on the north to Cape Howe on the south,
and inland to the Dividing Raiige. When Dr. Fold-
ing landed at Sydney, there were only four priests in
the district; Father Ullathome, an English Benedic-
tine who had come to Australia in 1^3, was vicar
general, assisted by Fathers Theny, McEncroe, and
Dowlin^ three Irish priests, the last named a Domini-
can. Tbe official census of 1833 gave the population
of the colony as 60,704, the Protestants of all denom-
inations bemg 43,006 anii the CathoUcs 17,283. The
government allowance in the same year for the main-
tenance of the Catholic Church was S4000; whilst
to t^e Church of England, exclusive of its nch land
endowments, was assigned the sum of $95,35.5.
There were 10 Catholic schools receiving about S2(XH)
from the Government^ whilst the Protestant schools
were allowed S2S,^, in addition to a grant of $16,500
for the building of the Protestant King's School at
Parramatta. In 1836 Dr. Ullathome sailed for
England and Ireland to secure priests and nuns for
the nuaeasing demands <^ the aiooeae. He availed

himself of this opportunity to publidi a pamphlet
setting forth Uie md condition of the omvicta, and
the maladministration of affairs in official auBrters.
Seventy-five thousand copies of this pamphlet were
circulated in England and throughout the Continent,
and its effect was seen in the altered conditiiHis of
administration soon after introduced. His misuon
was successful, and in 1841 Dr. Folding was enabled
to report to Propaganda that the diocese had 24
priests, a community of nuns, 9 churches completed
and 6 others in course erection, with several small
chspels, and 31 schools.

During a visit to Rome in 1846-47 Dr. Folding
secured the appointment of Dr. Davis, O.S.B., titu-
lar Bishop of Maitland, as his coadjutor bishop. He,
however, died in Sydney in 1864. In 1873 Arch-
bishop Roger Bede Vaughan was appointed coad-
jutor, and he succeeded Dr. Folding on 16 March,
1877. He was remarkable for his eloquence, and
upheld with great v^ur the Catholic cause in the
matter of religious education. On 19 April, 1883, he
sailed for England via San Francisco, but died two
days after his arrival in Liverpool (18 August). Pat-
ricK Francis Moran (see below). Bishop of Oseory,
Ireland, was appointed to the vacant see, his Brief
bein;; dated 21 March, 1884. Dr. Higgins was
appointed auxiliary bishop in 1888, and in 1899 was
translated to the See of Rockhampton in Queensland.
Most Rev. MiVhael Kelly, titular .\ri;n*ii!*?iop of
Achrida. was iqipoinled coadjutor in 1!KH, Tin-cathe-
dral unaer the nivo rir ii >n of Our Lady Help of C'hriH-
tians, begun as Tiir ! >riL-k ;js 1S20 by Fatljc-r Therry an<i
completed by An lilii.'^l.iifi I'oMinc. licslroyt'd by
fire on29 June, ISll.'i It n l-iiill ^icmrHing To plana
by Wardell, anil mnstcritU'tt bv jVrdiliisIiop Vaughan
on 8.September, 1S83. Arehbiabtip Momo latidsdl at
Sydney on 8 September, 1884. The foUowingyear he
was summoneci to Home to be irromoted to ihe car-
dinalate. He convened and presided at three plpswy
^nods (1885, !Sfl.^, IQOol, and ftlso preeidod at tlie
Catholic congT'^iP^ 1k.-Ic] in 1900, 1904, and 1909.
Conferences of i hp i^IcrRy and diocesan synods have
been held every vftir. St. Fatrick'n Eci-kaiast-iral
College, for the spoiiinr cl»Tfrj', was erpcted at Manly
on a government grant of ciglitv arrcs; the founda-
tions were blessfd Huntie llir- plf-nnry p>Tir>d of 18S5,
and dedicated in K'v'^. I' hi;ilt imd fully

equipped at the sule expense oc Cardinal Moran, who
wished it to be his gift to the Australian Church, as it
was intended not for Sydney alone but for all the
Australian dioceses. It has in the present year
(1911) eighty students, all Australians, and has since
its opening furnished one hundred ind thirty priests
to the Australian mission. A preparatory ecclesias-
tical college at Springwood^ in the Blue Mountains,
was opened last year. It is erected on a site of tax
hundred acres, the purchase of the land and the sec-
tion of the building being a further gift of the car-
dinal to the diocese. There are two Catholic weekly
newspapers: "The Catholic Press" and "The Free-
man's Journal"; there is also the quarterly "Aus-
tralasian Catholic Record", besides, some minor
monthly publications. The Catholic Club, organised
in 1810, has a considerable enrolment.

When the Dr. PoldiM was appointed vicar Apos-
tolic, several English Benedictines volunteered for
the Australian mission. Some years later, at Dr.
Folding's petition, St. Mary's was declared a Bene-
dictine cathedral, the adjoining presbytery was raised
to the dignity of a Benedictme priory, and it was
hoped by the archbishop that the whole diocese would
be efficiently served w an Anglo-Australian Bene-
dictine community. This, however, was soon found
to be impracticable. From the first many difficulties
beset Uie Benedictine Order m Sydney. The com-
munity was finally dissolved b^ Archbishop Vaughan,
himseu a Benedictine, and missions wpc? assigned.to

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ita priecta in the ranks of the secular clergy. The
Tslinous orders of men are at present represented by
the Aiarist Fathers, who eot^^d on theu" missionary
work in 1837, the Jesuits, Franciscans, MiasioDaries of
the Sacred Heart, Vinceotians, Paasionists, Mission-
aries of the Divine Word, and Capuchins. In 1883
the membera of the re^iouB orders numbered 41: at
present they are 79. The Irish Congr^tion of Sis-
ters of Charity was the first of the orders of nuns to
arrive ( 1 January, 1839) in Australia. For some years
their ^lecial care was devoted to the female convicts.
Latfir they ensa^ged in the work of education, took
char^ of St. Vincent's Hospital, the first Catholic
hospital in Australia, and visited the prisons. The
oongr^tion now numbers in Australia 320 nuns (in
Sydney 235). The Benedictine Nuns arrived in Syd-
ney in 1849, and at their monastery of Subiaco devote
themselves to the hig^ra branches of education. The
Good Samaritans, a purely Australian order instituted
in Sydney in 1867, are spread through other dioceses,
and number in Sydney 220. The Sisters of St. Joappb
are also an Australian institute spread through several

Tac Catkbdbal or Sr. Mart, Stdnxt, Nsw Sovm Waus

dioceaei, numbering in Sydney 265. Other rdigious
(vdezB m nuns are the Sistera of Mercy, Religious of
the Sacred Heart of Jesus, Poor Clares, Carmelites,
Nursing Sisters of the Little Company of Mary, little
Sisters of the Poor, Sisters of St. Brigid, Dominican
Nuns, Institute of the Blessed Virgin of Loreto, Sis-
ters of Our Lady of the Sacred Heart, and Marists.
At the close of Archbishop Vaughan's episcopate the
number of nuns in the (uoecae was 252: at present
(1911) they number 1400. St. John's coUeqge is asso-
ciated with the Sidney Univra^ty. The Jesuits have
the fiourishiog College ot St. I^atius at Riverview,
and the High School of St. Aloyaius at Milson's Point.
The Marist Brothers have a novitiate besides the Col-
lege of St. Joseph, the High School at Darlin^urst,
and several parochial schools. The Christian Broth-
ers from Ireland were the first teaching religiouB order
to oome to Australia. Three Brothers accompanied
Dr. Polding to Sydney in 1843, and within a few
months they had three schools; suffident means for
tJieir swport were lacking and they returned to Ire-
land in 1844. They returned to Sydney in 1887, and
have now a novitiate, two flourishing high schools,
and eight parochial schools. The Patrician Brothers
have also a flourishing college and some parochial
■ohode. The total numbor d[ teaching Brothov at

the close of Dr. Vauglian's cfnaoopate was 78; th«r

now number 220.

In 1883 there were 10,936 children in the schools
of the diocese; there are at present 25,000. Official
returns published last year (1910) in connexion with
the cardinal's silver jubilee set forth that during those
twenty-^ve years of his administnUion 160 churches
had been erected or enlaived and about as many
schools; 45 presbyteries had been provided, and 34
new parochial districts organised. In 1885 thers
was only one Catholic orphanage and that was
maintained by the Government. In 1888 the gov-
ernment aid was withdrawn and the orphanage
suppressed. Since then 9 orphanages have been estab-
lished and 2 Catholic industrial schools. In 1885
there was only one Catholie hospital, 8t. Vincent's; it
has since th^ be«i considerably eaUaxtBd, and fire
other hospitals have been built. A Home for the
Aged Poor has also been eetabli^ed, and several other
charitable institutions. ^

In 1911 the Archdiocese of Sydney contained;
175,000 Catholics; churches, 189; districts, 75;
priests, secular, 120^ r^ular, 79; religious men, 220,
women, 1374; semmanes, 3; collies, 7; boarding
schools (girls) 25; superior day schools (boys), 4;
(girls), 47 j primary schools, 250; poor sdiools, 2; ni^ht
schools (girls), 2; (boys), 1; orphanages, 7; industrial
schools, 3; total number of pupils in Catholic schools,
25,000; hospitals^; Hospice for the Dying, 1: Found-
hng Hospital, 1: Home for the Aged Poor, I ; Home for
the BUnd, 1; Mf^alen Retreats 2; Servants' Home,
1 ; Home for Mental Invalids, 1; St. Charles' Villa f<v
Aged and Infirm Priests, 1.

Patrick Francis Cardinal Moran, third Arch-
bishop of Sydney, b. at LeighUnbridge, Ireland, 16
Sept., 1S30; d. at Manly, Sydney, 16 Aug., 1911. He
was the Only son of Patrick Moran and Ahce Cullen,
sister of Cardinal Cullen. Of his three sisters two
became nuns, one of them offered her life to God for
the cholera patients whom she nursed, and died the
last victim of the plague in Ireland. Both his parents
died before his eleventh year. He left Ireland m 1842
to pursue his Indies in Rome. His "Acta Publica"
in universal thedogy was so masterly as to sain for
him the doctorate by aoclamation. Among the prin-
cipal objectors was Cardinal Joachim Pecci, aSter-
wards Leo XIII, who was impressed bv the genius of
this Irish ^udent. He was appointed, vice-rector of
the Irish (Allege, and also filled the chair of Hebrew at
Pn^Mtganda, and was some time vice-rector of the
Scots Coll»e. In 1886 he was appointed secretary to
Cardinal GuUen and professor of Scripture at Ckm-
liffe College. He foimded the "Irish Ecclesiastical
Record". ' In 1869 he accompanied Cardinal Culten
to the Vatican Council, and was appointed procurator
for one of the ^isent bishops.

Selected as coadjutor Bishop of Ossory, he was con-
secrated Bishop of Olba. llie diocese was distracted
by dissensions between the infirm bishop. Dr. Walsh,
and some of bis priests and pec^le. Dr. Moran ruled
with a firm yet beni^ hand, and his episcopate was
fruitful of much spiritual and temporal advancemott
in the diocese. He established many religious insti-
tutions. At Callan was founded the convent of St.
Brigid's Apostolic School, which has blessed witii the
miBsionary spirit so many idistant lands. He intro-
duced the Sisters of Mercy also into the Iri^ work-
houses, and transformed those d^is of misery into
homes tor the indigent and poor. He established
industrial schools for boys and girls, under the guid-
ance of the Sisters of Charity, and was the pioneer in
that ^Twd network of child industrial trainmg which
has since beocme the pride of Ireland. He completed
the chanoel of and aaomed the Kilkenny Cathedral,
added a new wing to St. Kieman's College, and
founded the public library and aroheotogical society.
He alwajps ddended the ripita of the pec^ and eham-

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Sioned Hcnne Rule. He knew Ireland and loved her
eeply. He vbb consulted by W. E. Gladstone prior
to the introduction of bis Home Rule Bills and his
knowledge of the commercial, industrial, and economic
conditions of the country was a source of wonder
to the prime minister, who ever afterwards cherished
for tdra a prc^ound respect and affection. His great
diplomatic skill secured for him the confidence m the
Irish hierarchy^ and he represented them in many of
their most delicate negotiations with the Holy See.
Though the Benj amin of the episcopate, he was selected
as one of the secretaries to the first National Synod
of Maynooth. The Brief of Dr. Moran's translation
to Sydney was issued 21 March, 1884. In the arch-
bishop's farewell audience with Leo XIII it was made
evident titat the intri^es of putie^ the interference
of government agencies, ana the mfluence of high
ecclesiastics had made the matter almost impossible
of decision by ftopaeanda. In the presence of others
the Holy Father said clearly, "We took the selection
into Our own hands. You are Our personal appoint-
ment". In his first outward journey he drew up that
spiritual prc^ramme which gave such a colounng to
his tSta fife. "I must esteem nothing save the serv-
ice of the Redeemer, everything else is beside my
mission; lek dim [I servejin its highest meanii^must
be my motto .... To do the will of my Divine
Master must be my life, my light, my love, my all."

In 1886 he travelled 2500 mues over land and sea,
and visited all the dioceses of New 2!ealand. In the
following year he traversed 6000 miles to consecrate
Dr. Gibney at Perth, In subsequent years he went
to Ballarat, Bathurst, Bendigo, Hobart, Goulburn,
lismore, Melbourne, and Rocknampton for the conse-
cration of their rs^iective cathedrals. In 1906 he
revisited and dedicated the cathedral of Auckland,
and in the last year of his life he again covered 6000
miles to consecrate Dr. Clune Bishop of Perth. He
consecrated fourteen bishops, ordained nearly five
hundred priests, dedicated more than five hundred
churches, and professed five thousand nuns. The
thirty-two chanties which he founded in the city of
Sydni^ remain as the crowning achievement of his
life. As a statesman he forecasted the necessity of
Australian federation, an Australian navy, and an
Australian citixea soldiery. By sheer force of char-
acter he pressed these questions on the public mind,
and lived long enough to see a Federal Labour Minis-
try remodelling the class legislation of past centuries
and equitably evolving the rights at the working
claas«3, the first unit of an Australian navy patrolling
Australian waters, and the first 100,000 Australian
youths called into disciplinary camps. Rt. Rev. Dr.
Hoare, Bishop of Arda^h, was first named to assist
Cardinal Moran in the administration of the arch-
diocese. He was unable to leave Ireland, and Rt.
Rev. Dr. Higgins was appointed auxiliary bishop
March, 1880. He was transferred to the See of Bock-
hwipton on 4 M^, 1899, and now occupies the See
of Ballarat. On 20 July, 1901, Dr. Kelly, rector of
the hMx College, Rome, was appointed auxiliary,
cum jure gucceatwnis, and succeeded the cardinal at
his death. A quarter of a million people witnessed
the funeralprocession through the heart of the city of
Sydney. By poroiseion of the State Government and
of the municipal authorities he was interred with the
pioneer priests in his beloved St. Mary's Cathedral.

Among fats works may be named; "Monasticon
Hibemicon"; '* Spicilegium Ossoriense", " Memoir of
Oliver Plunkett": "Persecutions of Irish Catholics":
"Lives of the Archbishops of Dublin" ; "Life of David
Roth"; essays in "Dublin Review"; "Irish Saints in
Great Britain"; "Birthplace of St. Patrick"; "St.
Bartholomew's Massacre*'; "Father Mathew"; "Our
IWmatea"; "Civilisation of Ireland"; "Church and
Social Pwmss"; "Acta Sancti Brendani"; "History
of kkeCowolio CSnmh in AtutralBaa"; "Reumoncf

Christendom"^ "Capital and Labour"; "Mission
Field in the Nmeteenth Century"; "Patron Saints of
Ireland: Patrick, Brigid, and ColumbkiUe"; "Lives of
Ste. Canice and Carthage": "Mission of the Catholic
Church"; " Divine Credentials of the Church"; "Dis-
courses on Cardinals Newman and Manning"; "The
Anglican Reformation"; "Rwhts and Duties of
Labour"; "Blessed Thomas More"; "Catholics and
Irishmen"; "Catholic Democracy"; "The Thirteenth
Century'*; "Infallible Authority of the Church";
"Perpetuity of the Church"; "The Apostolate of St.
Patrick"; "Australian Federation"; "Heritage of
Blessings in the Catholic Church"; "Christopher Co-
lumbus'; "FruitB of Redemption"; "Discovery of
Australia"; etc., "The B^innii^ of the Catholic
Church in the United States", from unpublished
documents.

Denis F. O'Hakan.

Syene, a titular see in Thebais Secunda, suffragan
of Ptdemais. Syene (Egyptian, Souanou, Coptic,
Souan), was originally the market-place of the Island
of Elephantine (m EKT>tian, Abou). Under the Pha-
raohs, Abou was the capital of a principality, then the
chief town of the nome. It is not Known at what
epoch its suburb across the Nile commenced to grow
at its cost; for a long time the two citiee were treated
as one, Souanou being the port and city of work.
Its quarries, with those of Rohannou, were the principal
ones of Egypt; they supplied a certain kind of red
granite callea syenite, out of which were cut the obe-
lisks, monolithic temples, the colossus, etc. fVom
the time of the ancient empire royid Egyptian envoys
went there to look for the stone destiiwd for the sar-
cophagus of the king. These quarries were in full
activity in the Roman epoch, and syenite was exported
througnout the empire. Another celebrated place in
Syene was a pit, *hich was incorrectly thought to have
been placed exactly under the equator. For this
reason it was chosen by Eratosthenes as the starting
point of his measiu« of the surface of the earth (230
B. c). The Sy^ene of the Romans to the south-west
of the TOesent city, suffered much from the incursions
of the Blemmyes, and from the pest; its inhabitants
abandoned it to live in the higher parts built by the
Saracens. This new city which was at first very pros-
perous suffered also from the troubles which followed
the extinction of the Fatimite dynasty. Taken and
retaJcen by the Qenous or Barabra of Lower Nubia,
and by the Haouilrah of Upper Egypt, it was nearly
ruined and did not r^ain its importance until the
Sultan Selim established a Turkish garrison there
0^517). The Arabian name of the city is Assouan.
There the French fought the Mamelukes, on 16 May,
1799. This city of about 10,000 inhabitants, and
which may be reached by a railroad, as it is situated
to the south of the first cataract of the Nile, is very
int»«8ting on account of its picturesque aspect and
the strange character of it^ population composed oS
Arabs, Barbarins, n^roes, Bisharis, and Ababddh;
carious baxaars and quays: remains of Roman qua^,
inscriptions on rocks, little temple of Isis, Aiwian
ruins and cemetery. The places of interest in the
neighbourhood are the old quarries, the Island of
Elephantine (to-day Geziret Assouan), an old necrop-
olis, the beautiful Coptic convent of St. Simeon,
and the famous Island of Phils. Syene is mentioned
by the Prophet Eseohiel, who threatened Egypt with
devastation "from the tower of Syene, even to the
borders of Ethiopia" (Ezech., xxix, 10). See St.
Jerome and the modem commentators on this passage,
where the Vu^jate diffws from the Hebrew and the
Greek text. Le Quien (Oriens christ., II, 613) men-
tions two bishops of Syene: St. Ammonius, martyr
at Antinoe' where he had a church, and Befam, a
Jacobite (1066). The Synaxarion of the Coptic
ohunh ttm ns that the dty had a bishop from

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the time of the I^triaroh Timotiby. one of the BUOoe»-

Bora of St. AthanasiuB. _ ^ ™ ■

1803). 467: Suitb, Diet, of Ortek md Soman fffagr. lu t.: MOi/-
Uk, iV0M« m i^lhilmw, ed. Didot, 1, 725; Burtaaa, Th» Stary of
5^Aiir(*4/J^ UMidon, 1897). pMdnk

S. PAnOD^B.

I^Mlt Eduund, b. at Leeds; martyred at York
Tyburn 23 March. 1586-7; was a student at the
College at ReimB where he was ordained 21 Feb., 1581,
and sent to the English Mission on 5 Jime following.
He laboured in his native Yorkshire with such zeal
and sacrifice, that his strength failed. Arthur
Webster, an apostate, took advantage of his iHness
to betray him, and was conunitted to the York
Kidcot by the Council of the North. In his weak-
neea he consented to be present at the heretical ser-
vice, but he refused to repeat the act and remained
a prisoner. AiFter confinem^t for about six months,
he was again brought before the Council and sen-
tenced to banishment. On 23 Aug., 1585, .he was
transferred to the Castle of KiiW8ton-up<m-Hu]l,
and within a week sMpped beyond the seas. He
made his way to Rome, where he was entertained at
the En^lieJi College for nine days from 15 April,
1586, his purpose being to atone for his lapse by the
pilgrimage, and he also entertained some tooughte of
entering religion. There he understood that it was
God's wiU t^t he should return to the English mis-
sion, and reaching Reims on 10 June, he left again
for England on 16. After about six months he was
betrayed by his broUio*, to whose house in Wath
he had resorted, and was sent a close prisoner to
York Castle by the Council. He was arraigned at
the Lent Assizes, condemned as a traitor on the
score of his priesthood, and on 23 March, 1586-7
was drawn on the hurdle from the castle yard to
York Tyburn, where he suffered the death penalty.

Douay Diarie*, Collectanea F. in Folet, Records a.J., Ill;
Diaru o/Bnotuh Cciltgi, Rome in Folet, Recorda S.J., VI; MoBBia,
Trotai— MT CoAoUc Fortfathtra, III.

J. L. Wbhtibli).

S^labUS (triDiMpot, "collection"), the name given
to two seriee of propostions containing modern reli-
gious errors condemned respectively by Fius IX
(1864) and Pius X (1907).

I. Thb Syllabus of Pius IX.— A. HUtory. — The
first impulse towards the drawing \xp of the Syllabus
of Pius IX came from the Provincial Council
Spoleto in 1840. Probably on the motion of the
C^irdinal Archbishop of Perugia, Pecci (later on Leo
XIII), a petititm was laid before Pius IX to bring
together under the form of a (institution the cfais
errors of the time and to condemn them. The prep-
aration be^^ in 1852. At first Pius IX entrusted
it to Cardmal Fonuui, but in 1854 the Commission
which had prepared the Bull on the Immaculate
Conception took matters in hand. It is not known
bow far the preparation had advanced when Gerbet,
Bishop of Perpignan, issued, in July, 1860, a "Pastoral
Instruction on vu-ious errors of the present" to hia
clei^. Witt Gerbet's "Instruction" begins the
second phase of the introductory history of the
Syllabus. The " Instruction " had grouped the
errors in eighty-five theses, and it pleased the pope
so muchj that he set it down as the groundwork
upon which a fresh commission, under the presidency
or Cardinal Caterini, was to labour. The r^lt of
their woric was a specification, or cataloguing, of
sbcty-one errors with the theological qualifications.
In 1862 the whole was laid for examinatiwi before
three hundred bishops who, on the occasion of the
canonization of the Japanese Martyrs, had assembled
.-in Rome. They appear to have approved the list
of theses in its essentials. Unfortunately, a weekly
paper of Turin, " II Mediatme". hostile to t^e Church,
published the wording and qualifieationa <rf the tbeaea.

and thereby gave rise to a f ar-reai&ing agitation
against the Church. The pope allowed the storm to
subside: he withheld the promulgation of these
theses, but kept to his plan in what was essential.

The third ^uue <tf we introductory history of the
Syllabus b^WB with the appointment of a new com-
mission by Pius IX: its most prominent member
was the Bamabite (afterwards Cardinal) Bilio. The
commission took the wording of the errors to be con-
demned from the official dectarationa of Pius IX
and appended to eadi of the eighty theses a reference
indicatmg its content, so as to determine the true
meaning and the theological value of the subjects
treated. With that the preparation for the SyDwus,
having occupied twelve years, was brought to an
end. Of the twenty-eight points which Cardinal
Fomari had drawn up in 1852, twenty-two retained
their place in the Syllabus; of the sixty-one theses
which nad been laid before the episcopate for examina-
tion in 1862j thirty were selected. The promulga-
tion, accordmf; to the original plan, was to have
td^en place sunultaneously with the proclamatitm
of the dogma of the Immaculate CtmcepUoa; in the
event it was ten years later (8 December 1864)
that Fius IX publfflhed the Encyclical "Quanta
CSira", and on the same day, by commission of the
pope, the secretary of State, Cardinal Antonelli,
sent, together with an official communication, to all
the bishops the Vst of theses condemned by the Holy
See. The title of the document was: "A Syllabus
containing the most important errors of our time,
which have been condemned our Holy Father
Pius IX in Allocutiom^ at Consistories, in Encycli-
cals, and other Apostolic Letters".

liie reception of the Syllabus among CatiioUca
was assured through the love and obedience which
the children of the Church bear towards the vicar of
Christ on earth. They were, besides, prepared for
its contents bv the various announcements of the
pope during the eighteen years of his pontificate;
and, as a matter ci fact, no sooner had it made its
appearance than it was solemiily received in Qati<mal
and provincial councils by the episcopate (tf the whole
world. Among the enemies of the Church, no papal
utterance had stirred up such a commotion for many
years: they saw in the Syllabus a formal rejection
of modem culture, the pope's declaration of war on
the modem State. In Russia, France, and also in
those parts of Italy then subject to Victor Emmanuel,
its publication was forbiddoi. Bismarck and other
statesmm of Europe declared themselves aranst it.
And to the present day, it is a stumbling-block to
alt who favour the licence of false LibKBlism.

B. Binding Povxr. — The binding power of the
Syllabus of Pius IX is differently explamed by Cath-
olic theologiuis. All are of the opmion that many
of the propositions are condemned if not in the Sylla-
bus, then certainly in other final decisions of the
infidltble teacbina authority of the Church, for
instance in the ^cyclical "Quanta Cura". There
is no agreement, however, on the question whether
each thesis condemned in the Syllabus is infallibly
false, merely because it ia condemned in the Syllabus.
Many thcoloKians are of the opinion that to me Syl-
labus as such an infallible teaching authority is to
be ascribed, whether due to an ex-cathedra decision
hy the pope or to the subsequent acceptance hy tike
(jhuTch. Others question tAts. So long as luune
has not decided the question, everyone is free to
follow the opinion he chooses. Even should the
condemnation of many propositions not possess
that unchangeablenees peculiar to infallible decisions,
nevertheless the binding force of the condemnation
in regard to all the propositions is beyond doubt.
For the Syllabus^ as appears from the official commu-
nication of Cardinal Antonellt, is a decision eivea by
the pc^e speaking as anivenal teacher and judfls to

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Catholica the world over. All Catfaoliea, Ukerrfore,
ve bound to accept the Syllabus. Ezterkvly they
may neithw in wora nor in writing oppose its contents;
they must also assent to it interiorly.

C. ConieiUt. — The general contents of the Syllabus
are Bummed up in the headings of the ten paragraphs,
under which the theses are grouped. They

an: Pantheism, ^turatism. Absolute Rationalism
(1-7): Moderate Rationalism (8-14); Indifferentism
and false Tolerance in Religious matters (15-18);
Socialism, Communism, Secret Societies, Bible
Societies, Liberal Clerical Associations (referrace is
made to three Encyclicals and two Allocutions of the

fjpe, in which these tendencies are condemned),
rrors regarding the Church and its rights (19-38);
Errors on the State and its Relation to the Ch^rw
(39-65); Errars on Natural and Christian Ethics
(50-64); Errors on Christian Marri^ (65-74);
Errors on the Temporal Power of the Pope (75-76) ;
Errors in Connection with Modem Liberalism (77-
80). The content of any one thesis of the Syllabus
is to be determined according to the laws of scientific
interpretation. First of all, one has to refer to the
documents connected wiUi each thesis. For,
m accordance with the peculiar character of the
SyllabuB, the meaning of the thesis is determined by
ue meaning of the document it is drawn from. Thus
the oftcn-cjted eightieth thesis, "The pope may and
must reconcile hmiself with, and adapt himself to,
Progress, Liberalism, and Modem Civilization", -is
to be explained with the help of the Allocution
"Jamdudum cemimus" of 18 March, 1861. In this
allocution the pope expressly distinguishes between
true and false civilization, and deckwes that history
witnesses to the fact that the "Soly See has always
been the protector and patron of all genuine civilisa-
tion; Mid he affirms that, if a system designed to
de-Christiuiize the world be called a ffj^stem of pro-
gress and civilization, he can never hold out the mmd
of peace to such a ^stem. According to the words
of this allocutioD, then, it is evident that the eightieth
thesis of the Syllabus applies to false progress and
false Libaralinn and mn to hcmest pioneer-^raic
■eeking to open out new fields to human activity.

Mweover, should a thesis, according to the papal
references^ be taken from a condemned book, the
meaning of the thesis is to be determined according
to that which it has in the condemned book. For
the thesis has iieen condemned in this particular
meaning and not in any other which mi^t possibly
be read into its wording. For instance, uie mteentli
thesis, "Evoyone is free to adopt and iwofess Uiat
religion which he, guided by the light oS reason,
holds to be true", admits in itself ofa right inter-

Eretation. For man can and must be 1^ to the
nowledge of the true religion through the lig^t (A
reason. However, on consulting the Apostolic
Letter "Multiplicea inter", dated 10 June, 1851, from
which this thesis is taken, it will be found that not
every possible meaning is rejected, but only that
particular meaning which, in 1848, Vidl, a Peniriaii
priest, attached to it in his "Defensa . Influenced
by IndifTerentism and Raticmalism, Vigil maintained
that man is to trust to his own human reason only
and not to a Divine reason, i. e. to the truthful and
omniscient God Who in supernatural revelation
vouches for the tmth of a religion. In the sense in
which Vigil's book understanoB the fifteenth thesis,
and in this sense alone does the Syllabus understand
and condemn the proposition.

The view held bv the Church in opposition to each
thesis is containea in Hie contradictory proposition
of each of the condemned theees. This opposition
is formulated, in accordance with the rules of dialec-
tics, by prefixing to each imposition ike words: "It
is not true that . . The doctrine of tJie Qiurch
^Auek corresponds,, for instance, to the fourteenth
XIV.— 24

thesis is as follows: "It is not true, that 'philosophy
must be treated independently of supernatural reve-
lation.'" In itself no opposition is so sharply deter-

mined as by the contradictory: it is simp
tion of the foregone statement. However, me
practical use of this negation is not always easy,
eq>ecially if a compound or dependent sentence is
in question, or a themtical error is concealed undor
the form of an historical fact. If, as for instance in
thesis 42, the proposition, that in a conflict between
civil andf ecclesiastical laws the rights of the State
should prevail, be condemned, then it does not foUow
from this thesis, that, in every conceivable case of
conflicting laws the greater right is with the Church.
If, as in thesis 45, it oe deniedthat the entire control
of the public schools belongs exclusively to the State,
then it is not maintained that their contool does in
no way concern the State, but only thp Church.
If the modem claim of general separation between
Church and State is rejected, as in tJhesis 55, it does
not foUow that separation is not p>ermissible in any
case. If it be false to say that matrimony by its
very nature is subject to the civil power (thesis 74),
it is not necessarily correct to assert that it is in no
way subject to the State. While thesis 77 condemns
the etatemeat that in our time it is no longs' expedi«it
to consider the Catholic reh'gion as the only State
religion to the exclusion of all other cults, it follows
merely that to-day also the exclusion of non-Catholic
cults may prove expedient, if certain conditions be
realized.

D. Importance. — The importance of the Syllabus
lies in its opposition to the nigh tide of that intellec-
tual movement of the nineteenth century whidi
strove to sweep away the foundations of all human
and Divine order. The Syllabus is not only the
defence of the inalienable rights of God, of the Church,
and of tnitii against the abuse of the words freedom
and culture on the part of unbridled Liberalism, but
it is also a protest, earnest and energetic, against the
attempt to eliminate the influence of the Catholic
Churcn on the life of nations and of individuals, on
ihe family and the schotd. In its nature, it is true,
the Syllabus is nc^tive and condemnatory: but it
received ita complement in the decisiqps of the Vati-
can Council ana in the Encyclicals of Leo XIII. It
is precisely its fearless character that perhaps accounts
for ite influence on the life of the Church towards the
end of the nineteenth century; for it threw a sharp,
clear light upon reef and rock in the intellectual
currents of the time.

II. The Stixabus of Pins X. — A. Hiitory. — ^The
Syllabus of Pius X is the Decree "Lamentabili sane
exitu", issued on 3 July, 1907, condemning in sixty-
five propositions the du'ef tenets of Modemism.
This Decree, later on called the Syllabus of Pius X
on account of its similarity with the Syllabus of
Pius IX, IS a doctrinal decision of the Holy Office,
i. e. of that Roman Congregation which watches
over the purity of Catholic doctrine concerning faith
and morals. On 4 July^ 1907, Pius X ratified it
and ordered its publication; and on 18 November,
1907, in a Motu Proprio he prohibited the defence
of tiie condemned propositions under the penalty oS
excommunication, reserved ordinarily to the pope.
The Decree is supplemented by the Encyclical "Paa-
cendi " of 8 September, 1907, and by the oath against
Modernism prescribed on 1 September, 1910. Thus,
the SyUabus of Pius X is the first of a series of ecclesi-
astical mronouncements dealing with the condemna-
tion of Modernism, whilst the Syllabus of Pius IX
sums up the condemnations previously passed by the
same pope.

B. Conienta.— By far the greater number of the
theses of this Syllaous are taken from the nTitings of
Loioy, the leader tA the Modernists in France: only
ft fmr are fraa the wcvks <rf oUier writers (e. g.,

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thesis 6, FogaEsaro: 26, Le Roy) . As a rule the quo-
tation is not literal, for it would have been posaifaje
only in a few cases clearly to express the error in a
short proposition. Accoraing to their contents the
theses may be divided into six ^ups. They con-
demn the doctrine of the Modernists on ecclesiastical
decisions (1-8), and on Holy Writ (9-19); the Mod-
eniist FfailoBophy of Religion (20-26) and Modomist
Chrifitology (27-38); the theory of the Modernists
on the ongin of the sacraments (30-61) and the
evolution of the Church with regard to its constitu-
tion and doctrine (52-65). In detail the Syllabus of
Pius X condemns the following assertions; eccleeias-
tical decisions are subject to the judgment of scientific
scrutiny and do not demand mtoior assent (1-8);
"excessive simplicihr or ignorance is shown by those
who bcKeve that God is really the Author at Holy
Scripture" (9); God neither inspired (in the Cathobc
sense of the word) the sacred writers nor guarded
them from all error; the Gospels in particular are
not books worthy of historic belief, as their authors
have consciously;, though piousty, falsified facts
(10-19); Revelation can be nothmg else than the
consciousness acquired by man of his relation to
Qod, and docs not close with the Apostla (20-21):
"The Dogmas, which the Church proposes as revealed
are not truths fallen from Heaven^ but an interpre-
tation of religious facti, acquired by the human mind
through lidiorious process of thought" (this twenty-
second thesis, with the somewhat crude expression,
"truths faUen from Heaven", is taken from Loisy's
"L'Evanpile et I'EgHse"); one and the same fact can
be historically false and dogmatically true; faith is
based upcm a number of probabilities; doEmatic
definitions have only a passing practical value as
norms in life (23-26); the Divmity of Christ is a
dogma which the Christian consciousness deduced
from its idea of the Messiah; the real, historical
Christ is inferior to the Christ idealitea by faith:
Jesus Christ erred; His resurrection is no historic^
event; His vicarious death is a Pauline invention
(27-^): the sacraments were not instituted by
Christ, but are additions made by the Apostles and
tiieir successors, who, under the pressure of events,
intrapreted the idea of Christ (39-51); Jesus Clirist
did not ^ink of founding a Church; the latter is a
purely human society subject to all the changes (A
time; of the Primacy, Peter himself knew nothing;
the Church is an enemy of scientific pro^^ (6-57):
"Truth is as changeable as man, because it is evolved
with him, in him, and by him" (58); there are no
immutable Christian donnas, they have developed
and must develop with the proKress of the centuries
(59-63); "Scientific progress demands a reform of
the ClwTStian dogmatic conception of God, creation,
revelation, the Person of the Word Incarnate, ana
redemption" (64); "The Catholicism of to-day is
irreconcilable with genuine scientific knowledge,
unless it be transformed into a Christendom without
dwnnas, i. e. a broad and liberal Protestantism " (65).

C. Binding Pomr. — Many theses oi the Syllabus
of Pius X, as all Catholic theologians affirm, ore
Iwresies, i. e. infallibly false; for their contradictory
IB dogma, in many cases even fundamental Aogma
or an article of failh in the Catholic Church. With
regard to the question, whether the Syllabus is in
itself an infallible dogmatic decision, theologians
hold opposite opinions. Some maintain that the
I)ocrec IS infallinle on account of its confirmation
(4 July, 1907) or sanction (18 November, 1907) by
the pope; others defend the opinion that the Decree
remains nevertheless the doctrinal decision of a
Roman Congregation, and is, viewed precisely as
such, not absolutely immune from error. In this
theological dispute, therefore, liberty of opinion,
whifh h»« always been safeguarded by the Churcn
*^ questions, stiU remains to us. Yet all

thetdo^ana agree that no Catholic is allowed to
maintain any of the condemned theses. For. in the
decrees of a Romui Congregation we not only have
the verdict of a scientific commission, which gives its
decisions only after cloee investigation, but also the
pronouncement of a legitimate rdigious authority
competent to bind the whole' Church in questions
within its competence (cf. what has been said above
re^tding the Syllabus of Pius IX; under I. B.).

D. Importance. — The Syllabus of Pius X may be
taken as an introduction to the Encyclical "Pa»'
cendi", which gives a more systematic exposition of
the same subject. It may be, thCTefore, that later
generations will not find it necessary to distinguish
between the importance of the Syllabus and that ot
the Encyclicai. NeverUiless, the Syllabus was

giblidied at the most opportune momrat. The
atholics of those countries in which Modernism had
worked its ill effects felt relieved. By this Decree the
tenets of religious evolutionism were laid before them
in short theses and condemned. Up to that time the
significance and the bearing of isolated Modernist
views, appearing now here, now there, had not al-
ways been fully grasped. Now, hoWever, everyone of
good will had to rec(^;nise that the Modernists, under
the plea of assimilation to modem ideas of develop-
ment, had tried to destroy the foundations of all
natural and supernatural knowledge. Moreover, to
the whole Catholic world the Decree sounded a note
of warning from the supreme pastor and drew atten-
tion to the excellent principles of scholastic theolo^
and to the growing importance of a thorough sdioot*
ing in exegetical criticism and in the history of dogma,
which the Modernists had abused in the most unpar>
donable manner.

Den£in'oer, Enchiridion, No. 1700 sqq.; No. 2001 Bqq.; Tm
Doctrinal Authority of the Syltabttt ia Th» Catholic WorU. XXII
(New York, J886), 31; Wabd, Th» Life of John Hmry Cardinal
Newman, II (London, 1912); Gladbtone, Romt and (he NevMtt
Fathioni in Rtligion (London, 1875): Newman, Letter to the Duke
of NorfoUe on Oceaeion of Mr. Otadttone'e Recmt Bxpoitulatio*
(LoodoD, 1875); Manmino, The Vatican Decreet in their Beariftf
on Civil AUegianee CLondon. 1875), another reply' to OlKdstonft;
MAcCArrsET, Hietory of the Cauiolie Chttreh in the NxneUenXh
Cmlurg (3t. Louis, 1910), I, 24S, 438, 440, 487; II, SO, 462, 490;
CHOTtPiN, Valeur dee dicitione (Faru, 1907) ; HomuT, Le Sj^bue
(Paru. 1904) ; Heutcb, Der SjiUabue in uliranuynlaaer taid anti-
uUramantaner BtUuchtung (Maim, 1905); RitfAUu, 71 valore tUl
SyUabo (Rome, 1888) ; HiiiN'n, Drr neue SvUalbue (Mains, 1907) ;
BnsiiBB, Philoeovhie und Theotojiie dee iSodemiemve (FreiboK
1912): ViLLAtu, &infn y Ft, XIX, 164; Lepih. Ue thtoriee it
M, loiiy (Puis, 1906).

A. Haao.

Sylrestor I, Saint, Pope (314-335), date of birth
imlmown; d. 31 Deoanba*, 336. Aeocnrding to the
"Liber pontifioolis" (ed. Duchesne, 1, 170) he was the
son of a Roman named Rufinus; the legendwy
"Vita beati Sylvestri" calls his mother Justa. Aftor
the death of Miltiadea (Melchiades) Sylvester was
made Bishop of Rome, and occupied this position
twenty-one years. This was the era of Constantine
the Great, when the public position of the Church so
greatly improved, a change which must certajnly have
been very noticeable at Rome: it is consequently to
be regretted that th^ is so uttle authontative in-
formation concerning Sylvester's pontificate. At an
early date legend brings him mtocknerdationship with
the first Christian emperor, but in a way that i« con-
trary to historical fact. These Iwends were introduced
especially into the "Vita beati ^Ivestri" (Duchesne,
loc. cit., Introd., cix sq.) which appeared in the East
and has been preserved in Greek, Syriac, and Latin
in the "Constitutum Sylvestri" — an apocryphal ac-
count of an alleged Roman council which belongs to
the Symmachian forgeries and appeared between 501
and 508, and also m the "Donatio Constantini".
The accounts given in all these writings concern-
ing the persecution of Sylvester, the healing and
baptism of Consttuitine, the emperor's gift to the
pope, the rights granted to the latter, and the oouncfl

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of 275 bishops at Rome, are entirely I^entWy. The
pope, however, took part in the nw>tiationB eon-
06nun|[ Arianiam and the Council of Nieea, and the
expression hiiMAvm waa mpbably agreed upon with
Mm before the council. The pontiff also sent legatee
to the first cecumenical council. Still it is not •cer-
tain whether Constantine had arranged beforehand
with Sylvester coDceming the actual convening of the
council, nor whether there was an express papAl con-
firmation of the decrees bejrond the signatures of
the papal l^ates (cf. Funk in "Kirchengesch.
Abhaiidlungen und Untersuchungen", I, 96, 501 sq.).

During Sylvester's pontificate were built, the great
churches founded at Rome by Constantine, e.g. the ba-
silica and baptistery of the Lateran near the former
imperial palace where the pope lived, the basilica of
the Sea8orian palace (Santa (>oce), the Church of St.
Peter in the Vatican, and several cemeterial churches
over the navee of martyrs. No doubt the pope helped
towards the construction of these ch'urcbes. Sylves-
ter's memory is ei^MMnaUy connected with the titular

Church of Equitius,
which takes its
name from a Ro-
man presbyter who
is said to have
erected this church
on his property. It
was situated near
the therma of Dio-
cletian, and still ex-
ists. Parts of the
present building
may date from the
fourth century. No
doubt the pope
contributed to tne
development of the
liturgy of the
Church at Rome.
During hia reign,
moreover, the first
martyrol(^ of Ro-
man martyrs was

grobably drawn up.
ylvester h con-
nected also with
the establishment
of the Roman school of singing. On the Via Salaria
he buih a cemeterial churcn over the Catacomb of
Priscilla, the ruins of which have lately been brought
to light. In this cbiu'ch he was buried. His feast is
given under 31 December in the "Depositio episco-
porum", or list of the burial days of the Roman
bishops, which was compiled barer^ a year after his
death; the same date is given in the "Calendar" of
Philocalus. This day, therefore, is doubtless the day
of his burial. For his possible relations with Armenia,
Bee Greoort the Illuminator.

IAb«r pontiftealii, ed. Ditcresnb, I, 170-201; introductioQ, eiz
aq.; Jim, Rvetia rom. ponf., 2nd ed., I, 38-30; Vita beati

St, &rLTMTut'a Chaib, Cuouraat or
TSK Latkhan

5up««tn in Land, Anecdola tyriaea. III, 46 sq. mad in Subiub,
nta mmet., VI, 1173 so.; Lanoek, Qeaeh. der rBmiachtn Kirehe, I
S9S sqq.; DSlungir, PiipttfaMn (2nd ed., 1890), 61 sqq.; Ma-

BUCCRI, La btuUiea pnpofs dd eimitem di JPriaeitta (Roin«, 1908).

J. P. KiBSCH.

S^vester II (Gbrbert), Pope (909-1003), b. at or
near Aurillac, Auvergne, France, about 940-50, of
humble parents; d. at Rome, 12 May, 1003. Gm>ert
entered the service of the Church and received his first
training in the Monastety of Aurillac. He was then
taken by a Spanish count to Spain, where he studied
at Barcelona and also imder Arabian teachers at Cor-
dova and Seville, giving much attention to mathe-
matics and the natural sciences, in which he made un-
usual progress, From Spain he proceeded to Rome
with Btahoi} Hatto of Vich, who had been his chief
theological inatruotor, and John XIII recommoided

him to the Emperor Otto I, ^o sent him to Reime
to the tfchdeacon Gerannus. There he was soon
appointed a teacher in the cathedral school by Arch-
bishop Adalbero. He undertook journeys of consider^
able length, e. ^. to Ravenna, where he held a disputa-
tion with-Ortncus of Magdeburg before Otto II. In
983 Otto II bestowed on him the Abb^ of Bobbio,
but the abbey was very poor and Gerbert returned to
Reims. He again taught the most varied branches
with great success, devoted himself zealously to
study, and helped to raise Hugh Capet to the throne.
Adalbero wished Gerbert to be hia sucoeesor, but
when the former died in 988 Amulph, a natural son
of King Lothaire, was raised to the see at the in-
stigation of Hugh Capet. Arautph was deposed in
091 by a synod held near Reims for alleged trea-
son against the king, and Gerbert was elected his
successor. Although Gerbert soon held a provincial
synod to condenm those who had injured the prop-
erty of the Church, and these decisions were con-
firmed at another synod held at' Chela under the
presidency of Robert, King of France, there was mudi
opposition to Gerbert'd elevation to the See of Reims.
Consequently John XV sent Leo, Abbot of Sts. Boni-
face and Alexius at Rome, as legate to France. On
2 June, 995, Leo held a synod at Mouson. Gerbert
appeared personally to defmd himself, but was tem-
porarily su^iended from his episcopal office. He
Bought to show that ^.this decree was unlawful, but a
further synod (conciUmn Causeiense), held on 1 July,
095, at which Gerbert was present, declared Amulph's
deposition and Gerbert's elevation illegal and invalid.

Gerbert now went to the Court of the youthful Em-
peror Otto III, whose teacher he became and whom he
accompanied to Italy for the coronation. As the
Archbishopric <rf Reims was not restored to Gerbert,
he ronfuned in Italy, and in 998 Gregory V apDointed
hinr Archbishop of Ravenpa. Gerbert attended the
Roman synod before which the marital affairs of
King Robert of France were laid. When Gregory V
died on 18 February, 999, Gerbert was elected his
succesaor through the influence of the emperor, and
took the name of Sylvester. He waa the first French
pc^. The new head of the Church administered his
high office with great earnestness and a profound
acaise <rf respraiBibinty. His discourse upon the epis-
copal office shows what his view of the cnief spiritual
pastorB of the Church was ("Sermo de informatione
episcopprum", P. L., CXXXIX, 169 sq.). He took
energetic measures against the abuses in the life of
the clergy caused by simony and concubinage, and
was anxious that only capable men of spotless lives
should receive the episcopal office. His relations with
Otto ni were very friendly, and he supported the em-
peror's political ideas. Otto gave the pope eight
Italian countships, which had formerly belonged to
the States of the Uhurch, by a deed of gift the genu-
ineness of which, however, is questioned (Wilmans,
"Jahrbticher des deutschen Reichea unter den sfich-
flischen Kaisem", II, pt. II, 233 sq.). At the same
time the emperor declared the Donation of Constan-
tine to be a forgery. During Otto's residence at
Rome in the wintw of 1000-1001 Sylvester held a
Roman synod on 1 February, 1001, in the presence of
the emperor, at which among other matters the affairs
of the convent of Gandersheim were discussed. A
revolt at Rome directed against the emperor forced
Otto and the pope to flee. Sylvester was obliged to
remain awav for several months, during which the
'city suffered from party quarrels. On 27 December
he callGMl a second synod at Todi on account of the
difficulties at Gaader^eim, and shorty after was
present at Otto's death.

Sjrlvester regulated important ecclesiasticBl mat-
ters in various countries. Soon after his elevation to
the papat^ he confirmed anew his former opponent
'.^luphas Archbishop of Reiiiis, and Biul wliicb

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ii« sent to him gives clear proof that he had now
abandoned his earlier position in ref^ard to the au-
thority of the papal decisions concerning the diluted
see. The Pppe established an ecclesiastical metro-

g>litan for Pcuaiid at Gnesen, and one for Hungary at
ran. On 27 March, 1000, he granted the title of
king to the ruler of Hungary and appointed him papal
vicar for his country. He energetically maintained
church discipline in the question of the marriage of
the French King Robert, and obliged the king to send
Bertha away, Sylvester returned to Rome soon
after Otto's death, although the leaders of the differ-
ent parties of nobles still retained all their power. A
little latw he died. His epitaph has hem preserved
(cf. Foroella, "lacrizioni delfi diiese di Roma",
VIII, 9). Besides' a dogmatic treatise, "De corpore
et sanguine Domini", o^^lvester wrote a series of
works principally on philosophical, mathematical,
and physical stJsjects; tney are to be found in P. L.,
CXXXIX; Olleria, "(Euvrea de Gerbert, pape sous le
nom de Sylvester II" (Paris, 1867); "Opera mathe-
matica", ed. Bubnov (Berlin, 1891); "Lettres de Ger-
bert", published by Havet (Paris, 1889). He was
held in nigh repute for his leamins;; the common peo-
ple regarded him as a magician m league with the
devil, and many legends grew up around his name.
He is said to have introduced the use of Arabic figures
into Weeteni Europe, and to have invented the pen-
dulum clock.

pcnf,, 2ii4 I, tf-i.; ric.^i ET, Qerhtrt, w]M fftitojopAe,
d'aptiithiMt. el la ffvtu'tt (Purin, ISViT): T^m. JTlKdMcnf., I. LcUtm
deGtrttfrtiParu, ISOfi): Hor.-h. Gtriwrt tfter t^pai SylverlM- II und
leia Jahrk, IVii?aiiHi, ttft^DiMUEn, L'eher Grrbtrls uriuen-

tehafll. uad palil. SItSuMiff (Ctus^^i, IS5])- Wkilveh, Gerbert von
AnnlUit. dit Kirdu: und dit Wiutmcbuft adner ZrU (2nd ed.,
Vknn*. ISaiy. acaSLTESS, i'aptt Sylvrtter IT. ale Lthrer uxd
SiaaUmaiin <^aiburg, LgUI); Idem, Oii; Sagen aiier .S.rliwcter //
(BMabtlrB', l£fl3); Lux, Sylientm II Einfl^g aiif i!ie PolUik
QHm IJI (Braalnu, IS-SS); ScKi/or^KicE'BC'Em V'ntfr*i"'>i»naen tur
dir Briuft Gfrbfrm {Hallo. IS33>; Naol. UnbrH unddie
kndunkUHH d*t X. Jaltrh. in Siimr^iaijsriLhl dcr iFimer Ako'
Jmnia. CXVl (ISRS), fifll WEiasBMaoas. Zur Ge*ch. der Ein-
^UWiff At jelnatrn. Zs^-ern kn Eiira-p/i durth Oerberf CBcrlin, 1892);
HcPBLB, Kamiiiengtsrh. , IV (Snd ed.). flaS, ADd MasUa; Mann.
L4mi ofttu P-^pti ill tht EftHb UiddU Aoh [LBudoa. 1910); IV,
393-07. Uid pudm, V. 1-I2t>: AuMii,£Mwt,^pa&ilaeater Ilia

Sytreftwin, ANnpopB. SeeBiNBDiorIX,FOTB.

Sylvester IT (MAaiNuu-),AimpoPB. See Paschal

II, Pope.

SylTOSter, Bernard, of Chartrea, more properly,
of Tours, a twelfth-century philosopher of Neo-Pl»-
tonic tendencies. Little is known about him. Be-
tween the years 1145 and 1153 he composed a work
called "De Mundi TJniversitate", which he dedicated
to Thierry (Theodoric) of Cbartres with the words
"Terrioo vena scienttarum titulis Doctori famosissimo
BemarduB Silvestris opus suum". From this inscni>-
tion it is inferred that Bernard was probably a pupil
of Thierry or of some other member of the famous
School of Chartres. He is not, however, to be con-
founded with Bernard of Chartres, who died in 1125,
and is the author of a work "De Expt»itione Poi^
phyri". The treatise, "De Mundi Universitate" (re-

coemus, seu Maior Mundus", is an address of Nature
to Intellect, and the second, the response of Intellect
to Nature. The style and method of composition re-
mind one of Marcianus Capella. The contents are
very curious indeed. There is a good deal of Neo-
Platonism and Neo-Pythagoreanism, philosophical
tendencies which are veiy rare in the twelfth century,
and practically unknown outside the School of Char-
tres. It is not at all improb^le that Banard, like
the panthdstSf Amauryaod David, who were his con-

temporaries, was influenced by the writings (rf Eriu-
gena. His philosophy is an attempt to account for
uie universe of nature (physics) by describing the
cosmic emanations from an original Mtmad. Not the
least TiUuable portions are those in which the author
describes the mountains, rivers, animals, and plaal^,
althou^ the allegorical, poetical manner of the poem
v^ often obscures the meaning. The pantheistie
drift of Bernard's [^osophy is clear from the ex-
pression "Deus omnia, omnia ex Deo sunt". Tow-
ards the, traditional theology he seems to adopt &
sceptical attitude: "Si theologis fidem preebeas argu-
mentis". His favourite phuoeopher is Hato, al-
though it is cleu that he is not acquainted with soy
(rf the "Dialogues", except, perhaps, the ''Timsus.

Clbrval, SooUt de Chartret au Moyen-Ajoe (Cbwtre*, 189^;
De WUI.F, Hitt. of Medieval Philoeophv, tr. Gorrer (New York.
1909), 220 aq. ; Tubneb, UiM. cf PhOoiotAv (BoMon, 1903), 3DIL

William TcsmB.

SyWeBter OouoUni, Saint, founder of the ^Ives-
trines, b. of the noble family oi the Gozsolini at Osimot
1177; d. 2e Nov., 1267. He was sent to study juris-
tuudenoe at Etokigna and Padiu, but, feding withis
himself a call to the ecdemastical state, abandoned
the stud^ of law for that of theology and Hd/ Scrip-
ture, giving long hours daily to prayer. On his return
home we are told Uiat his father, angered at his change
of purpose, refused to speak to him for ten years.
Sylvester now accepted a caoonry at Osimo and de-
voted himself to pastoral work with such seal as to
arouse the hostility of his bishop, whom he had re-
spectfully rebuked far the acandals caused bv tht
prelate's insular life. Hie saint was threatened with
the loss of his canonry, but decided to leave the woHd
on seeing the decaying corpse of one who had former^
been noted for great beauty. In 1227 he retired to t
desert place about thirty miles from Osimo and hved
there in the utmost poverty until he was recogniied
hy the owner of the land, a certain nobleman named
Conrad, who offered him a better site for his hemtitsge.
From tnis spot he was driven by damp and next es-
tablished himself at Grotta Fucue, where he eventu-
ally built a monastery of his order. In this place his
penances were most severe, for he lived on raw hertn
and water and slept on the bare ground. - Disciplea
flodEed to him aedcing his direction, and it bec&me
necessary to choose a rule. According to the legend
the various founders appeared to him in a vision, eadi
begginghim to adopt lusrule. St. Sylvester chose for
hisfolIowerB that d St. Benedict and built his first
monastery on Monte Fano, whm, like another St.
Benedict, he had first to destroy the remains of s
pagan temple. In 1247 he obtamed from Innocent
IV, at Lyons, a bull confirming his order, and before
his death founded a number of monasteries. An ac-
count of his miracles and of the growth of his cultua
will be found in Bolzooetti. His bod>^ was disinterred
and placed in a shrine (1275-85) and is still honoured
in the church of Monte Fano. Dement IV first rec-
ognised the title of bl«Kod popularly b^towed on Syl*
vester, who was inscribed as a samt in the Roman
MartyrolMnr by order of Clement VIII (1598). His
office and Mass were extended to the Universal Churcb
by Leo XIII. His feast is kept on 26 November.

BoLBONETn, 71 Monte Fano t tin Grande Anaeorda (RtnnC
1906); Fabkihus, De Vita. . , . h. SylvetlH (Veaioe.* UOS).

Rathumd Wkbbteb.

Sylvestrfnei, a minor monastic order or, strictly
spedcing, coi^r^tion following in general the
Rule of St. Benedict but distinct from the Black
monks and not forming a part of the confederation
of Benedictine congregations. The Sylvestrines were
founded by St. Sylvester Goazolini on Monte Fano
near Fabnano in 1231. The Rule of St. Benedict
was observed in its primitive form, but in many
points the founder went considerably b^nd it in
point of austerity, laying special stress on the strict-

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est ofaBemnoe of poverty. At the death of St.
Sytvester in 1267 deren monasteries were under his
Iradershq} of which some had been founded by him,
while others, though of older foundatioQ, had adopted
his institute. The congregation had been formally-
sanctioned by Innocent IV twenty years before the
founder's death. Except for a few houses in Por-
tugal and Brazil and the Ceylon foundation men-
ti(»ied below, there have been no ^ylvestrine
monasteries outside Italy. Under St. Sylrest«-'s
immediate successors in the generalship, Otusqipe
della Serra San Quirioo (d. 125S) Blessed Bartolomeo
di Cingofi (d. 12^), and Andrea Giacomo di Fabriano,
the biognmher of the foimder, a numb^ of bouses
were founded in the March of Ancona, Tuscany,
and Umbria. Since 1568 the congregation has pos--
se^ed at Rome the Church of San St^ano del Cacoo
in the neighbourhood of the Pantheon; the first pos-
session of the ^Ivestrines in Rome was the Church
of San Qiaoomo in Settamaaia (or aUa Lungara),
granted to'St. Byivteber himself by the Chapter cf
St. Peter's.

At the present day, besides the Roman monastery
at San Stefano, which is the residence of the abbot-
general and counts as the mother-house of the order,
the Sylvestrines have monasteries at Fabriano, Sasso
Ferrato, Perugia, Osimo, S«Ta San Quirico, and
Matelica.^ Since 1855 the^ have also had a large
mission Tn Ceylon with its headquarters in the
Abbey of Splint Antony at Kandy. At the present day
(1911) the congregation numbers some 100 members,
of whom about 70 are choir monks; of the total about
40 are in CctIou. The chief Sylvestrine saints are:
the founder, St. Bonfilius, Bl. Giovanni del Bastonne,
and the Bl. Giuseppe and Ugo di Serra San Quirico.
The congv^^tion is governed by an abbot-general
assisted by a vicar; the head of each monastery is a
prior or titular abbot. These officials were formerly
elected for life, they were made triennial by Paul 11
in 1S43, but since 1^0 have been elected every four
years. The Constitutions are stilt those which were
confirmed by Alexander VIII in 1690 after the sever-
ance of the short-lived union between the Sylvestrine
and Vallumbrosaji orders (1662-80). The Sylves-
trine habit is similar in form to that of the Cas&ineee
Benedictines but blue in colour; fasts are strictly
observed and flesh meat is never eatea except in
case of iUness. A convent <rf Qylvestrine nuns was
founded at Serra San Quirico during the lifetime of
the founder, but the onty convent now under Syl-
vestrine rule is that of San Benedetto in Peruna.
The arms of the order are three green hills on a blue
ground, surmounted b^ a goldm crosier with two rose
tranches in flower at its side.

Tbers fs no wtufaetory hiatory ot tlis order. Tbv tixm b
takso from Ubihbuchu. Onim «u JtonprwoJMmm, I (Snd ed.,
PBderfoom, 1907); H^LrOT, HiabAr* dtt ardra monastiquM, VI

SKiis. 1859): FABBiNr, Br«w Cnmiea ddla CongrtO't'ion* i*'
moAi SUMalriiri (Boms, ITOS): Cottittaioni dOa Cmfftw
otuione di S. Bmudatto di Monti nma (Canwrino. 1610; Roma,

1690).

RaTMUND WEBSTER.

Sylvlizs, Francis, theologian, b. at Braine-le-
Comte, Hainault, Belgium, 1581; d. at Douai, 22
Feb., 1649. He was remarkfU>le from an early age
for his love of study and his piety. After completing
his humanities at Mon^ he studied philosophy at
Louvain and theolf^ at Douai, in a seminary founded
by the bishops of the Province of Cambrai m connex-
ion with the faculty of theology. While studying
theology he taught philosophy at the royal college.
On 9 Nov., 1610, he was made doctor of theology with
the highest honours. The faculty of theology wished
to retain this promising scholar, but there was no
dkair vacant. An emment professor, Barth^lemy
Picne do lintra, resigned his position in favour of
SylTiiu, but, upon tne death of Esthia (20 Sept.,
1613), the great li^t of the {Jniwaity of Douai,

Sylvius succeeded him and later was called to direct
the episcopal seminary in which he had been a stu-
dent. He was appointed (1 Feb., 1618) canon ot the
collegiate Cfaiu^n of St. Amat, and finally dean ^
Jan., 1622), and to this title was added that of vice-
chancellor of the university. Henceforth, absorbed by
study and the discharge of his duties, his life was tran-
quil and undisturbed for thirty year» until his death.
He was buried in the choir of the Church 6f St. Amat,
and an epitaph engraved on his tomb recalled, with
his titles and qualities, his attachment to St. Augustine
and St. Thomas as a faithful disciple of one and a lucid
interpreter of the other, also his liberality towards the
poor and religious, whom he made his heirs.

To his piety and austerity, which were admirable,
he united an unchangeable attachment to sound
doctrines. At the commencement of his works, as at
the b^;inning of his lectures, he never failed to profess
his intention to remain always united to the Faith,
and submissive to the auuiwi^ of the Roman
Church. When in 1648 the theoK^^ans ot Louvain
sought to win the University oi Douai over to Jaasoi-
isro, Sylvius opposed them vigorously; but throu^
out the controversy he preserved the moderation and
sweetness of his character; always refraining from
an^y responses to the attacks of his opponento. He
gained his reputation as a theologian chiefly through
his commentary on the "Summa" of St. Thomas
Aquinas. With that of Caj[etan it ranks among the
best, and many even prefer it on account of its deaf-
ness and fullness; besides, Sylvius wrote after the
Council of Trent, and profited by its decisbns. It
contained four folio volumes, which he was prevailed
upon to publish. He wrote also several treatises on
dogmatic theology and controversy, and some on
moral theology. Among his other works may be
mentioned; (1) an edition with valuable notes, of
Binsfeld's "Enchiridion tlieologiiB paatoralis", which
had great success in Belgium ana France, where it
was the first manual of theology used by seminarians;
(2) resolutions of cases of conscience, in which he
showed himself a Probabilist, moderate, sohd, and
clear. He wrote also commentaries on Genesis,
Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, the learning, con-
ciseness, and penetration of which were praised by
(%ilmet. He adapted the "Instructions" of St.
Charles Borromeo for use of the Church in Belgium,
and he made additions to the "Summa Conciliorum'*
of Carranza. His complete works were published by
P6re Norbert d'Elbocque at Antwerp in 1698, in six
folio volumes^ the first of which contains the life of
^Ivius. Hus edition was reproduced at Venice in
1726; it is the best, though the editor omitted the
woiks of ^Ivius aminst Jansenism.

Fomm, SibtioOueaBtlffiea (Bnuaelt, 1739). t. IV, 309, Hub-

Antoins Deoebt.

Symbolism may for our present purpose be de&ied
to be the investing of outward thinss or actions
with an inner meaning, more especialfy for the ex-
pression of religious ideas. In a greater or less degree
symbolism is essentia to every kind of external
wor^ip and we need not shrink from the ooneluaion
that in the matter of baptisms and washii^, ol
genuflexions and other acts of reverence, of lighte and
sweet smelling incense, of flowers and white vestures,
of unctions and the imposing of hands, of sacrifice
and the rite of the communion banquet, the Church
has borrowed, without hesitation, from the common
stock of significant actions known to all periods and
to all nations. In such matters as these Christianity
claims no monopoly. Religbus symbolism is effec-
tive precisely in the measure in which it is sufficiently
natural and simple to appeal to the intelligence of the
people. Hence the choice of suitable acta and ob-
jects for this B>7nbolism is not so wide that it would
DC eaqr to avoid tlw appearanee of am imitatioD of

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pagaalam even if one delibnatdy Bet to mak to
invent asi entirety new ritual.

In any ease the Old Tedtament, and more particu-
larly the religious worship of the Old Testament; is fuU
of symbolism. However Uteral may be our interpre-
tation of the early chapters of Genesis, we cannot fail
to recognize the symbolic element which pervades
them. When we read for example how " God created
man to his Awn image", or how He "ftHmwd man ct
tJie slime of the earth and breathed into his face the
breath of life", we can hardly doubt that it was upon
the underlying moral lesson rather than upon the
material fact su^ested by the words that the atten-
tion of the writer was concentrated. Still more
clearly the words "sitteth at the right hand of God
the Fathe^- Almighty", by which the Creed,recalls the
language of Psalm cix, 1, or the whole purport of such
a writing as the Canticle of Canticles (q. v.), compels
a symbolical interpretation. But it is in the detoilB
fif worship that the tendency is most apparent. In
prayer we constantly find the spreading out of the
palms of the hands (see Ex., ix, 29, 33; III Kings,

viii, 22, 38, 54; Job, xi, 13; etc.), clearly emphasizing
the idea that the worBhipi>er comes forward as a sup-
pliant expectant of good gifts. In the act of blessing
the hand is laid upon the head of the recipient or at
least is atretched towards him (Gen., xlviii, 14; Lev.,

ix, 22; IV Kingb, xiii, 16; etc.) with the suggestion
tlukt virtue paues out to the person so blesaeoT The
rite of circumciuon is to be performed in memoty o(
the covenant between God and Abraham (Gen.,
xvii, 11), and all the Jewish festivals beginning with
tht Pasch are similarly commemorative of Gixl's
mercies, to His people. So again of the loaves
proposition (Lev., xxiv, 6 sq.) we are told, "Thou
riuut put upon them tiie clcwest frankincense, that
the bread may be for a m^orial of the oblation of
tiie Lord". Although nothing more ia said as to the
precise significance of this offering which was to re-
main from sabbath day to sabbath day in the Holy
of HoUes, it is clear that it could have served no
utilitarian purpose and that its object was purely
symbolical. Again the same may be aaid of the whole
sacrificifd ritual of the Old Testament, and in the case
ot the incense the words of Ps. cxl, 2, " let my prayer
be directed as incense in thy sight; the liftii^ up of my
hands, as evening sacrifice" (of. Apoc., v. 8; vili^ 3),
seem sufficiently to declare what was the spintual
meaning underlying the outward sign. In any case
the atmosphere of mystery which surrounded the
ark of the covenant and later on the Temple and all
the adjuncts of its imposing worship must have been
a fertile soil for the growth of a teachii^ rich in sym-
bolic intopretations. Hiese Uiings cleu^ suggested
inquiry mto their hidden significance and if the mean-
ing were not in itself obvious, we may be assured from
the genius of the people as manifested in the later
Talmud that an explanation would readily be evolved
to meet the case.

Coming now to Christian times the conditions of
self-effacement and frequently recurring persecution
under which the faithful lived in the first ages of the
Church must have helped much to develop air^ ten-
dencies towards a symbolutio fevatment of rehgious
truths which they had derived from Judusm. In
point of fact the life of the Catacombs and the Dis-
cipline of the Secret (q. v.), which partly grew out of
it, necessitated a veiling of Christian oeliefs under
types and figures. Moreover, so far as r^ards any
graphic presentment of these mysteries in sculpture
and painting, it seems intrinsically probable that the
fwtmul deUberately availed themselves of such sym-
bols as would not attract too much attention, and
that consequently they gave the preference to repre-
sentations which had some pagan anabgue. In the
eailier period no r«)resentation« of the Crucifixion
an found, and hardqr any of the eross, at leaife in a

lam and consptcuous form: neither are the enuodcs

of Christ's Ufe commonly depicted realistically and
histwically, but only conventionally. But the tyjw
of the Good Shepherd carrying the sheep on hia
shoulders occurs frequently, and this preference may
well be due to its resemblance to the pagan figures of
Hermea Kriophorus or Aristaeus, which at this pmod
were much in vogue. The Christian understood
deaiiy the reference to the loving self-sacrifice of Our
Saviour, but pagan curiosity was not aroused by any-
thing startup and unwonted. Again the banquet
scenes with fish and bread (see Ecchabist, Earlt
Symbols op the), which spoke so eloquently to the
faithful of Holy Communion and the marriage supper
of the blessed m heaven, seemed to the Roman of the
second and third century, who paid homage to the
dead with banquets as well as sacrifices, a perfeci^
natural decoration for a funeral chamber. Even the
ff^Ie of Qrpfaeus was borrowed pictorially and re-
ferred to Cnrist. Similarly the story of Eros and
Psyche was revived and Christianized, smring to re-
mind the believer of the resurrection of the body and
the eternal beatitude of heaven. The group of the
Twelve Apostles probably attracted the leas attention
because the twdve Dii Majores were often also
grouped together. Again the figure of the Oram
(q. v.), the woman witn anns uplifted in prayer, was
quite familiar to classical antiquity. Though the
precise significance attached to it as it is founa in the
catacomra is in dispute, it was clearly designed to
awaken some spiritual idea in the minds of the ini-
tiated. Similarly the fish^mbol (see Pish, Symbol-
ism OF the), representing Cfhrist, the anchor of hope,
the palm of victory, were all sufficiently familiar as
emblems among pagans to excite no particular at-
tention. Hoice even in the case of an inscription
which breathes so unmistakably the atmosphere of
early Christian symbolism as the epitaph of Aberoius
(q. V.) with its allusions to the Fish (Christ) in the
Eucharist, the ahining seal (baptism), the chaste
shepherd (Christ), etc., it has been possible for. writers
like Picker to deny its Christian significance though
in defiance of all probability as Zalm, Duchesne, and
many other writers have shown. From whatever
cause it arose the strong symbolistic colouring of re-
ligious practice during the first a^ of Christianity is
disputed by hardly anyone, and it was manifestly in
harmo^ with the all^orical tone of the Apocalypse,
of the Pastor of Hennas, and of other early apoeiy-
1^1 writings. Further it is certain that the tradition
thus created only deepened and spread throughout
both the early and the later Middle Ages. The ten-
dency seems to have been particularly fostered by the
^li^rical ex^eats of the tiieobgiuw of Alexandria
which the writrags of St. Jerome and St. Gregory the
Great helped to make familiar to western Europe.
The works of Isidore of Seville and of St. Bede helped
in the same direction. Neither must the so-called
"Oavis" attributed to St. Melito of Sardis be left
out of account. There is certainly no sufficient reason
to identify it with the cenuine work of St. MeUto
which bore a corKsponoing name, but the Clavis
gathored up a wiety of symboltcal interpretations
current in St. Augustine and the Fathers, and it seems
to be of fiurly early date (cf., however, Rotmanner in
"Theol. Quartalschrift", 1896, btxviii, 614-29).

With regard to the early ritual of the Church, the
part that symbolism plays in all connected with the
sacraments need not be insisted on. The outward
sign of the sacrament was itself symbolical. But there
was much more than this. In the case of baptism, tot
instance, nearly all the ceremonial is of verr early
date. The exorcism of Satan by blowing or breath-
ing, the giving of salt {sal aajnmtiee), the rite of the
Ejpkpheta, and the use of spittle, imitating the action
CK Our Ix>rd in some of His miracles, the andoit
pnetice irf tunting |^ the West w^ raKKuwaig

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Satan but ctf fadnc eastwards in making the pnrfte-
aion <rf fiuth, the wute robe or ehrytom beetowjea aa an
otnhWip of innocenoe, the lighted candle typioal of the
Ulumination of faith (hence the baptiaea were early
caUed furi^Oivm, i. e. the illuminated), and finally
the curious custom of giving milk and honey to toe
newly-baptized infant are all in the highest degree
^mbolieal. In confirmation we have the marking of
the Sign of the Croas upon the brow and the use otoil
r^weeenting the fatness and abundance of grace. The
blow upon the cheek, agnificant of the warfare in
which the resolute Christian is engaged, is of much
later date and probably imitated from the sword blow
by which the young Teutonic warrior was dubbed a
l^ight. The laying of the hand upon the penitent's
head, which was practised almost everywhere during
the Middle Ages when absolutioa was given^ no doubt
symbolized the imparting of grace, as the mapomtion
of hands undoubtedly does in the Sacrament oiOrdeiB.
Even in the ritual tn matrimony such a pagan prac-
tice as the giving of the espousal ring, which was
probably in the beginning put of the vrrkoB, was in-
vested at a later period with the mystic meanings of
perpetuity and fidelity.

That much of the symbolism which is found in ttu
medieval liturgists was invented ex post facto cannot be
doubted. We may readily allow that the greater part
of the ceremonial {practices now adopted by the Churdt
were utilitarian in their origin. For exanwle, the

Erieet washed his hands before the Preface because
e had been using the thurible or at least taking up
the offerings of the faithful; it was not until later that
this act was connected by the liturgist with spiritual
purification or even with liie hand-washing of Pilate.
At the same time it is possible to exaggerate the utili-
tarian explanation, and the liturgist Claude de Vert,
who laid so much stress upon this aspect of the matter,
in some instances went too far. For example, de Vert
held that the candle given to the ncwly-baptized was
only meant to help them to find their way back from
the baptistery to tne sanctuary in the darlcness of the
Easter vigil. But the very earl^ use of the above*
mentioned term ^wrwfcls (illuminated) for a bap-
tised person shows the extravagance of this expJanap
tion fuul, as Le Brun Bagely pointed out, the cate-
chumens would have neeaed candles as much to find
their way to the baptistery as to return from it.
Whether de Vert was wrong in maintaining that the
extinction of the Tenebne candlea one by o^c had
originally no ^mbolical reference to the abandon-
ment of Christ by Uis disciples but was simply due to
the fact that fewer candles were noeded as duwn ap-
proached and the office drew to an end, or again m
his contention that the noise made at the end of Ten-
ebree had no reference to the earthquake on Calvary
but was simply the signal for departure given by the
celebrant after an interval of silent prayer, may like
many other familiar problems be left an open question.

It is perhaps most of all in the matter of htureical
vestments th&t the tendency to attach symbolical
meanings to usages oriRuaalljr adopted for some pimple
and practical purpose shows itself most coospicuously.
The prayers recited by the celebrant in assuming these
attributes a mystical significance to each, thus the
chasuble which covers ^ denotes charity, and the
girdle self-restraint and continence, while medieval
uturgurts have devised many more; but modem au-
thorities are agreed that in hardly any case has a vest-
ment been adopted in the Church for mystical reasons.
The amice, for examine, was simply a cloth used like
a modem collar to protect the rich chasuble or tunic
from contact with the skin. It was only ^terwards
that the priest was bidden to regard it as a "helmet
of salvation to overthrow the assaults of the evil one",
^d the same holds true of all the rest. Of the pal-
lium, a white woollen band encircling the neck and
hangiiig before and behind, it can at least be said that

from the time of St. Grecoty the Great it has been
sent by the pope to archbishops with the distinct^
ezi)ressed purpose of symbolizmg the archiepisoopiu
jurisdiction conferred upon them, a purpose for which
It is ex[H«ssly blessed and laid "upon the body of
Blessed Peter" in the "confession" of the great
Koman basilica" (see Tenebbas).

In any acoount of Christian symbolism an impor-
tant place must always be gi\'en to the Church, and
that whether the institution or the material building
is regarded. It is considered by some that the veiled
Oram, already spoken of, which appears so frequently
in the catacombs represents the Church (see the
Pastor of Hermas, iii, 3, 10, and compare the term
Virgin Mother wapffdm iii^^ used of the Churt^ in
thesecond century; Eusebius, "Hist.Ecd.", V, i,43).
This is not certain, but the Church in early mosaics is
undoubtedly often personified, as indeed we should
expect from the early and widely-read visions con-
tamed in the Pastor of Hennas (see Heruas), and
sometimes we find not ooe, but two, contrasted fig-
ures representing respectively the Church of the
Gentiles and the Church of the Circumcision. The
contrast is also presented to us in the form of two
towns set over against each other and duly labelled
Bethlehem and Jerusalem, or even more frequently
in the confronting portraits of St. Paul and St. Peter.
At a later date also, beginning early in the Middle
Ages, we repeatedly find two contrasted types, but
here representing the Church and the Synagogue.
The Church is a crowned and often sceptred figure
with a chalice emblematic of her sacramental system.
The Synagogue, on the other hand, has lost her crown,
her staff is broken, and her attitude betokois defeat.
These figures are constantly to be found on eithw side
of early medieval representations of the Crucifixion.
Here there is plain opposition between the two types
^ee Sauer^ "SymboliK'', p. 247), whereas in early
Chriatian imagery the Church of the Circumcision
and the Church of the Gentiles are depicted as con-
stitutive parte of the one Kingdom of God upon earth.
Tiiis example shows that continuity between prim-
itive and medieval symbolism must not always be
assumed, though in many cases we can securely trace
back a type to its origins in the earliest ages.

Another early and accepted emblem of the Church
was the ship. In the Apostolic Constitutions (II,
xlvti) the bishop surrounded by the assembly of the
faithful is compared to the helmsman of a snip- but
the idea is as old aa Tertullian (De bap., xii; P. L., I,
1214) and it was varied sometimes by comparing the
Church to the Aric of Noe. In any case the ship was a
recognized Christian symbol and Clement of Alrac-
andrta am)roved it for a signet ring. "Let the dOve
or the fish", he says, "the veseeT flying before the
windj — or the marine anchor be our signets" (P«d.
ni, li; P. G., VIII, 633), and numerous representa-
tions of ships, sometimes serving as the design for a
lamp, with the figure of Christ or St. Peter as helms-
man are preserved to us. The name which we still
retain for the "nave"^ (Frencl^ nefi of a ohurdi bears
testimony to the persistence of the same idea. More-
over, from the spiritual Church, idealized as the
heavenly Jerusalem, to the material edifice the trana^
tion was very easy. As early as the Pastor of Hermas
the individual members of the Church were looked
upon as the stones of which the spiritual building was
fashioned, the thought being perpetuated to all time
in the msf^cent hymn "Ccelestia urbs Jenis^em".
No w<mder that the liturgists of the Middle A^
found no more fruitful theme than the intei^retation
of every detaU in the fabric and ornamentation of th^
great cathedrals. Moreover, in this case undoubtedly
there was action and reaction. Not only did the
teachers set themselves to give mystical explanations
of what already existed, but their spiritual concep-
tions influenced the generatitms that came aft», and

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■niiitaoti desii^Md ud buQt with the oonecious pur-
pow of rendering in etone the beautiful tlKm^tfl
which had become to them as a new language. To
begin with the church was "oriented", i. e. ita chan-
cel (apart from the Roman basilicas wha% the cele-
brant offered Mass facing the people) pointed to the
East. Whether one is to recogoue here the Chri»-
tianixation ctf a form of sun-worship, which some have
traced to Uie influence of the emperor Constantine, or
whether the faithful looked eastward to greet the
coming of the "Sim of Justice", the "Orient from on
hi|^", certain it is that already in the Apostolic Con-
stitutions of the fourth centuiy (II, xlvii) the church
was built tb face the East. The practice lasted on
throughout the Middle Agee. From this indication
of the points of the compass it followed that the dear
con in reading the Gospel turned himself sideways so
as to proclaim the glad tidings to the barbarous races
of the north. The great porch at the western end, on
the other hand, faced the setting sun and led men's
thoughts to the close of life. Hence it is that this be-
came th^ conventional position for those magnificoit
sculptures or paintings of the last judgment found in
many of our old cathedrals. With r^u^ to the door
itself there is frequently some si^iincant scheme of
decoration which emphasizes the idea that the door
ia Qirist (JBgo sum ostium, John, x, 7) and this is alone
sufficient justification for the ^orification of these
port^, one, two, or three in number, oftoi encased in
great arches and crowded with stone earvings of
angels and saints.

In such liturgical treatises as the "Riitionale" of
Ehirandus every detail in the construction of the
church has a special significance assigned to it. The
roof represents charity which covers a multitude of
sins; the beams which tie the buildii^E tc^ther be-
token the champions of ecclesiastical right who de-
fend it with the sword: the vaulting signifies the
preachers who bear up the dead weight of man's in-
firmity heavenwards; the columns and piers stand
for the Apostles, bishops, and doctors; the pavement
eymbolizes the foundation of f^th or the humility of
tne poor; and so on. In all this the mystical inter-
pretation of numbers holds a great place. There are
twelve consecration crosses, and this, besides a refer-
ence to the Twelve Apostles (in not a few instances
each consecration cross i^ marked upon a shield borne
by one of the Apostles), symboUzes the spiritualizing
of human nature and of the world by faith, or, as
others put it, it betokens the imiversal Church. TTie
reason is that three, the number of the Blessed Trin-
ity, figures the Divine nature, and four, the number of
the dements, t]/pifie8 the number ta the material
world. Twelve is the product of three and four, and
it coii3«iuently betokens the penetration of_ matter
with spirit. So again eight denotes perfection and
completion, for the visible world was made in seven
days and the invisible kingdom of grace follows upon
tJiat. In this wa^ the octagonal shape was judged
specially appropriate for the baptistery or for the
font, on the ground that this initiation into the super-
natural Older of grace completed the woilc of creatHm.
Naturally five recalls the wounds of Christ, and five
grains of incense are inserted cross-wise in the Pas-
chal Candle, white ten, the numborof the Command-
ments, is typical of the Old Law. Seven again has its
own very special attraction as the number of the sac-
raments, of the gifts of the Holy Ghost, of the virtues
and vices, and many other things. There can be little
doubt that much of-this symbo&m of numbers is to be
traced back to Egypt and As^ria, whwe the move-
ments of the seven planets, as men then counted
them, were continuously studied and where ihe ele-
ments of three and four into which seven was divided
lent themselves to other combinations also regarded
as peculiar^ sacred, for example th9 number sixty,
ihe pniduot of three, four, and five.

Of iBotated pieces of aQrmbolism of various Uadi
medievfd art and Uterature are full. The early mon-
ogram of Christg sometimes spoken of as the ekb^,
as it is a oombmation of these two letters X P,
thus ^ or JP , sometimes again as the labtnm
and ^ in ** French as the cArtme, has been die*
enased under Caoes (IV^ 632). Another Christ «nbkin
(besides Fish, treated m a seoante article) was tlw
lamb, oft^nasaoeiated with aflag. This actually totdc
the plaoeof the figure of Our Saviour, and it was rqm>
sented in combination with the cross instead of the hu-
man form, being sometimes even Burroun<^ by a
cruciform nimbus. As there seemed a danger of. the
Sacred HumaniW being lost in aUeconr, the Council,
" In Trullo", at Constantinople (691) (Screed that the
Iamb in future should not be used in this way, but that
the figure of Christ diauid be substituted. As ior the
first P^son of the Blessed Trmity the earliest sym-
bolical represoitattrai seons to be found in the Divine
hand which is often seen extended fnnn the douds in
early represoitations of the baptism of Our Sariour
and of other op^ations of grace.

It is hardly needful to add that a vast chapter in the
histoty of symbolism is supplied by the saints and
their emblems. Almost everyone of the more fa-
miliar saints has some emblem, often more than one,
by the presence of which his identity is made known.
The gndir(m of St. Lawrence, the scallop shell of St.
James, ihe special cross of St. Andrew, tne lion of St.
Jerome etc. might be quoted in illustration, but <rften
also there are emblems common to a whole group of
saints, the palm branch, for example being in general
indicative of a martyr, and the deacons being nearly
always represented in their dalmatics. For the Eran-
gelists tiiere have been used from very early times
certain conventional emblems — a winged man or an
angel for St. Matthew, a winged lion for St. Mark, a
winged calf for St. Luke, and an eagle for St. John.
All these are taken from the description of the
heavenly litui^ in Apoc., iv, v, and must have heem
mggested by the vision of Ezechiel (Eaech., i, 10).
In the art of the early Middle ^es these emblems

eiijr a very prominent part. Oth^ forms of sym-
lism are of^ much later development, for example
the type which as been called "the Eucharistic Ecoe
Homo" representing Our Saviour with. the sacred
wounds, divested of nis garments and standing in the
tomb, not dead but livi^. In the paintings, etc.,
known as the Mass of St. Gregory which were popular
in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Our Lord is'
generally depicted in this way. Again Our Lady ot
♦he Seven Dolours, with the seven swords piercing her
heart, is a type of comparatively late occurrence, and
this of course is still more true of the pictures con-
nected with the Sacred Heart. The monogram,
I. H. S. surrounded by rays, which, From the fact that
it was much used by the early Jesuits, has sometimes
been supposed to be the peculiar device of the Society
of Jesus, really owes its popularity to the preaching m
St. Bernardine of Siena (q. v.) at the banning of Uie
fifteenth centuiy. It rqixesents the Hohr Nanw
written in a Gntk abbreviated form and had ori^
inally nathing to do with lestts HonHnttm, StUpotor.

For another section of symbolism which is con-
cerned with the mystical significance attached to the
representations of animals, the reader is referred to the
article BEsruRtES.

An excellent oonipendium of tbe whole subject ia tint of Jn^
NBB, CkrUHan Sw^bciUm (London. 1910); ft fuller traatin k
MiD^isd by S^UEB, ^rmMAk du KirduHfabatukt (FrMHUg.
IWS), wludi oonoema itoeU cbicfly with architecture. The earn*
ia true of KBBvaKR, ChriiObAe KinAenbau (Brizen, I88ft-n.
Arm EH, nut. tt thiorU du «VTnMiMM rSiaUtm <4 TOb.. Iwi>
1874), is very diffuae. Nieowbark, Het roonueMs KtrffAmttr
<tr. Hymwecen. IdOS), is too slight and sketchy. For the later
Middle Ages and for France fn^Brtioutar there are tbe two ad-
mirable books of Male. L'oH rma. dilajlndu matm ^m (Pafta.
1908). aad L'art rtUgiem Ai XIIT* riMM m Statue (SrI ed.,

BrArfA md Maud (LoDdoB. vSfDi HrrwaifS. La OaOMmk

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mnoN 3.

(Fans, IMS). Roctfcliai the liturcr aeei TkauotbS, LUwrvOc
(Tmbura. 1883) ; Jntsu, TVincipfu o/ IMiffiota Cvmtmial (Lon-
don, 1906): HCLUB, S]/mbolimn in Chrittian Art (London. 1809).
On tiie emblenu of the saint* aee; Cahibs, Caroctiriiti^tttg dkt
tainU (Pftria, 1887); Dbtxcl, Clvi*aieh» IfconoirraphU (Praiburc,
18H): PrLEiDEKBK, Die AuHbuUn der Htiligm (Ulm. 1898);
KADOwm, TKt SairO* in Art (Rome, 1898); Jaubsok, Sacrtd
and Lto'ndani Art (London, 1848), and other worki; Ore eke,
SainU and Their SyrnM* (London, 1904). The gFMt atonboiMe
of medieval ^ymboliBm ia the RatimaU divitwnm oMdontm oi
DuBANDus (modem ed.. Naples, 1859), parta odrbion have been
traoriated (Lm^ 1843, and London, 1^).

Hbbbbbt Thdbbiow.
Symacni Met^>hnBtes. See AfarAraBAsxis,

Symeon Stylltes, Saint. See Swbon.

SymmachUB, Saint, Pofb (493-^514), date of birth
unknown; d. 19 July, 514. Acoording to the "Liber
pontificalis" (cd. Duchesne, I, 260) he was a native
of Sardinia and his father was named Fortunatus.
Synunacfaus was baptized at Rome (Tbid, "Epist.
pont. rom.", I, 702), entered the ranks of the clergy
of Rome, and was ordained deaoon. Directly after
the death of Pope Anastasius II, Symnutchus was
elected bis successor by a majority of the Roman
el^gy at the Lateran Basilica on 22 November, 498.
The election wa6 approved by a part of the Roman
Senate and he was at once consecrated Bishop of
Rome. Later on the same day a minority <tf the
det^ who were friendly to the Byzantines and were
supported by a party in the Senate met in the Baralica
<tf %nta Maria Ma^iore and elected the Roman arch-
preebyter Laurenttus as antipope. According to
Theodorus Lector (P. G., LXXXVI, 193), the Lauren-
tian party was aided with money supplied chiefly by
the nch Senator Festus, who hoped that Laurentius
would be influenced by this to sign the "Henotikon",
the edict of faith of the Emperor Zeno. The other
authoritiee do not speak of such motives, which are
very probable, and the testimony of Theodorus can
very readily be accepted. Both parties, however,
agreed that the two candidates should appear at
Ravenna before the Gothic king Theodoric, the ruler
of Italy, and abide by his decision. Theodoric pro-
nouncing in favour of Symmachus on the ground that
he was elected first and by the majority of the clei^,
Laurentius submitted to the decision. At a synod
htAd at Rome on 1 March, 499, the Acts of which
have been preserved, Symmachus, who was now uni-
TKTsally acknowledged, bestowed on Laurentius the
Diocese of Nocera in Campania. The synod ordained
that any Roman cleric who sought to ^n votes for
a successor to the papacy during the lifetime of the
pope, or who called oontexmeea and fadd oonaulta-
tions for that purpose, should be deposed. King
Theodoric was given a vote of thanks by acclamation
for his unpwtizan decision. When the king came to
Rome in the following year he had a brilliajit recep-
tion both from the pope and the people. However,
the Byzantine party, headed bv the two senators
Festus and Probinus, did not abandon its bostihty
and hope of overthrowing the pope and gaining the
paind see for Laurentius. The opportunity occurred
in the following year, 501. Pope Symmachus cele*
brated Easter on 25 March, following tiie old Roman
cycle, while the Byzantines and o^a« observed the
feast on 22 April, according to a new reckoning. The
LMDwtian part;^ appealed to King Theodoric again^rt
&e pope, making other accusations besides this
digression in the cdebration of Easter. Theodoric
summoned the pope and Symmachus set out to meet
him. At Rimini Symmachus learned contents
<rf the indictment and, refusing to acknowledge the
king as his jndge, returned home. The opposing
party now accuKd him of squandering the property
of the Church and other matters. It gained in
strength and occupied tiie Lateran palace, so that
tiie pope WM oblifed to live near the Camreh of St.

7 SmUOBDf

Peter outside the city walls. His oppoBcOti itt

quested the king to call a «ynod tar the mvestitttKA

of the accusations and to appoint a visitor for Home.
Symmachus agreed to the calling of a synod, but he
and his adherents protested agamst the sending of a
visitor. Theodoric, however, sent as visitor Bi^K)p
Peter of Altinum in upper Italy, who was to admin-
ister the Roman Church in the place of the accused
pope. Peter came to Rome and, contrary to the
commands of the king, allowed himself to be won over
by tiie adheroits of Laurentius, bo that llieodorie at
a later date dismissed him. Not long after Easter,
between May and July, 502, the synod met in the
basilica of Julius (Santa Maria in Trastevere). The
pope declared before the synod that it had been called
with his consent and that he was ready to answer the
accusations before it, if the visitor were removed and
he were re-estiAlished as the administoator of the
Church. To this the majority of the bisbopB agreed
and sent an embassy to the kmg to demand the earaoib-
tion oi these oonditifnui. Theodoric, however, re-
fused, and demanded, first of all, an inTeetigation of
the accusations against the pope. A second session
of the synod was held, therefore, on 1 September,
502, in Uie Sessorian basilica (Santa Crooe in Gem-
Baletmne), and the minority had the indictmoit made
by the Laurentian party read aloud. Symmachus
dedred to go fnnn St. Pet^s to the synod m ordw to
defend himself, but on the way there 1m was attacked
by his opponents and maltreated, imd, escaping oidy
with great difficulty, returned to St. Peter's; several
priests who were with him were killed or severely
w;ounded. The Goths sent by Theodoric promised
him a reliable escort but the pope now refused to
appear before the synod, althou^ mvited three times.
Consequently the assembled bishops declared at tiie
third session, held abmit the middle of September,
they could not pass judgment upon the pope, because
he had appeared twice before his judges, ana because
there was no precedent showing that an occupant
of the Rmnan See had been subjected to the judgment
of other bishops. They called upon the opposing
clergy to submit to the pope, and requested tne kins
to pwmit the bidbops to return to their dioceses. AU
these steps were in vain : the majority of the clergy and
people sided indeed with Symmachus, but a minority
of the clergy and a majority of the Senators were
at that time partisans of Laurentius. A fourth session,
therefore, was held .on 23 October, 502, called the
"Synodua Palmaris" (PaJmary sj-nod) either from
the place where it was held (ad Palmaia, Palma), or
because it was the most important session (poftnoru).
At this session it was decided that on account of tiie
reasons given earlier the decision must he left to the
judgment of God; Symmachus was to be regarded
as free from all the crimes of which he was accused,
and therefore entitled to the full exercise of his epis-
copal office; the whole property of the Church was to
be transferred to him; whoever returned to his obedi-
ence should escape punishment, but whoever under-
took eeolesiaBtical functions at Rome without ps^
penxUBsion was to be regarded as a schismatic. The
decision iras signed by seventy-five bishops, among
them the bishops of Milan and Ravenna. Many
bi^ope now returned to their dioceses. The mfuority ,
however, met with the Roman priests in St. Peter a
for a fifth session under the presidency of Symmachus
on 6 November, 502. The edict issued by the prefect
Basilhis, in 483, regulating the administration o^ the
possessions of the Church was declared invaUd and
symmaohua ismed a new edict respecting the admin-
istration of this property, and e^>eciaUy in regard to
its sale.

King Theodoric, not satisfied with the decision of
the Bjmod, although the great majority of the Italian
episcopate was on the side of the rjghtful pope, did
mrtthiag to carry out the new oniinanoee. Coo-
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lequentl:)^ the opposition oalled its eandidate Lauren-
tius again to Rome. He reiided in the Latowi
ralaoe, which was in the hands of hia adherents, while
Symmaohus retained the house of the bishop {epig-
eopium) near St. Peter's. The division continued
for four years, during which both parties carried on a
furious quarrel at Rome. Laurentius had his por^
trait added to the series ofpopes in the Church of
Saint Paul Without the Walls. However, certain
mominent persons exerted their influence in laTOur of
Symmacbus. as Bishop Avitus <^ \^enne, who, at the
request of the QaUican bishops, addressed an urgent
letter to the Senate on behalf of the rightiul pope and
for the restoration of unity. Symmachus gradually
won over a number of the adherents of the opposition.
The greatest factor in the healing of the schism was
the interposition of Deacon Dioscurus of Alexandria,
who had come to Rome. He was commissioned by
SymmachuB to go to Theodorio, and won the king
over to the side of the rightful pope. Apparently
political motives were involved, as the king wished to
take action against the lAurentian party, which in-
clined to Constantinople. He commanded Semtor
Festus, the head of the hostile party, to return all
Roman churches to Symmachus. Lutrentius having
lost many adherents among the senators the king's
«ommand was executed without difficulty. The anti-
pope, obliged to leave Rome, retired to a farm belong-
ing to his protector Festua. Only a small party stUi
held to Laurentius and refused to recognize Symma-
chus as Bishop of Rome; but it was insignificant and
was reconciled later to Hormisdas, the successor ot
Symmachus. During the schism a number of polem-
ical writings appeareo, as from the party of Laurentius
the treatise ^Contoa Synodum absolutionis ineon-
gnue", to which Deacon Ennodius replied in ' ' Libellus
adversus eos qui contra Synodum scribere prnsump-
eerunt" ("Mon.Genn. Hist.; Auct.ant.", Vn,488q.).
While the author of the life of Symmaohus in the com-
pletely preserved text of the "Libw pontificalis" is
very favourable to this pope, the writer of another con-
tinuation of the papal bio^aphies supports the cause of
Laurentius ("Fragment Laiu^ntien'', ed. Duchesne in
"Lib» pontificalis", 1,44-16). During the dimutethe
adheroitsof Symmaohusdrewup four apocryphal writr
ingB called the "S^nunaohian Forgeries"; theee wem:
"Gesta aynodi Sinuessane de Marcellino"; "Con-
etitutum Silvestri": "Gesta Liberii"; "Gesta de pur-
gatione Xysti et jPolychronii accusatione". These
tour works are to be found in Coustant, "Epist. rom.
pontif." (Paris, 1721), appendix, 29 sq.: cf. Duchesne,
''Liber pontificalis", I, introduction, CXXXIU so.:
"Histoire Utt^raire des apocryphea synunachiois^'.
The object of these forgeries was to produce alleged
instances from earlio* times to support the wlu>le
procedure of the adherents of Synnnachus, and, in
particular, the position that the Roman bishop could
not be judged by any court composed of other bish-
ops. Still these forgeries are not the first documents
to maintain this latter tenet.

Qymmachus zeakiusly def^ided the supporters of
orthodoxy during the diaorders of the Acacian schism.
He defends, although without sucoeas, the opponents
of the " Henotikon " in a letter to Emperor Anastaeiiis
I (491-518). At a later date many of the peiBeouted
Oiental bishops addressed themseivee to the pope to
whom they sent a confession of faith. Shortly after
606 the emperor sent him a letter full of invectives, to
which the pope sent a firm answer, maintaining
forcibly the r^ts and liberty of the Church (Thie^
"Epist. rom. pont.", I, 700 aq.) In a letter of S
October, 512, addroMed to the bishops of Ulsria, the
p<^ warned the cle^ of that provmce not to hold
oommunion with hmtics. Soon after the b^inning
of his pontificate Symmachus interposed in the quarrd
between the Arehbishope of Aries uid Vienne as to
tin bmmdaries of Uieir respective tenitorMS. He ai^

nulled the edict issued by Anastasiua n in favour of
the Archbishop of Vienne and later (6 November, 513)
confirmed the metropolitan rights of Aichbishra
C^eesarius of Aries, as theee had been fixed by Leo I.
Moreover, he granted Ciesarius the privi^^ of wear-
ing the pallium, the first-known instance of such a
grant by the Hob' See to a bishop outside of Italy.
In a letter of 11 June, 514, he appointed Ciesarius to
represent the interests of the Church both in Gaul
aiul Spam, to hold synods of the bishops in certain
cases, to give letters of recommendation to clergy who
joum^ed to Rome. More important mattera were
to be laid before the Holy See. In the city of R«ne,
according to the "Liber pontificalu", the pope took
severe measures against the Manichspana, ordered
the burning of their books, and expdied th«n from
the city. He erected or restored and adome<f various
churches. Thus he built a Church of St. Andrew near
St. Peter's, a Basilica of St. Agnes on the Via AureUa,
adorned the Church of St. F^r's, completely rdniilt
the Basilica of Sts. Slylvester and Martinus, and made
improvements o^^ the Catacomb of the Jfndani on
the Via Sidaria. He built episcopal houses (episeoptd)
to the ri^t uid left of the parvis of St. Peter's. Then
buildings were evidently connected with the residence
of the pope for several years near St. Peter's during
the disoraers of the Laurentian schism. He also
built asylums for the pK>or near the three churches of
St. Pet€ir, St. Paul, and St. Laurence that were out-
side the city walls. Hie pope contributed lar^ sums
for the support of the Catholic bishops of AfncB who
were persecuted by the rulers of the Ariim Vandals.
He also aided the inhabitants of the provinces of upper
Italy who suffered so sorely from the invasion of the
barbarians. After his death he was buried at St.
Peter's. Symmachus is venerated in the Roman
Church as a saint.

Liber ponlifleaiU. «d. DvcraainB, I, 360-268; JATVi, RtgatU
pmL rom. (Siid ed.), I, 96 aq.; TntBL, Bpitt. rom. pontif., 630 >q.;
Ada nnodonua RonuB hainL m. 499, 501. G02 in JUon. Oenm. HuL:
Awi. atd., XII, 393 »q.; Gbibar, Otteh. Rom* tmd der PdjMe, I,
460 wiq.; Lanoen, Qeadv. der rOmMchen Kinke, II, 219 aqqj
Hbtblb, Hi^ of thi CouneiU of the Church, tr. Oiau, fV
(Edinbujsb. 1896), 49 aqq., AS-7S; StSbbs, (fudUtutwlim mm
taurmiianitehm Sekisma m SiUung^er. der WUner Akada^,
CXII (1886), 269 sqq.: Maabsen, Oetek. dtrQvMondM Kirekm-
rcoAMt, I, 411 sqq.; PniLacHimii. Thtodtrieh dor Oroaie in
WJla-daehU in Karaktorbiidern (Malni, 1910). 44 aqq.; HaBT-
MANH, Oaeh. JtaUtM <m MilUtatUrt I (Uipiig, IS97), 142 sqq.

J. P. KlRBCH.

Symmaohus tho Kbionlte, author of one of the
Greek versions of the Old Testament ineluded by
Origen in his Hexa^ and Tetr^la. Some fragments
of this version survive in what remains of the Hex^la.
Symmaohus also wrote "Commentaries", not extant*
apparently to support the heresy of the £2»i<mites 1^
attaddttg the Grospel of St. Matthew. "Origen states
that he obtained these and other commentaries of
lus on the Scriptures from a certain Juliana,

he says, inherited them from Symmachus him-
self" (EusebiuB, "Hist. Eccl.", VI, ivU). Palladius
(Hist. LauB., Ixiv) found in a manuscript "very
ancient and arranged in stichai" the follovnng entjy
made by Origen: "This book I found in the hoose m
Juliana, the virgin in Cseearea, when I was hiding
there; who said she had received it from Symmachus
himself the interpreter of the Jews". The date ot
Origen's stay with Juliana was probably 233-41,
i. e. during the persecution of Maxirain, but this teUs
us nothing about the date of Symmachus'a version
of the Scriptures vdiich was known to Origen when he
wrote (about 228) his earjiest commentaries (sea
Swete, "Introd. to O. T. in Greek", p. 50). It used
commonly to be accepted, on the si^>po8sd authori^
of St. Epiphanius (De mens, et pond., xvi), that
Symmachus flourished in the age of Severus (193-
211), but the text of Epi[^ianius is full of the wildest
blunders. The Syriac translator who (as was first
pointed out by Lei^rde) , had a leas cnrupt text brfon

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379

him, reads Verus not Severus, and ezplainfl a Uttle
later that by this emperor is meant Marcus Aurelius
(161-80). AH that can be said is that there is notb-
ing improbable about this date. Epij^aaius says
further that Symmachus was a Samaritui who having
quarrelled wiui his own people went over to Judaism,
but an other ancient authorities are unanimous in
making him an Ebionite. From the language of
many writers who speak of Symmachus (Ambrosias-
Us, "Prol. in Ep. ad Galat'^ Philastrius. bdii; St.
Augustine, "Contra Faust.", XIX, iv, xii), Symma-
efauB must have been a man of great importanoe in
his sect, if not tJie founder of a sect within a sect.
His version of the Old Testament was largely used by
St. Jerome, who twice speaks of two editions of it.
As a transllator he aimed at writing good Greek and
not at the slavish literalness of Aqmla. "Aquila et
Sjmmachus et Hieodotio . . . diversum psne opus
in eodem opere prodiderunt, alio nitente verbum de
verbo expnmere, alio sensum potius sequi, tertio
Don multum a veteribus discr^iaire" (Bt. Jerome,
"Prolog, in Eusdl). Chronicon")-

HuNACX, GhcA. lUr oUeMMl. La. K« Bh*Mm (8 voI&, Leip-
nc 1893-1904); Diti. Chrit. Biog.. a. v. Herapla, Sin*-
■acfau, TheoAkion: Smv, Introduet. to 0. T. in Greek (Lon-
don. 1891); Mtrcati, L'M di Simvtaeo TInUrvrolt e S. Evifanio
(Hockok, 1892).

Fbancib J. BAOcmns.
Symnuefaof Venlon. See Vbbbions of the

BlUB.

femphwHUk, Saint, martyred with her seven sons

at Tibur (Tivoli) towards the end of the reipi of Em-
peror Hadrian (117-138). The story of their martyr-
dcm is told in an old Fassio, the rdiability of which
is seriously questioned by many modem hagiologists.
According to this Passio, 8ymphoroea was a lady
liv-ing at Tibur, the widow of the tribune, Getulius,
who had previously been martyred by Emperor Ha-
drian at Gabii, now Tcnri, a town <A the Stdbines. When
Hadrian had completed his costly palace at Tibur txA
began its dedication by offering sacrifices, he received
the following response from the gods: "The widow
Symphorosa and her sons torment us daily b;^ invok-
ing tneir God. If she and her sons offer saenfice, we
promise to give you all that you ask for. " When all
the emperor's attempts to mduce Symphorosa and
her SODS to sacrifice to the gods were unsuccessful, he
ordered her to be brought to the Temple <^ Herdues,
wboe. after various tortures, she was thrown into the
river (Anio), with a heavy rock fastened to her neck.
Her brother Eugenius, who was a member of the coun-
cil of Tibur, buried her in the outskirts of the city.
The next day the emperor summoned her seven sons,
and being equally unsuccessful in his attempts to malre
them sacrifice to the gods, he ordered them to be tied
to seven stakes which had been erected for the piupoee
round the Temple of Hercules. Each of than suffered
a different kind of martyrd«Hn. Crescens was pierced
Uirough the throat; Julian through the breast, Neme-
■tus through the heart, Primitivus was wounded at
the navel, Justinus was pierced through the back,
Stracteus (Stacteus, Estacteus) was wounded at the
side, and Eugenius was cleft in two parts from top to
bottom. Their bodies were thrown into a deep ditch
at a place which the pagan priests afterwards (»Uled
"Ad septem Biothanatos". (The Greek word
mt, or rather puaHwnt, was employed for self-
iwiraerers and, the pagans, ai^ilied to Christiana
who suffered martyrdom). Hereupon the persecu-
tion ceased for one year and six months, during
which period the bodies of the martyrs were buried
on the Via Tiburtina, eight or nine miles from Rome.

It is difficult to ascertfun how much reliability these
Acts possess. The opinion that they were written
by Julius Africanus (third eentury) lias been almost
univetaaUy rejected, since neither Eusebius nor any
other historian of tiut period makes the least aUuara'

to any Aots of Roman or Italian martyrs composed bv
this African writer. The "Hioonymian Mart^tH-
ogy", which was compiled by an unknown author in
the second half qf the fifth century, commemorates

St. Symphmosa and her sons on 18 July, but here the
names of her sons are entirely different from those
given in the Acts. One of the manuscripts (oodex
Bemensis) of this martyrology states that the Acts
of these martyrs are extant : " quorum gesta habentur"
(•'Martyrologium Hieronymianum", edited hy De
Kossi.and Duchesne in Acta SS. Novembris II, L 93).
Since here the names of Symphwosa's sons are diFTer-
ent from those of the Acts which we possess, then
must have existed some other "CSesta" to which the
author of the martyrology refers. In the same martyr-
ology, on 27 June, are commemorated seven broths
martyrs, whose names are identical with those which
our Acts assign to the sons of Symphorosa. It is prob-
able that the authra* of the Acts, guided by the tradi-
tion that Symphorosa had seven sons who were mar-
tyred, macte her the mothv of the seven martyrs,
whom he found mentioned in the martyroloEy on 27
June. If this is the case, we may infer, provided Sym-
phorosa had seven sons at all, that their names were
not those mentioned in the Acts. Whether thev were
those assigned to them in the "Hieronymian Martyr-
ology^" will also remain doubtful as long as we have no
certamty that the "Gesta" to which the author r^ers
are authentic. Some hagiologiste consider the seven
sons of Symphorosa like tiuMe of Felieitas (q. v.), a
mere ad^tation of the seven sons of the Maccab«m
Mother. In the seventeenth century, Bosio dis-
covered the ruins of a basilica at the place popularly
called "le sette fratte" (the seven brothers), on the
Via Tiburtina, nine miles from Rome. (Bosio, "Roma
Sotteranea", 105-9>. The Acta and the "Hierony-
mian Martyrology" ^ree in designating this spot as
the tomb of Symphorosa and her sons. Further dis-
coveries, that leave no room for doubt Uiat the basilica
was built ov« their tomb, were made by Stevenson.
The remains w^ transferred to the Church of S.
Angelo is Pescaria at Rome by Stephen (II) III in 7S2.
A sarcophagus was found here in 1610, bearing the in-
scription: "Hie remiiescunt corpora SS. Martyrum
Simf(»x)8se, viri sui 2otici (Getuhi) et Filiorum ejus a
Stephano Papa translata." The Dioceee <^ Tivc^
honours them as patrons and the whole Church cele-
brates their feast 18 July.

AuABD, Ht«t. dtt Peratcvliont ptndant lea dmx premiere
tiides (Pftris, 1903), 276-92; Acsklis, Die MaHvrotogten. ihre
GeaehiehU u. ihr Wert (Berlin. 1900), 159-62; arEVEMSOM.
3€operta delta bariliea di eatiia Sinforoea e d«i tuai telle fiffH al
nono Mt«U> deliA wia TibuHma, I (Rone, 187S), 64U-fi; Bvtub,
lAvM eif the Saints, 18 July; Acta 3S. JidU TV. 390-«.

Michael Ott.

Sjmpson. Richard, VianBiUBU. See Qabuck,
NicHoiiAS, Venerablb.

Syiutffogae, the plaoe of assemblage of the Jews.

This article vill treat of the name, origin, history,
organiiatiott, litur^ and building of the synagogue.

I. Name. — -The Greek avmyuy^, whence the Latin
synagoga, French synagogue, and English synagogue,
means a meeting, an assembly; and is used by the Sep-
tuagint to translate the Hebrew ,TU>. The Aramaic
translation is KHw^S (cf. Arabic Kantaah, a church)
to which is akin the New Hebrew The plaoe«

of assemblaj^e was t^med in New Hdorew, n^^,
ro35n, meetinghouse, i. e., o&oit vvraywy^. In the
eiburee of tone, the single word synagogue came to
mean not only the meeting but the meeting-house,
the teachii^ thereof and, in the brMidest sense, the
hody politic of the Jews. This broad sense of the
word i^Tiagogue is seen in John's use of 'aroavpaywyht.
" excommunicated " or "put out of the nmi^ogue
(of. ix, 22; xii, 42; xvi, 2). Another Gredt name for
svnag^e in use among Hellenistic Jews, is rptrtvx^
shortened after the aniuogy of ffVMTvy^t from otmr

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STRAGOGin a

^tmndth house €f prayer (cf. Phik), "In FUoc.",
H6.7;"AdG«jum",g^20.23.43). This phrase is in the
Septoag^t translatioa of laaias (Ivi, 7): "My house
shall be called the hauae of prayer [n^Dn n^^I for all
nations." The Latiniied proseuch'a of Juvenal (Sat.,
Ill, 296) meana the Jewish house of prayer or syna-
gogue. Joe^hus (Antiq., XVI, vi, 2) cites an edict

Augustus wfaidi calls uie Synagogue vafifiantop, the
Sabbath-houM.

II. Obioin. — Obscurity enshrouds the first begin-
ning of the s3rnagogue. The JeruBalem Talmud
(inTEx., xviii, 20) a&teB it from the time of Moses;
BO, too, the tcadition of the Alexandrian Jews, ac-
ofHxling to the witneas ctf Phik>, "De Vita Mosis"
(IllTz?) and Josephus, "Contra Ajiion." (Xh 17).

Rnuim or a BTHAOoauB at Kbtr BiR'ni, PALBanra

This raU>inical tradition is not reliable. It was prob-
ably during the Babylonian ct^itivity that the syna-
gogue became a national feature of Hebrew wondiip.
Afar from their Temple, the exiled Jews gathered into
local meetine-houses for public worship. Sacrifice
was denied them; prayfer in common was not. The
longer their exile from the national altar of sacrifice,
the greater became their need of houses of prayer:
this need vraa met by an ever-increasing number of
synagogues, scattered throughout the land of exile.
From Babylonia tiiis national system of syn^iogue
wor^iip was brought to Jerusalem. That the syna-
gogue dates muiy generations earlier than Apostolic
times, is clear from the authority of St. James:
" For Moses of old time [iic ytivQr dpx^^^'] hath in
every city them that preach him in the synagogues,
where be is read every sabbath" (Acta, xv, 21).

III. HiBTORT. — From tiie outset <tf CnriBtianity the
synagogue was in full power of its various functions;
the New Testament speaks thereof fifty-five times.
The word ia used to denote the body politic of the Jews
• twelve times: twice in Matthew (x, 17; xxiii, 34):
once in Mark (xiii, 9); three times in Luke's Gospel
(viii, 41j xii, 11; xxi, 12), and four times in his Acts
(vi, 9; IX, 2; xxii, 19; xxvi, 11); and twice in the
Johannine writings (Apoc., ii, 9; iii, 9). The more
Testrieted meaning of meeting-house ocouts forty*
three times in the New Testament — seven in Mat-
thew (iv, 23; vi, 2. 5; ix, 35; xii, 9; xiii, 64; xxiii, 6);
seven times in Mark (i, 21, 23, 29, 39: iii, 1; vi, 2;
xii, 39); twelve times in Luke's Oospel (iv, 15; 16,
20, 28, 33, 38, 44; vi, 6; vii. 6; xi^ 43; xiii^ 10; xx. 46),
and fourteen times in his Acta (ix, 30; xiii, 5, 14, 42;

SO ^nUGOCKH

xiv, 1; XV, 21: xvii, 1, 10, 17; xvuL 4, 7, 19, 26; xix,
8); twice in John (vi, 59; ^Cviii, 20); onoe m James
(li, 2). Our Lord taught m the synagogues of Naia-
reth (Matt., xiii, 54; Mark, vi, 2; Luke, iv, 16), and
Capharnaum (Mark, i, 21; Luke, vii, 5; John, vi, 59).
Saint Paul preached in the synagogues of Diunascus
(Acts, ix, 20), Salamina in Cyprus (Acts, xiii, 5),
Antioch m E^sidia (Acts, xiii 14), Iconium (xiv, 1),
Philippi (xvi, 13), Thessalonica (xvii, 1), Bercea
(xvii, 10), Athena (xvii, 17), Corinth (xviii, 4, 7),
and Ephesus (xviii, 19). It is worthy of note that
despite his frequent use of the Jewish meeting-house,
St. Paul in his stem antagonism never once deigns
to make mention of the synago^e. He designates
Judaism by the term "circumcision", and not, as
do the Evangelists, by the word "eynagogue".
And even in speaking <n the Jews as "the circum-
cision", St. Paul avoids the received word w^rofii,
"a cutting around", a word employed by the Alexan-
drian PhiTo for Judaism and reserved by the Apostle
for (Christianity. The sworn foe of the "false cir-
cumcision" takes a current word KaraTo/tij, "a cutting
down", and with the v^urous die of his fancy,
stamps thereon an entirely new and exclusivdy
Fauhoe meaning — the false circumcision of Judaism.

At the time of the de8tructi<Mi of Jerusalem
(a. d. 70) there were ia the city itself 394 synagogues,
according to the Babylonian Talmud (Kethub. 105 a) ;
480; according to the Jerusalem Talmud (Mepilla73d).
Besides these ^mago^es for the Palestinian Jews,
each group of Hellenistic Jews in Jerusalem had its
own syn^ogue — the Libertines, the Alexandrians,
the CjT^mans, the Ciliciane, etc. (Acts, vi, 9). Joee-
phus speaks of the synt«<mte which Agrippa I
erected in Dora. (Antiq., JJX. vi, 3), of the (Jiesa-
rean syna^gue which revolted against Rome (Bell,
Jud., II, xiv, 4), of the great synagogue of Tiberias
(Vita, 54), and of the synagogue of Antioch in
Syria to which the sacred vessels were borne
away in the time of the Seleucid War (Bell. Jud.,
VII^ iii, 3). Philo is authority for the existence,
dunng the first century ^, n., of many synagogues in
Alexandria (Leg. ad Gaium, 20), and of not a few in
Rome (Ibid., 23). In Northern Galilee, are nu-
merous ruins whose style of architecture and inscrip-
tkms are indications of synagogues of the second and,
ma^w, the first century a. d. The Franciscans are
now eng^ed in the restoration of the ruined ayna-
go^e of Tel Hum, the site of ancient Cfqihamaum.
This beautiful and colossal synagogue was probably
the one in which Jesus tau^t (Luke, vii, 5). Of the
ruined Bynagoguee of Gahlee, that of Kefr Bir'im
is the most perfectly preBtrved. Various Greek
inscriptions, recently discovered in Lower Egypt,
tell of synagogues built there in the days of the Ptole-
mies. A naarble slab, unearthed in 1902 some twelve
miles from Alexandria, reads: "In honour of King
Ptolemy and Queen Berenice, his sister and wife, and
their children, the Jews (dedicate) this Tpo<revxii".
Both the Jerusalem and the Babylonian Talmud make
mention (A numerous Galilean synagogues which
were centres of rabbinical hterary, and religious and
political in&ienoe at Sepphoris, Tiberias, Scythopolis,
etc. Every Jewish settlement was obliged by Tal-
mudio law to have its synagogue; the members of
the community could oblige one another to the
building and maintaining thereof ; indeed the members
of the Jewish conmiunity were designated "sons ot
the synagCKue". For further history of the syna-
gogue, see jWs AND JirnAlBH.

Tifl Great Synagogue is wortl^ of special mmtioa,
aa to it is assi^ed, by Jewish tradition, the imptutant
rdle of forming the Canon of the Old Testament.
It is said to have been founded by Esdras in the
middle of the fifth century b. c, and to have been a
permanent and leraslative assemblage for two and
a half oeoturiea. The Mishnah (Piilce Aboth, I, 1)

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STHAOOOVI

olaimB that the Prophets handed down the Torah

to the men of the Great Synago^e. "Aboth Rabbi
Naithan" (a post-Tahnudic treatise) paraphrases this
statement by including tbe last three Prophets in
this assemblage; "A^eus, Zacharias and Malachiao
received [the Torah] from the Prophets; and the
men of the Great Syna^f^e received from Aggeus,
Zacharias and Malachias". How long this sup-
posedly authoritative body held control pfthe religion
of Israel, it is impossible to tell. Jewish chronology
from the Exile to Ate^^ander's conquest is far from
clear. Rabbi Jeremiah (Jems. Talmud, Berakot,
4d) says that one hundred and twenty elders made
.up this bo<ly and instituted the pr^en and bene-
dictions of Ridduth and hdbdaiah. The Talmud, on
the contrary (Peah, II, 6), hutds down Torah from
tbe Prophets to the Zugoth (Pairs) without the in-
tervention of the Great S^Tiagogue. Be t^e Great
Synagogue of Jewish tradition what it may, historical
criticism has ruled it out of oourt. Kuen^, in his
epoch-making monogr^h "Ovm* die Mannen der
groote synagoge" (Amsterdam, 1876), shows that a
811^ meetingcame to be looked upon as a permanent
institutuHi. The Levites and pwple met tmce aod
only once, probably on the occasion of the covenant
deecribed by Nehemias (II Esd., viii-x), and the im-
portant assemblage becaiue the nucleus^ round which
were wrapped the. fables of later Jewish tradition.
Such is the conclusion of W. R. Smith. "The Old
Testament in the Jewish Church", p. 169; Ryle,
" Canon of the Old Twtament " , p. 250 ; Buhl, ' ' Canon
and Text of tbe Old Testament ^ p. 33 : Driver, " In-
troduction to tbe literature of the Old Testament",
6th ed., p. 7.

IV. Obqanieation. — (1) Judicial. — ^The "sons of
the synagogue" were governed by a council called
bAA (itn, 'house of justice"; or cvviSptov "council"
(transKterated L'^^^lbD, Sanhedrin); or^uXi^, "coun-
cil". The memoers of this council wrae twenty-three
in larger towns, seven in smaller; and were called
tfiX"^^** "rulers" (Matt., ix, 18, 23; Luke, viii, 41),
or wpeff^epoi, "ancients" (Luke, vii^ 3). The
"niUas of tiie synagofue" had it in their power to
punish by exoommumcation, scourging and death,
(a) ExoommunicatiOQ from the synagogal oommunitv
wastermedMrim, 0*n, (lwWe>(a(seeANATHMiA). Both
the Hebrew and Greek words mean that an object is
"sacred" or "accursed" (cf. AnJjic fyirtm, the harem,
a precmct sacred to the women of a household or the
mosque <rf a community), (b) Scourging (ni2)2, cf.
Makkoth, III, 12; tuur-^tbta, cf. Matt, x, 17; xxiii, 34;
MJm*, cf. Mark, xiii, 0: Acts, xxii, 19) was thirty-nine
stripes (Makkoth, III, 10; II Cor., xi, 24) laid on by
the "servant <rf the synitfogue", hazzan, iwtp&iis, for
minor off wees. Three elders miide up a tribunal com-
petent to inflict the penalty of scouiving. It is likely
to this lesser tribunal that Our Lord rders: "Whoso-
ever is angry with his brother shall be in danger of
the Judgment", ivoxot tcnu rn Kplca (Matt., v, 22^.
(e) The dei^ penalty was inmcted by the Sanhedrm
in full sesskm of twenty-three eldera (cf . Sanhedrin I,
4). To this penalty or to that of excommunication
should probably be referred Our Lord's words: "And
whosoever shall say to his brother, Raca, shall be in
danger of the council", fftx"* frm r$ wnS/Ui^
(Matt., V, 22).

(2) Idturgieal. — The "ruler of the synagogue",
^X"ro»«7«74» (Mark, v, 22, 36, 36, 38; Luke, vm, 49:
xiii, 14; Acts, xiii, 15; xviii, 8^ 17), rdsh hdkkeniaith
(Soita, Vll. 7) presided over the synag(^e and its
services. This premdency did notprevent the "sons
of the synagogue" from freely officiating. Witness
the freedom with which Our Lord and St. Paul stood
up to explain the Scriptures in the various synagogues
of. Palestine and the Diaq>ora. The fuizzan, ''ser-
vant" handed tbe Borolb to tin resdenB sad tau^t
tbe children.

V. LmmoT. — ^Thwe were five parts in the syn*-

gCKue service: (1) the Bhfima' is made up of Dent., vi,
4-9; xi, 13-21; Num., xv, 37-41 — two opening blee»-
ings for morning and evening, one closing bleesinK for
morning and two for evening. These oenedictiona
are named Shima' from the opoiing wwd, the impem*
tive yiiV: "Hear, O Israel; Jahweh our Giod is one
Jahweh". The origin of Uie Skima', as of ciher por-
tions of Jewi^ htui^, is unknown. It seems un-
doubtedly to be preHJhrntian. For it ordains the
wearing of the phylacteries or frontlets — prayer^ands
borne upon the arm and between the eyes — during
the recitation of the great oommandment of the love
of God (cf. Deut., vi, 8; xi, 18). These phylacteries
(^x«ini|pM) are called in the Talmud, "the prayer
which is for^ hand",n* w n^cn, and "the prayer
which is for the head", tfKi bsf n^cn. Thewearingof
the two bands was in vo^e in Christian times (Matt.,
xxiii. 5; Jos^hus, "Antiquit.", IV, viii, 13).

(2) Prayer is called ''the eighteenth",SAem(*n<A
'SsrM(niirP n^7:r),becau8e(^it8eighteen benedictions
and petitions. There are two recensions — the Baby-
lonian, which is commonly in use, and the Palewtinp
isn, which Schechter recently disoomed in a C^iiro
gmixak (MSS.-box). Dahnan (Worte Jesu, p. 304)
consideis that petitions 7, 10-14, are later than the
destruction of Jerusalem (a. d. 70). The twelfth
petition of the Palestinian recmsion shows that the
Christians were mentioned in tUa daily prayer ctf the
synagogue:

"May the Christians and hoetios perish in a

moment;

May they be blotted out of the book at life;

May they not be written with the just."
The Babylonian recension omits Christians.
The Lord's prayer is made up, in hke manner, out of
petitions and praises, but in a very imhke and un-
Jewish spirit of love of enemies.

(3) ToroA.— The Jerusalem Tahnud (Megilla, 75a)
tells us that the reading of tbe Law on sabbaths, feast-
days, new moons, and half feast-days is of Mosaic
institution; and that Esdras inaugurated the reading
d Torah on Monda^rs, Hiundays, and Saturdays.
This Talmudic tradition, though not very reliabwi
points to a very ancient custom. The law is divided
into fifty-four sections, tetUbrim, which make up a
pericopic sabbath reading of the Pentateuch. Special
readings are assigned for special sabbaths; seven read-
ers are called upon at randmn, and each reads tda
share.

(4) The Prophets. — Parallel to the pericopic read-
ing of Torah is a pericopic reading from the Prophets,
or second part of the Elebrew Canon. These sections
are chosen with a view to exemplify or drive home the
lesson from the Law i^hich precedes. The name of
the section from the Prophets, haphlSfH (from Hiph'il
of y^t, "to dismiss"), indicates that at first the
synagogue service here came to a close.

(5) The Scripture Lesson. — Even by the time of
Christ, the exposition of Scripture was part of the
synagogal liturgy (Matt., iv, 23: Mark, i, 21; vi, 2).
Any of the brethren might be culed upon toajve the
"word of exhortation''^ (Acts, xiii, 15). The Tal-
mudic statute (M^lla, IV, 4) was that the rh^b'dr-
gemdn, interpreter, paraphrase the section from Torah
one verse at a time and the section from the Pn^hets
one to three verses at a time. These paraphrasee are
called (drffthnfm; a lengthy e:q>08ition of a section is a
midrSth. There was formerly an antiphimal chanting
of one or other of I^alms cv-evii, cxi-cxix, cxvi-
cxviii, cxxxv, oxxxvi, cxxxxvi-cl. The precentor
chanted verse aitet vorse and the choir repeated the
first verse of the psalm. At the aid, he dianted the
doxologvand called upon thepeopkto answer "Amen",
which tney did.

VI. BoiLDiNa.— (1) 5ite.— In Palestme, the ayna-
gogoss were buitt within tbe city>. In the^puspora,

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ITNA0B

382

STKAZA&ZON

a Bta waa gaierally chosen outside the city gate and
either by the seaside or river-side (ActB, xvi, 13).
The Taeq>hta (MegUla, IV, 22) ordains that the
synagogue be in the nigheet place of the dty and face
to the east. The ruins of Galilean Bynagoguee show
no observance of this ordinance.

(2) Style of Architecture. — There seems to have been
no established style of qmagogal architecture. Until
recent years, the synaf^t^e baa been built in what-
soever style bad vogue in the place and at the time of
building. The ruined synagogue of Merom is in
severe Doric. That of Kafr Bir'im is in a Gr»co-
Roman modification of Corinthian. The building is
quadrangular in form. On the main facade there are
uiree doorways, each of which has a highly orna-
mented architrave: above the cer^tre doorway is a
cai^uUy carved Roman arch. Lata* on, Russian
^^agogues were built in decidedly Ruasiaii style. In
Strarourg, Munich, Cassel, Hanover, anddsewhcffe the
synagogues show the influence of the different styles
of the churches of those cities. The cnicifOTm plan
is naturaJly not followed; the transepts are omitted.
Synagogues of Padua, Venice, Livomo and other
Italian cities are in the Renaissance etyh. Since the
expulsion of the Jews from _^ain, Moorish forms have
gradually come to be considered the distinctive trait
of synagMAl anihiteoture. £1 Trandto and Santa
Mana la Blanca, both in Toledo, are two of the finest
examples of this Moorish architecture under Jewish
influence.

(3) Inierior SeUing. — ^The Ark, orAn tSoh, contain-
ing the sacred scrolls, stood at the eastern end opposite
the entrance to the rectangular building. In the
center was a raised platform (fivt*^, 7173*2), and there-
upon the lectern (4wtXo7««", l^Jl^JK). This elevated
platform is also called "Almemar", a word corrupted
from the Arabic Al-minbar, the ''chair", the "pul-
pit ". These two fumishiags are the most essentia] in-
terior settin^^ of the synagogue. TheArkwasoriginally
but a niche m the wall. In time, as the most dignified
feature, it received most concern in the decorative
scheme. Nowadays, it is raised on high, approached
by three or more st^s and covered by an elaborately
embelUshed canwy. Ibe Almemar, too, has under-
gone various embelliahmaitB. It is ^>proached by
steps, sometimes has seats, is railed in and at times
surrounded by a grille, round about or on both sides
of it, are the seats for tne congr^ation (kKivt^, ychT).
The first seats, TpvrcKofivSfia (cf. Matt., xxiii, 6;
Mark, xii, 39; Lu^ce, xi, 43 and xx, 46) are ihoee near-
est the Ark; Uiey are reserved for those who are high-
est in rank (cf . Tosephta, Megilla^ IV, 21). Women,
at least since the Middle Ages, sit m galleries to which
they enter by stairways from the outside. These
gaUoies were formerly set very high; but now are
H>w enoufdi to ^low both the Ark and the Almemar.

SCBOMCa, Otich.. II (3rd vL, I^psig, 1873), 427-64, tr.
(Edinburgh, 1885-87) ; OsXrz. Geieh.. IV-XI (Leipsls, 1863-88);
ZiiNt, OoUttdifnslliehe VortrOaeder Juden (Berlin, 1832); Daluan,
Si/nagogater OoUaxlietut, in HERSOa'B Real-EitcukUtpOdit; Abra-
HAJU, Jtwiik Life in the MiddU Age* (Londoo. 1896) ; LOw, Dv
Smagoaah RHvt in MoTtaUaekrifl, 1884, IV, 1-71; Kohlxx,
Uebtr di4 UrtprUng* u. Orundjarmm der WMfOfolm lAtttrgit in
MmatnArifi, 1893, XXXVIl, 441-61.

Waiobb Dshh.

Synaoi (Stnaitanbis), a titular see in Phrygia
Pacatiana, suffragan of lAodicea. Nothing is known
of the history of this city located by Ptolemy (V,
ii, 22) in Great Phrygia, and in the sixth centi^
by Hieroclea (068, 13), in Phr^a Pacatiana, its
metropolis being Laodicea. It is now Semao (or
Simao), chief town of a casa in the vilayet of Broussa
near the sprrngs of Semav Sou, formvly Maeestua;
containing 5000 iidiabitants all Muasufaaaas, It has
a few inscrrotions but no ruins. Le Quien ^Oriens
christiuius, 1, 813) mentions the following bishops:
Arafaiua, represented by bis metropolitan at Chalofr-
don (461); FnmimuB, at Constantiw^ (663);

Stephanus, at Nicaea (787); Constantino at Con-
stantinople (869); Sisinnius and Euadoius, support-
ers respectively of St. Ignatius and I%otius, at
Fhotian Council oi Constantinople (879): Isaac, at
the Council of Constantinople (1351), which spptoveA
the doctrines of Palamas. To these may be added
Stephanus, whose name occurs in the inscription
(ei^th century?) "Corp>. inser. eraec.", 8666 per-
haps tha Stephanus mentioned in 787. In 1394 the
See of Synaus was united to Philadelphia. In the
seventh century it was still suffragan of Laodicea;
it seems also that at this time it was united to tbs
See of Ancyra, now Kilisst^ Keui. In the ninth cen-
turv it was attached to the metropolis of Hierapolis
ana remained so till its disappearance, as appears from
the Greek "Notitije episcopatuum , however, the
Roman Curia's official list of titular sees makes it '
suffragan of Laodicea.

Hawutok, Aetwrc&M in Ana Minor, 11 (London, 1842). 124;
Shitb, Diet, of Oretk and Roman Oeog., s. v.; Tnxntx, Atiu
Muwure. 407; Ccinbt, La Tvrq^ied'Ant, LV, 223; WXcbtbk,
Dtr VwrfiM dw.Orudk«n(tt>u in KUinanm mm KIV. Jahrkundnt
(Ldpnc IflOS), 62.

S. P^TBIDfes.

Synazaiioii (tfimi{4pio», colleetion), the name of a
liturgical book of the Bysantine Church. The exact
meaning of the name has changed at various times.
Its first use was for the index to the Biblical and
other lessons to be read in chtirch^ In this sense it
corresponds to the Latin Capitulare and Comes (see
Lessons in the LiTtmav). Then the Synaxarion
was filled up with the whole text of the pericopee to
be read. As far as the Holy Liturgy was concerned
this meant that it was replaced by the "Gospel" and
"Apostle" books. Synaxarion remained the title
for the index to other lessons. Without changing
its name it was filled np with complete texts of these
lessons in the same way. As the lessons in the By-
zantine Divine Office are always lives of saints, the
Synaxarion became the collection of short lives of
saints and accounts of events whose memory is kept
(like the lessons of our second noctum). It is oftMi
compared to the Roman Martyrology. The parallel
would be more exact, if we imagine the second
noctum lessons arranged together in a separate
book. The mere index of such lessons is generally
called /itfroXivwF iopraffTtKip, a book hardly needed
or used, since theTypikon supplies all that is wanted.
There are a great number of medieval Synaxaria ex-
tant in manuscript. They are important for Byxan-
tine heortology and church history. The short
lives that form the lessons wett composed or oolleoted
by various writos. Of these- Symeon Metaphrastsa
(q. V.) is the most important. The accounts are of
very varying historical value. Emptor Basil II
(976-1025) ordered a revision of the Synaxarion,
which forms an important dement of the present
ofiiciol edition (Analecta Bollandiana, XIV, 1895, p.
404). The Synaxarion is not now used as a separate
book; it is incorporated in the Moaaia. Tne ac-
count of the saint or feast ia read m the Orthxos after
the sixth ode of the Canon. It is printed in its place
here, and bears each time the name «fM{(C/>to» as
title. Synaxarion then in modem use means, not
the whole collection, but each separate lesson in the
Menaia and other books. An example of such a
Synaxarion (for St. Martin I, 13 April) will be found
in Nilles, op. cit., infra, I, xlix. Certain metrical
calendars extant in the Middle Ages were also called
Synaxaria. Krumbacber ("Gesch. der bysan^
Lit.", 2nd ed., Munich. 1897, pp. 738, 755) d»-
scribes those composed by ClmstoiAer of Mytilene ■
(d. about 1050) and Theodore Prodromus (twelfth
century).

Th« MtTicHogion ^Synaxarion) of Btuit II wsa edited by UlH
BiNO (3 rob., 1727), reprintod in P. O.. CXVII; Auatiiib, IM
liMt ««r«i. Ormitnim (Puta. 164S}. 7»-«^ Dblcratb, U Sif
naaalndt Sirmmd in AmiUela BoOmi.. XIV iMM), 3Qft-«Ut

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STNAZU

3S3

8TN0BITI8M

ihoBON, BvUyrufi^ iufmkiytQy in XiIAA»t«i. XXIV (1S95),
Ul-60. See alw Mbmaiom. AdbIAN FoamBCDll.

Syiiazil (tftfi«{tf from nfiym)
asBembly, minkm. It is exaot^ equivalent to the
Latin emeeta (from aUXigere), and com^nds to
synagogue (<rifM7u7i}), the place of reunion. In
Christian and liturgical use the Synaxis is the assem-
bly for any religious function, eithn* in the abstract
sense (runnen acHonM) or concretely for the people
assembled (cf . German Sanvmixmg and Vertamml'img).
The verb wv&ya occurs fremiently in the New
Testament, for gathraing toseuier a religious meet-
ing (Acts, xi, 26; xiv, 27 etol), as also for the Jewish
services and oouncils (e. g. Jran, zi, 47). So also in
the Apofitolio Fathers (Didache, ix, 4; xiv, 1; I
Clem.^ xxxiv, 7; in genraid for the union of the church,
Ignatius. "Magn.", -k, 3). We must distinguish the
liturneal (eueharistio) from the aliturgical Synaxis,
which consisted onl^ of prayers, readings, psalms,
out of i^ch our Divine Office evolved. Dionysiua
the Pseudo-Areopagite uses the word only for the
eucharistie service ("De ecclee. hier.", iii, in P. G.,
Ill), and Cardinal Bona thinks that so it may have
a n^rstie meaning, as reforing to our uiwm with
God or Communion (Rcmm litju^., I, iii, 3). But it
occurs frequently for any religoua assembly, and
in this sense was adopted in the West by St. Benedict
("Regula Ben.", 17; "Veapertina Synaxis"— Ves-
pers) and by John Cassifln (^'CoUat.", DC, 34: "ad
concludendam synaxim"! ed. Hurter, Innsbruck,
1887, p. 315) etc. In this signification the word is
now archaic in Greek and I^tin. It is preserved,
however, in the Byzantine Calendar as the title oi
certain feasts on which the people assemble in some
particular churdi for the Hoty Littirgy, and therefore
corresponds to the Roman eialio. Thus 4 January is
the "Synaxis of the holy Seventy", that is the feast
of the 'seventy disciples Ot^uke, x, 1, where the Vulgate
has seventy-two, on which day the assembly was once
made in some church (at Constantinople?) dedicated
to them (Nilles, "Kalendarium maniiale," I, 2nd
ed., Innsbniek, 1896, p. 52); 26 December is the
"Synaxis t£ the Theotokos and of Joseph the spouse
and guardian of the Vii^", a feast in memory of the
fii^t into Egypt, on whtch again tlie station was at a
special chunh (ibid., 366).

AniOAN FoHTBScms.

Synoelli (ir^mXXot, from viw, wiUi. and «AW, the
Gneoiied form of the Latin cwa, oell), a name which
in the early -Church was given to those monks or cter-
ioB who lived in the same room with their bishops, and
whose duty it was to be witnesses to the purity of their
lives or to perform the daily spiritual exercises in oom-
mon with them. In the Eastern Church they soon
became the eounciUcm and confessors of tiie patriarchs
and bishcnM, and exerted a great influence ovet them.
Tbey held the first place after their mastets and had
a seat and vote in the councils of the Church. In the
oouiae of time the patriarchs took two or more syn-
odli, the most distii^uished of whom was called pro-
tooyneellus {rpioTtc^KtKKat). Since the tenth cen-
tury their influence began to decrease, but in the Greek
Church they still exist. In the Latin Church they never
became very influential, though popes and bishops
had synedli as witnesses of their mode of life (Gregonr
the Great, "Epistolarum libri XIV", IV, ep. xliv).
They gradiiaUy developed into the eonsiifarn pttpaUt
H«pi$arpale8 (spiritual councilktn).

nuifxnA, D» chriM, ted. poKfvi, I (ColoRoe, 182Q>, 61 wq.;
MoUKOS, ConuiulU, d* ucru tedma ord\natvmihu». It (Pans,
1058); BmrnklH, ZMe vonOt^i^m DmktcBniiitkeilm d«r dtrM-
WMfMAm Kirdt* (Halu, 182ft-41). I: II. 61 aq.

MlCHASL OtT.

SyaMUus* Qioaoa. See Qeoiioius StrcbuiUb..

SluuraMinif from nytforrtpKw (not fnxn svy^p""^
m). Am iitir^f*'^ ii ghnm by Phitudi in a anall

work on brotherly bve ("Opera Moralia", ed. Reisha.
VII, 010). He there tells how the Cretans were often
engaged in quarrels among themselves, but became
immediate reconciled \iwa an external enemy u>-
proaohed. "And that is their so-called Syncretam."
In the sixteenth century the term became known
through the "Adagia" ctf Erasmus, and came into use
to des^nate the coherence of dissenters in niite of
their difference of opinions, especially with reference
to theok>gical divuions. Later, when the term came
to be referred to ffvytupawiiOtm, it was inaccurately
OQI^yed to designate the mixture of dissimilar or
incompatible things or ideas. Thaa mexact use con-
tinues to some extent even to^y.

(1) Syncretism is sometimes lued to designate the
fusion of pagan religions. In the East the mtermix-
ture of the civilizations of different nations began at a
very early period. When the East was heUemzed un-
der Alexander the Great and the Diadochi in the
fourth century b. c, the Grecian and Oriental civili-
sations were brought into contact, and a compromise
to a large extent effected. The foreign daties were
id^tified with the native (e. g. S^pis » Zeus,
Dionysus) and a fusion of the cults succeeded. After
the Romans had conquered the Gredcs, the victcva, as
is known, succumbed to the culture of the vanquished,
and the ancient Homan religion became cmnpletely
hellenized. Later the Romans gradually received aU
the religions of the peoples whom they subdued, so
that Rome became the '^temple of the whole world".
Syncretism reached its culmination in the third cen-
tury A. D. under the anperras Caracalla, HetiogabiJuB,
and Alexander Severus (21 1-35) . The countuss cults
of the Roman Empire were r^arded as unessenUal
forms of the same thing — a view which doubtless
stnoigthened the tendency towards Monotheism.
Helic^gabalus even souf^t to combine Cliristianity and
Judaism with his rdigion, the cult of tlw sun-god.
Julia Mamsa, the mother of Aloander Severus, at-
tended in Alexandria the lectures ai Origen, and
Alexander placed in his larttrium the images of
Abraham and Christ.

(2) A modem tendency in the history of rdigkms
sees in the Biblical revealed religion a pmluct of syn-
cretism, the fusion of various religious forms and views.
As regards the Old Testament, we Chanaanite myth,
the Egyptian, Old Babylonian, and Ptfsian religions are
regarded as the sources of la-aelitic religion, the latter
itself having developed from Fetidiism and Animism
into Henotheum and Monotheism. It is sought to
CDCplain the origin of Christianity from the continua-
tion and development of Jewish ideas and the influx
of Brahman iatic, Buddhist, Gneco-Roman, and
Egyptian religious notions, and from the Stoic and
Phiionio philosophy; it is held to have received its
development and einilanation especially from the
neo-Platonic philosophy. That Judaism and Christi-
anity agree with other religions in many of their ex-
ternal forme and ideas, ia true; many religious ideas
are common to all mankind. The points of agree-
ment between the Babyloni&n religions and the Jew-
ish faith, which provoked a live^ discussion some
years ago alter the appearance of Friedrich Delitssch's
"Babel und Bibel ", may be explained in so far as they
exist (e. K-) AS to an (niginal revdation, ot which
traces, albeit tainted with Polytheism, appear among
the Babylonians. In many cases the agreement can
be shown to be merely in form, not in content; in
others it is doubtful which religion contained the orig-
inal and which borrowed. As to the special doctrines
of the Bible, search has been vainly made for sources
from which they might have been derived. Catholic
theokwyholda firmly to revelation uid to the founda-
tion ofChristianitsr bjy Jesus of Nasareth.

0) The Sjmcretistic Strife is die name given to the
theuog^ quanel pnm^ed by the efferte of Geon
Calizt aad.oli MKKWten to aeeun a baiis on whk£
Digitized by^OOglC

BYIIBBBISIS

384

8TNDIBS8I8

dw Lutherana could make overtures to Ha CatlioUo
and the Reformed Churches. It lasted from 1640 to
1636. Calixt, a professor in Helmatedt, had throu^
his travels in England, Uolland, Italy, and Prance,
through his acquaintance with the diff^ent Churches
and their representatives, and through his extensive
study, acquired a more friendly attitude towards the
diffwent retigious bodies than was then usual among
the majority of Lutheran thoolooana. While the lat-
ter firmly adhered to the "pure doctrine", Calixt was
not disposed to regard doctrine as the one thing neces-
sary in order to be a Christian, while in doctrine itself
he did not r^rard everything as equally certain and
important. Consequently, he advocated unity be-
tween those who were in agreement concerning the
fundamental minimuin, wim liberty as to all less
fundamental points. In regard to CathoUcism, he
was prepared (as Meluichthon once was) to concede
to the pope a primacy human in origin, and he also
admitted that the Mass mi^t be callea a sacrifice.
On the side of Calixt stood the theolt^cal faculties of
Helmstedt, RintelUj and Konigsberg; opposed to him
were those of Leipzig, Jena, Strasburg, Giessen, Mar*
but^, and Greifswald. His chief opponent was Abra-
ham Catov. The EUector of Saxot^ was for political
reasons an opponent of the Reformed Church, be-
cause the ou^ two secular eteptors (Palatine and
Brandenburg) were "reformed", and were getting
more and more the advantage of 'him. In 1649 he
sent to the three dukes of Brunswick^ who maintained
Helmstedt as their common univeraity, a communica-
tion in which he voices all the objections of his Lu-
theran professors, and complains that Calixt wished
to extract the elements of truth from all religions, fuse
all into an entirely new religion, and so provc^e a vio-
lent schism. In 1650 Calov was called to Wittenberg
as professor, and he signalized his entrance into office
with a vehement attack on the Syncretists in Helm-
stedt. An outburst of polemical writings followed.
In 1650 the dukes of Brunswick answered the Elector
of Saxony that the discord should not be allowed to
increase, and proposed a meeting of the political
councillors. Sairany, howeiver, did not favour this
suggestion. An attempt to convene a meeting of
theologians was not more successful. The theologians
of Wittenbet^ and Leipzig now elaborated a new for-
mula, in which ninety-eight heresies of the Helm-
stedt theologians were condemned. This formula
(consmsiis) was to be signed by everyone who wished
to remain in the Lutheran Church. Outside Witten-
berg aad Leipzig, however, ii was not accepted, and
Cawct's death in 1656 was followed by five yean of
almost undisturbed peace.

The strife was renewed in Hene<yas8^, where
Landgrave Wilhelm VI sought to effect a union be-
tween his Lutheran and Reformed subjects, or at least
to lessen their mutual hatred. In 1661 he had a
colloquy held in Cassel between the Lutheran theolo-
gians of the University of Rintein and the Reformed
theologians of the University of Marburg. Enraged
at this revival (rf tiie Bvumtism <rf CiUixt, the Witten-
beig theologians in vuwment terms callea on the Rin-
tein professors to make their submission, whereupon
the latter answered with a detailed defence. Another .
long series of polemical treatises followed. In Brand-
enbui^-Pnissia the Great Elector (Frederick Wil-
liam I) forbade (1663) preachers to speak of the
dispute between the Evangelical bodies. A long col-
loquy in Berlin (Sept.. 1662-May, 1663) led only to
fr«ih discord. In 1604 the elector repeated his oom-
mand that preachers of both parties should abstain
from mutual abuse, and should attribute to the other
puty no doctrine which was not actually held by such
party. Whoever refused to sign the form declaring
his intention to observe this r^ulation, was deprived
of his position (e. g. Paul Qerhcvdt, writer of religiouB
b). Tim airangement wu later modified, in that

the forms were withdrawn, and action was takeoi aiAf
against those who disturbed the peace. The attempts
of the Wittenb^ theotogians todeclare Calixt and his
school un-Lutheran and heretical were now met by
Calixt's son, Friedrich Ulrich Calixt. The latter de-
fended the theolo^ of his father, but also tried to
show that his doctrine did not so very much differ
from that of hht opponents. Wittenberg found its
new champion in .^^dius Strauch, who attacked
Calixt with all the resources of learning, polemics,
sophistry, wit, cynicism, and abuse. The Helmstedt
side was defended by the celebrated schcdar and
statesman, Hermann Conring. The Saxon - princes
now recognized the danger that the attempt to carry
through the "Consensus" as a formula of belief might
lead to a fresh schism in the Lutheran Church, and
u. ight thus rrader its position difficult in the face of
the Catholics. The proposals of Calov and his party
to continue the refutation and to compel the Bruns-
wick theologians to bind themselves under obligation
to the old Lutheran confession, were therefore not car-
ried into effect. On the contrary the Saxon theolo-
gians were forbidden to continue the strife in writing.
N^otiations for peace then resulted, Duke £mst ths
Pious of Saxe-Gotha being eq>ecially active towards
this end, and the project of establishing a permanent
college of theologians to decide theological disputes
was entertained. However, the negotiations witn the
courts of Brunswick, Mecklenburg, Denmark, and
Sweden were as fruitless as those with the theological
faculties, except that peace was maintained tmtil
1675. Calov then renewed hostilities. Besides
Calixt, his attack was now directed particularly
against the moderate John Musfeus of Jena. Calov
succeeded in having the whole University of Jena (and
after a long resistance Musieus himself) compell^ to
renounce Syncretism. But this was his Ia.st victory.
The elector renewed his prohibition against polemical
writings. Calov seemed to give way, since in 1683 he
asked whether, in the view of the danger which
France then constituted for Germany, a Calixtinio
S^cretism with "Papists" and the Reformed were
still ooadenuud>le, and whether in deference to the
Elector of Brandenburg and the dukes of Brunswickt
the strife should not be buried by an amnesty, or
whether, oh the contrary, the war against Syncretism
should be continued. He later returned to his attadc
on the Syncretists, but died in 1686, and with his
death the strife ended. The result of the Syncretist
Strife was that it lessened rehtnous hatred and pro-
moted mutual forbearance. Catholicism was thus
boiefited, as it came to be better undovtood and
preciated Irjr Protestants. In Protestant Uieok^ It
prepared the way for the sentimental theology of
Pietism as the successor of fossilized orthodoxy.

(4) Concerning Syncretism in the doctrine of graoe,
see Gracb, Controversies on, VI, 713.

(1) FkikdlIndih, Dar»l4awnim auM der SitUnataeA, Romt. IV
(Sthed., Leipii«, 1910), 119-281; Cumon^Lu reUgum* orit^aUa
oarw It paganitmi romain (Paris, 1907^: w endland, Di* AeU«n-

Chritlerttvm (TabtiiEen. 1907): Rxnui^, La rwUffioit A Rom* mm
Ui SMru (Paris, 1886).

(2) BcHANt, ApoUxfie da Chritleniumt, II (3rd ed., Freiburg,
1905); Wkbeb. CkriaU. Apolooetik (Freiburs, IQOT). 163-71:
Ruscau, Theotoffit u. RriigitmitiMelt. (Tabinfrea, 1904).

&i Ddknbr. Ofch. der prottaL TheoL (Miwioh, 1S67J, 606-34;
Bamn, (horg. Calixtiu v. aeint ttO, I-II (OUle. 1858-60).

Klkmenb LOFn.EB.

Synderesto, or more correctly synteresis, is a term
used by t^e Soliolastie theologians to u^pify Ut«
habituu Knowledge of tiie universal practical prin-
dplee of moral action. The reasoning process in the
fidd of speculative science presupposes certain fun-
damental axioms on which all science rests. Such
are the princ^jle of contradiction, "a thing cannot
both be and not be at the same time", and self-
evident truths like "the whcde is greater tim tta
put". Then are the fiiet prinei|il6* of the 9ea«lft>

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tive intellect. In the field of moral conduct there are
nmilar first pEinciples oi action. aoA as: "evil
must be av(Hded, good done"; "Do not to oUien
what you do not wiafa to be done to yourself";
"Parents should be honoured"; "We should live
temperately and act justly". Suoh as these are self-
evident truths in the field of moral conduct which any
sane peraon will admit if he understands them.
According to the Scholastics, the readiness with which
such moral truths are apprehended by the practical
intellect is due to the natural habit inipresaed on the
cognitive faculty which th^ call ^cferesis. Whfle
conscience is a motate of the inractical reason decidii^
t^t any particular action which I am contemplating

right or wrong, sypderesis is a dictate of Uie same
practical reason which has for its object the first
general principles of moral action.

St. Thomas, Summa, I. Q. Ixilx, ft. 12 CPmna, 1852) ; Patubsi,
Dt ntion* kumana ia Mtmra, rAoBtoffjo Curnu oompUtui, XI

I^ndic, AposToua— A layman lAio in the name,

and by the Mithnit^, of the Holy iSee assumes the care
and civil adminiBtration of the temporalities and in
particular the pecuniary alms destined for the support
and benefit of Franciscan cwivents, and thence pro-
vides for the requirements of the brethren. To the
Friars Minor corporate m well as individual ownership
was forbidden by the constitution or the rule. During
the first years of the order's existence, the literal ob-
servance (A this precepL being fea«ble as well as
possible, presented n(^ difficulty; but as time went on,
and Uie order developed as a vast organization, and
spread over the whole world, countless difficultieB had
to be faced and fierce controversy arose, the quattio de
pauperlaie lasting for centuries. To preserve and
safe^ard as far as possible the letter as well as the
R>irit of the complete "expropriation" advocated by
St. Francis, the popes adopted the ficHojitria of assum-
ing to themselves the ownership <» all goods bestowed
upon the friars. Thus the friars were l^ally regarded
as mere users, the right of property being vestedin the
Roman pontiff, except in cases wlusre the donors made
explicit reservation m their own behalf. But as the
dvil administration of proi>erty in one's own interest is
an act of ownership, and tms wasprohibited by tixe rule,
sudh administration had to be exm^ised by a steward
appointed, or at least authorized, by the Holy See.

Accordine to the Decretal m Nicolas III, "Exiit
qui seminal' (art. 12, n. 2). 14 August, 1279, the ap-
pointment of the syndic Apostolic rested with the
sovereign pontiff or the cardinal protector, — sometimee
bishops acted as their delegates in this matter; but
MarUn IV ("Exultantes", IS January, 1283) em-
powered the superiors of the order — the general, the
provincials^ and the custodes — ^within tJbev respective
opheree of jurisdiction, to appoint and remove syndics
as circumstances might require. The laner powers
with which the ^rndic was invested by Martin IV
and by his successors, Martin V (" Cooatitutiones Mar-
tiniante" in Wadding, "Annales", X, 301) and Paul
IV C*'Exaementi",rJuly, 1555)( gave rise to the ap-
pdlation gyndicuB Marttmanut m contradistinction
to 9mdieu8 communia. This latter, as constituted by
Nicholas III (Exut) and Clement V ("Exivi de Para-
dim", 6 May, 1312), could deal otAy with movable
pKq>erty (valuables excepted) and with purchase
moneys. The Martinian syndic on the other hand,
as trustee and agent of the Holy See on behalf of the
f riarsj might receive and dispose of all goods movable
tatd uunovable (money offerings, legacies, and re-
munerations) and, in pursuance of his trust, institute
prooeedings in the courta and take such other stqw as
might be deemed necessary to protect the interests
of the community in whose favour he acted. The
Apostolic syndic and bis wife and children were ac-
oraded the enjoj-ment of all and sundry indulgence^
pwdons, and privilege* whi(4i the ftian themaelvee

have obtained, or shall obtain, from the Holy See
(Clement VII, "Dum Conaideramus", 16 April, 1526).

BtdMmn Fhmcuconum (Room, 176&-1908), jwasim; Wad-
msQ, Annalta, maum; Br. Bonatemtdre, Oj^ra Omn., VIII
(Quknoolii, 1882-1902), 332; Fxhbaus, Bibtiatktca (Rome,
188S), a. V. Syndicu*; Marchant, Rdtetio Theot. d4 IiutUtOionM
tl t/«ti Syndteontm $ee. Awulom FF, Min. (Antwerp. 1S4S).
Theeq>oBitoraoftbeRul«(ch.iv)includiiicttieBubtle ADdsrudita,
if aometiinea •mtio, Hilaxius db Pabuiu, Rmvta FF. Uinontm
(PAria, 1870); Baica. Th* SeoUiih Frian, I (London. IMW),
433-TO: HoMUVM, Jfannob BM. Ord. FF, Minamm (VM-
bon. 1009).

Gbboort Clbabt.

gyiHlllwJlim.— The term SyndicaKam has been de-
rived from the Frendii synduo^ associations of work-
ingmen uniting members of the same trade or industry
for the furtherance of common economic interests.
Syndicalism should therefore be qrnonymous with
Industrial or Trades Unionism; but like "Socialism"
the word has ccone to be used almost exchisively in a
restricted sense and implies the principles expressed
in theonr and imwtice by Flmch qmdieates united in
the ConiM^T^ion Q^nmde du Travail (General Con-
federation of Labour). Three influences have com-
bined in the formation of this new system: revolu-
tionary unionism, Anarciiism, and Socialism. The
theories of Proudhon together vrith those of Marx and
Bakounine are here combined in a new form of indus-
trial agitation which has received the name of "direct
action". There has been no scientific or purposeful
adaptation fA the various doctrines. The men co-
opmtion in the same svndicate by foUowers of these
(»ten most uitagonistie leaders has gradually brmight
about an agreement upon fundamental principles of
revolutionary action to which all could subscribe,
while free divergence of opinion mi^t still find its
individual expression outside the Syndicalist move-
ment. While Syndicalism has but recently forced
itself into popular notice, it is not new in its doctrines,
which had aunost all been accepted by the old " Int^
national" of Paepe, Marx, and Bakounine. When
this was fini^ swept away during the revolutionary
period fA 1870-71, the present symfteofa were gradu-
ally constructed, and after countless vicissitudes iha
Socialistic and Anarchistic elements were at last con-
solidated in the Conf^^tion G^n&t^e du Travail.

The primary object of revolutioniuy Syndicdtism is
common to the various groups of which it is composed
imd consists in the destruction of the existing order of
society, the expropriation and abolition of capital, and
the eumination of the entire system fA wages. Its
basic doctrine is the teaching of the class struggle,
while, like SociaUsm and Anarchism, it sees in patriot-
ism one of its worst enemies. The State is to be vio-
lently OHnbatted even when it enacts measures bene-
ficial to the labourer, since all reforms are said to be
deceptive unless forced from it by the syndicaUst
workers themselves. There are but two divisions of
mankind^ the employers and the employed, and any-
thing which can foment bitterness and dimgreement
between these two is a triumph for the work^. All
this is pure Marxian doctrine. The method by which
revolutionary Syndicalism would bring about its pur-
pose is known as direct action, i. e. the absolute re*
jeetion <tf all intermediary influeocea between the
worker and his intended revolution. It diar^arda
politics and parliamentary activity, r^udiates in-
tellectualism, and refuses to employ any agentrr
except that of the workingman alone. Altnouda
direct action does not in itself imply violenc^ yet the
employment of physical force is oonsiderea insepa-
rable from its successful application. The particular
form in which direct action is to find its adequate
aqnreasioa is the general strike. Each strike now
takes on the nature of a skirmidi raeceding the great
battle and becomes an end in itself independently of
its success or failure. It calls tost the support of the
entire working class, and the mom severe the conflict
tba graater the olassreonsciouaneBB th^4P devek)iiBd.

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'J'hc culmiuatiou of these miaor conflicts in to be tlie
great battle which is propcaed as the immediate object
of Syndieatian, the general strike. This idea nad
already been clearly formulated by the "Inter-
national". Success oy the ballot is considered illu-
sory because of its demoralizing influence upon the
Iradcrs, while street barricading and fighting seem
useless Bjgainst modem armaments. Nothing there-
fore is said to remain for the worker except tbegeneral
strike of all industries at the same time. Tms will
distribute the army over every section (rf the entire
oountrjr and so reiuler it helpless. The bwiiwfli and
industrial sections of the cities will thus fall into the
possession of the gyndicoU, who are at present to be
prepared by education and class morality to take
instant and successful control of all productive enter-
prises. The struggle itself is to be brief, but intense.

Two special theories are connected with the general
strike. They are known as the minority and the
myth tbeoriea. The syndicalists are only a small pro-
portion of Uie French workingmen and witJumt finan-
cial resources to sustain a tm>longed strike. To
answer the difficulties which this condition naturally
Buggeeta it is tau^t that their lack of reeouroes will
beget a spirit of recklessness, while their revolutionary
education will infuae enthusiasm into the oomradea,
whose leaders they are destined to become. Thus the
"conscious" or ''^bold" minority will suffice for the
victny. The aeoc^ theory was first propoaed by
8cn«l in his "Bfiflexkms sur u violenee". Mjrths are
defijud by him as "artificial oombinationa invented
to give the appearance of reality to hopes that inspire
men in tbdr present activity". Such a mvth, he says,
was for the early Christians the second coming of
Christ and the Kingdom of Heaven; such for the
syndicaliBt revolutionists is the myth of the general
strike which has no objective reality in the present.

We have hitherto advisedly ^ken ot "revotu-
tionaiy" Syndicalism^ since thm is likewise a
"r^ormist" element in the Syndicalist movement, or
as it is more appropriately called, a "reformist ievi>
lutionary" group. It consists of a certain portion of
the socialist following, whose ultimate object is
identic^ with that of their comrades, the general
strike and the social revolution; but who are opposed
to the jMBctice of violence, as inexpedient, and for the
same reason likewise exercise greater precaution in
dealing with other critical questions, such as patriot-
ism and militarism. They oelieve likewise in secur-
ing a safe financial status for the synduxOa and in
fij^ting for preeent reforms. These reforms, how-
ever, are to be understood in a purely Socialistic and
Syndic^istic sense. Nothing that does not actually
weaken the capitalistic clan and prepare fw its
destruction is to be accounted of any value; while no
concession that can ever be gained is to be considered
final. It is difficult to ascertain the exact strenjsth of
this reformist element. Although it is in taowise in-
c(Hisiderable; yet the Conf6d^tion G^n6rale du
Travail has hitherto sailed under e»Jusively revolu-
tionary colours. The ultimate aim of Syndicaliam, as
far as this can be ascertained, is the eatabliahmait of
an "economic federalism" in which the Boursea du
Travail, or lAom Exdumgea, whieh are affiliated
with the ConfSdtoition 0&«rale du Travail, are
meant to play an important rdle. The units of society
are to be the syndicxU* united in the trade federations,
which in turn are to be centralised in the general con-
federation. The supreme thou^t of the present is,
however, the general strike, and the ayndtoof* united
for this purpose are known as the wnotoate rtntgu in
distinction to thecyndieafs/otaiM, who are opposed to
Syndicalism and favour the strike oafy aa an extreme
measure.

The term Syndioaliam has not as yet been facially
^iplied to any labour assodaUon in the Ihnted States;
sevetUielesB the movement itself eadiCa m the oicMii-

zation of the "Industrial Workers of the World" aud
ia likewise widely agitated undo* the form of indus-
trial unionian by leadmg American socialists. In
England a strong Syndicalist movement has sprung tqt
since 1910, in wnich year Tom Mann issued the first
number of his "Industrial Syndicalist". While radi-
cal Sociidista have been obliged to construct a new
labour union in the United State^ thdr f^ows in
England have striven to develop the existiDg unims
in the direction of soUd^ty and "direct action".

Lbtimb. ThM Labtur MvMmuaU in Fnmct (N<rw York, 1013);
Cut, Stmdiealum mnd LaboMT (N«w YwL 1911): Acht, Dtr
Modama FrantOnteht S\pui^Mlimva {Jeaa^Vtll)-, CoRNfuMKH,
C^a6«r dm tnterfiaUMiatoi StmdtJtolMimi* (TQbinxen, 1SI0);Cbal-
lATB, 8vndioali»m* rtnobdionmairt tt Syndicatuwu riformiMt
(Pari* 1909); Somml, R4fi«xion» «ur la Violmtea (Puia, 1910,
2Dd ed.); YVBT9T, AlB.C. SimdieaJiHe (Paris). Th§ Timm (Loo-
don). 25 March. 16 April, 1912; GKinrncLBBB ams Ksdteb, £«
ifouMKMnf SoeialitU (JaiL-April, 1906), 1.

JOOFH HumAiN.
Sfiudiiam. See Sanhxdbin.

BynMliis of Oyreiie,Bishop of Ptolomais, neo-Pkip
tonist, date of birth uncertain; d. about 414. He was
a youngo- son of an ancient family of Qvrene which
traced its descent from the Heracleids, the mythical
founders of the city. Syneeius pursued his higher
studies at Alexandria, where he became a devoted dis-
ciple ctf the famous Hypatia, to whom several of his
letters are addressed and for whom he entertained a
life-iong devotkm. After serring some time in tiie
army be eettied in his native land, "studying philo^
ophy^ mathematics, astronomy, everything; farmipg,
hunting, having many a brush with hordes (rf pilfering
Libyans; and every now and then upholding the cause
of some one who had undeservedly fallen into difficul-
ties". This kind of life, in every way suited to his
tastes and disposition, was interrupted by a mission
to Constantinople, the object of which was to present
a gokl crown to the new emporw, Arcadius, and ob-
tam alleviation of the burdoi of taxation. Neaify
three years he waited for an audience. The all-poweiv
ful Eutropius who sold the provinces to the highest
bidder was not the man to allow the emperor to be
troubled with oomplainta. Finally, Synesius obtained
an audience and delivered his famous oration "On
Kingship". He l^t Constantinople in 400. Accord-
ing to some authorities before, and according to othns
after, the mission to Constantinople, Synesius vis-
ited Athens. He has described t^e visit in two letters
[54 and 135] to his brother, Euoptius. His reason for
undertaking the voyage was, he jestingly said, that
"a number of people, priests uid private persons, had
had revelations in dreams that, unless he did so, some
great evil would befall him. Then he would escape
the present evils and would no longer have to revere-
people who had been to Athens and regarded them-
selves as demigods, and those who had not ae demi-
donkeys or mines. ' Athens was a disappointment.
Like a beast that had been sacrificed, only the hide
remained. At Alexandria, Synesius married a Chris-
tian by whom he had several children. During this
p^*iod he did most of his literary work and carried on a
large oorreqrandence with his mends. Owing to the
inofluaeity and cowardice of the military autnoritiea,
the desuItoT^ raids <rf the barbarians assumed abnost
the proporUone of ragular warfare. Qynesiua took a
leadmg part in organiung defensive measures, levying
volunteers, procuring arms, etc.

In 409 Synesius was elected Metropolitan of Ptol-
emais. The bishop-elect unbosomed himself in a
letter [Ep. cv] to Euoptius. The duties of a bishop
wwe unoongenial to hinij fond as he was of hk amuse-
ments as well aa of rdigious stuck. He ooukt oot
forsake the wifegiven him by "Ood, the law aadthe
sacred hand of Tneopbilua". His amusements might

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" Philoflcnihy is <q)pcMed to the apiniooM of tha vulgar.
I catainly shall not admit that the houI is posterior
to the body . . . that the world and all its parts shall
perish together. The resurrection ... I consider
something sacred and ineffable and am far from shar-
ing the ideas of the multitude". He could keep
silence but not "pretend to hold opinions which he did
not hold". Theopbilug, he said, must know every-
thing and decide. Seven months elapsed betwem
the writii^ of this letter and Synesius's consecration.
That S^esiuB should yield is hardly surpriong. His
dogmaUc perceptions were not keen enough to make
him realize the falseness of his position as a bishop.
Theophilus, the persecutor of tne Origenists, is the
difficulty. Perhaps, tike many mast^ful men, he
could put the telescope to his blind eye and refuse to
see what he did not wish to see. Perhaps the n^^
tions in Synesius's letter were not his last word with
r^ard to doctrinal qucstirais. Baronius held that
Synesius defamed hixoself to escape the episcopate,
and this was also the opinion of Jeremy Taylor, "for
all this Theoi>hilus, Bishop of Alexandria, consecrated
him, as knowing all this to be but stratagem and the
arts of an odd fantastic humility" [Ductor dubitan-
tium. iii, 2]. The " fantastic humility" solution of the

groblem has found very few supporters. As a bishop,
yneous devoted himself to wb multiform duties of
this office, without, however, concealing how uncon-
ceoial such a press of business was to him. We find
Kim first warning and then excommunicating a blood-
thirsty governor, denouncing the Eunomians, super-
intending the elections of bishops, etc. His l^ter
days were embittered by the death of his three sons
and the ruin of his country by the barbarians. His
last letter was to Hypatia. She had been to him, "a
mother, a sister, and a teacher". In his last hj'nm he
recommends himself to Christ. It is a prayer that
"his sins may be forgiven and that he may behold the
glonr of the Saviour .

Tne following are his writings: "De Providentia",
first part composed while in Constantinople, second
part after return to Cyrene: a political j^amphlet in
which Gainas and Aurelian figive as Typhon and
Oaris; "De regno", in which an ideal Roman emperor
is presented in an oratkm, delivered before Arcadius;
"De dono astrolabii", a treatise accompanying the
gift of a planisphere to one Paconius at Constanti-
nople. The following were written between 400 and
400: the "Cynogetics" (not extant), a treatise on
the breeding of do^ ; " De insonmiis ", a curious treatise
on dreams. Divuation, according to Synesius, fol-
lowing PlotinuB, was posaible because of the unity of
nature. All parts of the universe are in sympathy, so
in each thin^ there are indications of other things.
"Dion", a vindication of his manner of life against
stem asceticism; "Calvitii Encomium", a facetious
eulogy on baldness by a man who suffered from that
complaint. The following belong to iOQ-^H: two
fragments of homilies; "Constitutiosive elogium Aiw-
aii (Anysius was a general who had been successful
ai^unU the twbariam); "CatastaaiB", describing the
ruin of Pentapolis. There are one hundred and Bft]r-
five niistles and ten hymns written at different peri-
ods of his life, the latter valuable because of the li^iht
which they throw on his religious and philosophical
views, the former, the most precious of his writings,
because of the li^t they throw on the writer's per-
sonality, and the picture which they give of the age
in whidi he lived.

The OBlr sMBplato *dUiaB at flynMhirt eiUliiu ia tbat pab>
ItahMl ^PvTATiai (Fkri^ ISU): tb* fourthidiUaD (IMO) is
the bart; Kmbhw (im-35) publkhsd tbs D* rwno, CahMt
and Dfl imtMmMa, with 0«niiaii tnadaticnu nd

tb« 6nit TOhnm of ■ ooraplaCe MHtfaKi, Synmii »pen — iwifc /;
OmKmm M kcmiUimm fngmmta (Lwddiut, 1800). Thte vol*
vmm r^nkn the pnter world but not tb« hymn* or epUtlee.
A m&m adhitA of Um Vtytao* wh broudit out by BonsDHUts,
Mlav* vMtenm grtK.. XV (PmOa, UU>: bf Obmsv amd
FiltimtT la AHHialtglm gHWB Birwfiiiiw mridlananm (Ltip-

LxP.kTi (Psri*, tS7Q), vrry UK<ful tnit qat- Biinyi tniBlworthy.

Dt ^iiiuiui (CtipoDlLKgBti. 1831)^ Ualcoub, Did. ChriM. Biag-S
GMuifiztt, S^netiitt of t'/frent rt*irulQii, }SSti) ; Crawfood,
Sunnia; iht ItatXettt (LoDdaii^ ISOl): Kr^Th, Smdifn abfr
SimmtM nm Cirrwna ia fkwi. QuariaUclir- {'VOhmseD. ^JMUHSfl).
Foj tbe tBlifiuus vlewa of S>'DaauH irfai:B he wu eleclad tuAfaop'
an- ulao 1lrlLATC^'lrs. Oingtttalia de Si/auio d fuga Sptieopatut,
whkh wLL ix Il-uii'I in RBAOiNa'i editioii ol f hdtw* ^wd Thtu-
^nr^tmhiUtp, ntO). Hahi*ihM^>Who|t^agril^&p|rtpf

Sjnuuda, titular metropolis in Huygia Sahitaris.
Synnada is said to have been founded Aeamas who
wait to Phrygia after the Trojan war and took aom»
Macedonian colonists. The consul Manlius Vulso
passed through that city on his expeditions against
the Galatians. It was situated in the south-«^tem
part of Eastern Phrygia, or Parorea, thus named
because it extended to the foot of the mountains of
Fisidia. After having belonged to the kin^om of
the Attali, it became the capital of a district of the
province of Asia, except on two occasions during the
last century of the Republic when it was temporarily
attached to Cilicia. Under theee two regimes
Synnada was the centre of an important concentus
Juridicus, or judicial centre; it was to preside at this
assembly that Cicero stopped at Synnada on his
way from Ephesus to Cuicia and on his return.
Although small, the city was celebrated throughout
t^e empire on account of the trade in marble whidi
came from the quarries of the neighbouring city al
Dacimium. Under Diocletian at the time of the
creation of Phrygia Pacatiana, Synnada, at Uie inter-
section of two great roads, became the metropolis.
On its coins, which disappear after the reign of Gal-
liraius, its inhabitants call themselves Dorians and
lonians. To-di^ it is the ci^ of Schifout Eassaba,
dtuated five hmirs south of Afioun Kara Hissar,
vilayet of Broussa.

Christianity was introduced at an early date into
Synnada. The " Martyrologium Hieronymianum "
mentions several of its martyrs. For St. Trophimus,
honoured by the Latin and Greek Churches on 19
8ept., see "Acta 8S.", VI Sept., 9 eq. A reliquary in
the torn of a sarcophagus contamii^ some of the bones
of this martyr has been discovered at Schifout
Kassaba and feransported to the museum at Brouasa:
this curious monument may date back to the thira
century [see Mendel in " Bulletin de Correspoodance
Hell&uque", XXXIII (1909), 342 sq,]. Eusebius
(Hist. Eccl., VI, 19) speaks of its pious bishop
Atticus who entrusted to the layman Theodore the
duty of instructing the Christians. About 280-6
a council on the rebaptizing of hoetics was bdd
there (Euseb., Hist. Eccl.. Vll, 7). St. Agapetus,
mentioned in the Roman Martyrology on 24 March
as Bishop of Synnada, belonged to^ynaus. For a
list of other bishops see Le Quien, "Oriens christ.",
L 827. Mention must be made of Procopius (321);
Cyriacus, friend of St. John Chrysostom; Theodosius
and his competitor Agapetus, at first a Macedonian
heretic; Severus (431) ; Marinianus (44Sr^l) ,
Theogenes (536); Severus (553); St. Pausicacua^
during the reign of Maurice, honoured by the Greek
Church on 13 Ma^; Cosmas, 680; John, adversary
of the Iconoclasts m the time of Patriardi St. Genna-
nus; St. Michael, honoured by the Latin and Greek
churches 23 May, died 23 May, 826, in exile for his
seal in defending the worship of images; Peter imder
Photius; John imder Photius; Pantaleon under Leo
the Wise; Leo under Basil II: Nioetas in 1062;
Geoigioe at the Council of St. Sophia, about 1460,
if one can believe the apocryphal Acts fu this council,
which perhaps never occurred. The last Bi^op
of Synnada spoken of in the documents, without
mentioning bis name, probably lived under John
Cantacuzenus (see "Cantacus. Hist.", Ill, 73) and
probaUy nevec lived at Synnada on aooount of tha

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8T1K»>

IHiridtah oonqoest. Ser^ yean aher (1386) tlie
see was oommitted to the Metn^titaa of Phila-
delphia. In oonclusion may be mentioned St.
CoDstantine, a converted Jew of Synnada, who lived
in the tenu century; he became a monk, and is
honoured by the Greek Church 26 December.

Smith. Diet, of Ore*k and Raman Otog.; tmxam, AMm Mirmm,
430: lMiaA.r, Ana Minor; Idbh, CiHm and BMoprie* of
Phntgia; Pannr in A«ra« arMotagvpu, new Mries, ZXXI
(Junuiy to June, 1876), 190-303; WZchtki, Der VerfaU det
(kicehmtum* m KUmowim in XIV. JahrhwtdtH (Leipiic 1903),
37. S. P4TRroi».

Synod (Gr. r^toSot, an anembl^), a general term iot

ecclesiastical gatherings under hierarchical authority,
for the discussion ana decision of matters relating to
faith, morals, or discipline. It corresponds to the
Latin word amalium. The word »miodu» appears
probably for the first time in tiie so-called "Apostolic
canons , while the word concilium was employed
in the same meaning by Tertullian more than a cen-
tury earlier. Synod and council are, therefore, syn-
onymous terms. When the bishops of the whole
world are congregated under the presidencv of the
pope, the synod is denominated cecumenic^ or gen-
end. It is only to such an assembly that it is lawful
to apply the term aancta synodus (see Councils, Gen-
BBAL). If the bishops of aa ' ecclesiastical province
f meet under the heaoship of their metropolitan, the
councfl is termed provincial. When the nierarcns of
all Uie provinces of a nation assemble, the synod is
called national, or, under certain circumstances, plen-
ary. The r^ulations governing provincial and plen-
ary coimcils are practically the same. In addition to
those mentioned, there are other synods that are more
difficult of classification, as synods of the East or the
West, tiie synodoi endemmaai of Constantinople, and
the mixed councils of ecclesiastical and secular digni-
taries who assembled together to make regulations
for both spiritual and civu matters.

Dififerent from all other councils is the diocesan
synod. Other councils are assemblies of bishops who
have a definitive vote in the matters under considera-
tion, but in a diocesan synod thov is onhr one voter
and only one lawgiver, the bishop of the diocese.
This article deals mainlpr with diocesan synods. In
his book "De Svnodo Dioecesana" (lib. 1. c. i) Bene-
dict XrV thus a.efines a diocesan ^^od: ' A lawful as-
sembly convoked by the bishop, m which he gathers
together the priests and clerics of his diocese and all
others who are bound to attend it, for the purpose of
doing and deliberating concmiing^ix^t belonigs to
Uie pastoral care." The Council of Trent ^ess. XXIV.
e. ii, "De ref . "} ret^uires that a diocesan synod be hela
once a year, "niis law is still in force, but a mild
interpretation, introduced by custom, has been tac-
it^ sanctioned by the Holy See. Usually, the date
for holdii^ the s^od should be announced on the
Feast of the Epiphany. A month before the opening
the decree of convocation should be affixed to the
cathedral doors, and it ^ould be published on three
■uceessiTe SunoavB in parish churches. When two
dio(»8eB are united under one bishop, the synod should
be celebrated alternately in the catnedral of each such
dioeeBe. It belongs to the bishop to convoke the dio-
cesan svnod whether he be consecrated as yet or not.
An archbishop, however, who has not yet received
the pallium, has not the same right. Yicars-general
can assemble a synod only in virtue of a special man-
date of l^e bishop. When a diocese is vacant, the
vicar capitular can and should hold a diooesan ^ynod
if a year has elapsed since the eeldiration of the last
one. Ordinarily, the convocation of a s^od should
take place after the episcopal visitation (h the diocese,
as the bishop can then be better guided in forming bis
statutes. When, however, the visitation has been
neglected for years, it is considered more advisable to
kua the q^iod fiist. Ab the bishop is tlie uily lav-

gfver at a synod, it bebngs to him to draw up the vari-
ous decrees which he may wish to promulgate at its
sessions. While he convokes the synod by his own
authority and is not required to consult his chapter
oonoeming the convocation or its preparatoi^ acts,
yet he must ask the counsel' of bis chapter or diocesan
oonsultors as to the decrees he desires to enact, though
he is not bound to follow their advice. The bi^op is
exhorted, in the formation of his decrees, to hold pri<
Tate oonferenoes with (lie prudent, learned, and pioua
clerics of his diocese, and then to consult his chapter
on the proposed statutes thus formed (S. C. C, 26
Nov., 1689). Only in this way does the bishop de-
hljerate wi^ the clergy of his diooese at a synod, and
thou^ the finished decrees wiD receive ail their
authorit? from him, yet it is consonant with the mind
of the Church that, m the formation of the statutes,
the opinion of the clo^ be heard and oonsiderod.
Summonses to a diocesan synod should be given to tlie
vicar-general, the members of the cathedral chapter,
holders of benefices, and all others who have care of
souls. If there is a custom to that effect, all the clei^
of the diocese may be summoned. Regulars who have
care of souls are obliged to attend a synod. Their
superiors are not, however, obliged to attend, unless
they personally act as parish priests or curates. The
bishop has power to punish with censures all those
Intimately summoned who fail to attend. Laymen
may also be invited by the bishop to be present at a
^iu>d if there is a custom to that effect, but under no
circumstances can th^ acquire aright to such summons.

At the synod the decrees determined on by the
bishop are promul^ted, and a period of two months
is allowed for having recourse against them to the
bishop or the Holy See. All the clergy and laity of the
diocese are bound by these decrees, and it is not neces-
sary for the bishop to send his statutes to Rome for
revision before publication. Exempt r^lars are
bound to observe diocesan decrees in all thmgs which
concern Ihe sacred canons, the Constitutions of popes
and councils, and the decrees of the Sacred Roman
Congr^ations. The bishop may not force his clexgy
to buy printed copies of the diocesan statutes (S. C. C.,
14 Dec., 1658). During the synod the appointment
is made of s^odal examiners. To the former duties
of these officials has been added by the "Maxima
Cura" of Pius X (20 Aug., 1910) that of being asso-
ciated with the bishop in drawing up the decree for the
administrative removal of parish priests. By the
same papal Constitution, parochial consultors, who
are to oe assessors in case m recourse against a decree
of removal, are also to be chosen by the synod from
among the parish priests. Synodal witaesses are like-
wise chosen at some ^ods, whose main duty it is to
help in the framing of deliberative questions or to re-
port at the foUowmg synod what has been the effect
of the d^eee promulgated at the last assembly, or to
suggest new ones. Synodal judges are also to be
chosen, though they are rarely now employed. Their
office ia to expedite such causes as may be comnjitted
to their judgment outside Rome by the Holy See.
Tlieee iuoges dtould be at least four in number in
every diocese, and their names must be forwarded to
Rome as soon as selected. Hie subject-matter of the
decrees framed at a diocesan synod should concern
only the preservation of faith or discipline. Under
no circumstances may such a synod define any new
article of faith or decide any doctrinal point in dispute
between Catholic theologians or frame statutes con-
trary to the common canon law of the Church.

For synodfl la genenl use see tHbliography of artiele Co unci tA
GsNBKA u The best work on diooeeui aynods ia thct of BEHUHcr
XIV, D« Smodo I>io*c«»ana. Bocix treftte of tbeee bjtkxU Id
D* Bpitcopo. II (3nl ed., Paru. 1883); FsanABU, BibUoAoea
Canonioa. II (Rome. 1891), a. v. ConeiUum, vt. 8: In Taumvoh,
Tht Lav of At ChunA (London, 1900). «. t.; Hmu, CoMimh
tif At Ckmreh. ed. Clarx (EdinbuTBh. 1871—), and new FMm
HMMlstklB by iJKunoQ (PMia, iao7— ).

W. H. W. Vumaa.

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8TMODAL 31

Synods, National. — Aocordine to tbd recent canon
law, natkmal councUs are the deliberoting aaamibtim
at which all the bishops of a nation are oonToked by
the patriarch or prunate (Cf. Bened. XIV, "De
Synodo", I, i), but, in order to include the aociait
national synods, it would be more correct to aay a
legitimate assembla^ of the episcopate of a nation,
the decisions of which are valid for an entire national
Church. For the classic definition is far from being
wpUcable to all the ancient national councils, as it is
difficult to apply to allrecogniHd ceeumoucal councils
the present classic definition and conditions for sQdi
councils.

Councils are commonly divided into general or cecu-
menical, or particular; the latta* are subdivided into
national and provincial according as they assemble
the bishops of a whole nation or of an ecclesiastical
province. Finally come the assemblies of the clei^
of a dioceae. whim are called diocesan synods rather
than_ councils. But writers point out that this daasi-
fication is not and cannot be exact. For instance,
to what category belongs the Council of Aries of 314,
at which Constantine in agreement with the poj^ con-
voked all the bishops, or at least a representation, of
tixe whole episcopate of his empire at that time? So
also if we a^p^ with most authors in rfsarding as
national councils the assemblies of African oiahope, it
toB,^ be objected that Africa did not form a distinct
nation in the Roman Empire. On the o^er hand
there have been councils which, while they did not
assemble all the bishops of a nation, may nevertho-
lesB be r^arded as real national B3aiods; such were the
reform assemblies held at the command of Charle-
magne in 814 simultaneously at Aries, Reims, Mainz,
Tours, and Chdbns. Moreover, if in order to be
national a council must be preeidea over by a patriarch
or primate, we must remove from the list of national
councils nearly all the episcopal assemblies of the
IVankish Kingdom and Empire, for they were con-
voked at the conmiand of kings and emperors, and the
Prankish Church never had any patriarchal or pri-
matial see whose bishop was qualified to convoke or
preside over the entire national episcopate. Besides
the term "national" was not veiy wide^read in
ancient times, it being the custom to speak ra^er of
"universal" or "plenary" councils as in Africa or
^MEun, but this wora was not used as synonymous with
oecumenical. It meant plenary for all the provinces
of Roman Africa or for the whole Visigothic Kingdom,
in the same sense that the plenary Cotmcils of Bal-
timore were meetings of the episcopate of the United
States.

This being understood, the canonical prescriptions
regarding national councils are the same, prc^)ortion<
ately spiking, as for general and provincial councils.
To be legitimate their convocation must proceed from
the authority having competent jurisdiction over the
national church, either partiarch or primate (provided
that these titles be not merely honorary). In de-
fault of this authority the convocation should proceed
from the Holy See, as was done for the recent national
councils enumerated below. It was because the con-
vocation was not competent that the "national coun-
eU" of Paris of 1811 was not legitimate. To this con-
vocation corresponds on the part of the bishops the
obUgation to appear in person at the assembly unless
they have a legitimate reason. But representation
of a numerous episcopate will suffice, as was the case
in Africa^ according to canon ix of the Plenary Coun-
dl <rf MUevtB in 402. The presidency rightfully be-
long to the delates of the Holy See, if there are any ;
if not, to the partiarch or primate, or to the oldest
metropolitan, as was the custom in the Frankish king-
doms. A national council freely discusses the ecclesi-
astical or miiwd matters which have been the cause
of the meeting; the decisions adopted become a law
for the entire nation^ but like Uioee erf proviacitU

iM , 8TNOPTIC8

councils, and with much more reason, they must first
be submitted to the apiwoval of the Holy See.

No hisUnical or canonical interest of any impor-
tance determines which of the ancient councils held at
Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople may be
oUssed as national councils. Obviously, the presence
and authority of the patriarchs of the various churches
raidered this sort of meeting very easy. On several
occasions the Patriarchs of Constantinople convoked
the whole episcopate of the Byaantine Empire. But
these councils have Mt no very distinct traces in the
Greek canonical collections, whereas those of the Nes-
torian Church of the Persian Empire consist chiefly of
canons of the national councils held from 410 to 775
(of. "Synodicon Orientale", ed. Chabot, 1903). In
the West also there was an important series of national
coimcils, the most noteworthy being the assemblies
.of the episoopate of Christian Africa under the presi-
dency of the Bishop of Carthage, especially the twenty-
one plenary »>uncils held during the episcopate of
Aurelius (303-427), which form almost the entire
canonical collection of Africa. In like manner the
^)anish canonical collection is chiefly composed of the
canons of the seventeen national councils which the
episcopate of the Visigothic Kingdom held, nearly al-
ways at Toledo, from 589 to 694. But while the Afri-
can councils consisted wholly of biahope, the kings and
nobles of the kingdom assisted at those of Toledo,
without, however, otherwise interfering in matters
property religious. The same was true of the Frank'
ish national councils, where the episcopal assemblies
were, as it were, duplicated by an assembly of nobles:
occasionally, ss at Mainz in 813, there was a third
group, composed (A abbots and monks. The list
opens with three national councils which assembled
the (miaoopate of the three kingdoms into which Gaul
was divided at the beginning of the fifth century:
Agde (506) for the Arian Visigothic ICingdom; Orleans
(511), for the Kingdom of the Franks; Epaone (517),
for that of the Burgundians. Most of tne Frankish
councils held under the Merovingians and Carlovingi-
ans assembled the emscopate of one, sometimes of
several kingdoms. The king often assisted thereat
and the conciliar decisions bmring on discipline were
the subject of royal ordinances or ci4)itularB. These
double asBemblicB of btshope and comiU* (counts) were
the usual method in the FVankish kingdoms, and Tho-
massin rightly regards them as the historical origin of
parliaments. Theacteof these meetings have not been
gathered into a uniform complete canonical collection.

In recent centuries Catholic national councils have
been resumed in the East and the West at the instance
of the popes and under the presidency of their l^ates.
Without going into details, the most noteworthy of
these were: the provincial or national ooundls of
Mount Lebanon, for the Maronites, in 1736, confirmed
^!!benedict XIV; those of 1803 and 1871 for the Air
banians; those ca Zamosk 1720 and 1801 for the
Ruthemans; that of 1841 for the Melchites; that of
Sciarfa in the Lebanon (1888) for the Syrians; that of
C^airo in 1898 for the Copts; that of Rome in 1911 for
the Armenians; in America the three plenary Councils
of Baltimore (1852, 1866, 1884), and the plenaiy
rather than national councU of Latin America m 1899.

Tbohassin, Vtttu el tun. due, part II, III, sliii sq.; Bsnb-
DicT XIV, D« iSinuxIo dimmema, I, i; HaiCLB, HUl. d— eotusUM,
I, introduotion.

A. BoiroiHHON.
Syaodftl bamliun. See Exahznbhs, Synodal.

Synodi, Mdcbd. See CbuNdLs, Gbnbbal, sub-
title IL

Synoptioi, the name given since Griesbach's time
(about 1790) to the first three canonical Gospels. It
is derived from the fact that these Gospels admit, —
differently from the evangelical narrative of St, John,
— of being arraiueed and narmonized section by see*
tion, ao aa to allow the «ye to re^xe at a glanee

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BTMOTTIOS

(tf^M^ft) numerous panages which are common
to them, and also the portions which are peculiar
ather to only two, or even to only oae, of them.

I. Differences and Reeemblanceg. — Tiurning over the
pages m an ordinary harmony of the four, or of a
syntmsis of the first three, Gospels, which show in
parallel columns the ooincident parts of the evuigeli-
cal narratives, the reader will at once notice the luge
amount of nutter which is common to Qoqpels of
St. Matthev, St. Marie, and St. Luke. Brief as these
three sketches of Christ's life actually are, they run
parallel to one another in no less than 330-^70 verses
or about one-third of their whole account of Christ's
words and deeds, while, with the exception <k a few
incidents (68 verses), the whole eontwts of St. MariL
are practical^ found in St. Matthew and in St. Luke.
This agreement in the facta related appean all the
more striking, becMise of ihe great amount of his-
torical matoial which must have been at the dispoaal
of each Synoptical writer. Hie Synoptists are, each
and all, fully aware that Jesus healed vast numbers of
various diseaaes; they nevertheleas agree in selecting
the same cases of healing for fuller record; and while
they distinctly speak of His unceaeing and eoctenmve
teachii^, yet they usually concur in reporting the
same ducourses. A no less wonderful siinilarity may
be observed between the first three Gospds wiui
regard to the general conception and the order of the
whole narrative. In all three, Christ's pubtio life is
distinctly connected with the preaching of St. John
the Baptist, is chiefly confined to Galilee, and is set
forth in certain epochs, as the earlty Galilean ministry,
the crisis in Galilee, the minist^ in Perea and Jerusa-
lem, and the tn^o end in the Ho^ City followed by a
^orious Resurrection. In constructing their several
nowds, the Synoptists adopt the same general
method of presentation, giving not a oinuecutive naiv
rative that would result from a fusing of the material
emploved, but a series of little accounts which are iso-
lated by peculiiu* introductory and concluding for-
mula, ana which repeatedly agree in details and in
order evm where a deviation from the chronological
sequence is manifest. Together with all theee resem-
blances, there is tbroi»hout the Synoptics aremaxk-
able agreonent in vmras and phrases, iriueh can be
oxire parUcularly reaUsed by means <tf a Qredc har^
mony or a close translation of the originial text. This
verbal agreement in the Gre^ Gospels is all the more
surprising, as Jesus spoke in Aramaic, and as in most
cases, it is plain that the verbal resemblances cannot
be referred to an accidental similarity, sinoe they are
due to the common use of very peculiar terms and ex-
pressions, of identical variations from either the He>
toew or the S^)tui«int in quotations from the
Testament.

The interconnexion of the Synoptiea is not, hoW-
ever, simply one of close resemblanoe, it is also o^e'«f
striking dinerence. When compared attentively^ t^e
three records appear distinct as well as similar in mci-
dents, plan, and language. Each Synoptical writer
introduces into his narrative fragments more or lees
extensive, at times entire episodes which are not re-
lated by the other two Evangdists. St. Maik says
nothii« of the infancy and the early life of Otuist,
whileSt. Matthew and St. Luke, who speak of them,
do not as a rule narrate the same facts. St. Marie does
not even allude to the Sermon on the Mount, and St.
Luke alone narrates in detail the last joum^ of Jesus
from Galilee to Jerusalem. On the other hand. Matt.,
xiv^ 22 — xvi, 12 and Mark, vi; 45 — viii, 26, record a
scries of Galilean incidents which are nowh^ found
in the third Gospel. Despite his obvious eondsoiess,
St. Maik has two mirades and two paroles wholly
peculiar to himself. St. Matthew, who apparently
does not aim at brevity, makes no reference to the
Ascension. Moreover, m the vwy passages whitdi in-
dicate a dose rdation of the three, or of at hast two,

Synoptics, in their souroes, minor differences in the
events reoorded oontinualty i^tpear, which can be
fully realised on^ throu^ a ililigent stud^ of the
paraUd passages, or throu^ the perusal of larger
oommentuies m which such constant differences are
distinctly pointed out. At times the divergences are
so gruit as to f^>pear, at first, actual oontntdictions.
Of this description are the differences notic^le be-
twew ttie gemalogieB of Jesus (Matt., i, 1-17; Luke,
iii, 23-38), the aooounts of the ^isode of the demoni-
aes of Gerasa (Matt viii, 28-34: Marie, v, 1-20;
Luke, viii, 26-39), of the miraculous hraUng con-
nected wi^ Jericho (Matt., xx, 29-34; Mark, x, 46-
52; Luke, xviii, 35-43), <rf the petition of the mother
of James and John (Matt., xx, 20-28; Mark^ x, 35-
45), of the inoidants relative to the Resurrection, etc.
The general disposition of the events narrated betrays
also consida^le differences. Thus while St. Mat-
tbew devotee three successive chapters to the Sermon
on the Mount (y-vii) and gives tc^ether the parables
ct the kingdom in one chapter (xiu), St. Luke divides
tliis twofold topic into several portions which he con-
nects with distmot circumstances. . It is veil Imown
too, that St. Matthew veor often gathers together
topics which are similar, while St. Mark and St. Luke
foil ow more olosefy the dtronoh^cal <m]er, whence
arise numerous tranqxMitionB whim affect the goieral
arrangement <tf the narrative.

Numerous variations can likewise be noticed in the
particular arrai^ement of facts and words, fw the
donents of the one and the same episode oStfki occupy
a different place in one or other of the Synoptics, or
either Evangelist suppresses or adds a detail which
modifies the mddent. Fina%, the verbal differencee
between the first three Gospels are hardly less numer-
ous and striking than their verbal resemblances.
Each Synoptist has his peculiar and favourite words
and repressions, which have been cuefully tabulated
by recent Biblical scholars (Hawkins, "Hone ffynop-
ticsa"; Allen, on St. Matthew; Swete, on St. Man;
Flummer, on St. Luke). The verbal (Merences ap-
pear in the very passages which abound in verbal co-
mcidences (cf. for instance, Matt., xviii, 2, 3; Marie,
ix, 47, 48), the identity of expression never e]rt«nding
thmurii passages of any Imgth, and unless in re-
ported discourses of Ounst rardy beyond a few words
at a time. .This is often due to the use o( synony-
mous terms, or of different tenses^ or <^ different prop-
ositions, or of short glosses which either Synoptist
adds to the same name or detail. We find for in-
stance, in Matt., ix, 6, lAiij, in Mark, ii, 11, Kpdpparot,
in Luke, v, 24, KXinSior- in Matt., iii, 16, "Spirit of
God", in Mark, i, 10, "Spirit", m Luke, lii, 22, "the
Boly Gboab"; ete. And^at u of particular ognifi-
canoe in this oonnenon, is the fact Hiat the v^al
differences occur when one should most naturally ex-
pect an absolute identity of expreseiona, as for in-
stfuioe, in the words of Uie institution ch the Holy
Euchanst, in the reoord of the title on the Cross,
etc.

II. The Synoptic Problem. — Theee resemblances
and differencee, the extent and complexity of which
grow upon the student who compares carefully the
Synoptic Gospels and oontrasts them with St. John's
narrative, constitute a unique phenomenon m ancient
and modem literature. Iney are facte wtueh no one
can refer rather to mere chance, or to the direct influ-
ence of inspiration. On the one hand, the resem-
blances are too numerous and too striking to be re-
garded as explicable on the hypothesis that the first
three Evangelists wrote independently of one an-
other. On the other, the differences are at times so
s^dficant as to imply that th^ are due to the use of
different documents by the Evangelists, as for ex-
ample in the case of the two genealogies of Jesus
Christ. Hie harmoiqr and the variety, the resem-
Minnm and the ditMcnees must be bow aooounted

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imomos 31

for. They fonn together a literary problem, — the
3yiun>tio Problem, as it is called, — ^the existence of
whicn was practically unknown to the ancient eccle-
Biastioal writers. In point of fact, St. Quysostom
and St. Augustine are the only Fathers who have for-
mulated views coDceroing the mutuiU relation (rf the
Synoirfic Goi^eli. and tiw writera of the Middle Ages
do not Bean to nave taken into aooonnt tiieee pa-
tristic viewB which, after dl, were far from affording a
oomplete solution of that difficult question. Subse-
quent leading scholars, such as Grotras, Rich, Simon,
Le Cterc, had little more than a suspiciMi of the
problem, and it is ooly in the course of the eighteenth
century that the scientific examination of the ques-
tion was actually started.

Evcrainoetiie last quarter <tf that ouittury, thedi»-
oonion of fiie or^in iA the mutoal relatiiniBhip be-
tween the fbst three Gospels has been earried on with
great fuxlour and ingenuity especial^ in Germany.
As might well be expected, the supposition that theee
Goep^are so like one another beoaose their respec-
tive authors made use <A each other'd writings was
first tried, and in setting the order, that in which the
Sync^tic Goqiels stand in the canon first found fa-
vour. As frosfa investigaticKis broufdit new facts to
light, new fwms of hypothesis sought to satisfy the
facts, mth the gradual resuh, that the domain of poe-
sibUity w^-nign appears to have been measured out.
Numerous aiuToonmoting as the sucoeesive attempts
at solution have been, their history shows that a cer-
tain progress has been made in tiie discussion of the
Synoptic Proble^. The maoy lelftticHU ni the ques-
tion have oome mto dearer and the data Sot its
station have been reveling themsdves while mere
a priori views or unsound inferences have been dis-
carded.

in. Sohiums of the SynopHc Problem.— ASL at-
tempts at assigning the cause of the resemblances and
differences of the'nist three Gospels admit of being
cla^fied under three general heads, according as the
rdationdiip of the Sync^itics has been explained bv
appending to: A, oral traditicm; B, mutual depend-
ence; or C, earlier documents.

A. Oral Depmdenee. — The hypothesis of oral tra-
dition implies that before our Gospels arose th»e were
no written records of Christ's ministry, or at least
none which was used by the Synoptists. It asserts
that these Evangelists have drawn from narratives of
savings and deeds of Jeeus which eye-witnesses of His
pubiie life hwoded on by word of mouth, and which
gradual^' assumed a greater «r less degree of fixity
with constant repetition. According to this theory,
the resemblanoee between the first three Gospels can
be ^sily accounted for. The sections common to all
are explained by a cycle of teachinf; probably formed
in Jerusalem, actually made up of mcidents and dis-
courses connected with Christ's life from tJie baptism
of John to the Ascension (cf. Acts, i, 21, 22), and
futhfully iHWBOTred with re^rd to order and language
by the trained letentivenees of Esstem manories.
In like mannor, the differences of the Synoptic Gos-
pels are ea«ly explained. Sections are found only
m two, or one, of the Gospels because the bond estati-
lished between the narratives was at times modified
to suit the various ckcles of the hearers, and other
differences in order or wording are due either to pre-
vious variations in oral tradition or to the personal
initiative of the several Evangdists who -fixed it in
writing. This tiieny of an oral Goipet, handed on
everywhere in venr similar form, was enunciated by
Herder, and ohiemr elaborated by Gieseler and A.
Wright. With differences in detail, it has been ad-
mitted by a large number of Catholic exegetcs
(Schegg. Hanebraig, Friedlieb, Kaulen, Cornely,
KnabenDauer, Meignan, Fillion, Fouard, Le Camus,
Felten), and bymany Protestant soholais (Credner,
Ouerieke, De Wette, Ebrard, Lange, Hase, Wetiel,

1 ' 8TM0PT1GS

Thompson, Westoott, Godet, etc.). It undoubtedly
points to a vera causa in the spread of the Gos-
pel, and cannot be wholly left out of account in an
endeavour to explain the origin: of our written records
of Christ's life. One of its claims to acceptance is that
it dispenses with the unseemlv supposition that any
of tihe EvangeliBta made wholesale use in their own
Ooqieb itf written records oomposed by others, and
nevertheless did not reproduce them with greater
fidelity. Appeal is also made in favour of this
theory, to its simplicity, and to its aptness to account
for the resemblances ana the differences exhibited by
the Sjrnoptios.

By itself, however, the hypothesis of oral tradition
can hardly be considered as an adequate solution of
the Synoptical prcblun. First, it does not satis-
factonly explain the selection of the material In-
cluded m our first three Gospels. Oral tradition had
undoi^>tedly preeraved much more than the Synop-
tics record, and of this the Evai^eliste themselves
were fulfy aware (Matt., xi, 21 ; xxiu, 37 ; Luke, x, 13 ;
John, XXI, 25; etc.) ; whence then does it oome that the
framework of the Synoptic narrative is p»ractically
the same in all the &at three Gospels, that it consisto
very largely of the same events and the same die*
ooursee, and gives no account of Jesus' ministry in
J^usalem, that is, of His ministry in the very place
where the oral tradition is generally supposed to nave
been formed?

Secondly, the hypothesis of oral tradition doee not
account for the gwieral identity of order noticeable in
the Synoptics. The order of St. Mark is, m it seems,
the fundamental order, and it can hardly be said to
have been known simply as an oral tradition to St.
Matthew and St. Luke, else the sequence of its sec-
tions, when additions were made by these two Evan-
gelists, would not have remained as little altered as
it has. Again and again, the thread of the common
order is resumed at uie point at which it had been
left. On the supposition of a written source to which
St, Matthew and St. Luke bad recourse, this is
natural enoudi. But if they depended on memoiy,
the natural effect of the woiking <tf the lavra of asso-
ciation, would be that when some fresh incident or
some part of Christ's teaching was recalled, the old
order would be disturbed more or less extensively
than we notice it to be.

Thirdly, the verbal relationship between the Greek
Gospels IS not satisfactorily explained on the hy-
pothesis of oral tradition. This oral tradition was
primitively in Aramaic, and the coincidences in the
Greek with regard to rare words, irregular arrange-
ment of the sentence, etc., cannot be ^cplained by
supposing that our Gospels are independent transla-
tions of one and the same Aramaic or^ tradition. It
utrue that in order to account for these coincidences
in the Greek, the early formation of an oral Greek
tradition which would more or less be the counterpart
of the Anunaia one, and which would have been di-
rect^ utilised by our Evangelists, has been postu-
lated by many advocates of the theory under review.
But it remains very doubtful whether such oral Greek
tradition would really explain the coincidences in
(Question; and it is quite certain that it would not sat-
isfactorily account for the variations in Greek wording
of such important passages as the words of the insti-
tution of the Holy Eucharist, of the Lord's Praxer, of
the Beatitudes, of the title on the Cross, etc. Last^,
there are historioid proofs of the existence of writt«i
documents at the time when our Synoptics were writ-
ten (of. Matt., xxiv, 15, 16; Mark, xiii, 14; Luke, i, 1),
and the most natural supposition is that our Evan-
gelists availed themselves of them. In fact, many
phenomena disdosed by the attentive study of the
first three Gospels render the supposition so probable,
not to Ba.y neoessaiy, that several advocates of the
hypothesis of oral tradition (Eckermann, Fillion, Le

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I

Camua, etc.), have been led to admit a Umited use of
written helps by the SynoptistB.

B. MtUucU IkperuKnce. — ^The hypotheeia cS mu-
tual d^>endence aasumes Utat the authors of the
Synoptic Gospels used each other's writings, each
suceesaive writer availing himself of earlier contribu-
tions, so that the second Evangelist (in the order of
time) borrowed from the first, and the third from
both first and second. Accordmg to it, the passages
which are alike reproduce those of earlier writings;
those whidt are divei^^t come from the personal
of the author or from an oral source. Hub,
it is said, is the most natural, as it is the oldest, man-
ner of explaining the resemblances and differences of
the first three Gospels. It is the most natural, inas-
much as if three other writers exhibited such a close
resemblance in their worics as the Synoptiste do, it
would readily occur to the reader's mind that they are
not independent of each other. It is the oldest also,
for it goes back to St. Augustine who formulated it in a
general way in his "De consensu evanKeliBtanim"
(I, ii, 4), and who in describing the ordo* a sueoesBion
of the Synoptics, natur^y f oUowed the one embodied
in the canon: Matthew, Mark, Luke. This order of
succession has been accepted by many achotav,
Catholic (Hug, Danko, Reithmayr, Patrui, De Val-
roger, Wallon, Schanz, Coleridge, fiacues) and Prot-
estant (Mill, Wetstein, Beiuel, Credner, Hilgenfeld,
etc.). But every other possible order of arrangement
has found advocates, in accordance with their respec-
tive views conceminjg the priority and order of se-
quence of the Synoptics. Ijie order: Matthew, Luke,
Mark, was advanced by Griesbach and has been
adopted by De Wette, Bleek, Maier, Langen, Grimm,
Pasquier. The arrangement: Mark, Matthew, Luke,
with various modifications as to their interdepen-
dence, is admitted by Ritachl, Retiss, Meyw, mike,
Simons, Holtzmann, Weiss, Batiffol, Weizsftcker, etc.
It is often designated under the nam@ of Uie "Muk
iQrpothesis", although in the ecyee <tf most of its de-
fenders, it is no longo- a hypothesis, meaning thereby
that it is an estabuahed fact. Besides these princi-
pal orders, others (Mark, Luke, Matthew; Luke,
Matthew, Mark; Luke, Mark, Matthew) have been
proposed, and more recent combinations (Bu<di as
those advocated by Calmet, Zahn, Belser, and Bon-
accorsi) have also been suggested. As regards the
theory of Baur and his school conoeming the composi-
tion m the Gospels, suffice it to say that it should not
really be connected with the hypothesis of mutual de-
pendence, inasmuch as its contention as to the orinn
of the canonical Gospels has nothing to do vrith the ut^
erary process of competition propounded by that hy-
pothesis to explain the relationship of the Synoptics.

By itself alone, the theory of mutual dependence
cannot be rwarded as a full solutioa of the SyQ(q)tic
Problem. Whichever order be adopted, there are al-
ways narratives where one of the Evangelists, — at
times, St. Mark himself, — is more complete than the
one who is given as his source, and consequently is in-
dependent of him, so that in all such cases appeal must
needs be made either to oral tradition or to non-
canonical writings. Again, in any form of the thecny,
the differences in form of nam^ion, especnaOy where
one writer seons irreooncilable with the other, and the
differences in arrangement, where the tanporaJ se-
quence is vei^ close, remain imaccounted for. Obvi-
ously, there is little need to criticize all the forms of
this hypothesis by bringii^ forward special instances
of the general objections just motioned. These
forms of it, however, which have found most able and
numerous advocates, may be briefly considered.
Against the term wbioh aBBcrts that St. Mark made
use of St. Matthew, and St. Luke made use <rf botii, it
may more particularly be urged: (1) that St. Mark
bearskin the Greek too manifest a stomp of origindity
that it ^ould be regarded simp^ as the work of an

)2 smofTios

abbreviator of St. Matthew; (2) that the use of boUi
St. Matthew and St. Mark hy at. Luke, even though
we should suppose it to be a fact, is insufficient for ex-
plaining by itself alone the presence in our Third Gos-
pel of an mdependent genealogy of Christ, the inser-
tion by St. Luke ot an altogether new narrative of
Jesus's birth and infancy, his scattering of many of
Christ's saymgs grouped by St. Matthew in the Ser-
mon on ^e Mount, bis detailed aooouut of the Pe-
rean Journey which is absent from both St. Matthew
and St. Mark, etc.

The arrangonait advocated by Griesba^^ to wit,
that St. Luke made use of St. MatUiew and St. Mark
utilized both, is likewise open to wdghty objections.
Plainly^ the supposition that St. Msjrk followed and
epitomized the other two Synoptics renders it more
difficult to account for the freshness and power of his
narrative; and in point ol fact, it cleaxly appears that
if a direct dependence is to be admitted at all, it is
time and agam not on the side of St. Mark's rugged
style and tttorter aooount of the QaUkaa minisby,
but on the aide ol the amoother f^nm and larger frame-
work of St. Matthew and St. Luke. Again, the de-
pendence of St. Luke on St. Matthew alone leaves
unaccounted for the additions, transpositions, etc.,
already referred to. Finally, the foUowins are the
principal difficulties ur^ed agaiest the "Mark hy-
pothesis". Its supposition that St. Mark is prior to
the other two Evangelists, goes against tlie tear
ditional data which desoribe St. Mattuew's Gospel (ja
^ Aramaic) as written first, and St. Mari:*8 narra-
tive as oi^nating independent^ of any written Go»*
pel. Agam, the assumed priority of St. Mark to St.
Matthew and St. Luke makes it hard to ima^iine on
what principle the later two Evangelists partitioned
between themselves practically all the contents of St.
.Mark's writ4ng. It is also urged that in the "Mark
hypothesis" neither the simple dependence of St.
Matthew on St. Mark alim& nm fliat of St. Laka on
both St. Matthew mi St. Maik can aooonnt for all
the phmomeiia (additions, inversionfl, veitMl ohanges,
etc.), which aiedisckiBed by an attentive study (rf tiw
Synoptics.

C. Earlier Documenta. — ^The documentary hypoth-
esis is the prevalent theory among non-Catholics. Its
puKral principle of solution of the Synoptic Problem
IS ^at m the composition of their writmgs, the fint
three EvangelistB have all made use c4 ei^lier written
material, llie application <rf this general principle
has ^ven rise to a great number of suppositions, t^e
principal of which may be briefly oonsiaered. Since
Eichhom (cbse of the eighteenth century), and espe-
cially since Resch (close of the ninete«ith), attempts
have been made to get behind our Greek Gospels to
one or more Semitic documents used in them, and
thus to account for the relationdiip of the Synoptics.
This written source, the primitive contents and word-
ing of which might still be detected, waa Hebrew ac-
cording to Resch and Abbott, Aramaic according to
Marshall, Hofteimn, etc. Ingeneral, the variation in
the words and clauses in our C^sspels is accounted for
by the different translations given to the Aramaic or
Hebrew words. It is undoubted that the recent ad-
vocates of the hypothesis of a Semitic source have dis-
played ^«st learning and ingenuity in pointing out
the Semitic expressions which might utmerUe the di-
vers readings noticeable in paraUel pEwsages of the
Synoptics. It is undoubted, too, that the general
background of the Gospels is Semitic in tJiougnt and
forms of expression, and even that Semitic docu-
ments (for instance, Christ's geneak^pes) have been
uaed by their authors.

By itsdf alone, however, the theory cS a Sonitio
source does not appear a satisfactory Bohition of the
^moptic Problem. It is not certain that the whole
Semitic background of the Synoptics had assumed a
written Bhape before it was utilised by the Evangel-
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BTNOPTIOft 31

bts, for oountleaa instances of SenuUc forms of
tiuHi^ andexpresBion tnxy equally well beaeoounted
for through the direot use of oral tradition, to wfaioh
source, as a matter of fact, Papias refers the origin oi
St. Mark's Gospel. Again, uie differences bettreen
the parallel passages of uie first three GoqmiIs are very
often such as to point directly to the use by the
Synoptists of the same Greek sources, so that in large
portions of their works, it is much more natural to ac-
count for such differences by Uie individual literary
taste, general puipose, etc., of llie Bvangdists, than
by an appeal to tne collateral use tA a Semitic orig-
inal, or a multiplicity of versions it, the very ex-
istence of which is doubtful, and the knowledge of
which by the Synoptists is still more questionable.

A more plausible form of the documentary hypothfr-
sis goes back in substance to Sohleiennacher (1817).
It maintains that, at an early period, many evangeli-
cal fragments, Greek as well as Aramaic, were scat-
tered tliTOUghout the Churches, — ttaditioiia 6oating
about of which writt«i aeeounts had been made.
These the tluee Syooptists worked in their Gospels,
together with materials which each had himself col-
lected; and in this manner the coincidences and the
differences of the Synoptics may be accounted for.
This theory of a plurality of primitive documentSj —
which in certain of its modifications is combined with
that a dependence of later, on earlier, canonical
Gospels, — ^is admitted by many scholan (He nan,
Wr«le, Sohtniedel, Loisy, etc.). This farm of the
documentary hypothesis does not necessarily go
against the inspired character of the Synoptic Gos-
pels. The actual use of certain primitive documents,
notsi>ly by St. Matthew and St. Luke, may also be
readily granted. But tradition ascribes to St. Mark's
Gospel a very different origin from the one supposed
by this theory, and a careful study of the contents and
the style of that Gospel has receativ convinced sev-
eral prominent scholars that the work is not a compil-
ation from written sources. Again, it is not proved
that because St. Matthew and St. Luke employed
written documents, they exclusively confined them-
selves to the use of such sources. In their day, oral
tradition was certainly much alive. At that time,
the difference between oral tradition and a document
was not great in many cases where it had easily become
stereocyiped by frequent repetition. And it is not a
safe position to deny the use of this tradition by St.
Luke, in particular, that is, by a writer who would
natui^y utilize every source of information at his
disposal. Finally, a constant appeal to new docu-
ments, the contents, extent, and very existence of
which cannot, many a time, be ascertained, gives to
this theory an air of artificiality which recommends it
little as an exact description of the actual manner
in which the Synoptic Gospels were composed.

The last genend form of the dociunenta^ hypothe-
aia which remains to be examined is the "Two Docu-
ment theory", according to which two large works
form the main sources of the Synoptics. One work
like our Gospel of St. Mark, if not identical with it, is
the source of the narratives common to the first three
Gospels, and the other, containing the Sayings of
Jesus, is the source of the didactic matter common to
St. Matthew and St. Luke. Modified in various
ways, this solution of the Synoptic problem has had,
and has yet, numerous advocates chiefly among Prot-
estant scholars. In the eyes of aH such critics, Uie
theory of only two main written sources is especially
commendable for its simplicity and plausibility. The
contents of the Synoptics comprise two classes of
parallel sections: the one consists of narratives of ac-
tions and events found in all three Gospels; the other
consisting of Christ's teaching appears only in St.
Mattiiew and St. Luke. Now, as in the selection of
material, tiic arrangement, and the language of sec-
tiona paraDd in all Uiree. St. Matthew constantLv

3 SYKOPTI06

agrees with St> Marii ^^ainst St. Luke, and 8t. Luke
with St. Biaric against ^TMatUiew, but St. MattheW
and St. Luke scarcely evo* agree i^ainst St. Mark, the
simplest supposition is that St. Matthew and St. Luke
made indepoident use of St. Mark as we have it, or of
a Gospd like it (Ur-Marcus). The freshness and
power of St. Mark's narrative go also to prove its pri-
ority to that of the otha two Evangeliste. Thus far
of the material eommon to the fiivt three Gospels.
The great bulk of the additional matter foimd only in
St. Matthew and St. Luke ewiaiBts mainly of the
words and disoounNS of Jesu^ and although it is very
differaitly ^ven as to histonc oonnexion and group-
ing, yet it IS paraded by such similarity of thought
ana expression as to suggest forcibly the hypothesis of
a single main source as its natural explanation. The
"Two Document theory" is also claimed to explain
the peculiar phenomenon of "doublets" in St. Mat-
thew and St. Luke. Finally, it is said to be uip-
ported by toadition ri^wr intrapreted. Papias,
fflieaking of books about CSulst written by St. Mat*
thew and St. Mark, says; "Mark, being the interpre-
ter oi Peto*, wrote carefully, though not in order, as
he remembered them, the things spoken and done by
Christ". "Matthew wrote the Logia in the Hebrew
language, and every one translated them as he was
able ". These statonents seem to point to two books
as the fountains of evaoselical written tradition. One
can be distinetb^ named; it is practically our secfHid
Gospel. Hie otiier, according to Hamack| Wellhau-
sen, Stanton, can still be reconstructed; it is a record
ci Loffia duefly embodied in our first Gospel (Ui>
Mattheus) and also utilized by St. Luke.

The "Two Document theory" is advocated by
many prominent critics (H. Holtzmann, B. Weiss,
Wendt, Wemle, Soltau, Jttlicher, Hawkins, etc.).
Yet, is is not an adequate solution of the Synoptic
problem. It leaves its d^enders hopelessly divided
on points of considerable importance, such as the
oompilatory character of St. Mark's Gospel; the ex-
tent and exact nature of the Logian document (Q)
utilized by our first and third Evangelists; the man-
ner of its use by St. Matthew and St. Luke, respect-
ively; the question whether it was used by St. Marie
also; the number of the sources employed by St. Mat-
Uiew and St. Luke besides St. Mark and Q; etc. A
greater difficulty sometimes urged uainst Uiis theory,
regards the priority of St. Mark, which its advocates
treat as a point alt<»ether settled. Tradition has it
that St. Matthew's Gospel existed in a Semitic form
before it was rendered into Greek, that is before it as-
sumed the only form now available for a comparison,
with St. Mark's narrative. Hence, it is claimed that
St. Matthew's dependence in the Greek on our sec-
ond (jiospel is one arising from the fact that its Greek
translation was made with the aid of our seoond Gos-
pel, and leaviiuc intact the priority of the earlier
Semitic form of St. Matthew's Gospel to the conqiosi-
tion St. Mark's writing. Among other difficulties
a^^ainst the ""Two Document theory" may be men-
tioned; (1) its inherent tendency to appeal to subsid-
iary written sources, the extent and nature of which
cannot be determined j (2) its genera! disregard of the
influence of oral tradition in the composition of the
Synoptics; (3) its common, but very improbable, de-
nial of St. Luke's dependence on both St. Matthew
and St. Luke.

From the for^ii^ rapid survey of the attempts at
solving the Synoptic Problem, it is plain that none of
them has been really successful. The problem is very
intricate; the historical information concerning the
origin of our first three Gospels, incomplete; and every
theory, one-sid&i. The satisfactory hypothesis, yet
to be formulated, must be a combination hypouiesis
gathering and uniting, in due proportions, all the
trulJuB presented by the various opinions, and alsa a
more thorough tbec»y taking fully int» account houx
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SmTAOMA 3

the (lata »( Patristic tr&dition aod those disclosed by
literary analysis. Such theory, when frained, will
undoubtedly supply the fullest vindicaUon of th« lu»-
torical value of our Synoptic reoordB.

T^E Synoptic Qubbtion and ihb Biblical Cqh-
inssioN. — ^The only decree thus far enacted the
Biblical Commission, which haa a bearing on the
Sjrnoptic Question, was issued 19 June, 1911. Its
direct object is to affirm the traditional authorship,
date of composition, and historical character of St.
Matthew's Gospel. Accordingly, it declares that the
author of our first Gospel is no other than the Apostle
St. Matthew, who wrote before the other Evangelistd
and considerably before the destruction of JeniMdem,
in the language of the Palestinian Jews for whom he
composed nis work. It authoritatively affirms that
the original work of St. Matthew was not a mere col-
lection of the sayings and deeds of Christ, but' a Gos-
pel substantially identical with our prMent Greek
Gospel according to St. Matthew. It finally pro-
claims the historical character of our first Gospel and
the genuineness of some of its portions (the fiist two
diuoters; dogmatic passages oonoemmg the primaey
ot Peter, the form ot baptism, etc.), wnich has been
questioned by modem cntics. Hence it is plain Uiat
1^ this decree the B^lical Commissioa did not intend
to deal with the Synoptic problem, to set forth an ex-
phmation of the resemblances and differences dis-
posed by a comparison of our first three Gospels.
Yet, the Roman decree has a particular bearing on the
theories of mutual depradence and earlier docu-
ments put ff^h as solutiona of the 6yn^D question.
In deciding the priority of St. Matthew's Ooqwl in its
ori^nal language and substance, to the other evan-
gelical narratives, the Biblical Commisfflc»i. has sol-
emnly disapproved of any form of those theories
which maintains that St. Matthew's original work
was not a complete Gospel or the first Gospel in the
order of time. In fact those Catholic scholars who
admit either of these thewies ree^tfd our Greek Gtm-
pel aeo(»ding to St, Matthew as a work \rittcfa goes
back in its i»-imitive Aramaic form to the Apostw ct
that name, and restrict its dependence on St. Mark to
ita extant Greek tranalatira.

(The nunea of Catbolio authon an marked with an aat«riak.)

wwpMs: — Rn8HBRCx)KBjSima«tiean (Loodut, 1880) ; Wkiobt,
A avnoptit of the OoiptU in Ortek ^London, 1908) ; Hv(x^Svw>p»»
(TODinien, 1910); Caucbltmck* and CoFnBnsa* Bvangm-
orum tee. Maa.. Marc, it Luc avnoptit (Bracsa. 1910).

latroductioDB to N. T.: — CoRNSLr* (Paria, 1897): Wuaa
(BerKn, 1897); Qaowr (Neuohatftl, 1904); Bbusb* (FnibunE,
I90S); GDrjAHB* (Grata, 1006): Jacqoiu* (Paib, IfiOSlj
JOuoHBB (Tabingen, 1906); Zahm (tr. Edinburdt, 1909):
Bkabsac* (PariB. 1910); Moitatt (New York. 1911).

Works on the Synoptio Problem: — CAUma*, Commmt m toni
fmnU ht ttangiUt (Paria, 1899) ; Wbinu, Dit tynoptitckt Frofft
(Fr^burs, 1900); Bohaccomi*, / trt primi mnoelt t la eriHea
ItUeraria ottia ta qtutHont tincUiea (Monaa, 1904) ; Wbliuubxn,
Sinieititnp in dit dni trttm Btaiwditn (Berlin, 1905); Wmaa,
Die QueUen der tj/noptia^Mn UberKtftrvna (Leipaig, 1908);
NicoLABDOT, Let proetdtt de ridaetion de» troit prtmtera <Mn-
oilitlM (PariB. 1908); HAWKiNa. Harm «vnop(ica (Oxford, 1909);
BoNKAUP*, Zw Bvangeiim from (MOnater, 19^; Hamiack,
Tht 3ayingt of Jam (N«w Yo», 1BQ8); [obm, nt DaU ^ Am
Aelt and Sjmoptie <3o«pcfa (New York, 1911); Stanton, The
OoiptU a* Hiatoncal Doevmenta, IT (Cambridgis, 1909); Caior-
LTitCK* ASD CoppiaTBH^, Synapait (Brugea, 1910); B
The Earliett SovreeiforthaLifa of J-ut (New York, 1910); San-
Da r. Oxford Sludia* in Ikt &nopMc PrMom (Oiford, 1911);
PamdibR*, La toluiion du motkme ajrtojAigue (Tours, 1911).

For action of theBibKoalConuniaBion aeeiltia Apoatoliea Sadit
(Rome, 1911). FraNCIS E. GlGOT.

Syntagma Canonum, a canonical collection made
in 1335 by Blastares, a Greek monk shout whose life
nothing certain is known. The collector aimed at
reducing canon law to a hani^er aod more accessible
form than it appeared in the Nomocanon of Fliotius,
and to give a more comprehensive presentation than
the epitomes and synopses of earlier writers such as
Stephen (fifth century), Aristenus (1160), Axeeniua
(1256), etc. The author arranered his matter in al-
phabetical order. He made 24 general divisions,
each maxkai off by a letter of the Oteek a^babet.

M 8T0H

These sections he subdivided into 303 titles, tbemsehea
distinguished by letters; for example, the third section
contains such topics as: rapl yd/Mv (about marriage],
wtpl yvmukAv (about women), etc. The titles tffdi- !
nuily treat ot the civil law (^uot i-^rMoO, as well !
as eeeleeiastioal law. Some titlos however are purely
ecclesiastical, others purely civil. The churdi otdi-
nances are quoted from previous collections, eape-
cially from tlie Nomocanon (883), while the extrseta !
from the civil law are for the most part transcribed
without any reference to their origin. The compila-
tion soon came into general use amo^ the clagv, and
preserved its authonty even under Turiush rule. A
traDBlation into Soman followed okwe upon its first
publication. It evw worked its way into the politi-
cal life of the Servian people througn an abrideiaait
which King Douchan appoided to his code (» Um
(1349). From this ths purely ecclesiastical aiact^
menls were excluded, but the civil law contained in the
Syntagma was reproduced whenever adaptable to the
social condition tn the people. In the sixteenth cen-
tury the Syntagma Canonum was translated into Bul-
garian; in the seventeenth century into Russian.

Bkvkkidoe, Sunodieon orianlala, II. 1-272; P. G.. CXLIV,
959-1400; Mortreuil, HitL du droa bvtantin. III. 4S7-«;
HxtuBACB, QTieth.-Rdm. RadU (n EncB and OaoBsa, AkwIm
LXXXVI, 407-70, tr. Pmr la Vacant and MAManrar. iUl £
Mot. eathol., a. v. Blaataraa. joHN Dbladnat.

Syon Monastery, Middlesex, England, founded
in 1415 by King Hrauy V at his manor oi Islewortlk.
Hie "Monast^ of St. Saviour and St. Eridgetitf
Syon" was the only one in England bel(HiginB to the
modified order of St. Augustine, as reformed by St.
Bridget (see BmaiiTiNEs). and comprised thirteen
priests, four deacons, ana eight lay brethren, be-
sides sixty nuns. The property extended for half
a mile along the bank of the Thames, near Twicken-
ham; and the chief duty ot the community was to
pray for the souls at the royal foundor and his near
relatives and tor all Uie faithful departed. Martin
V confirmed the foimdation in 1418, and the first
novices were professed in 1420. Six years later the
Regent (John, Duke of Bedford) laid the first stone
of uie chapel: endowments and benefactions rapidly
flowed in, ana towards the close of the century and a

3uarter which elapsed between its foundation and
issolution, the annu^ income of the monastery was
estimated at £1730, equal in modem money to 101^-
000 dollars. The good observance of Syon was
maintained to the last; and even Layton and Beddl,
Hairy VIII's servile oommismoners, ootdd find little
or nothing to bring against the community. The
inmates were nevertheless expelled in 1539. and the
building seized by Henry^ who imprisonea his fifth
wife, Katherine Howard, in them for some months.
The nuns retired to a house of thdr order in flander^
but in 1557, on the accession of Queen Mary, they
returned to Syon, and the greater part of their prop-
erty was restored to them. At tne queen's deatn,
however, the^ were once more exiled, and after variouB
wanderings in France and Spain settled in Lisbon,
^eare they still own property. The Lisbon com-
munity returned to England in 1861, settling at
Spettisbury, Dorsetshire (transferred to Chudleigh, '
EVevon, m 1887). The Isleworth monastery was
granted by James I to the nintii Earl oS Northunt- I
berland, whose descendants still hold it. The preant i
mansion is mostly the work of Inigo Jimea, the anoent
mulberry-trees in the garden being, it ia said, the sde j
relic of we conventualdomain.

AcitOEK, Hittorv and Antimtitiea of Syon MonaaUrg (Iioiidoa.
1S40) ; BLiTifT, Tht Mjfroure of our Ladyt: ogicta «Md at Sifon (Lon-
doD, 1873), hi^rioal introduotion; DiraDALX, MonaMte. AmU-
can.. VI (London, 1825), 540, 641; Wilus, Bialory of AbUf.
II (London. 1719), 136; Tannnb, Notiiia mmtaaliea: MiddUm.
II (London, 1787): Baxtek, Span Ahbm (ChudMch, •- d.);
Oahqdxt. Henrv VHTandOu MngHA UemMtmin^inU'afm.
1889), 358, 450,476,488.

D. O. HuNna-Bion.

Digitized by Google

395

9^n, DiocHB or (Stbbksu) » Lstiu diooiBu,
suffragan of Naaoe, cmupriBing the Island of 8ivt%
of the Cjrdades in the iGgean Sea. The island has
an area of about thirty-one square miles and 32,000
mhal^tanta; it was first called Syria and also Syros,
and appears to have been inhabited by the I*hceiii-
cians. It was the country of the swineherd Eu-
nueus who described it at HEQgth (OdyBsey, XV, 403
so.); and of the philosopha' Pberecydes, the teacher
01 Pythagoras. It possessed two leading cities,
SytoB (now the modon HomupoHs) and another ei^
oa the weeton oosat where staods to<day Mana
della Graiia. The island played no rfile in antiq-
luty nor in the Christian epoch; it was not even a
dioeeee, at a time when the smallest island possessed
its bishop. Devastated several times during the Mid-
dle Ages with the other Cyclades by the Sicilians,
Aiabe, Turks, and Voietians, it was definitively con-
quered these last in 1207. They kept it until
1522 when the oarsair Barbarooa tow POOKSWHI 01
it for ihe Tu^; after 1821 it was anneied to the
HeDoiia kingdom. The Venetians estabKshed there
a Latin bishopric which was subject to the Arch-
bishopric of Adiens until 1925, afterwards to thbt of
Naxos. The list of titulars may be found in Le
Quioi (Oriens christianus, III, 866-868) and in
Eub^ (Hierarchia catholica medii evi, I, 402; II,
267; III, 324). Hie most celebrated among them
istheVaunUeJohn Andrew Caiga, strangled by the
TuriES in 1617 for having refused to beoome a MiBSut>
man (P^tridds in "Revue de FOrient chr^tien", V,
407-422). From the occupation of the island by the
Turks in the sixteenth oenUuy, the Greeks established
there a metropolitan: Joseph (Le Quien, op. cit.,
II, 233) is the earhest known, with Symeon who died
in 1594 (Ampelas, "Histoire de Syros", 411) and
Ignatius in 1696 (Mikkieidi andMueller, "Actapatri-
ardiatuB oonstantiw^M^tani ", V, 461). Hie island
became for the most part Catholic (Ricant, "Histoire
de Teatat prAnnt de rEgUae grecque", 861; Hilaire
de Barenton, "La France Cathouque en Orient",
171-173).

Syra took no part in the Greek revolt oS 1821;
but here the refugees flocked and founded the town
of Hennupolis, which rapidly became the leading port
<tf Qreeoe. Since 1870 the ports of PiiKus and Pattas
have creatfy injiued it from a oommereial 8tan(^>oint.
The t&cese numbers 8000 CTathcriics, 21 secular priests
and 8 regulars, 7 parishes, 7 churches with a resident
priest, 3 without a priest, and 56 chapc^. The
Capuchins and Jesuits have each an eetaobshment;
the Sisters of Charity, 2 houses, one of whidi is a
Iio^>ital: the Sisters of St. Joseph of the Apparition
have a boaiditw-ediool.

Sum. Diet. «f urttk and Roman 0«og., m. Laoboce. list
de la Qriea (Paru. 18S3), 447-50: MakoatOuncbt. Aux im««
dTBomkn (Ttob, 19M), m-VZ; MUtimut eaOuUea (Rmim, 100^,
ISO; AimLu. HUL of Ssrot (Hennupolto, 1874), fa Or«ek.

8. Vaiia^.

fiyraeuM, Abchdioccbb or (Sthacdsana), in
Sici^. Hie city is situated upon a peninsula extend-
ing mto the Ionian Sea, near the mouth of the River
Anapus, on the banks of which the papyrus plant
is still cultivated. The territory produces all varie-
ties of grains, v^etables, and fruits. Of the two
harbouzs of the city, the prineip^ one is the largest
in Sicily and tme cf the laigest of the Mediterranean;
two islets, San Marciano and Castelluccio, render h
secure wiuiout obstructing the entrance. At present
the exports exceed the imtwrts. The oathedial is
buih on the ruins of an ancient temple of MiiKrva,
wfaioh was a hexastylo-periptCTos with thirtv-eix.
eaixaana of which only twenty-tWo remain. In m>nt
<^ the cathedral are statues of St. Peter and St. Paul
Iff Manbitti; in the interior are several pictures
(Madonna of the Pillar; Birth of the Virgm) by Agoe-
tino Bolla, win also painted ti» freMoaa <x the vault

of the Chapel of the Blened Sacrament and the tdlvur
statue of St. Uugr. The biqttisinal font is fashioned
from a large Greek crater, testing upon seven small
lions of bronie, found in the catacombs of San Gio-
vanni. Among the furniture is a storiated amber
dialice. Other ohurdies are: Santa Lucia, with a
"Martyrdom" of ^e saint by Guinaccia; San Bene-
detto, oontaining a cootare of the saint by Minniti;
San Martino; San Spirito; San Domenico; II Gesd
(the diureh of the Jesuits), with paintings of the
Venetian Sohool and astatue (tf St. Ignatun^ Mara-
bitti; the Church of Santa Luoia dei Riformati with-
out the city, possessing a painting by Caravaggio.
Amoi^ the civic buildines are the fort of Giorgios
Maniiutes and Palaxzo Montaldo, in the (jothic and
Moorish styles. The museum is rich in both Clreek
and Latin inscriptions (among which are many Chris-
tian inscriptions from the cataoombs) and fragmmts

Tn CATsamui.. Stkacdsb, Sranr

of Statues, inoludii^ a Venus leaving the bath. The
public Ubrary has an important oollectiMi' of medals.
Ancient ruins at Syracuse are much less numerous
than one would expect. There are still-to be seen:
the amphitheatre (epoch of Augustus); the Greek
theatre, excavated from the rock; aepulchres also ex-
cavated in Ute rock; the colossal attar of Hiero II,
seven hundred and sixty feet long, upon which, after
the e:q)ulsion of Thrasybulus, four himdred and fifty
onran were sacrificed; the "Latomie", i. e. caves in the
rock where condemned prisoners of war and others
were incarcerated, of Tidiioh the most famous is ^e
"Ear of Dionysius". The fountain of Arethusa,
which issues forth in the ward of Ortygia (the present
Syracuse), in antiquity was sweet but sfaioe an earth-
quake of the twelfth century has become salt. The
Catacombs of San Giovanni, of Santa Maria del
Geeii, and the catacombs Cassai, similar to those at
Rome, are well known; besides these there have been
discovered m the environs of Syracuse various tombs
(Lentini, Valle del Molindb, Priolo, San Alfano,
PalantOM, etc.) whidi have mth« tlw dharaoter of
ancient tombsof the Sicelioti (aboriginal inhabitants).
The present Syracuse occupies only a part of the an-
cient city, llie latter was otm^KMed of five great
quartsnc (1) Ortygia, origmally an ukpd but after-
Digitized by VjOOglC

wards arUfictally joined with the munland. the moet
ancient part of the city, oontaining the acropolis dis-
mantled by TimoleoQ, and the palaoe of Ki^ Hiero,
where in later days the Roman govenorfl resided; (2)
Achradine, the moet sumptuous quarter, where moet
business was conducted, situated on the small port
or the Trogiloe (now the Gulf of Manghiai). It was
fortified ajid contained the temple of Jupiter Olym-
picus, the piytaneion, the theatre, and the catacomb
of San Giovanni; (3) Tyche, the moat populous par^
deriving its name from the t^nple (rf fortune ana
oontainmg the palaoes of Diocles and Dionyaius, the
%hthouse, and the Galeagra Tower; (4) Neapolis
or Temenites, containing various temples, Uie thea-
tre, Uie amphitheatre, and tiie Latomie; (5) Epipolai,
which aroee on the heists dominating the remainder
of the city, and contained the fort Euryakw. All
the city was suirounded by sbrong vaUs and begrwul
Epipolai was the castle of Labduon. The circum-
ference of the city was 180 stadia (20 miles). T^e
name Syracuse is derived from the swamps of the
valle;^ of the Anapus. The ancient aqueduct is
still in use.

When in 734 the Corinthiaa Archias approadied
the isle of Ortyraa, it was inhabited by natives whom
he eiqwlled. Tba oolong fiourished amid continual
petty wars with the natives, whose greatest leader,
Ducetius (450 b. c.) voluntaiily surrendered to the
SyncwoMiB, who sent him U> Corinth. The govern-
ment was in the hands of the landowners (g^moroi),
agunst whom in 484 the slaves revolted. The land-
owners were expelled, but were conducted bade into
the city by Gelon, tyrant of Gela, who in this manner
became lord also of Syracuse. It being easier, as
he said, to gf>vem one hundred rich than a single
poor man, the poor were sold. Otherwise Gelon was
an excelleiit ruler. He conquered iiie Carthaginians
at Himera, aspired to dominion over the whole island,
ajjid was an object of wonder to all the aristocrats
of Syracuse. It was be who aRsrandized the city by
bringing in the inhabitants of Camarina, of Megara,
of Eubffia, and part of those of Gela. In 478 he was
- succeeded by his brother Hiero, who held a splen-
did oourt^ favoured poets, orators, and philosopners.
He contrived to avoid a war with Cft-genti, aided the
Cumaneans to conquer the Etniseans by sea (474),
and established his dominion as far as Mt. Etna.
He should have been succeeded by his son, but his
brother Thrasybulus assumed the government, which
he carried on with such cruelty and perfidy that he
was expelled after a year. Syracuse was again free,
and the government then became a democracy.
Following the example of Athenian ostracism they
in^oduced the practice of "petalism", according to
whitdi each man wrote on an olive leaf the name of
the most powerful citizen; whoever obtained the
greatest number of leaves was banished for five years.
At first the democracy was favourable to the greatness
of the city, which obtained a sort of hegemony over
the Greek cities of Sicily, and also of Magna (^«cia.
Tb» arts and litnature flouridied. The ambitbus
designs of the E^rracusans at the expense of Uie Leon-
tines (427) and of Egesta (416) caused the interven-
tion of the Athenians, instieated especially Alci-
biades. In 415 a splendid fleet sailed for Sicily and
anchored in the great harbour. The city would per-
have fallen if the Spartans, lead by Gylippos,
not come to the rescue. Finally, in September,
413, the Athenian army imd fleet were totally de-
Btroyed. The prisoners were either slain or tluowu
into Latomie. Syracuse received from Diocles
a new constitution And new laws which were most
severe. But soon the interference of Syracuse in
the quarrels of ^esta and Selinus provoked the
intervention of (Su-thage. The victories of the
Carthaginians at Himera (4/091) gave the oppor-
tunity to IhtmocrateB, then an tam, to attempt to

16 anuoun

ovwtum the Qovwimuat, an atten4>t iriiidi east
him his life (W\. Imiysius, proceeding more
craftily, first had himself elected among the judges.
By flattering the common people and discrediting his
coUeagues be obtained for himself the sole command
of the anny and succoured Gela against Hannibal
the Elder (405). On his return the people gave him
unlimited powers. He surrounded himself with a
bodyguard, f<»-tified and enlarged the city, combatted
witii varying fortunes the Carthaginians, who were
conquered at Mot^ in 397, and obliged to retreat
from Syracuse, «4udi they lud besi^ed by land and
by sea (396). Every reverse of the tyrant was fol-
lowed by revolts, which w^, however, always
crushed with extreme severity. Having made peace
with the Carthaginians in 392, he attemptea the
subjection of Magna Gnecia as well, until the activi-
tioB of the Carthajpniana called him back to S]nar
ouse (383-68). Dionysius perfected the science and
techme of war, fav«Hired poets and phikMor^eis,
and was a wipe mkr, but he was suspicious and cruel.

He was succeeded in 368 by his son Dionysius II,
a vicious ^oun^ man, upon whom his uncle Dion
and Plato m vam attempted to exercise a beneficent
influence. Dion depoeed him in 366, but impru-
dently rendered himself unpopular aiid was wain
(354) by the Athenian CaUipus. The latter was in
turn expelled by Hipparinus, another son cf IMony-
mus I (353-fil). Nysnus followed in succession (350-
47), but in 346 Dionysius II, who had remained in
exile at Locri, expelfed Nysseus, and resumed the
government with greater tymanny than ever. Tb»
nobility oonsnired against him, and summoned Hioa-
tas, tyrant of Leontmi, who succeeded in conquering
and imprisoning Dionysius. Others, however, had
i^lied for aid to Corinth, irtiidi in 345 sent Timo-
letm, vrbo oonquoed Hieatas and the CartJuKniians
(340), and re-establidied the constitution of ^octoa.
In 317 Agatbodes, an able general, by the slaughter
of six hundred of the richest Syraeusans obtained the
appointment to the oommand of the troops and the
government. A good ruler, he warred with the Car-
thaginians, who in 311, for the third time, entered the
port of Syracuse. By an act of supreme audacity,
Agathocles shifted the scoie d the ma into Africa
and thus liberated his country. His star afterwards
declined and he was killed by hb nephew Archaga-
thus (289). The city fell into a state of anarohy,
ended in 288 by Bicatas, vrho was in turn deposed by
Tinion (280). In 271 it was foimd necessary to sum-
mon the aid of I^jrnhus, King <^ Epirusj^jmo raised
the siege of the city, but soon retired. The ravages
of the Mamertines nve occasion to Hiero II to
oppose them succeeafuUy, and tiius to acquire the
government of Syracuse (269). Tim war brought
him into opposition with the Romans, with whom he
finally concluded peace by becoming their tributary,
and even aided them aft^ their disaster at CamuD.
His nephew and successor, Hieronymus (216),
changed this policy, forming an alliance with Hao-
nibal, which policy was continued after his mur-
der by the popular government. For this reason
the city was faesi^ed and blockaded in 214 by Clau-
dius Marcellus, and finally taken and sailed in 212.
The statues and otha objects of art or ttf nhie w«<e
transported to Rome, ^rracuse became the seat of
the Roman government in Sicily, and remained sudi
until the Byzantine epoch. During tJie Roman
period the Latin language replaced the Greek, which
was restored under the Bj^santines. From 663 to
668 the Ebnporor Constantine II resided here until
he was slain oy his genera^ Meiesius, who in his turn
was killed by the sokliery of Its|y. News of thme
events brou^t over the Saraoens frcnn Africa, wno
sacked the city. A century lator (878) tiie city was
taken and pillaged for forty days by the Arabs. Its
decdiii^ iniidi begu during tbs fiomu pfriad,

Digitized by VjOOglC

397

STKACUSI

PBopoBBOd mve and nuxe, partioularly ofta* I^brmo
became the capital. In the attempted reoonqueBt
by the Bysantmes, Geoive Manioku, after having
taken Messina, captured SyraouM (1038). In 1066
it was taken by Count Ru^ero, ainl from this time
it followed the fate of Sicily. In 1194 it was beai^ed
and captured bjr the Emperor Henry VI: on the other
hand, m 1298, it suooessfully resisted the Aruonese
fldet, and in like manner the bk>ekade 1^ the rrench
admiral, Vivonne (1677). In 1504 it became the
residence of the Spanish viceroys, but after a century
this honour was given to Palermo, whither the noble
families were also transferred. In 1542 and again
in 1693 it was damaged by earthquakes. In 1798
and 1806 the port of ^raouse was of great importaooe
for the opwatkms of tlie Skiglish met agfunst the
French.

Among the illiistiious Syraeusans of anUquity
wero: the poets Theooritus, Callimachus, and Moe-

chus: E^charmus, the writer of comedies; Uie phil-
osopher Philolaos; the orators Cteeias, Dion, and
Lyaias; the historian Flavius Vopiscus, and St.
Methodius, monk and Patriarch of Constantinople,
(d. 1847). Syracuse claims to be the second Church
founded by St. Peter, after that of Antioch. It also
claims that St. Paul preached tJiiere. As the first
bishop it TenoBtes St. Marcianu& the date of whose
life is not an easy matter to eBtablish, since tqo little
authenticity can be ass^ed to the list of the seven-
teen bishops who were predeceesors of Cheistus,
to whom the Emperor Constantino wrote a letter.
In the times of St. Cyprian (the middle of the third
century), Christianity certainly flourished at Syra-
cuse, and the catacombs clearly show that this was
the case in the second century. Besides its mar-
tyred bidmpB, Syracuse boasts of not a few other
martyni, sui^ as Sts. Benignus and Eugarius (204),
St. BasBianus (270) ; and the martyrdom of the deacon
Euplius and the viivm Lucy under Diocletian are
beyond doubt true. The names of the known bishops
of the following century are few in number: Grermanus
(346): Euhilius (465); Agatho (553), during; whose
rule Pope Viivihus died at Syracxise; Maxunianus
and Joannes (586), who received letters* frofn St.
Gregory ihs Martjnr; while axuxthsx bidiop was dfr-
nounoed by Pope Honorius for the protection which
he accorded to women of the streets; St. Zozimus
(640), who founded the monastery of Santa Luoia
fuori-lfr^ura; St. Elias (d. 660). Of Marcisr
nos II it is rcJated that he was consecrated not at
Rome, but at Syracuse, since the Emperor Leo the
Isaurian (726) had removed Southern Italy from the
jurisdiction of Rome, and had then elevated Syracuse
to the d^ity of a metropolitan see, over the thirteen
otbo* dioceses of Sicily. Stephen II (768) carried
to Constantinople tibe relics of St. Lucy for safety
against the Saracen incursions. Gregonos Asbestas
(^>out 845) was deposed by St. Ignatius, Patriardi
of Constantinople, and then bec^e the principal
abettor of the schismatic Photius. In 878 St. Sopmro-
nius, together with the monk Theodosius, was thrown
into prison at Palermo where he died in a dungeon.
Until thA Normaii Conquest the names of (urtiier
bishops are not known. The series reopens in 1093
with Bishop R<^r, who received the pallium from
Urban II; m 1169 the EngUshnum Richard Palmer
was also invested by p^al authority. In 1188
the see became suffragan of Monreale. Among the
bi^ops of this period are: Rinaldo de Lusio, killed
in 1154; Pietro de Monoada (1313) and Ruggero
Bellomo (1419), who restored the cathedral; Jacopo
Venerio (1460), afterwards cardinal: Pietro de Ur^
ries (1516), ambassador of Charles V to the Lateran
Council; Gorolamo Bononi (1541), a distinguished
reformer at the Council of Trent; Jacopo Orozco
(1662), who introduced the Bmnan ritual in place
of tlw Gallioaa, and who founded tiie seminaiy.

During the sixteraith and seventeenth centuries,
celebrated synods w&n frequently held at Syra-
cuse. Bishop Annibale Termini (1695) rebuilt tha
church, thirty-five monasteries, and the seminaiy,
which had been destroyed by an earthquake. In
1816 the Diooeee of Caltagirone was detached from
Syracuse. Piassa Armerina and Noto were made
its suffragan sees, but the latter was detached in the
same year.

The archdkicese has 31 parishes, 400 secular and
70 regular cler^, with 300,000 souls; six monasteries
for men and eight convents for women; it publishes
a Catholic weekly and "II Foglio Eccleaiastico".

CAmvLMTTt.Le Chitted Italia, XXI (Vanioo, 1857); Pnm-
TBKA, SiracMa antiea § utotUma (Naples, 1879): Ckvaumi
AND Holm, Tapografia areh«oloffiea di Siraetua (Rome. 1884);
LuPDS, Syrakut in* AUerium; FObkeb, Fortckung"* *ur
Sieilia toUtrmua (Munioh, 1897); Stbaudlla, Dm reemli
■ram «Mffut(i nn eimUtri di Sieilia (Palermo, 1896) ; MvMum
epignjMcum mw itiscriplionum qua in Sj/raeutani* eataeombii
rtptria aunt airj/utatium (Polenmo, 18B7) ; Obu in Natitit dtffli
Seant. AntkhOa (Boiu).

U. BiHiom,

Sttmum, Diocese or (Steacusbmbib), in the
State of New York, comprises the counties of Broome,
Chenango, Cortland, Madison, Oneida, Onondaga,
and Oswego, and contains an area of 5626 square
miles, a little more than one-ninth of the entire state.
Out of a popuhttion <A 609,041, about 161,000, or a
little more tnan one-fourth, are Catholics.

Missions Aiionq thx Indians. — The Oneidas and
the Onondagas occupied lands near the shores of
the lakes which bear their names. The first chosen
president of the Iroquois was the venerable Ato-tao-ho,
a famous Onondaga chief. The Onondagas were the
central nation of the League, and not far from the
proBCDit episKHWl raty, on Indian Hill, between the
ravines formea the west and middle branches of
Limestone Creek in the town of Pompey, about two
miles south of Manlius, was the village of Ononda^,
the seat (rf govOTiunent for the League of the Five
Nations. It is probable that some of the Francis-
can Fathers of the Recollect reform, whom Champlain
obtained from France in 1614 to minister to the
Fruich settlers and convert the natives, visited this
toiitoiy and offered up the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass
on the shores of Lakes Onondaga or Oneida, and per-
haps in what is now Oawego as early as 1615. Father
Le Moyne, 8.J., however, must be considered (he
real foimder of the Church in the Diocese of Syracuse.
Fathers Joseph Chaumonot and Claude Dabion were
selected to begin the work of evangelization. They
said Mass on uie onosen site Sunday, 14 November,
1654. A little bark chapel was soon constructed
with the asaistance ttf the Indians. St. Jolui the
Baptist had been adopted as the patron of the mission,
and it was doubtless under his patronage that this
first chapel on the soil of New York was dedicated.
Another chapel was built for the French settle,
St. Mary's of Ganantaa (Lake Onondaga). But
Uiese first missions among the Onondagas and the
Oneidas had but an ephemeral existence. The
Iroquois were constantly moited u^inst the French
nusaonarieB both the Dutch and English in Albaiw .
James II ascended the Ihrone of Enjduid in 1685
and openly professed the Catholic Faith. While
Duke of York (1682) he had appointed Colonel
Thomas Dongan (Sovemor of the (Colony of New
York. Dongan, an Irishman and a Catholic, pre-
sided over the first representative assembly of New
York which gave us the charter of liberties. I/iyal
to his FaiUi and oountry alike he sought to preserve
and perpetuate Uie CAtholio missions among the
Iroquois without str^igthening F^oh influence
in the colony. For this purpose he broi^t over
with Mm three English Jesuits: Thomas Harvey,
QiarleB Gage, and Heniy Harrison. He established
a Latin adiool in New Yoifc and pilMqjl it in charse

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STRAOmiK 3

<tf these Jeeuits. He pUuined also to eetabKah a
■ettlement of Irish Catholics in the interior of the
colony, very likely somewhere within the limits of the
present diocese. But when Don^an fell all pros-
pect of. liberty for Catholic wor^ip in the colony
of New York disappeared, and the hope was expressed
at the time of his downfall "that Papists would not
henorforUi come so freely to settle in the colony".
Governor Bellemont of New York secured the paa-
sa^e of a law by the colonial legislature punishing
with perpetual imprisonment any priest remaining
in the province or coming after 1 November, 1700,
and any priest who escaped from his dungecm was
liable to the penalty of death if he should be retiUten.
To harbour a Catholic was to incur a fine of £260
and to stand in the piltory for tliree days. Under
these circumstances the Jesuit misuona were neces-
sarily closed amone the Five Nations. The mission
of C^densbui^, established a little later for the Onon-
dagas uid the Oneidas by Abb^ Fran9oi8 Pioquet, a
SuTpician, was finally abandoned in 1760, and the
last chapter was closed in the story of the Jesuit
missions among the Iroquois.

The Chvbch ahono the Wbitbb. — Less than a
quarter of a centun* after the final destraetion of the
missionB among the Iroquois thefirst^teaettlercame
to Oriidcany. Gradually, a few Catholics followed,
John Cunmi^am of Utica being the first Catho-
lic of whom history makes mention. Rev. Paul
McQuade who was ordained in Montreal in 180S was
the first missionary. He waa pastor of St. Mary's
church, Albany, from 1813 to 1815, and made fre-
quuit visitations to Utica. There is no record of
wbsn the first Mass waa celebrated in Utica, but
there is no doubt that it was in the home of John
C. Devereux, one of the pioneer Catholics then
(1813) a member of the board of trustees of St.
Mary's church, Albany. Rev. Michael O'Gorman,
a native of Ireland, pastor ot St. Mary's church,
Albany, from 1817 to 1819, was the founder of the
first parish in the Diocese of Syracuse, ttiough not
the first pastor. He celebrated the first publjc Mass
in Utica, in the Court House, 10 January^ 1819.
He organized the Catholics, and it was decided to
erect a church for Central and Western New York,
at Utaca. A corporation was duly formed under the
name of the "Trustees of the first Catholic Church
in the Western District of New York". The first
trustees were: John O'Connor of Auburn; John C.
Devereux and Nicholas Devereux of Utica; Morris
Hogan of New Hartford; Ohver Western ck Johns-
town; Thomas McCailiiv of Syracuse; John MoGuire
of Rochester; and Charles Carroll of Genesee River.
The resident oongregatimi did not exceed thir^.
Rev. John Faman, a native of Ireland, appointed
pastor, be^an at once the erection of St. John's
church, Utica, and the little oh<^l was dedicated
by Bishop Connoly, 19 August, 1821. While pastor
of Utica, Father Faman vuited Rochester, in 1820,
and celebrated the first public Mass in that city.
He was also the first resident priest to attend the
Catholics of Brookl>[n. Among the Catholic lay-
men of that early period, might oe mmtioned James
Lynch and Thomas McCarthy of Syracuse, and Dom-
inick Lynch of Lynchville, now Bmne, N. Y. Dom-
inick Lynch was one of the first trustees of St. Pet^s
church. New York, and in 1790 when the Catholics
of the United States presented an address oT oongnvtu-
tation to George Waidiington, on his electbn io the
preddea<Qr, he was one erf the four laymen who
■med it.

TBS DiocBBK or Stbacusb.— The Diocese of
^^raeuse WBsprojeotedlnrtfae Holy See, ISSe^itcmber,
1886, sndRt-Rev. Pattiok Anthony Ludden, D.D., then
vicar'ceneral <rf the Diooese of Albaay, and rtctor of
St. Peta-'s church, Tnnr, was nominated for the
omtemiriated see. Fatfier Loddn dooliiwd the

18 mAovn

honour. Thereupon, considmable eorrenwDdcnoe
passed between Archbifhop Corrigan of New York
and the Cardinal Prefect of the Sacred Congregation
of the Propaganda in Rome. Finally, the Diocese
of Sytiunise waa erected by Leo XIII, 20 November,
1886, and Fathw Ludden. in spite of his emphatic
refusal, was ^x^ted tushop of the new see, 14
December. 1886. He was horn 4 February, 1836,
near Castlebar, County Ma^, Ireland, and was
orduned prie^ May, 1864, m theGrand Seminary,
Montrealj Bishop Ekmrget. He was rector of the
Cathedral of the munaculate Conc^ition, Albany,
xmder Kshop McChAey, and vicar geoo^ under
Bishops Conroy and McNamy, and feu- seven yeare
previous to his appmniaaeat as Bisheq) of Syrtwjufle,
ne had been rsetor ctf St. Peter's diurdi, Tr^. He
iras consecrated at ^racuse, 1 May, 1887, by Arch-
bishop Corrigan of New York:, assisted by Bidiop
McQuade of Rochester, and Bishop McNeimy of
Albany. When the diocese was established, men
were but 64 secular, and 10 reHgioua priests; 46
parish, and 20 mission churches; 15 chapels; 16 paro-
chial schools; 2 academies; 5 orphan asylums; and
2 horoitals. Rt. Rev. Mgr. John Grimes, D.D., was
appomted ooadjutor Kmop ot ^snraooae, wiu the
title <tf Bishm of Imeria, 9 ¥^bmary, 1909. He
was bom in u<eland, IS December, 1862, made his
ecclemastical studies in the Grsnd S^ninary, Moor
treal, and was ordi^ed to the priesthood in Albany,

19 Fdaruaiy, 1882, by Bishop McNeimy, of Albany.
He was consecrated bishop 16 May, 1900, in the
Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, Syracuse,
hy Archbishop Farley of New York. St. John the
Evangelist chun^ in Syracuse was the pro-cathedral
until 1903. At that time. Bishop Ludden purdused
with his own money, property adjoining st. Mary's
church which had been planned and oonstruoted by
Rev. James A. O'Hara, D. D., for many years one
of the most prominent figures in Central New York.
He died 26 Dec., 1889. Bishop Ludden, at his own
expense, erected on tiie property a new cathedral and
consecrated it 26 September, 1910.

Among the pioaeer priests of the dx>oen may be
mratimed: Right Rev. David W. Baoon and Um
Ri^t Rev. Francis P. McFarland^Fatinra ^niUam
Beecham, Hiomas Daly, Michael Haekett, Mietlud
Heas, Bartholomew F. McLc^lin, Leopold Mociy-
gemba, O.M.C., Walter J. Quarter, llie prominent
uvymon include Francis Baumer, Ufaic Burke, M. D.,
John Carton, J<An C. Devereux, Nicholas Devereux,
Capt. David Do^, Francis Kenum, James Lynch,
John McCarthy, "rlinnas MoCarthv, Petw MoGuirB,
Michael MeQuade, Fraiuns MvapSky, Oweb CNdl,
Edward White.

There are many causes for the remarkable growth
of Uie Catholic Church in Central New Yon. It
was chiefljr the Irish immigrants who dug the Erie
Canal, wluoh was begun f July, 1817, almost the
exact date of the organisation of the first church in
the diooese. The salt qutngs of Syracuse disoovwed
by Father Le Moyne, in the miasiooary period, added
much to the wealth cc these parts and atiraetea many.
When through tariff reduotiDn this investment became
no longer profitable, extensive ootton andwookxi
mills, foundries and factories of all kinds, were es-
tablished. Another cause wlueh Contributed to the
growth as welt as to the oosmopolhan chaneter of
uie people, was the coining of various nationalitiee
at different periods. The Germans began to come
in small numDers, socm after the eraotion of the fint
church (1820). Aooordnig to the oSoial leeords.
Rev. J<^ Lewis Wariath was placed in efaa^ of
theee immigrants as earfy as 1837. Hie Itafian knmK
pration began with the oMisinietion of the West
Shore Railroad in the early eighties. The Poke be-
gan to fccata in the diooeea afaont a quarter of a
century ago. They have now lai^ and flouridunc

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parishes, diurahee, and schools in various parts of
the dkraese. The Utinianians are, as yet, oompare-
ti^wljr few in number. Tbey have fine proper^, a
temporary church, a resident priest in Utica, and
nve evidnoe of rapid progrees. The Syrians
be^an to come about a decade ago. Tbey are fotmd
chiefly in Syracuse and Utica. In the Utter city,
tbsy have a handsome church, and a rcMdoit priest,
lliey worship aecordinf; to the Syro-Maronite Rite.
The Slovaks began ooming to the diooeee only within
the last few years. They are of the Latin and the
Greek Rite, and are found principally in Syracuse
and in Bin^hamton. In the latter <uty they have a
resident pnest and a flourishing parira.

Reuoious CoMUUNrms. — ^Another important fac-
tor in the upbuilding of the diooese, was the work
of the different relwious communities devoted to
education and chanty. The Ftanoiscaa Fathers
of the Ordv of Minor Conventuals eame in 1859.
T}<e motbtf-house <^ the Ord»of the Minor Conven-
iLials in Uie United States is located in Syracuse.
The Christian Brothers have been labouring in the dio-
cese for more than a century. They have a
large and flourishing academy in Syracuse. Assump-
tion Academy is the academic department for boys
of the Utioa Catholic Aoademy. The Sisters of
Oiaritr (rf St. Vineent de Paul (EnimitcA>urg) for
more than three-quarters of a century have laboured
'n Utica, and for most of that time in Syracuse, caring
.or the orphans and building up their schools. The
Sisters of St. Joseph, from St. Louis, Mo., have an
academy for young ladies in Binghamtom and have
charge of many parochial schools. The Sistov of the
Holy Name have an academy for young ladies at
Rome. The Asters of the Third Order of St. Frands
have charge hoHMtab in Syracuse and Utica.

Statistios for 1911 are: priests, regular 16, seeular
115; pari^ churches, 75; mission lurches, 34; cluu>*
els, 35: ptuochial schools^ 25; parochial hipi schools,
4; acaoemies, 4; orphan asylums, 5; maternity hos-
pital^ l;infantasylums,2;hoepitals,3. Inthevarious
religious orders were are: brothers, 33; sisters, 330;
lay teachers, 8. The pupils in CatboUo schools
numbo* 10,000. The Catholic population includes,
Ekiglish-meakiiig, 95,000; It^ians, 25,000; Germans,
15,000; Poke, 120,000; Lithuanians, 1000; SUvs
(LiMin and Qieek). 2000; Bohemians, 100; French,
3000; Syriuu. 1000.

Murmr, Ufi 4f PaOur /ivmm (Now Toifc, 1898); Domo&m,
AapOTM In DoeumntM ralolww I* (A« Cfilamial Hitoni of Kaa York
III (AIb«ny, 1853) ; ed. TBWArm, /etttft Relationi (Cleve-
liDd, ISW-lMl); O'Callaohan, Documentary Hittarg of the
Stal4 if Nwm Yprk (AllNtnr. 1849-81); Sma. BUtarv of th4
CaAtHc CkurA te Uu Vnitad Slain (New Yorti. 1880-92);
DOHOBUB. Tht /rognojf and Jt$mls (BuSalq, 1895) ; Bbocb,
JCnwriot ffMory «f th» CUu of ajpaeuu (ByracoM, 1891);
Bmeir. Finmr hiak d/ OnrndoM ^yrMniM, 1911); Coonii-
mkU, Hialm a/ OnMa Cmintv (Utiw, 1912); Buqq, liomoin
</ Utiev (Utt(%. 1884): Caupbbll, PiotKtr PrUtU of Nortk
imtriea (New fork, 1908); Hcwrrr, HUtmv of tAa £Hocm« of
Svraam (Smoiue, 1909); Ltnoh, A Poo* of CAunA HUtan/
in JWm Tori (UUm, 1903); U. 8. Calh. hUl Soddv, Biatorical
XoeonU and Studies (New York, April, lOOO-Feb., 1911);Fablet,
BiitorvofSt. PtOrick'e Cathtirat (St-m York, 190S)', Zwimlbis,
Rtiieum in JV*w Ntlherland (Roobwtw, 1910); Batlbt. A Britf
Skoteh of the Sarhi Uittorv of tho Cathotie Chvreh in Ike I$land of
Sow fork (N«w York,. 1870L Oairm. Th* «mr of How Nelher-
DmnnooiT, The Midorto Mmawk

land (Now YoA. 190S);
(N«w Yeik. 191$.

J. 8. M. Ltkch.

classical geography, which is the one followed in thik
article, Syria proper comprises only that portion of
the above-mentioiied territories that is bouiraed on the
north and north-west by the Taurus and Asia Minor,
on the south by Palestine, on the east by the Ku<
phrates, the Syro-Arabian desert, and Mesopotamia,
uid on the west by the Mediterranean. The northern
portion is elevated, the eastern is level, extending to
the Syro-Arabian desert; the north-western is crowned
by the Amanus and Taurus mountains, while the •
mountains of Lebanon and Anti'Lebanon are parallel
ranges on the north of Palestine or south of Syria.
Between these two ranges is the long narrow vaHey
called Coele-Syria (Hollow Syria). Its chief rivers are
the Litftny (Leontet), the Orontes {Al-'Aai), and the
Barada or Abana. Ccele-Syria varies in breadth
from three or four miles to fifteen miles, and is in some
places broken by projecting spurs of the t^anon
ranges. At its northern end it curves round to the
west and opens out to the Meditnranean. It has
two slopes, a northerly and a southerly one, and both
are fertile and beautiful. This valley was always an
impcntant route of travel between Mesopotamia, the
Mediterranean coast, Arabia, and Egypt. The whole
of Syria, however, is about 250 miles m length, and an
avoage of 130 miles in breadth, having a total area of
about 32,500 square miles. The most important
towns of Syria in ancient times were Damascus,
Karkamish, Haraath, Baalbec. Palmyra or Tadmur,
Riblah, Antioch, Dmhne, Seleucia, Abila, Chalcis,
Lybo, Laodicea, Arethusa, and Apamea, whereas the
famous cities of Tyre, Sidon^ Berytus Byblos, and
Aradus belong properly speaking to Phoenicia. The
most important towns of modem Syria are Alexan-
dretta, Antakiah, Bdrut, Aleppo, Latakyah, Hamah,
Uoms, 'nipoli, Damascus, Sayda, Akka, and Jaffa.

The name "Syria" was formerly believed to be
either an abbreviation of "Assyria" or derived from
Taur (Tyre)( hence T8ury;a, and that it was of Greek
<n-igin. This, however, is untenable, as the name,
in all probability, is derived from the old Babylonian
name 8uri, appued originally to the north-eastCTn
region of the present Syna. Later on the name Syria
was iq>plied by the Greeks and Romans to the whole
of Syria, or the oountry lybg between the Euphrates,
the MeditoTMiean, the Taurus, and Egypt. By Uie
Ba^ykmians and ABi^rians it was called "Amurru"
(the Land of the Amorites) and " Martu" (the West-
Luid). The extreme northern part of it was also
known as "Khatti", or the Land of the Hittites,
whilst the most southern region was known as
"Kena'nu" or "Kanaan" (Palestine). In Arabic it

Syria. — Gboorafht and Poutical DiviaioNs,
Ancient and Modebn. — A oountry in Western Asia,
which in modem times comprises all that region
bounded on the north by the highlands of the Taurus,
on the south by Egypt, on the east by Mesopotamia
and the Arabian Desert, and on the west by the Medi-
terranean; thus including witiiin its area the ancient
and modem countries of Aram or North Syria, a por-
tion of the Hittite and Mttanni kingdoms, Phoenicia,
the Land of Canaan or Palestine, and even a section
of the Sfaudtic Penhisula. Strictly speakiM. however,
and especially from the point oi view of ffifalical and

"right". The political and geographical divisions of
Syna have been numerous and constantly varying.
In the Old Testament it is general^ called "Aram",
and its inhabitants, " Arameans". But there weresev-
eral Biblical "Arams", vh: " Aram-naharaim'', or
"Aram of the two rivers", i.e. Mesopotataia; "Pftd-
don-Aram" (the rwon of Harran), in the extreme
north of Mesopotamw; "Aram-Ma'ak", to Uie north
of Palestine; '^Aram-beth Rehob"; "Aram-Sobah"
etc. The Syrian Aram, however, which corresponds
to the chssical Syria is caUed generally in the Oki
Teetunent *' Aram (A Damascus", from the principal
city of the country. It is of these Arameans or Sjni-
ans, who occupied Central Syria, with Damascus as
the capital city, that we bear most in the Old
Testament.

During the Gred^ and Roman dominations the
political divisions of Syria were indeflnite and almost
unintelligible. Strabo mentions five great provinces;
(1) Commagene, a small territory m the extreme
north, with Samoeata for capital, situated on the
Euphrvtei; (2) Seleuda, lying south of the fnrmci-,

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and subdivided into four districts according to the
number of its chi^ cities, viz.: Antioch Epidaphne;
Seleucia, in Pieria; Apamea, and Laodicea; (3) Coele-
Syria, comprising Laodioea ad Libunum, Chalcis,
Abilene, Damascus, Itursa, and others farther south,
included in Palestine; (4) Phoenicia; (5) Judsa.
Pliny's divisions are still mora numerous than
those of Strabo. It appears that each city on
risinK to importance gave its name to a sur-
. rounding territory, larger or smaller, and this in
time assumed the rank of a province. Ptolemy
mentions thirteen provinces: Cammagene, Pieria,
Cyrrhestica, Seleucia, Casiotis, Chalibonitis, Chalcis,
Apamene, Laodicea, Phcenicia, Ccele-Syria, Palmy-
rene, ana Batanea, and he gives a long list of the
oiUes contained in them. Under the Romans, Syru
became a province of the «upire. Some portions of tt
were permitted to remain for a time under the rule of
petty princes, dependent on the imperial government.
Gradually, however, all these were incorporated, and
Antioch was the capital. Under Hadrian the prov-
ince was divided into two parts: Syria' Major, on the
north, and Sjria-Phcenice, on the south. Towards
the close of uie fourth century another partition of
Syria was made, and formed the basis of its eecledasti-
cal ^vemment: (1) Syria Prima, with Antioch as its
capital; (2) Syria Secunda, with Apamea as capitd;
(3) Phcenicia Prima, including the (greater part of an-
cient Phcenicia, with Tyre as its capital; (4) Phoenicia
Secunda, also called Phcenicia ad Libanum, with
Damascus as its capital. Durine the Arabian
domination, i. e. from the seventh to tne fifteenth crii-
tiuy, Syria was generally divided into six large dis-
tnctB (Giundf), vu. : (1) Filistin (P&lestine), consisting
of Judiea, Samaria, and a portion of the territory east
of the Jordan, its capital was Ramlah, Jerusalem
ranking next; (2) Urdun (Jordan), of which the capital
was Tabaria (Tiberias), roughly speaking it consisted
of the rest of Palestine as far as T^^ (3) Damascus, a
district which included Baalbek, Tripoli, Beirut, and
the Hauran; (4) Homs, including Hamah; (5) Qin-
nasrin, corresponding to Northern Syria; the capital at
first was Qinnasrin, to the south <h Al^^, by which
it was afterwards superseded; (6) the sixth district was
the military frontier ('awAnm) borderine upon the
Byzantine dominions in Asia Minor. Under the pres-
ent Turkish rule, Syria is divided into the following six
vilayets, or provinces: (1) the Vilayet of Aleppo, with
the 3 Utoaa of Aleppo, Marash, and Urfa; (2) the inde-
pendent Liwa of Zor {Deir ez-Zor) ; (3) the Vilayet of
Beu*ut, including the coast south of the mouth of the
Orontes, the mouttta>in-distriet oi the Nosair^eh and
Jjebanon to the south of Tripoli, furtha the town of
Beirut and the country between the sea and the Jor-
dan from Saida to the north of Jaffa, and is divided
into 5 liuxu: Ladikiyeh, Tarabulus, Beirut, 'Akka
(Acre), and Nabulus; (4) Lebanon, from the south of
Tripoli to the north of Saida. exclusive of the town
of Beirut, forms an indepenaent Hum, administered
by a governor with the rank of mutMr; (5) the Vilayet
of Suriyya (Syria) comprises the country from Hamah
to the Hijaz — the capital is Damascus — and is di-
vided into the litoaa of Hamah, Damascus, Hauran,
and Kerak; (6) El-Quds, or Jerusalem, is an inde-
pendent livia under a mideaarrif of the first class. At
the head of each vilayet is a wui, or governor-general,
whose province is divided into deputments (tanjak,
litoa) each presided over by a muiesarrif; each depart-
ment again contains so many divisions {kaimTiuUcam-
lik, Wa) each under a kaimmakam; and these again
are divided into districts (mtidiriyek,nahiya) under
mvdin. The independent livxu of Ex-Zor and El-
Quds stand in direct connexion with the cmtral gov-
ernment at Constantinople.

Ethnoorapht of Modern Syria — Ethnographi-
eally, the modem inhabitants of Syria consist of Bri-
ans, Arabs, Turks, Jews, and fnuiks i» Eunqyeans.

(1) The Syrians are the direct desoenduita of thb an-
cient Arameans who inhabited the country fnan
about the first millennium B. c, and who spoke
Aramaic. Most of these embraced Christianity and
continued to speak Aramaic till about the aevwith
century, when the Arab invasion forced the
Arabic language to become the vernacular tongue of
the country. Aramaic, however, held itegroundfora
considerable time, and traces of it are still to be found
in the liturgy of the so-called Syrian, Chaldean, and
Maronite Churches, as well as in three villages of the
anti-Libanus. (2) The Arabian population consiflts
of kadari, or settled, and bedawi (pi. bedu) co- nomadic
tribes. The settled population is of very mixed
origin, but the Bedouins are mostly of pure Arab blood.
They are the direct descmdants of the hidf-savage
nonuds who have inhabited Arabia from time im-
memorial. Their dwelling consist of portable t^ts
made of black goats' hair. There are two main
branches; one of these consists of the '^neseh, who
migrate in winter towards Central Arabia, while the
other embraces those tribes which remain perma-
nently in Syria. (3) The Turks are not a numerous
class of the community of Syria. They are intellectu-
ally inferior to the Arabs, but the lower classes are
generally characterized by patriardial simplicity (tf
manner. There are two partieB of Turks, the Old,
and the Young, or Liberal Party. In North^i
Syria, as well as on the Great Hermon, are still several
nomadic Turkish tribes, or Turcomans, whose mode of
life is the same as that of the Bedouin Arabs. (4) The
Jews who remained in the country are but few in
number; most of those who now reside in Palestine
are comparatively recent settlers from Europe.
(5) The Franks (Europeans) form a very small pro-
portion of the population. Distinct from them are
the so-called "Levantines", who are either Europeans
or descendants of Europeans, who have entirely
adopted the manners of the country.

Rbuoions op Modern' Stria. — In regard to
religioo the modem inhabitants of Syria consist of
Mohammedans, Christians, and Jews. The first are
divided into Sunnites or orthodox Mohammedanc^
Metawileh, Nusairiyyeh or Ansuriyyeh, and Ismar
ihyyeh. To these may be added the Druses. The
Christians include Roman Catholics of the lAtin
Bite; Greek Orthodox; Roman Catholic Greeks or
Melchites: Maronites (all Roman Catholic); Roman
Catholic Syrians, Roman Catiiolic Ctialdeans, Roman
Catholic Armenians; Schismatic Syrians, i. e. Mono-
physites, commonly called Jacobite^ Schismatic Ar*
nimians, Catholic Annenians, and Protestants.

The MohamnudoM or Momemt are and have beoi
for the last twelve centuries the lords of the land and
still constitute the great majority of its inhabitants.
They are g^erally ignorant and fanatical, althou^ of
late education has spread among the better class
in the larger towns. Till a few years ago they
were inchned to look with contempt on aU otha
peopks and religions. This, however, is gradually
disappearing owing mainly to the wonderful stride tbt
Christians of Syria have been making of late in the
matter of schools, universities, hospitals, seminsnes^
and educational and commercial mstitutions. "Hie
Syrian Moslems are generally noble in bearing, polite
in address, and pronise in hospitality; but uiey are
regardless of truth, dishonest m their dealings, sod
immoral in their conduct. In large towns the greater
proportion of the upper classes are both phymcsUy
and mentally feeble, owing to the effects mpcd]^
amy, early marriages, and degrading vices; but the
pearant^ are robust and vigcmua, and much migbt
be hoped from them if tb^ were brought under the
influence of liberal institutions, and if they had exam-
ples around them of the industry and the eoteri^
of Western Eurc^. Experience, indeed, has alrwf
■hown that they w not ak)W to adi^t the improv*-

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ments oS other lands. In religion the Mohammedans
of Syria are Sunnites, or Tnulitionista — ^that is, in
addition to the written word of the Koran, they
reco^ise the authority of the 3unna, a collection of
traditional sayings of the "Prophet", which is a kind
of supplement to the Koran, directing the right ob-
servance of many things omitted m that book.
They axe in general exact in the observance of the
outward rites of their religion.

The Metauril^ (sing. Metawly) are the followers cl
*Aly, the son-in-law of Mohammed. His predeoes*
sora, Abu Bekr, 'Omar, and Othman, they do not
acknowledge as true khalifs. 'Alv they maintain
to be the lawful Imam ; and thejr hola that the supreme
authority, both in things spiritual and temporal,
belongs of right to his descendants alone. They
reject the Sunn a, and are therefore rcsarded as ha«-
tics by the orthodox. They are allied in faith to the
Shi'ites of Persia. They are aknost as scrupulous
in their ceremonial observances as the Hindus.
The districts in which they chiefly reside are Ba'albek,
where their chiefs are the noted family of Hturfush;
Belad Besharah, on the southern part of the Leb-
anon range; and a district on the west bank <^ the
Orontes, around the village of Hurmul. They also
occupy several seatttted villages in Lebanon.

Tm Nuaairnmeh. — ^It is noteaoy to tell whether tfaeae
people are Mohammedans or not. Their region
still remains a secret, notwithstanding all attempts
lately made to dive into their mysteries. They are
represented as holding a faith half Christian and half
Mohammedan. They believe in the transmigration

souls; and observe in a singular, perhi^w idouitrous,
mamm a few of the oerunonies common in the East*
eni Church. They inhabit a range of mountains
extending from the great valley north of Lebanon
to^the gorge of the Qrontee at Antioch.

The IgmaUiyyeh, who inhabit a few villages on the
eastern slopes of the Ansairiyefa Mountains, resemble
the Nusainyyeh in this, thattheirreUgionisa mystery.
They were originally a religious-political subdivision
of the Shi'ites, and are the feeble ronnant of a people
too well known in the time of the Crusades as the
Assassins. Hiey havestilltheirchief seatint^eCastle
of Masyad, on the mountains west of HamaJii.

The Druxet (The generic name in Arabic is ed-
Denu, sing. Durty). — The peculiar doctrines of the
Druses were first propajaited in Egypt by the noto-
rious Hakim, third of me Fatinute dynasty. This
khalif, who Mve himself out as a prophet, though he
acted more hke a madman, tai^t a QBtem of haH-
materidism, aasOTting that the Daty resided in 'Aly.
In A. D. 1017 a Persian of the sect of Batanism,
called Mohammed Ben-Ismail ed-Dorazy, settled
in Egypt, and became a devoted follower and stim-
ulator of Hakim. He not only affected to believe
in and propagate the absurd pretensions of the new
J'^-ptian prophet, but he added to his doctrines
that of the transmigration of souls, which he had
brou^t from his native country, and be carried
his fonatieimn to such an extent that the people at
last drove him out of Egypt. He took refuge in
Wady el-Teim, at the western base of Hermon; and,
boing secretly supplied with money by the Egyptian
monarch, propagated his dogmas, and became the
founder of the Druzes. His system was enlarged,
and in some degree modified, by other disciples of
Hakim, especially by the Persian Hamieh, whom the
Druzes still venerate as the founder of their sect and
the author of their law. Hanueh tried to gain ova* tiie
Christiansbyr^resentingHakimasthe Messiah whoee
advent they expected. For further details see Druxbs.

The Jetos of Syria are of several different classes.
The Sephardim are Spanish-Portuguese Jews, who
immigrated after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain
under Isabella I; most of thee now speak Anmic,
thoo^ some still cpeak » Spabitb patois. The
XIV.— 26

)1 gnu

Ashkeoadm are from Russia, Oaliina, Hungary,

Bohemia, Moravia, Germany, and Holland, and speak
the dialect known as Yiddiui. These again are sub-
divided into the Perushim and the Chasadim. TI o.
Jews of the East have retained their original charactpp
to a considerable extent, and are generally tall and
slender in stature. They live in the towns, generally
in a quarter of their own.

Bistort of CnEiBTiANrrr in Steia. — ^The history
of Christianity in Syria proper during the first three
eraturies and down to the Council of Nictea (a.d. 325)
centres chiefly about Antioch, while from the time of
the Council of Nictea down to the Arab invasion it is
absorbed into that of the Antiochene Patriarchate
(see Antioch, Thb Church of), just as the Chri»-
tianity of Palestine is ivactically that of Jerusa-
lem, of Egypt that of Alexandria, of the West that
of Rome, of Mesopotamia and Persia that of Seleucia
Ctesiphon, and of the Byzantine Greek Church that
of Ccmstantinople. As Jewish Christianity <niginated
in Jerusalem, so Gentile Christianity started at
Antioch, then the leading city of the Hellenistic East,
with Peter and Paul as its leading Apostles. From
Antioch it spread to the various cities and provinces
of Syria, among the Hellenistic Syrians as well as
among toe Jews who, as a result of the great rebellions
a^unst the Romans in a. d. 70 md 130, were driven
out from Jerusalem and Palestine into Syria. The
spread of the new religion was so nmid and successftil
that at the time of Constantine Syria was honev'
combed with Christian churches. The history of the
Christian Church in Syria during the second and third
centuries is rather, obscure, yet sufficient data to
ftunish a fair idea ftf the rapid 8|xread of Qiristianity
in Syria during those two oenturies have been col-
lected by Hamack in his well-known work, "The
Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First
Three Centuries*' (Eng. tr., 2nd ed., London, 1908,
vol. II, pp. 120 sqq.).

Outside the gates of Antioch, that "faur city <A
the Greeks" (see Isaac of Antioch's "Carmen", 15,
ed. Bickell, i, 204), Syriac was the language, of the
petqpk: in fact it was spoken by the tower claases in
Antioch itself and only among the upper chases of
the Greek towns was it displaced by Greek. The
Syriac spirit was wedded to Greek, however, even
here, and remained the predominant factor in religious
and in social life, althot^h at first and indeed for
long it did not lootc as if it would. Yet, in this Syrian
world, Christianity seems to have operated from
Edessa rather than from Antioch. The wide terri-
tory lying between these cities was ooiuequHktly
evangdized from two centres during the third eentur^:
from Antioch in the West by means of a Greek Chris-
tian propaganda, and &om Edessa in the East by
means of one which was Syro-Christian. The infer-
ence is that the larger towns practically adopted the
former, while the country towns and villages went
over to the latter. At the same time there was also
a Western Syrian movement of Christianity, though
it did not amount to much, both in and aft« the days
of Paul of Samosata ud Zenobia. The work of
conversion, so it would wpear, made ^re^«r headway
in CcEle-S>Tia, however, than in Phcenicia. No fewer
than twenty-two bishoiw from Ccele-Syria attended
Nicffia (two cIiorepiNcopi), including several who had
Hellenic names. Hence we may imce the existence
of no inconsiderable number of national Syrian
Christians. By about 325 the disUicts round Antioch
seem to have contained a very Iwge number of Chris-
tians, and one dated (331) Cnristian inscription
runs as follows: "Christ, have mercy; there is but
one God".

In ehiysostom's day these S3^an villages appear
to hare been practically Christian. Lucian, the
priest of Antioch, declares in his q>eech before the
■lai^steate in Nieomedis (311) that "almost the

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402

greater part of the world now adheres to this Truth,
yea whole cities; even if any of this evidence seems
suspect, there is no doubt regarding multitudes of
country-folk, who are innocent of guile" (pars paene
mundi iam maita huic veritati adstipulatuT^ urbes
integrs, aut si in his aliquid suspectum videtur,
contestatur de his etiam agreetis manua, ignara fig-
menti); and although this may reflect impresaonB
whidi he had just received in Bithynia, there was
substantial ground for the statement in the local
circumstances of Syria. The number of okcey in
303 throughout Syria is evident from Eus., a. £.,
viii, 6: "An enormous number were put in prison at
every place. The prisons, faithra-to reserved for
muToems and riflersof graves, werenowpadcedevery-
where with bishops, iniests, deacons, lectors, and
exorcists". Further data at our command are as
follows: (1) Acts, XV, already mentions Churches in
^ria besides Antioch. (2) Ignatius, apropos of
Antioch (ad Philad.j 10) mentions "Churciies in the
neighbouriiood" whitdi had already bishops of their
own. These ovtainly included Seleucia, the Bsar
port of Antioch mentioned in Aota^ ziii, 4. (3) Apfr*
nusa waa a oeotn ctf the EHtesaites. (4) Dionys.
Alex, (in Eus., "H. E.". VII, v) observes that the Ro-
man Church frequently sent contributions to the
Syrian Churches. (5) The document of the Antiochene
Synod of 208 (Eus., VII, xxx) mentions, in connexion
with Antioch, "bishops of the neighbouring country
and cities".

The towns in the vicinity of Antioch, far and near,
must already have had bfahopa, in all or nesrlr all
cases, if oountty bishcme were in exigence. Ftam
Eus., VI, xii we learn that by about a. d. 200 there
was a Christian community at Rhossua which was
gravitating towards Antioch. (6) Two chorepiscopi
from Ccele-Syria attended the Council of Nicaea. In
Martyrol. Hieron. (Achelis, "Mart. Hieron.," p. 168) a
martyrdom is noted as having occurred "m Syria
provmcia resdone Apamee vice Aprovaviotu", but
both these places are unknown. (7) Bishops bom
the following places in Coele-Sjrria were present at
Nieea: Antioch, Seleucia. Laodicea, Apamca,
RaphanesB, Hierapolis (^Mabug, Bambyoe), Oerma-
nicia, Samosata, Doliche, Bfjanese Gabula, Zeugma,
Larissa, Epiphania, Arethusa, Neocfesarea, C^ymms,
Gindron, Arbokadiama, and Gabala. These towns
lay in the most diverse districts of this wide country,
on the seaboard, in the Vall^ of the Orontes, in the
Euphrates Valk^, between tne Orontea and the Eo-
phratea, and in the north. Tlieir distribution riiowi
that Christianity was fairly uniform and fairly strong
in Syria about 325, as is strikingly shown by the
resenpt of Dasa to Sabmus (Eus., "H. E.", IX, ix), for
we must understand the experiences undeisone by the
Churches of Syrian Antioch and Asia Minor, when we
read the emperor's words about almost all men
abandoning tne worship of the gods and attachiiw
themselves to the Christian people. This mnan
is not one to be taken simply as a rhetorical flourish.
For after speakuig in one place about t^ first edict
of Diocletian, Eusdiiua proceeds as follows: "Not
long afterward^ as some people in the district called
MeBtene and m other districts throughout Syria
attempted to usurp the kingdom, a royal decree went
forth to the effect that the head officials of the churches
everywhere should be put in prison and chains"
(VIII, vi, 8). Euaebins does not say it in so many
word^ but the context makes it quite clear that the em-
peror held the Christians responsible for both of these
outbreaks (tiiat in Melitene bein^ unknown to hia-
toTT). This proves that the Christians in Melitene
and Syria must have been extremely nomeroas, other-
wise the emperor would never have met reraution-
ary outbreaks (which in S^ia, and, on* mi^ con-
leoture, in Mditene also, originat«d witb tbo army)
with edicts against the Christian ckrgy. The. Bishop

of RhoasuB was not at Nic«ea (Ilhossus, howevw,
may also be assigned to Cilicia). Bui, as we already
know, RhosBus did possess a Christian (Jhurch
about A. p. 200, which came under the mpervisioa
of the Church at Antioch. There was a Jewi^
Christian Church at Bercea (Aleppo) in the fourth
century. The local Onttle Christian Church cannot
hare been important; cf. the experimce of JuUui
there (Ep. xxvii, p. 51^ ed. Hertlein).

As to Phoenicia, one of the most important provinces
of Syria, the history of Christianity there is also ob-
scure. Here again, we learn from the Acts of the
.^Mistlea that Chnstiuiity reached the Fhoenidaa
citieB at a vtry early period. When Paul wm cent*
verted, there were already Chrirttans at Daouaeus
(Acts ix, ^ 10 sq., 19) ; for Christiana in Tyre see
xxi, 4; for Ptolemais see xxi, 7; fw ^don xxvii, 3; and
in general xi, 19. The metropolitan position of Tyre,
which was the leading city in the East for manufac-
tures and trade, made it the ecclemastical capital of
the province; but it is questionable if Tyre enjoyed
this pre-eminence as early as the second century, for
at tne Palestinian Synod on the Eastern controversy
Cassius, the Bi^op of Tyre, and Clarus, the Bishop
£i Ptolemais, took counsel with the Bishop of .£lia and
of (Dnairea (Eus., "H. E.", V, xxv) to whom they seem
to have been subordinate. On the other hand, Ma-
rinus of Tyre is mentioned in a letter of Dionysius of
Alracandria (ibid., VII, v, 1) in such a way as to make
his metropolitan dignity extremely probable. Mar-
tyrs in or from Tyre, during the neat persecution, are
notedl^Eusebhis, Vm,^ 1 (VIII,vm),VUI^xiii,3.
Qrigen died at Tyre and waa buried there. It u «iri-
ous also to note that the learned Antiochene priest
Dorotlmu^ the teacher ctf Euaebius, was iq^ointed by
the emperor (Diocletian, or one of his immediate
predecessors) to be the director of the purple-dyeing
tradeinTyre(EuB.,*'H.E.",VII,xxxii). Aparticularly
libellous edict issued by the Emperor Daza agunst the
Christians is preserved by Eusebius (IXj vii) who
copied it fnm the pillar in Tyre on which it was eat,
and tiie historian's work reaches its climax in the great
speech upon the reconstruction of the church at
'Hay far uie most b^utiful in all Phoenicia" (X, iv).
This speech is dedicated to Faulinus, Bishop of Tyre, in
whose honour indeed the whole of the tenth book of its
history is written. Unfortunately we get no informa-
tion whatever, in this long address, upon the Christian
community at Tyre. We can only infer the siae of the
o(nnmunity from the siae of the duurch building, which
miqr have stood where the ruins of the large crusading
church now astcmish the traveller (cf. Baedek^
"Faleetine'*, pp. 300 sq.). Tyre as a Christian
city was to Phoenida what Csoarea waa to Palestine.
It seems to have blossomed out as a manufacturing
and trading centre during the imperial age,
especially in the tJiird century. A number of pas-
sages in Jerome give characteristic estimates of its size
a^ importance. In Sdon Origen stayed for some
time (aom. xiv, 2, in Josuam), while it was there that
the presbyter Zraobius (Eus., "H. E.", VIII, xiii, 3)
died during the great persecution, as did some Chris-
tians at Damasw (IX, v). EIevenbishops,butnochor-
^isoopi, were present at the Council of Nicea from
I%oemcia; namely the bishops of Tyre, Ftolemaiiv
DunaacuB, Sidon, Tripolis, Paneas, Beiytus, Palmyra,
Alassus, fAiesa, and Antaradus. From Eusebius we
also learn that many Jewish Christians also resided in
Paneas (Eus., "H. E.", VII, xvii, 18). Tripolis is
mentioned even before the Coimcilof Nicea (in "Mart.
Pal.," Ill, wha« a Christian named Dionysius comes
from Tripolis); the Apostolic Constitutions (vii, 46)
declare ^t Marthonoa was bishop of this town as early
as the Apostolic age; while, previous to the Council of
Nic«a, Hdlmicus, the local bishop, opposed Arius
(Theodoret, "H.E.", I, iv), though Gregory, BifliKq)of
Bcfytna, rided whh him (kw. eit. ; for Berytos, see alio

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408

**Maxt. PaL", ir). lie local dranfawubamtundflr

Julian (cf.Theod.,"H.£.", IV, xxii). EusebiuB (VIU,
3dii> calls Silvanus, at the period of the gnat persecu-
tion, bishop, not of Emesa but of "the tmurohea round
Emesa". Emeaa thus resembled Gasa; owing to the
fanatidam of the inh^itants Christians were unable
to reside within the town itself, they had to c|uarter
thenuelves in the adjoining ville«es. AnatoUus, the
auooeestar of Silvaiius, was the mat to take up hia
abode within the town. Theodont ("H. £.", Ill, vii),
writing of the age of Julian, says that the church there
was *v6SvQrM (newly built). With r^ard to Heli-
opolia we have this definite infrnmation, that the
town acquired its &rst church and biahop, thanks to
Constantine, after 325 (cf. "Vita Constant.," Ill, Iviii,
and Socrat., I, xviii). The "Mart. Syriaoum" men-
tions one martyr, Lucian, at Heh^oolis. Christians
also wen deported (*'Mart. Pal.," XIII, ii) by Daaato
Lebanon for penal Borritude. OniemartynuHnmakeait
plain that there were Christians at BjHtuus. At Choda
(K^un), north of Damascus, thoe wrae also numo^
oua Jewish Christiana in the days of Eusebius.

We have do information in detail upon the diffusion
and density of the Christian population throughout
Phcenicia. Rather general and satisfactory informs
tion is available for Syria, a province with which
I^uenicia was at that time very ckwefy bound up:
even the Phoeniciaa tongue had long been dislodged
by Syriac. From the letters of Ghiyaoetom and the
state fj( mattera which still obtained in the second
half of the sixth century, however, it is quite clear that
Christianity got a firm footing only on the seaboard,
while the inland districts of Phcenicia remained paean
for the most part. Yet it was but recently, not earlier
than the third century, that tiiese Fhoenician-Hel-
lenio cults bad expoienoed a pow»ful revival. The
situation ia quite dear: wherever Christianity went,
it implied Hellenizing, and vice versa. Christianity,
in the first instance, only secured a firm footing where
there were Greeks. The majority of the Phoenician
towns where Christian bishops can be traced lay on
the coast; i. e^ they were towns with a strong Greek
population. In the larce pagm cities, Emesa and
Heliopolis, on the other hand, Christians were not tol-
erated. Once we leave out inland locahties where
"heretics", viz., Marcionites and Jewish -Christians,
resided, the only places in the interior where Chris-
tians can be found are Damascus, Paneas, and Pal-
myra. Damascua, the great trading city, was Greek
(cf. Monunsen, ''Rom. Gesch.",/V., p. 473; Eng.
trans., II, 146); so wasPaneas. In Palmyra, the head-
quartera of the desert trade, a strong Greek element
also existed (Mommsen, pp. 425 aq.; Eng. trans., II,
96 sg.). The national royal house in Pusoynt with
its Qntk infurion, was well disposed not towards the
Gre^ but towards t^e scanty indigenous Christians
of ^rria, as may be inferred from the relations be-
tween Paul of Samoaata and Zenobia, no less than
from the policy adopted by Rome agunst him.

The Ernct ol Milan (a. d. 313) marks the beginning
of a better-lmown period in the histoiy of Syrian
Christianity, during which the See of Antioch was
filled by a suocesdon of bishops illustrioua throu^-
out the Church, and the Church ot Syria was invomd
in the most troublesome period of church history and
theology, which marks toe begbning of those fatal
schisms, faeredes, and ChristologicaJ controversies
that led to the final separation of the Syrian Church
and the Churches of the East from the Church of
Rome (See Abiamism; Nebtobiaktsm; Monopht-
smsH). The death of Severus (542), tbe deposed
Monophysite Patriarch of Antioch, may be taken to
mark the bMnnning ctf a new period in the history of
the Syrian Church; for from this date the double suo-
oesnon in the See of Antioch has been maint^ed to
the jnsaent d»^. llie death of tbe Empenn- Maurice
(a. p. 6(B) and the succession of his muraoer, Phocas,

Rave tfw aignal for the Persians to rava^s the Bonuui

dominions. Hitherto Meso^tamia had been Uie
arena of war betweoi the nval powers, and Dara,
Amida, and Nisibia the ke^rs of poaaeaaion. But
HerachuB came to the thitme in 602 to find all Syria
in the hands of Chosroee. First Damascus, then the
Holy City itself fell before the Persian general Shahr-
ban (614), and the Patriarch Zacharias of Jerusalem
was carried off with the True Cross itself, to grace the
infidel's triuii4)h. Never tinoe Constantinople was
built had there been such a disaster ; and at Chalcedon
itsdf, almost opposite the very walls of the capital, the
Peruana were encamped, stretching out their naQos to
the Slavs and Avars, who threatened the city on the
north side of the istlunus, and inviting them to join in
its destruction. An insulting and blasphemous letter
from tbe Persian kiius arouaed the emperor and all
Christendom; while mHn Constantinople to Arabia
tbe Church poured forth her treasures ot plate and
money to heq> in tbe crusade. Constantinople was
fortified and with a gigantic effort, worthy of the great
oonquerors of the world's history, HeracUus drove
back the Persians, cutting them off in Cilicia, and
forcing them finaUy to make an deject appeal for
mercy in the very royal palace of Dastaj^nl itself.
(Jboeroee had been ab«ady murdered by his son, who
submitted to Heradius (a. d. 628). The emp^rco' re-
turned, leaving the East in peace, torestontlkeClmsa
to its place in Jerusalem.

Meanwhile in an obscure corner of tbe empire
Mohuomed had been bom, and in this very year
sent round a letter dmanding for a new creed the
submission of the kines of the earth. "The year of
flight" (a. d. 622) had passed, and Mohammed was
at the head of a devoted band of followers, ready to
conquer Aral^ia and perhaps the world. It was an
epooi of the world's history, and twice the patriardis
of Jerusalemi saw the abomination of desolation stand-
ing in the holy place, and bought the end of all
thmgs at hand. Ten years after Shahrbars (637),
when the glories of Heraclius paled before the storm
of Arab conquest, Bophronius the Patriarch and
Omar the Arab stood side by side at the altar of the
Church of the Holy Sepultmre in Jerusalem. East
of the Mediterranean the Roman Empire bad siven
way icT ever, and the Arab arms now ruled the
Churches which the councils of two centuries before
had cut off from the orthodox communion. For
the future it was not the Melchite or Imperialist to
whom the Eastern Churches were to acknowledge an
unwilling homage, but to the sword of Islam. Bysan-
tine histo^ now affected them little, for the successors
of Heraclms had enou^ to do to keep the Saracen
fleets away from the capital. The famous Icono*
dastic controversy, begun by Leo the Isauri^ was
eontinued for nearly a hundred years (720-802) by
his Bucoeseora. How little the second great contro-
versv of the times affected the Sjrrians may be judged
by thdr own lanRuage in regard to the " Procession of
the HoIyGhoBt". The words inserted in the Creed
by tiie Western Qiureh were tbe occasion of the
rapture, for whicb the rival claims of Gregray of
Rome and John SoholasUeua <^ Constantinople had
paved tbe way; and the ninth century witnessed the
unseemly recnminations and the final break between
the two great communions

In the seventh century the Syrian Christians fade
from the general history of the Church. The Arabs
were inclined to favour them as rivals of the Greeks,
and early in the dghth century WAlid secured the
entry of their patrurdi into ^tioch, whoioe they
had been dxiwm by the Greeks since the death «
Jacobus BaiadeuB. Bat be remained there caly a
short time, nor were his people free from tbe j>erse-
cutions whioh Abdelmalik and Vazid ordered against
the Christians; while m 771 the KhaUf Alxlullah took
a census throughout Syria and Mesopotamia, ordering

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all Jews and Christians, e8i>ecially at J<anualem,
to be branded on the neck and forehead. A short-
lived union between the Syrians and Armenians (726)
was followed by persecution at the handa of the Greeks
(750), who took away ooaiiy Syrian aiul Armoiiaii
slaves from Mesopotamia to the West. Two cen-
turies later Nic^horus Fhocas, anxious to unite
Christendom against the Arabs, caused John Sarighta,
the Patriarch of the Syrians, to be brought to Con-
stantinople, there to discuss with Polyeuctus, Patri-
arch of that city, the differences that divided them.
In the letter written by John to Mennas of Alexan-
dria we perceive how much the controvorsy had
become a mere matter of verbal ej^presaon, and how
the Syrians clung to the words which Gretek tyranny
had made the badge of a rival party. The imprison-
ment of John, added to other acta ol tyranny, con-
firmed their hatred of the Greeks, and made them
prefer even the domination of the Moslem. From the
eighth tmd ninth centuries down to our own times the
history of Christianity in Syria is the history of Nestori-
anism and of the Nestorian Church, of Eutychianism
and the Monophysite or Jacobite Syriac Church, of
the Monophysite Armenian Chiin^ of Syria, of
the Greek Schism and of the Byzantine, Russian,
and Greek, or the so-called Orthodox Eastern
Church; the Schismatic and Melchite (Catliolic)
Greek Patriarchates of Antioch; the Syrian, Mono*
physite, and Catholic Patriarchates of Antioch, the
Latin Patriarchate of Antioch, and the Maronite
Church, for all which see respective articles.

Statistics or th» Vabious CaRtsriAN Seers and
CHUBCHas. — ^The Christians o( Modem Syria, schis-
matic as w^ as Catholic, are divided into the follow-
ing sects and churches: —

Greek Orthodox, i. e. the Syrian Greek Schismatic
Church. — The Greek Orthodox of Syria kre under the
jurisdiction of the Patriarch of the Greek Orthodox
of Antioch, whose residence is at Damascus and who
has under his jurisdiction 2 suffragan or auxiliary
bishops attAched to him personally, and 13 eparchies,
or archdioceses, 50,000 families, or about 250,000
subjects, most of whom dwell in Syria propo:. Of
these thirteen eparchies eleven are in Syria, one
in Northern Mesopotamia, one in Armenia and
Asia Minor. The Greek Orthodox of Syria have
5 schools with 810 pupils in Beirut; 24 in Damascus
and surrounding villages, with 2215 pupils and 60
teachers; and 12 in Northern Syria with 2400 pupils
and 65 teachers. The lituigy of the Syrian Greek
Orthodox is that of the Greek Church, and the litur-
gical language, Greek with a great de^ of Arabic,
which is the vernacular of all the Christians of Syria.

Greek-Mekhites, i. e. Roman Catholic jSvrian* of
the Gr^ Rite. — These are^ under the jurisdiction of
the Greek-Melchite Patriarch of Antioch, whose
residence is at Damascus, and who has under his
patriitfchal jurisdiction 4 archdioceses, 8 dioceses, 2
patriarchal vicariates (at Jerusalem and Alexandria),
with a total of about 125,000 souls, divided as follows:
(1) Archdiocese of Aleppo, 6 churches and chapels,
10,000 souls, 86 coUeges superintended by Franciscan,
Capuchin and Jesuit missionarira^ (2) .^jchdiocese of
Bostra and Hauran with 12,000 souls, 4 churches, 8
ch^>els, 15 priests and 4 schools; (3) Archdiocese of
Homs and Hamah, with 8000 soul^ 20 churches and
chapeb, 20 priests and 18 schools, residence at Homs;

(4) Archdiocese of Tyre, with 6200 souls, 11 churches
and chapels, 20 priests, of which 15 are Basilian
monks, and 13 schools, residence at Sur (Tyre);

(5) Diocese of Beirut and Djebail, with 15,000 souls,
one seminary at Ain-Traz, 150 parishes, 195 churches
and chapels, and 19 schools, residence at Beirut;

(6) Diocese of Cffisarea-Philippi, or Baneas, with 4500
souls, 15 parishes, 9 churches and chiu>els, 17 priests,
and 10 sdiools,' rendenee at Gemaidat-Marioun; (7)
Diocese of Damascus, of wfaidi the patriarch himself

is the ordinary, with one suffragan bishop, witli
12,000 Bouls, 9 parishes, and 9 churches; (8) Diocese
of Ueliopolis or Ba'albek, with 5000 souls, 9 parishes,
10 churches, 15 priests, and 8 schools residence at
Ba'albek; (9) Diooese m Ptolnnais or Saint John of
Acre, with 9000 souls, 24 statiaas, 25 churches. 34
priests, and 8 schools, residence at Akka; (10) Dio-
cese of Sidon, with 18,000 souls, 38 churches and
chapels, 41 priests, 34 schools, residence at Sayda;
(11) Diocese of Tripoli, erected in 1897; (12) Diocese
of Zahle and Furzoul, with 17,000 souls, 30 churches
and chai>els, 35 priests, 12schools,residence at Zahle.

The two patriarchal vicariates at Jerusalem and
Alexandria have a doien parishes in the latter and
four or five jparishes in the fonner. The Greek-
Melchites haVe also a parish with a church in Mar-
seilles, another hi Paris (since 1889), and several
in the United States. In Jeijisalem they have the
Seminary of St. Anne, fotmded in 1882 by Cardinal
Lavigerie under the direction of the White Fathers.
The number of these average between 125 and 150.
They have ako a seminary in Rome founded for them
in 1577 by Gregory XIII, under the name of College
of St. Atnuiasius; also a small seminary in Beirut,
and a larger one at Ain-Traz. Three indigenous
rehgious orders, for men and women alike, are still
in existence among the Greek-Melchites in Syria,
viz; The Aleppine, with 40 monks and 18 nuns; the
Baladitcs of the Order of St. John, with 96 monks and
42 nuns; and the Mokhallasites, or Salvatorians, with
200 monks and 25 nuns. The rules followed by these
three orders are either those of St. Basil or St. Georoe.
From the time of Gregory XVI (1831-46) the
patriarch of the Greek-Melchites is allowed to assume
the official title of "Patriarch of Antioch, Alexandria,
and Jerusalem".

The Syrian Jacobiiea, i. e. Mono^hysiles. — Th^ are
\mder the jurisdiction of the Syrian Jacobite Patri-
arch of Antioch, whose residence is at Der-el-Za-
faran near Mardin in Northern Mesopotamia. The
Syriaa Jacobites were formerly very numerous and
scattered all over Western Asia, Egypt, and IntUa,
having had in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
as many as 20 metropoUtans and 100 bishops or dio-
ceses. At present, they have but 8 archbishops and
3 bishops with a total of about 80,000 souls, not
including those of Malabar, in India, who are not
under the direct jurisdiction of the Svrian Jacobite
Patriarch of Antioch. The episcopal sees of this
Church, with the exception of that of Jerusalem, whose
titular bisbop resides at Za'faran near Mardin, are all
situated in Mesopotamia, and in the extreme north-
eastern section of Syria. Their liturgical language is
Syriac (see Monophtsites).

Caiholic Sj^rians. — These consist mainly of those
Syrian Jacobites who in the last five or six centuries
have gradually given up their Monophysite henv^,
and embraced the CathoUc Faith^ though retaining
Uieir Syrian Rite, customs, and hturgy. In course
of time they have become numerous enough to
have a- patriarch of their own with several dioceses
and bishops. They are to be found mainly in Syria,
Palestine, Mesopotamia, and Babylonia. Their
patriarch, whose official residence is at Mardin, but
who lives sometimes in Mosul and sometimes in Alc^ipo
or Beirut, in Syria, is officially entitled the "Syrian
Patriarch of Antioch", having under his jurisdiction
nine dioceses with a total of about 40,000 souls,
divided as follows: (1) Archdiocese of Bagdad, with
2000 souls, 3 churches, 6 priests, and 1 school, resi-
dence B^^lad; (2) Archdiocese of Damascus, with
4000 souls, 6 parishes, 6 churches, 12 priests, and
6 schools, reaidence Dasaascua; (3) Archdiocese of
Homs and Hamah, with 3000 bouIs, 5 parishes, and
5 churches, residence Homs; (4) Diocese of Aleppo,
with 4000 souls, 3 parishes, 3 churches, and 15 prices,
residence Aleppo; (5) DuMese Beirut, with 700

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souls, 1 church, and 8 priests; (0) Diooese of Diarbe-
kir, with 1000 souls, 3 parishes, 3 churches, and 7
priests. (7) Diocese of Djezire, with 2000 souls, 7
churches, 10 priests, and 6 schools, residence Dje-
sire; (8) Diocese of Mardin, with 6000 souls, 7 sta-
tions, 9 churches, 25 priests, and 7 schools; (9) Dio-
oeae of Mosul, with 10,000 aoula, 8 parishes, 12
churcbe& and 26 priests, resideiiae MosuL The
htui^cal language ot this Church is Synae.

Calholict of the Latin Rite.— The CathoUoa «t tbo
Latin Rite in Syria are not very numerous, and are
under the jurisdiction of the Apostolic Delegate of
Syria, whose residence is at Beirut (formerly at
Aleppo). Th^ number about 7000, scattered all
over the large towns of S^ria, and are either of Italian
or SVendi descent, havmfj aettled in Syria mamly
for oommercia] or eduoatumal purposes. The so-
called Latin Patriardiate of Antioch owee its or^in
to the tunes of the Crusades cS the eleventh, twelfth,
and thirteenth centuries, in connexion with the estab-
lishment of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem,
both oS which are nowadays simply titular, without
any jurisdictioQ, and their titulars reside m Rome.
The Latin Patriarch of Antioch has under his purely
titular jurisdiction the following titular araibiah-
opries: Apamea, Adana, Tarstis, Anazarbe, Seleucia,
Irenopolia, Cyr, Hier^wlis, Edessa, Amida, Niabis,
Eimesa, Heliopolis, Palmyra, Damascus. Philadel<
phia, Bostra, Ahnire, Derbe, Epiphania, Qabala, and
Rosea. For Armenians (Catholic and Schismatic) see
Armenia; for Chaldeans (Catholic) see Chaldban
Chbistians. The last ^up of Christians in Syria,
and, perb^M the most miportant one, consists of the
Maronites of Mt. Ldianon. Th^ form by Car iho
largest Christian community of Syria, and are all in
unicm with the Cath<^c Church. (See MAROMi'raa.)

Tlie latest appnmmate statistics <tf the population
and various denominations in Syria are—total pop-
ulation, 3,226,160; Mohanunedana, 2,209-450; Cath-
olic Christians, 555.949; non-Catholic Christiana,
435,389; Nusairiyyeh, about 150,000; Ismailiyyeh,
about 120,000; Druzes, about 70,000; Jews, 65^.

Catholic MrasioNa in Stbia.— Hie b^tnnin^ of
Cathdio missions in Syria may be amwopriately
traced back to the age of the Crusaders andtiie
estc^lisfameat of the lAtin Patriarchate ot Antioch
in ilOO, and that of the Vicariate ApoGFtolic of Aleppo
in 1762. The first Latin Patriarch of Antioch wsa
appointed either in 1100 (according to Le Quien)
or 1098 (according to Mas Latrie) by Pope Urban
II. The first appointee was Bernard, Bishop of>
Artesia, near Antioch. He died in 1132 and was suc-
cecKied by Raoul, from Dumfront in Normandy, who,
owing to flagrant acts of impertinence and msub-
ordination to the Holy See, was forced to resign
in 1142. He was succeeded by Aimeric or Amaury,
of Limoges, who, having incurred the displeasure
of Renaud de Chatillon, Prince of Antioch, was
persecuted, tortured, and finally compelled to flee
to Jerusalem. In 1160, however, he was restored to
his see by Baudouin II, Prince of Aleppo. Soon,
however, Bohemooid III, Prince of Antioch^ drove
Amaury out of bis see and offered it instead, m 1161,
to the Greek Patriarch, Athanasius. On the death oi
the latter in 1170, caused by a terrific earthquake, in
which most of the Greek clergy also lost their hves,
the Greeks lost their influence and power with the
people. In 1196 Amaury hlms^ died and was sue-
oeecUd by Pierre d'An«ouldme, Bishop ot Tripoli.
In 1204 lietro of Cunia, known as Pietro d'Amalfi,
was diosen Patriarch of Antioch. Bohemond IV,
however, soon began to intrigue in (uder to replace
hiwi with the Greek Patriarch, Simeon III; but he was
excommunicated by the patriarch and by the pope
himself, Innocent III, which caused the whole Latin
t^ergy to rebel against the king- Pietro d'Amalfi,
nevflrthdess, was miprisoned by Bohemond and died

in 1206, and was suooeeded by the Latin Bishop
Jerusalem, Pietro di C^Hia, nephew of the deceased
patriarch. Bohemond IV, however, refiued to
acknowledge him. In the meanwhile, after many
quarrels and vidsratudes. King Bohemond and the
Latin dei^ agreed to the election of Rainier, in 1219,
as Patriarch of Antioeh, after haviiw succeeded in
inducing the pope to cMate the QreSk occupant of
the see, the Pabiarch Peter, a cardinal. Rainier
died in 1226 and was succeeded in 1228 by Albert
Rezato, who was present at tiie Ck)uncil of Lyons in
1245 and who died a short time afterwards.

In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries sev-
eral Latin patriarchs occupied the See of Antioch, but
were constantly harassed and molested by the native
Greek clergy and by the EYankidi princes themselves,
who for political purposes were ever ready to sacri-
fice religious interests in order to secure the good will
of the native Greek Syrians. In the year 1348, how-
ever, the Latin Patriarchate of Antioch came to an
end, as far as effective jurisdiction was concerned,
although it continued to exist tiU our own times
simply as a titular di^t>^. The present Latin
Patriarch of Antioeh resides in Rome. In the thir-
teenth century, however, when it was at its bdght,
the Latin Patriarchate cS Antioch had under its
iuri8dieti<m the Latin sees of Laodicea, Gabala,
AntsraduB or Tortosa, Tripoli, Byblos, Seleucia,
Tarsus, Coryoos, Mamistra, Edessa, Apamea, Ba-
lanea, Artesia, Albaria, Larissa, Mariames, HienuwUs,
Cyr, Nicosia, Paphoe, Famagusta, and Limaasol (see
Le (Juien, "Oriens Oristianus", III, 1165-1232).
During these two centuries, the presence of so
many Catholic bishc^ ckmr, and liqr pec^le of the
Latin Rito in PaJastine and Syria was productive
of good Catholic mismonary results, as, owing pre-
oisely to the contact of the Latins with the various
Oriental Schismatic Churches of the Near East, a
lai^ number of Greeks, Nestorians, Jacobite Syrians
and Monopbyaite Armenians, not seldom led by their
own bishops and clergy, embraced the Catholic Faith.

The second centre of Catholic propaganda in %ria
was the Latin Vicariate Apostolic of Akigpo. This
Vicariate was first establi^ed in 1762, extending its
jurisdietion and its braeficial missionary influence
ovwall&tyria, Cyiirus, E^grpt, uid Arabia, all of which
provinces were then, by a special decree of the Con-
gregation of the Propaganda, detached from the
Vicuiate Apostolic of Constantinople. Its flrst oc-
cupant was the Lazarist Bassu. After hbdeath, and,
in fact, several decades later, in 1817, he was suo-
oeeded by Mgr. Gandolfi, of tne Congr^aticm of the
Mission, who was replaced in lS27by Mgr. Loranna,
titular Bishop of Abydos. From 1827 down to 1896,
owiM to the special rights and privileges enjoyed bv
the Franciscans as the custodians of the Holy Land,
all the Latin Vicars Apostolic of Aleppo were selected
frmn the fVanciscan order as follows : A. Fasio (1836-
38); Father Fillardell (1839-^2) who died a martyr
in Constantinople in 1862; P. Brunoni (1863); S.
Milani (1874-76); L. Piavi in 1877, who in 1889 was
made Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem; and G. Bonfif^li
in 1890, who in 1896 was transfored to the Latm
Vicariate Apostolic of Egypt. In the meanwhile the
residence was transferred from Aleppo to Beirut,
which was gradually becoming the most influential
and prmressive town of the Near East. In 1896 a
French Dominiean, id^ Charles DuvaL ior nearly
thirty years mismonary at Mosul, suoceeded Bonfigb.
Duval died in 1904 and was suceeeded on Januaiy 17
of the followingyear (1905) by Mgr. Frediano Oian-
nini, titular Arc£bishop of Seria.

Dliring the course of the nineteenth coituiy the
Vicariate Apostolic of Syria suffered several losses.
In 1838 Egypt and Arabia were taken away; and in
1848 Jerusalem was elevated to the rank of Latin
patriarchate wkh jurisdieUni over Palestine, Southcsm

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Fboenicia, and the IslaDd <rf Cyprus. But on tbe
other hand tbe Vicariate Apostolic of Syria obtained
full jurisdiction over all the Latins td this vicariate,
this prerogative being definitely withdraini from the
supervision of tbe Holy Land* Tin VIeariate Apo^
tobe of Syria embraoes at iwesent die foDowing ten>
toiy: on the north its boundary line starts frmn tbe
Quif <rf Adalia, and touching the southern limits of
Taurus, stretraies toward the Euphrates, making a
bend at Hamah On the east is the Desert of Pal-
myra; on the south, Palestine; on tbe west the Med-
iterranean Sea. Since their institution the vicars oi
Svria have held the title of vicars Apostolic of the
HoW See for tbe luw^Latin Catholics who live within
^ limits of tb^ pro vinoe. Their power as dd^tes
however has not undergone the same re^rictions
as thdr authority of Vicars Apotiboiie; and Catholics
<d tbe Oriental Rite in tbe Latin Fatriarobate of
Jerusalem are subject to Syria by way of delegation.

The Latin communities, especially the French, have
developed very extensively, particularly in this oen*
tury, undo* tbe Vicariate Apoetolie of Syria. Thev
aSord at tbe present time the stnngeet buhnifc
■gainst the incnadng eneroadiments of both Prot-
estant and Orthodox missions which are sedudng
with money and pranises tbe hard-wmUng, but poor
people of Syria. The Capuchins, stationed in Syria
since 1627, care for tbe parishes of Antiocb, Baabdath,
Beirut, and Mersina: they have besides houses at
Aleppo, Abey, Ghasir, Koderbek, and Salima. Their
rdigious however are but few in number. The Fran-
ciscans have twelve oonvaits in tlie following places:
Aintab, Aleppo, Beirut, Damascus, Haiissa, loiige-
Kale, Kenaye, Latakie, Marasb, Sayda, Sour, and
Tripoli. They aiao have 10 parishes, and number
about 66 religious. Their ooUege at Aleppo is in a
flourishing condition and numb«s 140 pupils.- The
Trappists have a house at Sheikle b;y Akbee, near
Alexandretta. The Lasarists, established in Syria
since 17S4, have five houses with parishes and mis-
sions at Antoura, Beirut, Damascus, and Tripoli.
They numbo- abmit 37 rdigious, and possess in the
viUiwee of Lebanon a large number of primary sdiools
which they themselves visit and maintain. Tbe Car-
meUtes, stationed in Syria since 1650, have five resi-
dences: at Alexandretta, which torma a parish, in
Beylui, Bisoeni, Kobbayat, and TripoU. Their n-
hjniMis are about 8 in number. Tbe Brothers of the
CSu^stian Schools have 4 primaiy soboob m Beirut,
Latakie, Ti^ioli, and Tripoli Bythe-Sea.

The Jesuits were established for tbe first tune m
1696, and later returned to Syria at the invitaticm of
Mgr. Masloum and in obediraoe to the order of
GrMory XVI. Their mission numbers 174 members,
of whom 66 are priests, 47 scholastics, and 61 brother
assistants. After being stationed at Zeilafa, and
later in Mesopotamia, the Jesuits founded at Ghasir
in 1846 tbe Oriental Seminary which was traniferred
to Beirut in 1876 and has an enrollment of 60 students.
This seminary has already sent f<a>th over 130 iniests.
Tbe youuer relic^us of the Antonines, of the
MaroniteRite, the BasiUan, and of the Gredc Rite,
followtheu- coursesof philosophyand thec^ogy with the
seminarists, aJl being related by aimilarity of rite.
In 1848 tbe Jesuits establiriied another oollege at
Ghasir; this too was transfored to Beirut, and has
become the celebrated College ot St. Joseph. In
1883 the medical school was added, wtudi U>4aj is
attended by 130 students; tbe oollege has 600 stu-
dents enrolled. Eighty retigtous professors and six
French dootois take i»rt in the mstruction of the
students and direct the most complete printing estab-
lishment m the Orient, publishing a weddy newspaper
in Arabic, the "Beshlr", and the bi*monthly Arabic
review, "Al-Masbrik". In 1896 P.BamierfouDdedat
Sayda in the region of Akkar a normal sdiool whieb
is Attnded by 40 impili; al>o w Drphanaie at TanaiL

During the last three oeoturies the Catbohc mia-
aionaries of Syria have bad to contend against heavy
odds and difficulties occasioned by the Mohammedans,
the Druses, and tJw various Oriental Schismatic
ChureheSf and, in the last ooituzy, also against
many obstacles and antagonisms offved by the
various Syrian Protestant Missions. But notwitb-
Btanding opposition they have for^ ahead and an
regenerating the Christians of Syria into a new life,
mainly through tbe channels of religious instruction,
oonveruoi^ and educational and phuanthrt^ic enters
prises. The Jesuits, the Lasarists, and, of late, tiae
Oitistian Mothers have aciiieved such progress
in tbe line of religious and educational woric Utat
th<^ have under their care, at present, nearly 300
schools, with 400 teachers and scone 14,000 pupib.
The Jesuits alone have under their care 156 el^
mentaiy schools scattered all over Syria: 6 in Beirut
with 16 teachers and 900 pupils: 5 in Damascus
with 6 teachers and 250 pupils; 19 in Bikfaya with

29 teachers and 1300 pupils; 29 in Ghasir with 27
teachers and nearly 2000 pupils; 21 at Horns with

30 teaehm and 1000 students: 37 at Sawda with
66 tcadiers and 1600 pupils; 18 at Tanial with 22
teachers and 900 students; and 21 at Zahle with 30
teachers and nearl^r 1300 students. The Lasarists,
established in Syria in 1784, have under their care 1 10
dementary schools with 180 teachers and nearly 6000
pupils. Their high school and college at Antoura and
Damascus have 300 and 200 studraits respectively.
The Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul have charge of some
80 female schools and 4000 prJa. The Sisters <rf Nasap
retb of Lyons, established smce 1871 , have schools and
peMimnala at Beirut, St. John of Acre, Sbefamar,
Haiffa, and Nasareth, with about 2000 pupils. Tbe
Sisters of St. Joseph of Marseilles, estaoUshed in
Syria in 1846, have several schools in Beirut, Sayda,
Nazareth, Tyre, and Deir-el-Qamar, with about
1500 pupils. Tbe Sisters of the Holy Family have
a large sdiool at Beirut, with over 260 pupils. Tbe
Sist^ oi ib» Good Shepherd of Angers, have an
orphanage at W*twmAtifc with 150 inmates. Finalhr,
the Manamettes, an order of native nuns, estab-
lished in 1860, have under their care not less than 41
schools, 85 teaebers, and some 3500 pupils, scattered
all ovM- Syria; 1 at Beirut, 2 at Celip, 9 at Bikfaya, 1
in Damascus, 6 in Ghasir, 2 at Horns, 6 at Sayda, 6
at Tauail, and 8 at Zahle.

BuaoKHABDT, TVovtb in Sfirt» llu Half Lntd (1S22),
1-300: IVnitrABVT, n* SgrmM CLaodcn. ISMj; Cmmatm,
Bfidtraiu Siptdilim. (LabdoD, ISSH); tOvem, StdkiOUie MA
•A»U7t. XVII, pu. 1 uid 2 (BcrUn, ISH-fS}; VbHr KkeMK,

JfiUdWira tmd Aiaiiunu (Vienna ISSa) ; Bo«tok u*d IhuU^
Untxptmd S^ti* (LaoAva, 1972)' Rbclq^ Ifout, B'sg. wiM«nli
d Aiie AHitritm (1884) ; Pom*, firr Ytan U, Damatau CU#
itos, lassh hturf, fifldmift* It/ At juoAnifw (LondAih nTQ);
DR Voaat, Arrii CmilraU {PmA. l6e6-77>; IeW. Affltl. fmth
lint, JHoiH Athea {Puis, IBTV) \ S*.c^xe, lUtt 'te iVMA ft
iiMovolaMim (Mp ir. 1883); Mtuusa, Abnu UnMjA Ogi

atnaaaa, 1891): CSARy™. Vowope « Si^rU (FHbh %t
Jtr ScwoK. /MMT Life of Surw (L^taAvatjlBSii Fim J
al avnor AMiM ttad Smi (Bdlrut, : BmuKIT AMB P

VTKfir. AriHTt in tfrnlSyriiR (ISftm; Pow, Shw rtj ft* i

and VitrtawMUM o/ Svr^, ek. CLbudoit, IS&O); G«OMh»
ritRER. h A SvTian SaddU {LatidoD, ItKJS); Bsti, Tk* ItgM
nfid ilie Sirvn [londoii, 1007); LoHim', Ij). Svrii d"oii^oii«Wi
i I'arir. tflS4>; Cub™, ro-rfa^ in Syria nn-i PairMint (NMT TK
I'Hrn LinniT kud HOSEnn, Tht Jardatt Vautm am niV

r^^ll■i, r.HJ7i; Kel.va]!' JJKD Twuui, Fnim OamaMw 1« nbvm

l^^O'j: livvnEXEiii, /Ai/««Kfir IMS ftrriH (^fVvV. 13
rnnrr a-^agrajthiiiue •if i'Kmj»ra OUirmatt (rlriL IW
//nf.jTjr.il Oiair<'7i^U I'f 'J' ffo/jf LfflTld I^OdtSU

F<ir ihi^ rflipow hialoty of CferiBtlaB BytH f»- -
ran>ii(- Bj.p-bded » Brtieha OO tta VuHoiH t™"™, . ..^.^
Chiin-Jif's, mew. *t«.r tiatt Btnxrrr. Barto *ii«fcin» C'hi^HMV
fr^nnJiiti, lDftl>; Haakack, Miubm ami JFcwimmc af CWy
i.^r.:,v. Dr. -VvtiJs.. Bud fA., IBI^i AttWSV, *•
£-.,i(frh rAiTfAw (EiiinhunUi. IBM); JtosiWlJll ■■ Oy*^
tnijfrrt t *^*^cA tLocdon, I«)7)[ »r«ltun, Ttif *"£^ g*^?
(Lundtm, ie?B); f arrt. Sir Jdam&M m a S/fliOH J*si»a<JW»
ilSea); ki.DotA. a** NtMrim* (Hrf ttnV Sihiah (l^ti^K.

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IS73): AhemaNi. BMiolhtea OritntatU (4 volg., Rome, 1719-
28): Le Quien, Orietu ChrUtianiu (Pun, 1740) : Sidahouso,
Dm PatriarehaU, ete. (1006); Jxhay,*2>« is SituaHon da
ndtla Ottomaiu iion-JtfiMtbnaiu (Brusaeli, 1006); O'Laisr.
Ta* StfTMin Chwdt and Falhtn (Loodon, 1009); RftrtTHi
Doeumentt sour aerw- d VhUMn du CAru(ia«<nw <n OiCmf,
1 (Pmria, 1905); Chabon, HUl dM AtfrjsmiM MMUm, etc
(Rome, lOOO — -); Avkii, £m SgHtaa mOonamm M autoemalm
(1895); lanM. lit Ortet MOkilm (1899); tosu, [Am JAmIm
KfiffinM M (MmJ an X^^ tiicU (1866); Bbtb, i>M oKvRtoKiA
ChrittmtheU dtr MittdwnenUtndtr (BmIid, 1002) ; Baton. Le
aeUmu OrUniaie d» XI* wUiU (1800): Buubtmam, LihfffftM,
EatUm md WHen, I (O^atA, 1896} : DucBam, Tta Ckmku
SepoTxtted from Romt (New York, lOOT): Hanu-Ls Clmmcq,
HuL de» CtmeUeM ^uia, 1007 sqa.); Niuaa, KaUndariwm
iioKuaU vtniuDue Eedeuia OrimOidu at OecidtntaHt, (Idii>-
bniA. 1800-07], P»M(i. Audn cTAfMata niWoMi, 4 hnm
rAiNd (P«iii, 1807)^ Pimnoo, £-ffpji«e Onanteb (1855);
BcaOKWT, 7.M Stfitrmti tl in Proleetioii du Cftr^'oiu an AirQiua
(J^TS-JdOj) CP»ri«. 1941): Vebnat 4kd Qakiikum. tt» Ati#-
CfrragAvi dan* U letaiH, «n Sbm d tn Jftlfwrt>f (WOO);
flB| il» ^ K»ncfBJ tuBtoncfl of thu Cbuich b; BcVAM, SAmbm-

divdtod maialy bo Lbe Abudy of itiaO '

- - -. J[ yUS^voBhy in ChaviJier'a £

1731-45}; MAscBultfo d« OpnOHLt ^Iww

ffiS^i«r'^:&^--^^

•MTott

(LDvob»
OHDfnob d#Uf

(Row. IdOll

UOl), 295-360: LoDVia', Xh iKMfoM CkO. «« XETi «w
OJlle, Iga?);- LATm4T. ^ Afurioiu ftriHi^vi (8 wk,

FviB. ISH): SswBiOK, SM. At JfiMwA* C^. fftff^ 184^;
FttMU, op. ciS.; WnMBB, jttba ifiHwnu CoO, ffifribarB,

m an- OLvam d'onnj, owm; BumnuaLi Ffl^Tbtiww d#r
CfM&m Orii'Hij (fioiiBlioa, 1SS£); KoiKUa, Z>h
tiicJUn i?i/.:;i<.Ti lUt Morgaiaaadm (Dtmatwlb, 1906): Wkkkui.
OrU* (errarum eolAoIictu (Fteibtug, 1^); Fbakcx), L'Bglita
Grteqae MtldtiU, etc. (1898); JuLLnir.^neitMlI* miaaiM da la
eomscwnw Jfmi* en 5vn« (Toun, 1899); W. M. W*iima"-,
CArw<wn IftMioM (LoDdoa, 1888); Hahk, Omc*. katita.
Mi—ionm (6 vols.. ColoEne, 1857-65): DJUHXOVUCT, DieL daa
Miaaion* Cath. (Puifl, 1864); Bebmabdim db Rouaw, Bid.
unimtmUb dM DiiMum JronaaemMaa (^ufs, 1808); Bad we two
nviewB mentioned BboTe.TiB,: Raaiu da f Orient CMtian, pa«^,
and Behoa d^Oriant.

Gabbibl OuasANi.

Syriac BTmnody. — To the general consideration
set forth in the article Hthnodt and Htuholoot
must be added some bearing particulazfy on the
Btructure and liturgical use of hymns (madraaM),
exclusiTe of poetical homilies or discoursee (mtTTtr^),
which belong to the narrative and epic cla», while tlie
hymns are ^rical. The chief basis of Syriac metre
is the fixed number of syllables of the verses, without
distinction of long and thori syllables, as in several
modem languages. Verses of all lengths from two
to twelve syllables are known, but the metres most
used in hymnody arc verses of twelve syllables formed
ci three equal measures (4+4+4), verses of seven
syllables formed of two measures (4+3 or 3+4), and
verses of five syllables also formai of two measures
(2+3 or 3+2). These verses may be employed alone
or group^ in strophes, the latter form being most
fretpjent in hymns composed of veraes of five and
seven ciyllablee. A strophe is generally composed oF
equal VCTsee, but it sometimes nappens that the first
or the last verse is in a different measure from the
oth^ verses of the strophe. All the strophes of a
hymn are usu^y of the same construction.

Besides variety of metre and division into strophes
the Syrians prior to the ninth craitury knew no other
artifice than the arrangement of acroErtic poems. The
aeroBtic played an important part in Ssmae hymnody
and its use, e^ieciatly the alphabetic acroctio, seenw
to have been mtroduced in imitation of the BsalnM
and the Lamentations (tf Jeremiaa. Sometimes tlw
acrostic is linear, simple when each verse begins suo-
cessively with one of the twenty-two letters of tha
Syriac alphabet^ multiple, when two, three, or more
verses b^in with the same letter without forming
strophes; sometimes it is strophic, when each strophe
is marked by a letter of the alphabet, ilits letter
may be only at the beginning of the first vwbb or it
may be repeated at the D^innii^ of each vme of the

strophe. There may be two ur mure suoceesive
strophes b^inning with the same letter, each letter
rqpuatly marking the same number of strophes
thioui^ut the poem which thus consists of forty-
four strophes, u aizty-siL or of any other multiple
oftwenty^wD. The vcdbal acrostic is more rare. The
name of Jesus Christ, of Mary, or (rf the saint in whose
honour the hynm is composed serves to form hnear
or strophic acrostics. St. Ephraem signed some of
hia poems with his acrostic.

From the ninth ceutun' the influence of Arabio
poetry made itself felt in Syriac hymnody, especially
by the introduction of rhyme; this manner of mark-
ing the final stroke of a verse had been hitherto un-
known, the rare exampke held to have been discovered
among older authors being merely voluntary or fortui-
tous assonances. But the Syrians made varied use of
rhyme. There are poems in which all the verses have
the same rhyme as in the "Kasida" of the Arabs;
in others, and these are the more numerous^ the
verses of each strophe have a ain^e rhyme which is not
the same for all the stn^hee. m others the verses of
a BtrM^ rhyme unong tbenuelvee. with the exc^
lion <» tlie last, whitdi repeats the rhyme of the firat
strophe like a r^rain. In acrostic poems the thyme
is sometimes supplied by the oorTesponding letter of
the alphabet; thus the firat stroi^e rhymes with a, the
second with 6, etc. In verses of twelve syllables
formed of three tetrasyllabio measures the rhyme is
at the end of each verse or at each measure, so that
it is rqieated three times in each verse. There may
also be a, dififvoit rtiyme for the first two measures
and for the last. These are the most frequent com-
binations, but there are others.

Most ancient hymns, e. g. those of St. Ephraem,
Natses, and Balai, although composed for one or two
ehoirs, were not originally intended for liturgical use
properly so called. They were addressed as much to
the laity as to clerics, and date from a period when
tha codification of harmony, if we may so q>eak, was
not yet regularly estaMiahed. The result oS aa;^>t^
ing uuBB hymns to liturgical offioee^was that they un-
dorwait various modifications: (1) in the assignment
oi authonhip-^-the Syrian Jacobites and the Maro-
ttites in adopting those of Nestorian origin either sup-
pressed the name of the author or substituted the
name of one whom they considered orthodox, most
frequently St. Ephraem; (2) in revision, those which
were too long were shortoied and heterodox expres-
sions were modified — thus the term "Mother of
Cairist" was replaced by "Mother of God", etc.;
(3) in general arrangement, especially by the addi-
titui of a refrain when there was none in Uie originaL
Thus a hymn by St. Ephraem the acrostic of which
forms the name "Jesus Christ", b^;iD8 with the
strophe: —

Jesus Our Lord 4e Christ [Fattier;
Has appeared to us from the bosom of His
He has come to deliver us from darkness^
And to illumine us with his resplendent light.

It was preceded by the following distidi whidb
forms the refrain:

Light is arisen uptxi the just

And joy for those who are brokoi-hearted.

Likewise a hymn of Naraes on the Epqihany be-
gins}—

Error like darkness,
Was Btoetched over creatures;
The lu^t of Christ is risen
And the world possesses knowledge.
Its refrain is the following distich: —
The li^t of the appearing of Christ
Has rejoiced the eaxth and the heavens
^^mudo not ocour only in the Office whidi oorre-
^Kxiiai to the Roman Breviary; the Syrians also mafle

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use of them in variouB Uturgtoal ftmotioiis, such as
funerals and marriage celd[>ration8.

^nple hymns wiUiout refrain are called Uthbuhit
(glorifications); the name ctda (voice) is gLven to the
hymns in which each strophe is preceded by a sen-
tence (metrical or not) expressing a thou^t in con-
formity with that of the strophe. It is in a manner
an invitation from the first cbmr to iriiieh the sbomhI
replies by strophe, e. g. :—

First choir: Open to me the gates of justice.
Second c^oii: Open to us, Lord, the great treasure,

(strophe of four versee).
First choir: And I will enter to praise Ihe Lord.
Second choir: At the gate of thy menues (etc.,

sbophe of four verses).

Sometimes the strophes arc interspersed witii ver-
sicles from the Psalms.

The hymns in the Jacobite Office which conclude
the part known as aedra and replace the short prayers
of the Nestorian Office are called ba'tUha (prayer, re-
quest). Most hymns of this class are in pentasyllabic
vereea and are the work of the poet BaJai (d. about
460). They show great simplicity of thought tand
language and consist of two strophes, generally of six
verses each, sometimes of fouir, as for ezampie: —

During forty days
Moses fasted on the mountain:
And with the splendour of its li|^t
His countmanoe shone.

During forty d^ys
Ninive fasted:
And the Lord was appeased,
And annulled the sentence.

Instead of the ba'utita occasionally occurs a metri-
cal composition called a^ktia fstairs), which are facti-
tious arrangements of versee Dorrowed from various
sources and arbitrarily arranged by those who co-or-
dinated or revised the Offices, and are of no assist-
ance in the study of Syriac hymnody. The aagUhA
is less frequently replaced by the awEMa, a cuiticle in
the form of a dialogue which recalls the " Victinue pas-
diah" of the Roman Missal. All the poems of this
khid known to us are of Nestorian ongin, and are
probably the work of Narses. They are uniformly
constructed with an introduction and a dialogue; the
introduction is composed of from five to ten strophes
tit four heptasyllabu) versee; the dialogue between
two persons or two groups of persons contains forty-
four strophes (twenty-two for eadi interlocutor) sim-
ilar to those in the pndogue and forming an alphabetic
acrostic. These compositionB of rather hvely meas-
ure are stamped by a certain grace. The subject is
adapted to the feaist of the day; thus in the canticle
for Christmas the dialogue is between the Blessed
Virgin and the Magi; for the Annunciation, between
Gawiel and Maiy : for the feast of Uie Syrian Doctors,
between Cyril and Neetorius, etc. These three kinds
of h^mns correspond to the three subjects vdiich form
theu* usual theme, praise, prayer, and instruction, but
as has been said uie last-named was chiefly imparted
by the mimri.

Extensive study of Syriac hymnody would show
whether there is any relationship between it and
Byzantine hymnody, an hypothesis which has had as
many opponents as defenders; but this study has not
yet been attempted, and it is an undertaking fraught
with difficulties, owing to the small number of docu-
ments published in satisfactory condition. Indeed
^e knowledge of hymna supphed by editions of the
liturgical books of Uniat Chaldeans, Syrians, or Ma-
ronites is inadequate for the reasons indicated above.
The wn4cs of St. E^rfuaem wliioh oontain a large

number of them (autiientic or apocryphal) have not
been critically edited. The Nestonan Breviaries
which have most faithfully preserved the ancient
texts have never been printed and MSS. are rare,
while the collections of nymns apart from liturrac^
bo.")k=i arp few and havf not befii auffirieiitK' rftfidied,

,-!H}il:'-.. — C'AltUAUl, Liti-rr i>i.-jriicii ,h' irrli- pi'tHoi ."i'/Tvrum

lS7y); L1.M1. 'J« .'-■tfri.ii- l-r-^ntif iL(jn.1.-ji., l«tU 1 ; Watkii. Auf-
iranff un.rf ('fsjTU'if) dtr Uit^ini^chrn and i;rit(h, ruthmitchen liirii-^
iung I Mmiiph. LSS.';; (iiiiMMit, Lier AtT<3TiKeubnu ia den (iinliehten
Sphmrmf (frllnmril, ISllii); r'^futril l.y B]i')riiT:uin>i\' in ^'if"»Ji.
dir (leuf;ii;)t *i|iir^, UteMnelvxfl, I.tT, ItVi; r'li'.^p,, .V^ffj tur ia
po#BM *i/rvi-ifue ill J-i\tT<i. li-'i-jf,. II i"iy7i, fi"; ZisfjLiii.i., litii*
Jinklinot vn Libim^n. i\Miif\iT\irk, lS-lli<r ilil.M. lla- siiriieKa
fiWliiT^rirr /j l^j.j f.iiii ■ fj.ifffu 1 V illi'ihyh^ii. IMHi . ; 1 lF:^r[viiEK.
fitliW urifiHntHi^"' i\^'MfiliJrK, Ifiil.!], Hl'.tri.i., Awf^ahUr

atl .S,i/riJj.i /.'■liJw OSirra I l^jn.liiiii. ISSM).

(b^ l^'liliuns. — I-'df the li(.iirgi4?al bciuk.!! of Ihp Syriiuis sw
BinKEl.i-, f'.i'Mfifrim r^i jSjjrrvrniTi tirr-tiiH/r ( Munirli. 1S71.);
NrHTi.i-, /.[(.'n-iiji-ir.j vjyfirii-.i :Hi-rliri, l^s^:, I'.i, Uit thi<- *r.>r((j) of
Hi, Eijlii-u'TTi 1"-'.' rinii.M-M, hjl .|;i.t^r!i|i]i> , iil!i.ir "'JiU'-ns; AsOt-
MaM, '"■i f>-j- 'iltfrDiL-u- I lii.Tri-'. ITI'i-i^ii ; kli", /.tl^rfu, ri.

mtrn, trerrhr/i. 7^ii; Si'i.rfTH in ll'.^vrti., Tfifuriruj

Atrpn't-ofopiru.", Ill ninllf. LS.Vil , ' ti'f.riHF-is. k. S. EfiJirJifmi lyn

I^CT- ,Ur Ffj'W i>i <ln V-lk.-.f.'-.i.-l,^ -Ur ,V,v-(.:-r.(r,-'- iHi-rJiii. IhMl ;

FoLKmSK. Afl.''J-T/Jh!l^ lir:'',:'rii\lilifl\f fifdichlf fdrj CVlUMTin'
Wnnla fKirrtl:tMl. If^lffii; Ff.r Ii-m ^ ■JS'. Siirinrhr HWIi/eHiiflfr rnn
N'lrMfn [l^ipiic, iKiflli': : 7,y.-m inlyiv, UHlrSae :ur Ktnntnii der

0*-"-aUltTfitsSj\i}e<!r'lJ. <('■!'■/.( 1 l.- ij'inf, r^Oll. Sjim? Ijyjima L-y
vnriouii iiulhura tirt- in M.v^^■A. .l/ujrrnrj.t rftuwH dc lilHrnlura
aramianiu (Hoaul, 1901], md in KiaJntiM JpariiiU COurmiK,

J. B. Cbabot.

Syilac Language and Literature.— Syriac is the
most important branch of the group of Semitic lan-
guages Imown as Aramaic. In uie tune of Alexander
the Ureat, Aramaic was the official language of all the
nations from Asia Minor to Persia, from Armenia to
the Arabian Peninsula. It was divided into two dia-
lects: the western, used in Palestine and Syria by the
Jews, Palmyrans, and Nabateans; the eastern, spoken
in Babylonia by Jews, Mandeans, Manicheeans, and
the peoples of Upper Mesopotamia. The Syriac lan-
guf^e, as we know it from its literature, did not spring
from the dialeot spoken in Syria, but from the eastern
Mesopotamian dialect. When the weakened Seleu-
cides ceased to defend the Euphrates, small inde-
pendent princip^ties were formed in that region.
The most famous was the little Kingdom of Edessa
whose capital Osrhoene was the religious centre of the
country (cf. R. Duval, "Hist. d'Edesse", Paris, 1893).
This city also became an intellectual centre, and even
then the languid of its people attained great per-
fection. A httle later under the influrace of Chris-
tianity it developed considerably, and eventually be-
came the liturgical and literary lan^^ of all the
Churches from the shores of the Mediterranean to the
centre of Persia. The suppleness and flexibihty of
this dialect and its loose and variable syntax readily
lent itself to the most different constructions, and
offered to Christianity a more appropriate instrument
than Creek for the expression and spread of new
ideas. In Syria proper and western Mesopotamia
Syriac was first used simultaneously with Greek, but
after the Monophysite schism Greek gradually fell
into disuse. The period from the middle of the fifth
century to the end of the seventh was the most bril-
liant period of Syriac literature. The Mussulman in-
vasion brought about the decadence by impomng
Arabic as the official lai^age; the latter rqndly
came into general use, and Syriac was no longer
spoken or understood the people, although it was
upheld as a literary language (or four centuries tonger,
and until the present time as a hturgical language.
Nevertheless, the destruction was not complete;
%riac, or rather Aramaic, modified according to the
laws of evolution common to all languages, is still
spoken in three villages in the neighbourhood of
Damaseua, in Tour Abdin (Mesopotamia, between

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mOMO 4

NiaiUs and the Tigris), and in Kurdistan, espeeiaHy
in the neighbourhood of Ounniah. The languid of
this mty is even in process of becoming a literary
tongue, through the efforts of thenussionaries (Amer-
ican Protestants and FVench Lazarists), who print
numerous wwlcs in this dialect. Bibles, text-books,
pr^OT-books, and even reriewfl.

The works transmitted to us in the Syriac language
form an essentially and almost exclusively ChnsCian
religious literature. After Latin and Greek there is
none more useful to the ex^ete, the theok^ian, and
the eoclesiastioal historian. We know of more tiian
150 authors who enriched it from the fourth to the
thirteenth century. The libraries of Europe and
those of some eastern monasteri^ which are of easy
access possess nearly 3000 MSS., ooatainizw tlw
greater part ot these works. Our diort list will take
only the best-known authors and the most important
works. Of pagan literatiu% there remain only a few
short inscriptions, most of them funereal, and a lett»
from Mara bar Serapion, Stoic philosopher of Samo-
sata, to his son, written probably in the course <^ the
third century (ed. Cureton, "Spicelegium Lon-
don, 1855). The writings of the Gnostic Bardeaanes
of the same period, with a Gnostic hymn inserted in tha
Acto of St. Thomas, form a sort transition between
Pagan and Christian literature. The earliest monu-
ment of the latter 13 the version of the Bible called the
Peschitta (simple), which is treated elsewhere (see
Vbbsions op the Bible). It suffices to mention also
the two oldest orthodox writers, Aphraates the Per-
sian Sage (d. 350), and St. Ephraem, the most brilhant
of the Fathers (A the Syrian Church (d. 373) . Among
the diseiples of £phraem was Mar Aba, the autiior «
eommentaries on the Gospels and oi a homily on Job;
Zenobius, deacon of Edessa, who wrote treatises
against Marcion and Pamphylus and a "Life of St.
Ephraem"; Pauhnus, who possibly fell into heresy
after having written against Marcion and the sceptics.
Abamya, a nephew of Ephraem, has been wrongly
identified with Cyrillona, an unknown author who
wrote in 397 a poem on the two plagues of that period,
the loousts and the Huns.

At banning of the fifth oenturv there

flourished at Edessa the famous school of the Per-
sians, in which the doctrines of Theodore of Mop-
suestia and Nestorius found fervent adherents. The
bishop then was Rabbula, son of a pagan priest of
Kenneshrin (Chalcis). He was converted by Euse-
biua, bishop of that city, distributed his goods to the
poor, and embraced the ascetic life. In 412 Acacius
of Aleppo ap^inted him Bishop of Eldessa: he died in
435. Alfter mcUntng to Nestorianism he became an
ardent partisan of St. Cyril of Alexandria. His sever-
ity made him formidable to his clergy, and won for
him the title "tyrant of Edessa". At Constanti-
nople he delivered a discourse agunst Nestoriu&
wmch was translated into Syriac, as well as several of
his letters. He himself translated the treatise "Of
the Orthodox Faith" which Cyril addressed to him.
His extant works were translated by Overbeck
(Oxftnd, 1865). His successor was the famous Ibas,
or Hiba, who favoured the Nestorians. Man Uie
Persian of Rewaidashir, to whom the celebrated
letter of Ibas was addr^ed, wrote a commentaiy on
Daniel and a oontrovereial treatise against the Ma-
fdans. He also oommentated the (Coet) letters of
Acacius of Amida (Diarbekir), an avowed Nestorian,
less noted for his writii^ than for his charity, which
won him* place in the Roman Martyrology (9 April).
He must not be confounded with Acacius of Me^^tene
who joined Rabbula in his warfare against Nestorian-
ism, nor with Acacius of Seleucia, patriarch of the
Nestorians (484-06), author of homilies on fasting and
of treatises against the Monophysites; he also trans-
lated into Peisian the treatise on faith of Osee, Bi^bi^
of NinbiB, who m 496 pnnnulgated the statutes the

9 snuc

school of that oi^ (ed. Guidi). About the middle of
the century Uvea Isaac of Antioch, /called the Great
and r^{u^ied as a saint. His history is unknown.
The Syrians have attached hie name to a considerable
collection of metrical homilieB (partly edited by
Bickell, Qieasen, 1873-77, and by Bedyan, Paris,
1903), but it is cratain Uiat the woras of several au-
tluwB of the same name have been attributed to him.

Among these are Isaac of Edessa, a McmoplqrBite of
the end of the sixth century, and Isaac a Amida.
The last-named m the author of a poem on secular
games (414) and on the taking of Rome (410). In
the first half of the cmtury lived Balai, cboiepisoopus
of Aleppo, the author of numerous poems which have
been preserved in part. At the death of Ibas the doc-
tors of the school oi Edessa were eoqpelled, and with-
drew to the Fanan Empire. Amoi^ them were
Baisauma, who became Bidiop of Nisibis and was
noted for his despotism; we hiave six of his letters
addressed to the Patriami Acacius. He also wrote
exhortations, funeral orations, and hymns; Narsai
joined hino and was the real founder of^ the School of
Nisibis which continued the tradition of that of
Edessa; he taudit there fat more than fwty yeare.
He was praised in most exited terms l»r his co-
religionists, who called him " the Tongue ot the East
"the Poet of ReUgion", "the Harp of the Holy
Ghost". The Monophysites nicknamed him "tlw
Leper". He died about 502. He is said to have
composed commentaries on most of the books of the
Old Testament, and 360 metrical disoourses. Manv
of them have been edited by Mingana (Moesoul,
1905). Mana, who became a bishop in Persia, was
flistinguished at Edessa for his tnnslatirai of tiw
works <rf nieodore <Kf Mopsuestia.

Eliseus bar Kosbaye and Abraham of Beit Rabban,
the successors of Narsai in the direction of the school,
wrote Biblical commentaries and numerous treatises
against the Magians. Most of the Nestorian authors
of the sixth century proceeded fr(»n this school. One
of the most famous was the Patriarch Mar Aba I
(640-^2), a convert from Zoroastrianism; he studied
at Nisibis, learned Greek at Edessa, and went to Con-
stantinople; later he founded the School of Seleucia,
He preached boldly against the Magi; Khuarau I ex-
iled him ; on his rettim to Seleucia he was thrown into
prison, where he died. He is credited with a transla-
tion of the Scriptures, but there is no trace of it; he
wrote BibUcal commentaries, homiUes, and synodal
letters. He also translated into Syriac the litur^ of
Nestorius. Paul the Persian, veiy learned in prcaane
philoBtvlQ'] composed a treatise on the "Lone" of
Aristotte, ttodicated to King Khusrau (ed. Land), and
several other didactic works, preserved in part. His
namesake, Paul of Nisibis, a disciple of Mar Aba, was
the author of Biblical commentaries. Theodore,
made Birfiop of Merw in 540, wrote a commentary on
the Psalms and a reply to ten questions of Sergius of
Reshayna. His brother Gabriel, Bishop of Hormis-
dardauiir, wrote controversial books against the
Manichaans. and the solution of difficult Scriptural
questions. To Abraham bar Kardahe, of Nisibis, are
t&tributed homilies, funeral orations, sermons, and a
letter against Shisban, probably a Magian. Another
Abraham, of Kashkarj founded and governed on
Mount lela near Nisibis a famous monastery called
the Great Convent. The rules he established in 571
were published (Chabot, Rome, 1898) with those of
Dadi^o, his successor (588-604).

The physician Joseph, the sucoessor of Mar Aba
(552-67), IS spokffli of as the author of an apocrypha
correspondence attributed to the Patriarch Papa
(fourth century). Joseph Housayit of Al-Ahwaz was
then teaching at Nisibis; he is credited with the oldest
grammatical treatise known to Syriac literature, and
IS r^rarded as the inventor of the i^rstem of punctua-
tioaln use among the Nestorians, compiled m imita-

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tion of the Maascvetio b^ds, perfaape with the anist-
anoe of the Jews of Nisibis. Htmana of AdiaJttene at
the end of the uxth century drew to Nisibis a luve
number <tf discipke; his teaohinK caused serious di>-
souions in the Nestoriaa Chuion, fw he abandoDed
the doctrines of llieodore of Mt^Muestia to attach
himself to St. J<^ Chrysostom. His doctrine, cen-
sured by Ishoyahb I, was condemned by the Synod <^
SfUarisho (596). Most of his literary work consists of
Biblical oommentaries. They are lost) but exteusiTe
fragment are inserted in the ''Qarden of Delights", a
twelfth-century compilation, which has preserrod
numerous extracts from the oldest Neetariaa exegetce.
Under the patriaxehate of Eaeehiel (670-81) Barhad-
beshabba, who became Bidiop €t ffiihran, a partisan ^
of Henaoa, wrote numerous oontroversial and exegeti-
cal works and a treatise "On the Reason of the
Schools" (ed. Scher, Paris, 1909), which throws Ii«;ht
on the history of Nisibis. We have the synodal let-
ters, and twenty-two questioas on the sacraments of
the Patriarch Ishoyahb I of Arzon (582-^).

At the end of this century the Synans had a copious
haglographical literature, m wfaioh the ddeet and most
authentic porUfm oondsts of the Aets of the Martyrs
of the persecution of Sapor II (see Pkrbiicution).
To these were added numerous passions, Uvee of
saints, and biographies translated from the Greek, the
whole forming a rich mine for the historian and the
hagiographer. In this century also there were trans-
lated and were often re-written the Oreek apocrypha
of the Old and New Testamoit which have come
down to us in Syrtac, toother with some native pro-
ductions, Buoh as the teaching of Addaj. The cunous
romance of Julian the Apostate (ed. Etoffmann) dates
from the sixth century as well as the valuable chron-
icle of Edeesa and the large historical compilation (ed.
Land) ascribed to Zacharias the Rhetorician; it con-
sists in part of original documents and partly of Greek
sources, and is of Monophysite origin.

While Mesopotamia and especially Persia was at-
tached to NestcH-ianism, the western Svrians embraced
the Monophystte doctrines M Eutycnee, propagated
by the monk Barsauma, condemned as a h^etic by
the Council of Chalcedon (451), tmd in this they
claimed to remain faithful to the traditions of St.
Cyril of Alexandria (see MoNOPBTsrniB and Mono-
PHTsmau). All their theological and polemical litor*
ature was inspired by this doctrine, which was de-
fended by talented writers. The foremost were
James of Sarugh and Philoxenes of Mid^Mug. Tbm
latter was bom at Tabal in Mesopotamia, afcudied at
Edeasa in the time of Ibas, and later ardently em-
braced the Monophysite cause. Appointed Bishap of
Mabboi^ (Hierapolis) in 485, he went twice to Con-
stantinople and was much esteemed by the Emperor
Anastasius. He [x^ded at the council which made
the famous Severus Patriarch oS Antioch (512). He
was «dled by Justin and died at Oangres about 523.
Despite his eventful life he was one of tae most prolifie
and elegant of Syriae writers. Of his writmgs we
possess lituKpea and prayers, thirteen homilies (ed.
Bu<^, London, 1894) which oonstitute a treatise of
Chnstuui ethics, a commentary on the Gospels fpre-
served only in part), a treatise on the Trinity and the
Incarnation (ed. Vasohalde, Paris, 1907), some dis-
courses, profeesons of faith, several short polemical
treatises agunst Uie Catholics and the Nestorians, and
nmnerous lettem.

James and Philoxenes wrote against Stephen bar Su-
dail6, a pious monk, bom at Edessa; on his return from
a joumOT to EWpt he preached pantheistic doctrines.
Driven from Edessa he withdrew to Palestine^ where
amohg the Origenistic monks he found a fertile field
for his ideas (cf. Frothingham, "Stephen bar Su-
daili", Leyden, 1886). None of his letters or mysti-
cal commentaries on the Bible remain, but he is the
author of q book, "The Hidden Mynteries of the House

of Ood", which he issued under the name of Hiero-
theus, the pretended master of Dionysius the Areo-
paote. This extensive treatise was very influential
in the development in Syria of paeudo-Dion^sian litera-
ture: it was afterwards forgotten, and in the thir*
teenth century BarhebrseuB had great difficulty in
securing a copy; this ot^y is now in the Bntish
Museum.

Among the other Monophyrate writers of the sixth
century were: Simeon of Beit Arab am, a skilful dia^
leotidan who oombatted the Nestorians. He died at
Constantinople in the rewp <A Justinian. His let-
ters on the propagation of Nestorianism and on l^e
C3u*i8tian mar^rs of Yemen (Himyarites) are fa-
mous. John bar Cursus, Bishop of Tdla, e]q}elled
from his see m 521, died at Antioch in 538. He is the
author of exhortations to the clergy and disciplinary
questions, a profession of faith, and a commentary on
the Trisagion. Paul, Bishop of Callinicus, deposed
in 519, translated into Syriac the works of Severus of
Antioch. Jacob Barbuadsus, the founder of the
Monophymte Church, from whom it derived its name
of Jacobite, died in 578. Bit letters and profession of
faith are preserved in Syriae translations. The lives
of all these men are more or less well-known through
numerous monographs which cannot be enumerated
her^ and through the valuable historical works of John
of Sphesus.

_ Serpus of Reshaina was a physician and a dis-
tingu^ed scholar: his friendship with the Nestorians
and the part he played at the end of his life caused
him to be suspected of having abandoned Mouf^hy-
mte doctrines. He studied at Alexandria, where he
learned Greek. In 535 he was sent to Rome by
Ephrem, Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch^and escorteil
Pope Agapetus to Constantinople. Here Sergius
sought to expel the patriarchs Severus of Antioch,
Theodosius of Alexandria, and Anthinus, who had
met there. He died there in 536. His coneider^le
literary work oonsists almost entirely of Greek trans-
lations remarkable for their fidelity ; his version at th«
worics d the pseudo-Areopagite greatly influenced the
theology of the western Syrians, and his translations
of proKUie authors (Porphyir, Aristotle, Galen, etc.)
hold a special place in the body of Syriac transla-
tions. A number of the works of Sergius have reached
us; they have been published in part; mention must
also be made of Rhoud^eh of Ta^rit (d. 675), who
left philosophical and grammaticalworks: Moses <tf
Aghelt translator of the works of C^ril of Alexandria;
and the Patriwoh Pet» oi Callinicus (578-91), whose
theobgioal writings against Damian (d Alexandria
and the Tritheists have reached us, together with
some letters.

Among the Nestorians the literature of the seventh
century begins with Babai the Great, Abbot of Mount
Ilia, who govemed the Church of Persia during the
vacancy of the patriarchal see (608-29) brought about
by the nostility of Khusrau II. He composed many
woAa; his treatise on the union of the two natures of
Christ which we possess is one of the most important
works of Nestonan theology. There are extant a
hymn and a dogmatic letter by the Patriarch Ish-
oyahb n of Gedahi (628-43). Ishoyahb III of Adia^
bene (648-60) was a prolific writer, and remarkable
for his studied style; he composed controversial
treatises, funeral orations, hymns, numerous liturgical
woiIes, and tiie histmy of the martyr bhosabrsn. We
have also a oolleotion of 104 of his lettns (ed. Duval,
Paris, 1904), which is important for the religious his-
tory of this period. Ishoyahb energetical^ opposed
Sididona (Martyrius), Bishop of MaboK, his former
friend and his companion in the embassy from Boran
to the Emperor Heraolius in 630. Sahdona became
oonvMted to Catholicism. The extant portion of his
numerous writings has been edited by Bedjan (Leip-
sig, 1002) ; it ronmflts mainly of the end of a treatise m

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moral and dogmstlo theologv of wfaioh the ftnt nren-

teen chapters were assail^ hy Ishoyahb. To this
period belong the two most orifdnal ascetic writers,
Isaac of Nineveh and John of Phanek (<rften called
John Saba); the works of the latter, mai^ of which
have been preserved, embrace all subjects relating to
religious perfection. Under the patriarchate of
Qeorge (061-80) the monk Enanisho oomposed the
work entitled "Paradise"; it oonnsts of two parts, the
first a translatmn of the "Lausiao BMorr*'^oi nSiar
dius and the " Monastic History " of Rufimw, the
second a collection of apothegms from the Fathers,
and questions concerning the ascetic life (ed. Bedjan.
Lerosig, 1897). This work must not be oonfoundea
with the " Paradise of Orientals", which contains the
lives of Eastern ascetics and was compiled by Josq>h
BMsya. (the Seer), an austere monk, the autbcn- of
numerous ascetical treatises, and the warm partisan
ot Henana, witii whom he was oondemned; he lived at
^e banning of the seventh centtuy.

The Jacobite writers of this period are lees numer-
ous: John I, Patriarch of Antioch 631-4S, is the
author of numerous Uturgical prayers; Maranta of
TaKrit (d. 649) left a liturgy, hymns, and commen-
tanea: Severus Sebokt, his contemporary, devoted
hknaelf in the celebrated omivent of Kennesnrd on the
banks of the Euphrates to {^likMophioal and sdentifie
studies; his woiks, whidi are partly preserved, exer-
cised great influence on the following centuries. His
letters deal with theologioal subjects. His disciple
Athanasius of Balad, who became patriarch (634r-88),
likewise devoted himself to Greek philoeopby. All
these names were ecliiwed by another of his dnciples,
James of Edessa, a writer as distinguished for the ex-
tent and variety of his knowledge as for his literary
talent.

During the seventh century pubKc events had
created new conditions in the lands where Syriae was

Xken. The end of the Roman domination in Syria
LOst coincided with the fall of the Persian dynasty
of the Sassanidee, and the Mussulman rule enforced
the use of the Arabic toi^e. These new conditions
introduced a new character in literature, among Nee-
torians as well as Jacobites. Theological treatises
were th«uod'orth more didactic than p(rfanie, and
Biblical ex^esis became chiefly granunatieal and
philolf^eal. "Hie eighth century began a period of
decadence. Among Nestorian writers were Babai of
Cebilta, a reformer of religious music in the time of
the Patriarch Salibazekha (714-28) ; he was the author
of funeral orations, ^mns, and letters, preserved in
part; Bar Sahdd, of Karka of Beit Slok, the author of
an ecclesiastical history and of a treatise against
ZoTOMtrianism, both test: he lived in the time of the
Patriarch Pethion (731-40). About tiie same time
David <^ Bdt Rabban wrote "The Little Paradise", a
kind of monastic history from which Thomas of Marga
borrowed. Abraham bar Daschandad, a disciple of
Babai, was the author of a book of exhortations, hom-
ilies, letters, "The Book of the Royal Way", and a
commentaiy on the writings of the monk Marcus.
Mar Aba II, who became patriarch at the «e of 100

g 41-51), wrote a commentary on thewoiwi of St.-
regoiy of Nasianzus, and another on tike Dialeetios
of Aristotle, a "Book of Military GovwnorB'*, demon-
strations, and letters. His compatriot, %necn bar
Tabbakhd, treasurer of the Caliph al-Mansur, was the
author of an ecclesiastical history.

Surinus, Biahop of Nisibis and later of Holwan,
elected patriarch in 754 and immediately deposed, is
reepEtrded as the author of a treatise against the here-
tin. Cyprian, Bishc^ of Niribis (741-67), oomposed
a oommentanr on the theological dtsoourseB of St.
(}regoiT of Nasianzus and a treatise on ordination.
Abu Noah of Anbar, secretary of the Governor of
Mosol at the end of this century ^ wrote a refutation of
the Koran, a refutation <tf hereties, and a Ufa of John

of Dallam. The Patriarch Henanisho II (775-70) is
the author of lebtea, hymns for the dead, metrical
homilies, and canonical questions. He was succeeded
b^ 'Hmotheus, whose literuy work excels that of all
his oontttnptHniries.

Timotheus I, a native of Hazsa (near Arbellee), n
disc^le of Abraham bar Daschandad, became Bishop
of Beit Banish: at the death of Henanisho he was
elected patriaren by intrigue and the favour <rf the
Qovmar of Mosul; he quieted the rivalry and was
instaUed in 780^ dymp in 823. During his patiisKh-
ote the Nestman mnrions in Centru Asia recdved
powerhil encouragemoit, and he introduced impor-
tant diseiplinaty reforms into his church (cf . Labourt,
"De Timotheo patriarcha", Paris, 1904). His lit-
erary work comprises an astronomical treatise en-
titled "Book of the Stan" (kiet), two vohimes of
canonical question^ a controversy oonoaiting the
CSu^stian faith maintained bef<ne tne Calnph AltMa-
hidi, a oommentanr on the works of St, Chegoiy of
Nasianzus, and about 300 letters. Sixty of these
letters, the oontrovmsy, and a laroe proportion of the
questions are extant in various M^. Through him
was made the first collection of the Nestorian coun-
cils, which under the name" Synodioon Orient^" (ed.
Charbot, Paris, 1903) comprises the acts of thirteen
synods oonvwed by his predecessors from 410 to 77S.
It is the basis ot uie Nestorian canon law and the
official exposition of its creed. About this time lived
Theodorus bar K6nt, the author of a book* <A scholia
(ed. Scher, Paris, 190S-11), which contains tehUia on
the Old and New Testament, a treatise against the
Monophysites, one a^inst the Arians, a eoDoquy be-
tween a pagan and a Christian, and a treatise on nere-
siee. lanodenah (or Denahisho), Bish<^ of Bassorah,
oomposed an ecckeiastic^ history (lost), and the
"Book of Chastity;" (ed. Chabot, Rome, 189S). which
contains 150 notices of the founders of Orimtal
convents.

The share of the Jacobites in the litamy work of
this period is far inferior to that of the Nestorians.
With the exception of George, Bishop of the Arabs, a
disciple <tf James of Edessa who is treated elsewhere
(see MoNOpHTsrPBS AMD MoNOPHTsmsM), the writers
aieof ontrseoondary interest. Of Elias, Patriarch of
Antiodi (709-24), we have an apology explaining why
he abandoned the C^ophysite doctrine; it is addressed
to Leo, Diophysite Bishop of Herran and author of
controversial writings. Daniel of Salah wrote an
extensive commentaiy on the Psalms, in three volumes ;
the first to have reached us in the original text and the
third in an Arabic version. David Bar Paulos left a
ntunmatieal work, letters, a commentary on chap, x of
Geneds, a diidc^e on t^ addition of the words "who
was crucified for us" to the Sanctus. To him are also
ascribed poems which seem to belong to a later period.
A celebrated author was Theophilus of Edessa, called
Maronite by Bar-Hebneus, and Chalcedoman by
Michael the Syrian; this rustinguished astronomer,
who was much esteemed by the Caliph al-Mahdi,
died in 785- His works include astronomical trea-
tises, a history, and a Syriac version of Homer, sev-
eral quotations from wmch have been found. About
775 LasaruB of Beit Kandasa compiled a commentaiy
on the New Testament, a portion of which (St. Mark,
St. John, and ten Epistles of St. Paul) is extant.
George of Beelthan, a monk of Kenneshrd who be-
came patriarch (75^-90), is the author of a discourse
and of some homHiee (lost) and of a commentary on
the Qospel of St. Matthew (partly preserved). His
successor S^acua (793-817) left a liturgy, canons,
some homihes, and letters.

The ninth century witnessed a renaissance in scien-
tific and historical studies. Among the Nestorians
there was a series of Christian physicians who enjoyed
ttis favour of the ealipbi <tf Bagdad: Oabriel Boktudio
(d. 828), John bar K^iBVai (057), HoMn (d. 873),

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and at the end of the century John bar Serapion
famoua among Christians and Muaauhnans for their
medical works and their translations into Syriac and
Arabic of the works of Oiosooiides, Hippooratee, Ga-
len, and Paul of A^ma. Honein was at once physi-
oian, philoaoi^OT, historian, grammarian, and lexieog-
rwher. His disciple laho bar AU is the author of a
ToluminouB lexicon (ed. Ht^manu, Kiel, 1874; Got-
theil, Rome, 1910). The patriarch, laho bar Noun
(823-27), was esteemed as a theologian and canonist;
of his numerous works tbc^ remain juridical que»-
tiona, questions of Scripture, funeral orations, and let-
ters. Ishodad of Merw, Bishop of Haditha, lUwut the
middle irf the century composed oommentaiies on the
Old and New Teataments, which are of great interest
in the histrary of ezegens. In 840 Thomas, Bishop of
Mai^ a former monk of Beit AbS, wrote the tustory
of that famous convent which was located in his dio-
cese, and fortunately he inserted therein numerous
documents which would not otherwise be known to us;
hence his work sheds much light on the history of the
whole Neetorian Church durinsa period of three cen-
turies. It has been edited by Budge (Londtm, 1893)
and by Bedjan (Leipxiff, 1901).

The leas numerous ust of Jacobite writers of the
ninth century opens with the name of Dionysius of
Tell Mahre, who was elected patriarch in 815 and
died in 845. He wrote an ecclesiastical histoty in two
parts, each consisting of eight books divided into
chapters. It extended from 581 to 833; unfortu-
nately it is lost but is made known to us by the copi-
ous detracts which Michael insuted in his own chron*
iole (see below). This work b quite different from
the chronicle which Assemani incorrectly ascribes to
Dionysius. The latter, which stops at the year 775,
is divided into .four parte. The first (ed. Eulberg,
Upsala, 1851) goes as far as Constantine^aud relies
diiefly on Eusebius; the second, as far as Theodosius
the Younger, mainly follows Socrates; the third re-
produces uie second part (lost) of the history of John
of Asia and the chronicle of Josue the Stylite (ed.
Wri^t, London, 1882); the fourth (ed. Chabot,
Paris, 1895) is the peraonal work of the author, prob-
ably a monk at the convent of Touknin in Tour Ab-
din. The work of Dionv^ius was dedicated to
Iwannis G^ohn), Bishop of Dara, one of the most es-
teemed Monophysite tneologlans, of whom we possess
a treatise on the priesthood, one of the Resurrection,
one of the bchiI, and a commentary on the books of the
Pseudo-Areopuite. Theodosius of Edessa, broUier
of the Patriarch Dionysius, executed a version of the
poems of St. Gregory of Nazianzua. He was the close
friend of a monk of Tagrit, Antonius, sumamed the
Rhetorician, author of a treatise on rhetoric, a treatise
on Providence, of panegyrics, letters, Imnns, and
prayers. Lazarus bar Saotha, Bishop of Bagdad, de-
posed in 83S, was the author of a liturgy and an
explanation of the offices of the church. Nonnius,
Archdeacon of Nisibis, about the middle of the cen-
tury wrote a controversy against Thomas fif Marga
and some polemical letters, like monk Bomanus,
who took the name of Theodosius when be became
patriarch (887-96), compiled a medical collection
(lost), a copious commentary on the book of Hiero-
theus, and a collection of Pythagorean maxima (ed.
Zotenberg, Paris, 1876). No writer of this centurv
was so prolific as Moses bar Cephas (a. r.) who took
the name Severus when he became bunop.

The n&d two centuries mark tiie lowest point of the
period of decadence. Most of the ecclesiastical dig-
nitaries and the rare authors who concerned them-
selves with learning wrote chiefly in Arabic. There
was not a single Jacobite writer during the whole of
the tenth century; among the Nestorians those
worthy of mention were Henanisho bar Seroshwa,
Bishop of Hira at the be^nning of the century; he
oompneed Seriptural disquisitions, and a lexieim, now

loet, but included almost in its entirety in that of Bar
Bahlul; Elias, Bishop of Poozshabur (c. 920), wrote
letters, homilies, an apolofsy, and a coUection of
maxims known as "Centuries"; George, Metropoli-
tan of Arbella (d. 987), is the author of a canonical
collection and some hymns. To him is also attrib-
uted an interesting ''Explanation of the liturgical
offices". Emmanuel bar ShahharS (d. 980) wrote a
treatise "On the six days of creation and Providence",
divided into four parts and twenty-eight books; the
second book is misBing in all known NfSS. Towards
the end of the century Andrew, a grammarian, com-
posed a treatise on punctuation and some hymns.
At the same period at Bagdad where he taught,
Abu' 1* iHass^, known as Bar Bahlul, compiled his
famous "Lexioon", a small em^ck^iedia in which he
collected, together with the lexioognq>hicaI works of
his predecessors, numerouB notices on the natural
sciences, philosophy, theology, and BibUcal exegesis
(ed. Duval, Pans, 1888-1901). At the end of the
century John Bar Khaldon wrote the life of the monk
Jo9q>h Bosnaya, in which he inserted a curious
treatise on mystical theok^. The following are the
foremost Neetorian writers of the eleventh century.
Elias of Tirhan, who became patriarch (1028-49), is
famous for his treatise on grammar; he completed the
canonical collection made by Timotheus, adding
later decisions, and wrote Iwal treatises. £lias bar
Shiaaya, Metropolitan of Ni«bis, is the most remark-
able writer of this century. Appointed Bishop of
Beat NouhadrA in 1002. and of Nisibis in 1008, he
occupied the see more tnan forty yean and survived
the Patriarch Ellas. He is Uie author of a Syriac
^ammar, an Arabio^yriae grammar, hymns, met-
rical hoioihes, lettero, and a collection of canonical
decisions. His most important work is his "Chron<^-
raphy", written in 1019; it includes a chronicle and a
treatise on the calendar (ed. Brooks-Chabot, Paris,
1909-10). Elias also wrote in Arabic several dog-
matic and moral treatises. Abdisho bar Bahriz, who
became Bishop tif Ariwla and Moral in 1(^, is the
author of a collection of "Laws and Judicial Sen-
tences". Among the Jacobites were: John of Maroun
(d. 1003), the author of a commentan' on the Book oS
Wisdom; and Isho bar Shoushan, Patriarch of An-
tioch under the name of John (1064-73). He com-
posed a liturgy, canons, a treatise in defence of the
Syrian custom of mixing salt and oil in the Eucha-
ristic bread, four poems on the pillage of Nelitcne by
the Turks (1058), and several letters in Syriac or
Arabic. At the tune of his death he was engaged in
collecting the works of St. Ephrem and of
Antioch.

In the thirteenth century the Nestorians also began
to write in Arabic. Elias III Abuhalim, Metropoli-
tan of Nisibis and afterwards patriarch (1176-90),
composed prayers and wrote letters. John bar
Malkon, who took the name of Ishovahb when he
became Bishop of Nisibis (1190), is the author of a
grammaticiU treatise. The monk Simeon of 9iank>
lawa about the same period wrote a chronological
treatise and poem in enigmatic style. He is ■robably
the author of the "Book of the Fathers", which has
been ascribed to Simeon bar Sabba6 (fourth century).
His disciple John bar Zoubi is chiefly known for Ms
grammatical works.

The Jacobites had ^le writers. John, Bidiop of
Harran and Mardin, wrote on the capture of Edessa
byZangui (1144). Junes bar Salibi is the most prolific
writer of the century. He took the name of Diony-
sius when he became Bishop of Marash in 1154; m
1166 Michael transferred him to Amida, where he
died in 1171. His most important work is his com-
mentary on the Old and New Testament, a vast com-
pilation in which he cites or rrcapitulates the whole
exef^Bsis of the Western Syrians. Among his othef
writing were: a commratuy on die "Centuries" of

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aTBUM

firaerhis, a oommoita^ on dialeotios, letters, ao
abriagment of the hist<nies of the Fathers, saints, and
martyrs, a collection of canons, several theologioal
treatises, two liturgies, an explanation of the Mass
(ed. Labourt, Paris, 1903), a voluminous treatise
against the heresiee, a treatise on Providence, honu-
lies, and occasional verses. His oommentanes and
most of his other works are extant. Michad the
Sfvrian (Michael the Great), the son of a fwieat of
Nefitene, was Abbot of Barasuma when he vna
elected patriarch (1166-99). He is the author of
several liturgical works, but his chief work is his
"Chronicle" (ed. Chabot, Paris, 1898-1911). It is
the most voluminous historical coimiilation trans-
mitted to us by the Syrians; that of Bar Hebneus is
generally only a faithful abridgment of it. Many
earlier documents are inserted or summarised in it;
the author {unusfaes valuable information oonoerning
the historians who preceded liimj and for his own
period furnishes interesting details oonoeming the
occupation of Edessa by the Crusaders, and the ware
of the Mussulman prinoes who occupied Asia Minor,
especially Cappadocia. Michael's "Chronicle" be-
gins with the Creation and stops with the death of
Saladin (1196). Theodore bar Wahboun, a disciple
of Michad, who rebelled arainst him and had him-
self named patriarch by the dissatisfied bishops, is tiie
author of a liturgy.

The thirteenth century marks the endof Syriac liter-
ature. Among the Jacobites were: James (Severus)
bar Shakako, Bishop*^ Mosul (d. 1241), whose "Dia-
logues" are a philosophical course, and his "Book of
Treasures" a course in theology; Aharon (John) bar
Madani, who was Bishop of Mardin, Maphrian
(1232), later patriarch (12^-^1), and the author
of numerous poems; and Mwfanan Orogeny bar
HelHttUs, a man of oioyolopedic naming, wwiaename
worthily terminates uiis list (see Bar Hebrxus).
Mention must be made of tiie book of the "Knowl-
edge of Truth" (ed. Kayser, Leipzig. 1889), the author
of which plans to assemble in one religious oommunity
Christians^ Jews, and Mussulmans; also of the chron-
icle, likewise anonymous, recently discovered by Mgr
Bahmajii. Among the Nestonans were Solomon,
Bishop of Baasora (c. 1222) whose ehi^ work is the
"Book ol the Bee", an historioo-tlieok>^cal compila-
tion in which he inserted numerous legends (ed.
Budge. Oxford, 1886) ; George Warda and Khamis bar
Kardane, authors of numerous hymns in the Nestor-
ian o£Bce. Gabriel Kamsa, author of a theol(^cal
poem, and John of Mosul, who wrote edifying poems,
oelong to the second half of the century. The history
of the Patriarch YabaUaha III (1281-1318) is a very
curious document; his sueeeaaw Timotbeus II is the
author of a book on the Saeraxaeaxia. Addiaho bar
Brika is the last writer deserving of mention. He was
Bishop of Nisibis and died in 1318. His most useful
work IS his "Catalogue of writers", a sort of literaiy
history of the East Syrians (ed. Assemani, "Bibl.
Orientalis", III); he concludes with a list of his own
numerous and various works: eommentariee on the
Old and New Testaments, a work on the life of Christ,
one against heresies, one on the myateriea of the Qredc
philosophers, twelve treatises on tiie aoiaieee. These
works of Ids have been lost, but we possess his "No-
mocanon , or methodical collection of cuion law, and
his theological treatise called "The Pearl" (both
edited by Mai, Rome, 1838), his "Rule of Ecclesiasti-
cal Judgments", a kind of code of procedure, fifty
metrical homilies which form the "Book of the Para-
dise of Eden", and twenty-two poems on love and
w^om. From the fourteenth century ^jrriae liter-
ature produced no works of value. The few authors
■who cmtivated it showed neither talent nor orighuUlty ;
nsrvertheless useful indications oonceming local his-
tarr may be found in their oecasioiial writuiga.

Tbe ■raat.aerviiMaraulared to adiolanhip by tnuift>

lations iriuGb form a large part of Syriac literature
dMuld not be lost sight of; they include both profane
and Christian works. The former were chiefly Greek
scientific and theological works, principally those ol
Ari^tle and his school. It was through this inter-
mediaiy that the Arabs became acquainted with
Boientino culture, and came into contact with Hel-
lenie phikMophy, so that the important part they
^wed in the propagation of the sciences during the
Middle Ages had its origin in Syriac literature. The
"finance of Alexander" and that of "Kalila and
Dimna" were both translated fnmi the Pahlowi about
the sixth century. A portion <A the works of the most
celebrated of the Greek fathers of the fourth and fifth
oenturies were translated into Syriac; they possess
only a secondary importance where we have the ori^
inal texts, but are of the greatest value when they
represent lost works, as is the case wi^ regard to the
"Apolo^ of Aristtdes", the festal letters of St
AthanasiuB, ^e treatise of Titus of Bosra against the
Manicbfeans, tbe Theophany ot Eusebius, the com-
mentaries or Cyril of Alexandria on St. Luke, the
works of Severus of Antioch, the commentary (rf
llieodore fA Mo^Mueatia on St. John and his treatise
on. the Ineamation, the Apol<^ of Neetmius, etc.

P"'* ^ 11'TT"[r~' t ^.i^^f^.^^i^ p. —«^..—

(Paris, 1910); NAldekk, KunotfattU tvrifckt Orammatik i2oA
ad., Ldpiic, 1898); Duval. TraxU dt inammairt nriaqu* (Pww,
1881); PAym-Siun. Thtmniru* tvriartu (Oxford. 18«B-lMl).

UteraUira: Awbmahi, BibliotlMea orientalu (Rome. 1719-2ffl;
BiCEELL, Corupeelu* rM Sj/romtn liUerana (MCniftor, 1871);
Nkvtlk, LtOeratura ^frvua (Berlin, 1888); Wbioht, Striae LU-
tratim dtad ed., Lcadoa, 18M>; Dutau La LttUntm avrMOM
Ordsd., Pub, 1907); BnocKBLWANN.iKs gyriaeluiMd dUOirm-
lieft.araMaeA« LtHcroAir (LeipsiA, 1907).

A oomplets and detailed biDtiocrafdijr will be found in Nkb-
Tu, WBraer, and Duval, op.

J. B. Chabot.

Syriac Vers! ons of tlw Bllile. See Vbbbxohb or

TEE Bible.

Syrian Bite, East, also known as the Chaldban,

AssvaiAN, or Pbbsun Kits.

HiSTORT AND Orioin. — Tlus rite is used by the
Nestorians and also by the Uniat bodies in Syria,
Mesopotamia, Persia, and Malabar, who nave
separated frcMu them. The Syrian and Meeopota-
nuan Uniats are now commonly called Chaldeans, or
Syro-Chaldeans; tbe torn Chaldean, which in
Syriae genetalljr meant magician or astrologer,
denoted in Latin and other European languages
Syrian nationality and the Syriac or Aramaic 1^-
Kuage (especially that form of the latter which is
found in certain chapters of Daniel), until the Latin
misaionariee at Mosul in the seventeenth century
adopted it to distinguish the Catholics of the East
Synan RHe from the West Syrian Uniata, whom th^
call "Syrians", and from the Nestorians. The last
call themselves "Syrians" (Surayi), and even
"CSuistians" only, though they do not all repudiate
the name "Neetorayi", and distinguish themselves
from the rest of Christendom as the "Church of the
East" or "Easterns", as opposed to '^Westerns",
by which they denote Latin Catholics, Orthodox,
Mmophyntee, and Ihxjtestanta. In recent times they
have bean oaOiad, chiefy hy Anf^oans, Uie "Asssnrian
Church", a name which can be defended on ardueo-
lofpcal grounda. B^htman, in his "litumee East-
em and Westrau", Indludes Clhaldean and Malabar
Uniats and Nestorians under "Persian Rite", and
Bishop Arthur Maclean of Moray and Roes (Andean)
who is probably the best Uving authority on the exist*
ing Nestorians, calls them "East Syrians", which is
peih^MS the most satisfactory term. Tbe catali^e
of fiturnea in the British Museum hae adopted tbe
usual Catholic nomenclature, calling the rite erf the
East Syrian Uniats and Nestorians the "Chaldean
Rite", that of the South Indian Uniats and schismat'
ies the "Malabar Rite", and that of the West
^rrian MonoiibysiJM and Uniata thr '^Syrian Bit^',

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a oonvanient arran^emeat in vi«w of tkm fact that
moet printed liturgiea <rf these litea ar« Ihoat. Hw
language (rf all three forms of the Sort Sviian Rite
is Synac, a modem form irf wUeh is atBI Bpofcen by tba

Neetorians and some of the Uniato. Tbfi origm ot
the rite is unknown. The tradition— wstiug on the
legend of Al^ar and of his oorrespondenoe wiUi
Christ, which has been shown to oe apocryphal
(see Aboab, ths Lbqbnd of)— 4b to the effect Uiat
St. Thomas the Apostle, on his wa^ to India, es-
tablished Christianity in Mesapotamia, Assyria, and
Persia, and Utt Adma (or TbaddeoB), "am of the
Seventy", and Maris in duuse. To then tiw nmnial
Utuigy is attributed, but H is sud to have been re-
viseiTby Vbe l^Ktriareh Yeshnyab III in about 660.
Some, however, consider this liturgy to be a develc^
ment of the Antiochene.

After the Council of Ephesus (431), the Church of
SeleuoiaOesiphon, which had hitherto been governed
by a oatholicos under Antio^, refused to accept
l£e oondemnatirai of Nestorius, and cut itadf and tiie
Qiuroh to tlie East (rf it off from the Catholic Churdi.
In 408 the cathoIicoB assumed the title of "E^triaroh
ot Hke East"^ and for manv centuries this most suc-
cessful misnomuy Churcn continued to spread
throughout Persia, Tartaty, Mongolia, China, and
India, developing on lines of its own, very little
influenced b> the rest of Christendom. At tne end
of the fourteoith century the conquests of Tamerlane
all but destro^rad this flourishing Church at one blow,
and reduced it to a few small oinnmunitieB in Peraa.
Turkey in Asia, Cyprus^ South India, and the Island
cd Soootra. The Cypriote Nestorians united them-
selves to Rome in 1446; in the rixteentii century there
was a Schism in the patriarchate between the rival
fines of Mar Shimun and Mar Elia; the Qunstianity
of Socotra, such as it was, died out about the seven-
teenth century; the Maiabareee Church divided into
U:^ats and Schismatics m 1509, the latter des^ting
Nestorianism for Monoj^ysitism and adopting the
West Syrian lUte about fifty yean Utter; in 1681
the Chaldean TJnia, which had been strui^ng into
existence since 1652, was finally establish^ and in
1778 recced a great accesmon of stevngth in the
adhesion of the whole Mar Etia patriarchate, and idl
that was left of the original Nestorisdi Church con-
sisted of the inhabitants of a district between the
Lakes of Van and TTnm and the Tigris, and an out-
lying colony in Palestine. These have been further
reduc^l by a great massacre by the Kurds in 1843,
and by the secesmon of a large number to the Russnu
Church within the last few years. About twenty
years ago there was an attempt to form an "Inde>
pendent Catholic Chaldean Churdi", on the model
of the "Old Catholics". This resulted in Boparating
a few from the Uniata.

MSS. AND Editions.— The authorities far this rite
are chiefly in manuscript, the printed editiona b«ng
very few. Few of the manuscripts, exc^soine lectioB-
aries in the British Museum, were written before the
fifteenth century, and most, whether QiaJdean or
Nestorian, are of the seventeenth and eigfateetttii.
The books in use are: (1) Takh»a, a priest's book,
containing the Eucharistie service (Qurixma or
Qudatha) m its three forms, with the adminiBtration
tit other sacraments, and varioos oceaaonal pntym
and blessii:^. It is neariy the EwJujhgion <d tiw
Gi«ekB (see Constantinopub, Rrra or). (2)
Kihawa dhaqdham wadhwaUusr or Qdhamwoaihar,
"Before and After", contains the Onflnaty of the
IMvine Office, cTcept the Psalter, arranged for two
weeks. (3) Damdha (David), the Psalter, divided
into ktdoH, which answer more or leas to the mMdr^utrs
of the Greeks. It includes the collects of the AuIoK.
(4) Qiryana, SfUika vflteangaliyuna, lections, eplstiias,
and gospels, sometimes together, sometimeli hi
■epante books. TwgamOt taq/baa^bory hyniBa

L4 SYBIAN

sung beSon the Ei»Btle and Goapd. (6) Khudra,
oontaiinng the variables for Bundiors, hint and the
VmA ot the Ninevitee, and othes baW di^ (7)
Kiuhktdt a adeetion from the Khvdra tia weekdays.
(8) Oma, containing variables for festivals except
Sundaj^. (9) A&uJbAaftma, a collectary, so called
from ito oonqaler, EUaa III, Abu KhaUm ibn al-
Khadiiha, Metroptditan of Nisibis, and patriarch
(1176-99). (10) jBa^u^tfiVinuK^, rhythmic^ prayers
attributed to St. Ei^iraem, used during the Fast of tiie
Ninevites. (llj^cubAMffaffladAOitheoflic^of b^tism.
(13) SuroMo, the mamage service. (13) Kahmta.
ue burial aervice fw |»iests. (14) Artidha, tiie burial
service for lay {wople. (15) Takkaa cTnamidAa, the
ordination servioee. (16) Takhta d'khuaaya, the
"Oflioe of Pardon", or the reconciliation of penitenta.
These last (U to 16) are excerpts from the Takhaa.

Of the above the following nave been printed in
Syriac:

For the Nestorians. — The Takhta, in two parts, by
the Archbi^op oi Cantubuiys Aaqyiian Miaaion
ajrmi( 1890-02). The Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge has publi^ed an English trans-
lation of tiie first part of tiie TakhM, both parts
"unmodified except by tiie omission of the heretical
names" (Bria^tman); Dhagdham wadhiffatitar, by
the sune (Unni, 1894); Dawidha, by the same
(Urmi, 1891).

For the Chaldean Uniata: "Miasale Chaldaicum"
containing tlie liturgy ot the Apostles in Sjrriac uid
the Episuee and (Sosp^ in Sjriiac with an Aiatno
translation, in Carshuni (Propaganda Press fol.,
Rome, 1767). A new and revised edition, containing
the three liturgies and the lections, epistles, and gos-
pels, was pubhahed by the Dominicans at McMid in
1901. The Order of the Church Services (rf Common
Days, etc., from Kthawa dhaqdham wadhwaUuxT (8vo,
Mosul, 1866). "^reviarium Chaldaicum in usum
Nationis Chaldfuae a Joaepho Guriel secundo edi-
tum" (16mo. Propaganda Pms, Rome, 186S).
" &«viarium Chaldaicum etc. {8vo, Paris (printed at
L™g), 1886).

For the Malabar Uniats: "Ordo Chalducus Misae
Beatomm Apostolorum, juxta ritum Eccleaie Mata-
buics" (fol., Propaganda Press, Rome, 1774).
"Ordo Chaldaicua Rituumet Lectionum", etc., (fol.,
Rome, 1776). "Ordo Chaldaicus ministerii Sacra-
mBntorQinSaiietomm",ete. (fol., Rome, 1775). These
three, which together form a TaiAsa and Lectioniuy,
are commonly found bound together. The Prop-
aganda reiHinted the third part in 1845. "Orcro
Baptiami adultonim juxta ritum Eccleein Mala-
baricffl Chaldfeorum" (8vo, Propasanda Press, Rome,
. 1809), a Syriac translation of the Roman Order.

The Mdabar Rite was revised in a Catholic direc-
ti<»i by Aleixo de Meneses, Archbishop of Qoa, and
the reviricoi iras autiuHiaed by the Synod of Diamper
in 1099. So effectively was the ori^nal Malabar Rite
aboflahed by the Catiiolies in favour of tiiis revision,
and by the adiiamatics (when in 1649, being cut off
from thdr own patriarch by the Spaniards and Por-
tuguese, they put themsaves under the Jacobite
patriardi) in favour of the West Syrian Liturgy, that
no copy is known to exist, but it is evident from the
revised form tiwt it emiid not have differed jnaterially
flram tiie exiirtiing Neatoriaa Rite.

Thb EucHAMSnc Sekvicb, Qufhana, "the Of-
feriiw", udosAa, "the Hallowiiw''— There are three
Anaphone; that of tiie Aposuee (Sta. Adsua and
Mans), that of Nestorius, and that of Theodore
(of Mopsuestia) tiie Interpreter. The first is the
normal fonn, and from it the Malabar revision was
derived. The second is lued by the Chaldeans and
Nestoriaas <m the Epiphany and tite feasts of St.
3*ita tile Bt^tist and of the Greek Doctors, both of
which occur m Bpiphany^tide on the Wednesday of
the Fut of tlM Nmevitea,,aiid <m BlMUidy Tluindap.

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The ihird is used by the same (except vibm the second
is ordered) from Advent Sunday to Palm Sunday.
The same pro-anaphoral part serves for aSl three.
Three other Anapbore are mentioned by Ebedyeshu
(Metropolitan o( Niaibis, 1298} in his catalogue, those

Barsuma, Narses, and Diodorus of Tarsus; but
they are not known now, imleee Dr. Wright is correct
in calUng the fragment in Brit. Mus. Add. 14669,
"Diodora of Tarsus".

The Mass is preceded by a preparation, or "Office
of the Protheos", which includes the solemn knead-
ing and baJdng of the loaves. These among the
Nestoiians are leavened, the fiour being mixed with a
little oil and the holy leaven (maUca), which, according
to the legend, "was ^ven and handed down to us
by our holy fathers Mar Addai and Mar Mari and
Mar Tuma'', and of which and of the holy oil a very
Btnuge Bkory is told. Hie real leaveniiK, however,
is done by means of fermented dou^ (khmira) from
tJhe preparation of the last Mass. The Chaldean
Uniats now ttse unleavened bread.

The Mass itself is iutraduced by the first verse of
the Gloria in ExceUis and the Lord's Prayer, with
"farcing" (ffiyura), consisting of a form of the
SanctM. Then follow:

(1) The Introit Psalm (variable), called Marmiiha.
with a prdiminary prayer, varying for Sundays ana
greater feasts and for ''Mctkui^" and ferias.
In the Malabar Rite, Pss. xiv, cl, and cxvi are said
in alternate verses by priests and deacons.

(2) The "Antiphon of the Sanctuary" (Uniiha
d'qankih variable, with a sunilarly varying prayw.

(3) Tne Lakhumara, an antiphon begmniI^s "To
Thee, Lord", which occurs in other services also
preoened by a similarly varying prayer.

(4) The Trisagion. Incense is iwed before tliis.
In the Uniat Rite at low Mass the elements are put
on the altar before the incensing.

(5) The Lections. These are four or five: (a)
the Law and (b) the Prophecy, from the Old Testa-
ment, (o) the Lection from the Acts, (d) the Epistle,
always from St. Paul, (e) the Gospel. Srane days have
all five leetums, some four, some only three. All
have an lE^istle and a Gospel, but, generally, when
there is a Lection from the Law there is none m>m the
Acts, and vice versa. Sometimes there is none from
eithf^' Law or Acts. The first three are called
Qiryani (Lections), the third SklikJia (Apostle).
Before the Epistle and Crospel, hymns culed Tur-
aama (interpretation) are, or should be, said: that
before Epistle is invariable, that of the Gospel
varies with the day. They answer to the Greek
vputdfum. The Twoama of the Epistle is pre-
ceded by proper psalm verses called Shvraya (b^
ginning), ana that of the Gospel by other proper
psalm verses called Zurrutra (song). The latter in-
cluiks Alleluia between the verses.

(6) The Deacon's Litany, or j&ibfen«, called JTorosii/Aa
(proclamation). This resembles the "Great Sjoi-
apte" of the Greeks. During it the proper "Antiphon
[Uniih^ot the Gospel" is sung by the people.

(7) The Offertory. The deacons proclaim the
exptUsion of the unbaptized, and set tne "hearors"
to watch the doors. The pneet places the bread and
wine on the altar, with words (in the Nestorian, but
not in the Chaldean Uniat Rite) which seem as if
they were already oonsecrated. He sets aside a
"memorial of the Virgin Mary, Mother of Christ"
(Chaldean^ usual Malabar Rite, "Mother of God";
but aoewding to Raulin's Latui ctf the Malabar Rite,
''MoUier of God Himself and oi the Lord Jeaus
Oirist"), and of the patron of the Church (in the
Malabar Rite, "of St. Thomas")- Then follows the
proper "Antiphon of the Mysteries " ( Unitha
d*F(ui)janswenng to the Offertory.

(8) The Creed. This is a variant <rf the Nioene
Cned. It is pOBsit^ that Uw wder or words "and

was incarnate by the Holy Ghost and was made maix,
and was conceived and bom of the Virgin Mary",
voAy enshrine a Nestorian idea, but the Chaldean
Uniats do not seem to have noticed it, their only
alteration being the addition of the FUioque. The
Malabar Book nas an exact translatitm of uie Latin.
In Neale's tran^tion of the Malabar Rite the
Karazutha, the Offertory, and the Expulsion of the
Unbaptixed come before the Lections, and the Greed
fdlows immediately on the Gospel, but in the Pro-
paganda edition of 1774 the OfTertory follows the
Greed, which follows the Giospel.

(9) The first Lavabo, followed by a Kuihapa
i" beseeching", i. e., prayer said kneeling) and a form
of the "Orate fratres", with its re^Kmse. It is now
that the vuiations of the three Anaphora bwiu.

(10) The Kiss of Peace, preceded by a G'hantha,
i. e., a i^yer said wiUi bowed head.

(11) The raayerof Memorial (Dukhrana) of the
Living and uie Dead, and the Diptychs; me latter
is now obsolete among the Neatwiaos.

(12) The Anaphora. As in aJl liturgies this be-
gins with a form of the Suraum oorda, but the East
Syrian form is more elaborate than ojxv other, ee-
pecially in the Anaphora of Theodore. Then follows
the Preface of the usual type ending with the Sanctus.

(13) The Post-Sanctus (to use the Hispano-
Gallioan tcrm)._ This is an amplification (similar in
idea and often in phraseolof^ to those in all liturgies
except the Roman) of idea of the Sanctus mto
a recital of the work of Redemption, extending to
some length and ending, in the Anaph<xie of Ne»-
torius and Theodore, with the recital of the Institu-
tion. !n the Aniqiluaa of tSae Apostles the recital
of ibe Instituticm is wantiiu:, though it has been
supplied in the Chaldean and Malabiyr Uniat litur-
gies and in iho Anglican edition of the Nestorian
book. Hammond (Utilises Eastern and Western,
p. Ux) and most other writers hold that the Words of
Institution belong to this Liturgy and should be sup-
plied somewhere; Hammond (loo. cit.) suggests many
arguments for their fmner praaioe. The reason of
their abseuoe is uncertain. While some hold thAt this
essential passage droj^ied out in times ot ignoranoe,
others say it never was there at aH, being unneoes-
sary, since the consecration was held to be effected
by the subsequent Epiklesis alone. Another theory,
evidently of Westmi ori^n and not quite con-
sistent with the general Eastern theory of con-
secration by an Epiklesis following Christ's words, is
that, beinjg the formula of conseOTation, it was held
too saorea to be written down. It does not seem to
be quite oertain iriiether Nestorian priests did or
did not insert the Words of Institution in old times,
but it se«ns that many of them do not do so now.

(14) The Prayer of the Great (X>lation with a second
memorial of the Living and the Dead, a Kwhapa.

(15) The &'Aan<Aa(^ the Epiklesis, or Invocation of
the Holy Spirit. The Epiklesis formula itself is
called Nitki Mar (May He oome, 0 Lord) from its
opaiing words. The Utargy ttie Apostles is so
vague as to the purpoee of w Invocation that, when
the Words <rf Institution are not said, it would be
difficult to ima^ie this formula to be sufficient on
any hypothesis, Eastern or Western. The Anaphors
of Nestorius and Theodore, besides having the Words
of Institution, have definite Invocations, evidently
copied from Antioehene or Bysantine forms. The
olaer Chaldean and the Malabar Uniat books have
inserted the Words of Institutkai with an ESevatkm,
after the Epiklesis. But tiie 1001 Mosul edition
puts the Words of Institutaau first.

(16) Here follow a FTayer for Peao^ a seecmd
Lavabo and a censing.

(17) The Fractiim. Comdgttaction, Conjunatioii.
and Commixture. Ine Host w brokm in two, and
the sign of the Cross is made in the Caudioe with I

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half, after which the other half is signed with the h^
that has been dipped in the Chalice. Hie two halves
are then reunited on the Paten. Then a cleft is
made in the Host "qua parte intincta est in San-
guine" (Renaudot's tr.), and a particle is put in the
chalice, after some intricate arranging on the paten.

(18) The Conununion. The veil is thrown open,
the deacon exhorts the communicants to draw near,
the priest breaks up the Host for distiibution. Then
f(^ws the Lwd's Prayer, with Introduction and
Embc^am, and the Sancta San^ig, and then the
"Antiphon ol the Bema" (Communion) is sung.
The Communion is in both species separately, the
priest eiving the Host and the deacon the Chalice.
Then follows a variable antiphon of thanki^ving,
a post-communion, and a dismissal. Afterwards the
Aficaprana, an unconsecrated pmtion of the holy
loaf, is distributed to the communieants, but not,
as in the case of the Oredc dprttupit*, and as the niune
(rf the tatter implies, to non-communicants. The
Chaldean Uniats are communicated with the Host
dipped in the Chalice. They reserve what is left
of the Holy Gifts, while the Nestorian priests
all before leaving the church.

Properly, and accordii^ to their own canons, the
Nestorians ought to say Mass on every Simday and
Friday, on every festival, and daily during the first,
middle, and last week of Lent and the octave of
Blaster. In practice it is only said on Sundays and
greater festivals, at the best, and in many churches
not so often, a sort of "dry Mass" being used instead.
The Chaldean Uniat priests say Maes daily, and
where there are many pnests there will be many
Masses in the same Church in one day, which is
contrary to the Nestorian canons. The An^iean
editions of the hturgies omit the names of heretics
and call the Anaphoree of Nestorius and Theodore
the "Second Hallowing" and "Third Hallowing".
Otbowise there are no alterations except the addi-
tion of Words of Institution to the first Anchors.
The recent Uniat edition has made the same altera-
tions and substituted "Mother of (jod" for "Motho-
of Christ". In each edition the added Weeds of
Institution follow the foim of the rite of the edititm.
The prayers of the Mass, like those of the Orthodox
Eastern Church, are generally long and diffuse. Fre-
quently they end with a sort of doxology called
ganuna, which is said aloud, the rest being recited
in a low tone. The Qanuna in form and usage re-
sembles the Greek ^K^iSnjtft*.

The vestments used b^ the priest at Mass are the
5udAra, a girded aU» with tluree crosses in red or
Uac^ on ^ shoulder, the UraraiApdpM') w sttde wwn
croBsed by priests, but not by bishops (as in the West) ,
and the Ma'avra, a sort of linen cope. The deacon
wears theSudftra, with an Uraraover the left shoulder.

The Divinb OmcB. — -The nucleus of this is, as is
usual, the recitation of the Psalter. There are only
three reguW hours of service (Evening, Midnight,
and Mommg) with a rarely used Compline. In
practice fflily Morning and Eroung are omnmooty
used, but these are extremd^ well attended daily by
laity as weU as clerf^. When Neetwian monas-
teries existed (which is no lon^r the case) seven
houTB of prayer were the custom in them, and three
huiali of the Fsalter were recited at each. This
would mean a daily recitation of the whole Psalter.
The present arrangement provides for seven kulali
at each ferial night service, ten on Sundays, three on
"Memorials", and the whole Fsalta* on feasts of
Our Lord. At the evening service there is a sdection
of from four to seven psalms, varying with the day of
the week, and also a Skuraya, or short psalm, with
generally a portion of Ps. cxviii, varying with the day
of the fortnight. At the morning service the in-
variaUe psalms are eix, xc, ciii (1-0), cxii, xoii,
iriviiL ol. cm. On feriai and " UeniortBlii'' Pb-

oxlvi is said aftw Ps. cxlviii, and on ferias I^. 1, 1-18,
comes at the end of the psalms. The rest of the
services consist of prayers, antiphous. litanies, and
verses (giyura) inserted, like the Ore^ «Tixitfw, but
more extensively, between verses of psahns. On
Sundays the Oloria in Bxeelns and Benedieite are
said instead of Ps. cxlvi. Both morning and evening
services end with several prayers, a blessing,
^kiUhama, "Sealing"), the kiss of peace, uut the
Creed. The variables, besides the pralms, are those
of the feast or day, which are voy few, and those of
the day of the fortnight. These fortnights ciHisist
of weeks called "Before" (Qdham) and "After"
{Wathar), according to which of the two choirs b«^i8
the service. Hence the book of the Divine Office
is called Qdham u toatiutr, or at full length Kthawa
daqdham tpadkwathar, the "Book of Before and After".

Thb CALEm>AK. — ^The Calendar is very peouliar.
The year is divided into periods <A about seven wedts
each, called Shawu'i; these are Advent (called
Subara, "Annimciation"), Epiphany, heat, Easter,
the Apostles, Summer, "Mias and the Cross",
"Moses", and the "Dedication" {Qxtdaah idta).
"Moaee" and the "Dedication" have only four weeks
each. The Sundays are genenUly named after the
Shamt'a in which they occur, "Fourth Sunday of
Epiphany", "Second Sunday of the Anmmciati(Hi, "
etc., though sometimes the name chances in the
middle of a Shawu'a. Most of the "MenHnials"
(dukhrani) , or saints' days, which have special lections,
occur on the Fridays between Christmas and Lent,
and are therefore movable feasts, but some, such as
Christmas, Epiphany, the Amunption, and about
thirty smaller oaya without proper lecti<His are on
fixed days. Thne are four shorter fasting periods
besides the Great Fast (Lent); these are: (1) the
Fast of Mar Zaya^ the three da^ after the second
Sunday of the Nativity; (3) the Fast of the Virgins,
after the first Sunday at the Epiphany; (3) the
Rogation of the Ninevites, seventy days before Eikstcr ;
(4) the Fast of Mart Mariam (Our Lady), from the
first to the fourteenth of August. The Fast of the
Ninevites oonunemorates the repentanoe of Nineveh
at the weaehing of Jonas, and is oar^illy kept.
Those of Mar Zaya and the Virgins are n«uiy ob-
solete. As compared with the Latin and Greek
Calendars, that of the Chaldeans, whether Uniat or
Nestorian, is very meagre. The Malabar Rite has
largely adopted the Rmnan Calendar, and several
Roman days have been added to that of the Chal-
dean Uniats. The Chaldean Easter coincides with
that of theOrthodc«£a8teraChurah,a8 the Juiian
endar is used, but the years are numbered, not from
the birth of Christ, but from the Seleucid era, 311 b. c.

Thb Othbb Sacraubnts and Ooojuoohal Sgrv-
ICBS. — The oUier Sacraments in use among the Nes-
torians are Baptism, with which is alwajns associated
an ancunting, which as in other eastern rites answers
to Confirmation, Holy Order and Matrimony, but
not Penance or Unction of the Sick. The latto-
appears to be unknown to the Nestorians, tluHigh
Aaeemani ("BibUoUieeaOriantalis", pt. 11, p. cclxxii)
considers it mi^t be shown from their books that
its omission was a modem error. The Chaldean
Uniats now have a form not unlike the Bysantine and
West Syrian. The nearest approach to Penance
among the Nestorians is a form, counted as a sacra-
ment, for the reconcilatioQ of apostates and excom-
municated persons, prayers from which are occasion-
tHy used m oases of otho- penitents. Asawnani's
arguments (ibid., ocbccxvi-^) (or a belief in Penance
as a Sacrament among the ancient Nestorians or tot
the practice of auricular confession among the Malfr
bar Nestorians are not conclusive. The Chaldeans
haveasimilarformtothatof theLatinRite. TheNes-
torians omit Matrimony from the list, and according
to Ebedyeahu make up the nunlMr of the my^MisB to

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417

seven by inoluding the Holy Leaven and the Sign of
the Croaa, but they are now rather vague about the
definition or numeration. The only other rite of any
interest ia the oonBeoratioa of ohurohes. Oil, but
not (dirinn, plays a considwable part in these rites,
beW used in Baptism, possibly in Confirmation,
in t£e reconciliation of apoatatas, eto., in the con-
secration of churches, and the nuAing of bread for
the Eucharist. It is not used in ordination or for the
sick. There are two sorts of oil; the one is o^rdinaiy
olive oil, blemed or not bleesed fen- the occasion, the
other is the oil of the Holy Horn. The last, which,
though retdly ixly plain oil, represents the ohrism
(or ft^**} m other rites, is believed to have been
luuidea down fnmi the Apocrtles with the H<^ Leaven,
llie l^end is that the Baptist cau^t the water which
fell from the Body of Christ at His baptism and pre-
8eTv«d it. He gave it to St. John the Evangelist,
who added to it some of the water which fell from the
pierced Side. At the Last Supper Jesus gave two
loaves to St. John, bidding him keep one for the
Holy Leaven. With this St. John mingled some of the
Bkwd fmn the Kde of Christ. After Pentecost the
Apostles mixed oil with the sacred mter, and each
took a horn of it, and the loaf they ground to pieces
and mixed it with flour and salt to be the Holy
Leaven. Hhe Holy Horn is oonstantly rmewed by
the addition of oil blessed by a Inshqp on Maundy
Thursday.

The baptismal service ia modelled on the Eucharis-
tio. The Mass of the Catechumens is almost iden-
tical, with <k course anpnqviate Collects, psalms,
Litanies, and Lections. After the introductory (Tloria.
Lwd's Prayer, MarmUha {in this case Ps. Ixxxiii) and
its CMlect, follow the imposition of hands and the
signing with oil, after which follow an Antiphon of
the Sanctuaiy and Ps. xliv, cix, cxxxi, with giyuri,
Litanies, and Collects, then the Lakhumara, Trisagion,
and Lections (Epistle and Gospel), and the Kareusu^,
after which the priest says the prayer of the imposi-
ticra of hands, and the tmbaptiied are dismissed.
An antiphon answering to that "of the m^tmes"
follows, and then the Creed is said. The bringing
forward of the Holy Hcon and the blessing of the ou
take the place of the Offerto^. The An^hora is
paralleled by Sursum corda. Preface, and Sanctus,
a Niihi Mar, or Epiklesis, upon the oil, a commixture
of the new oil with that of the Holy Horn, and the
Lard's Prayer. Then the font is blessed and signed
with the hohr oil, and in the place of the Communion
comes the Baptism itself. The children are signed
with the oil on the breast and then anointed all over,
and are dipped thrice in the font. The fcnrmula is:
"N., be thou baptised in the name of the Father, in
the name of the Son, in the name of the Holy Ghost.
Amen." Then follows the post-baptismal thanks-
giving. Confirmation follows immediately. There
are two prayers of confirmation and a signing between
the eyes with the formula; "N. is baptised and per-
fected in the name, etc." It is not c(uite clear whether
oil should be used with this signmg or not. Then
any oil that remains over is poured into the Holy 'Bom,
held over the foot, and the water in the font is loosed
from its former consecration with rather curious cere-
monies. The Chaldean Uniats have added the renun-
ciations, professifHi of faith, and answers of the spon-
sors from the Roman Ritual, and anoint with ohnsm.

The marriage service (BuroiAo, "Blessing") has
nothing very distinctive about it, and resembles
closely the Byzantine, and to some extent the Jcnrish
rite.

The ordera of the Nestorians are those of reader
(Qaruya), subdeacon iHiupatkiama), deacon (Sha-
maaka), priest iQatkMa), sichdeadon {Arkidhyaqima)
and bishop (Apiampa). The degree of arobdwoon,
though it nas an onSnmon aenrioe of its own, is only
Qounted as a decree of the preriiyterate, and is by

some held to be the same as that of ckortpiseopm
(Kurapiaqttpa), which never involved episcopal or-
dination among the Nestorians. When a priest
is engaged in sacerdotal functions, he is called
Kahna ^ e., Up^; tacgrdot, of. Hebrew yyt) and a
bishop is siinilariy Bab Kahni (Oiief of the Priests,
Apx**P^, pontiftx). Quatkuha and Ajriaqupa only
denote the degree. KoAnufAa, priesthood, is used <x
the tluree degrees of deacon, priest, and bishop. The
iHdination formula is: "N. has been set apart, con-
secrated, and perfected to the work of the diaconate
(or of tne mesbyterate} and to the Levitical and
Stephanite Office For for the Office (tf the Aaronio
priesthood], in the Name, etc. In the case of a bishop
It is: "to the great work of the episcopato of the city

of ". A similar formula is used for archdeacons

and metropolitans.

The Consecration of churches {Siamidha or
Qudaah Madhbkka) consists largely of unctions. The
altar is anointed all over, md ik&o are four consecra-
tibn crosses on the four interiw walls of the sanctuary,
and these and the lintel of the door and various other
rdaces are anointed. The oil is not that of the Holy
Hbm, but freah olive oil {:on:jecrated by tlv bishop.

Badqt-ii, Thf NrsloHaru ami their Rilwil' (London,
Iiicu, The Aj/riat: Lilurgiet a/ Ihc Apt'alU^, ij Thi'(-!brui and of
AVsfu^iuji rEiLir<;ni CLurflb Aawic-. I/inJon. !S7i); Ethbbiwm,
Thr Svrvii' I'tfU-trhtf (Lcmdoa. liMDj; Madcxak and Baowm.
Tfit C^hMrw „/ iht tfaM and Mi^ Peoph {Lwdoa. IBSZ); Mi,c-
LtEAN', Bil.ii J^tfrirm. Daiin Offlau (Loadon, ISM), & trand»tlaD
a1 the Kihaiea dtiagdlum uHuthtnclAar, wilh intniduction uiii
nutiw: Ibh, Tha Siul Syrian Efip/iari;/ Hiiea in CdSTBCAAi,
Riijudt Armnunm [Oxfortl, lOOo) ; 6. ?. C. K., Tht LUnrmt of lh«
UtAv Apt/»Un, tic (Laodoa, IWi}-. KiL£V, Thi Ar<:IAiih.op 0/
Caniarbiirti'i Mixtion le Iht A*t)ffvin Chriatians. SarrnUtt al
a Hint, ISa4. Rmrt of tks fouiulatian u! th» J/»>i(m in ISfiS
<LoDi3oD, 1801^1 iHTwa, TAe caemoniaX uce of oil among Au
Jfa*f5irw'" (E«l*mChilHih A!i«>ii,.0»/orii, lOg2^; Kbhahdoi
LituroMntm Ofiffntolium CcOtcfio (Frvaklon. 1S47) : La. BtiSv.
Sini/na Bibliitluta ■ttUfoM Ptilnm fPlttii. lOM)', RuiUK.
Uiitmin fn-icBUB Malabarietg eHm Oiammriiana Syneda (Eotn*a
174fi|; BieKELL, Dtr iai/ioliidu Ortnt CMQs4t«t, 1B74): Ivtlt,
Cntprclu* Tfi .SvTimim lilfrantB <MaTt$ti)r. 1S71>; BntnirniAV.
Litureirt Bitflni -inJ Wttletrr {Oitford, NbaCJ^ s^D

LiTllXaAlJi. Tht Liluruist af SS, Mark. Jamti. CUment, Ciiri^ios-
lom and Haeii and of lAr L'tiurcA iif Jtfaiabar '(LaiuiLdu,
Psiwc Max u* SAJtaWT. Afusa e)iaidaiax (Rstiahati, 1907}, fe
Laiin translation of lIlc Hicond Liturgy; Nbals, HUlary of iha
Hpig Sitttvra Chvrch, OfftTul /nfr-oduduin (Londaa, le^};
hUaasia, Commmtatiut Je nterit Beel^n^ /yrdimtiianifiu' ikntr-
weip, iQflE), iaetudioK tlm NistUTiiia; Difti^fucu, Aim neiliirian-
iiofte IliujIidtroiB (OicHwn. 1003); d'Avbii,, La ChaLlH rkrHvnna
(Pttrifl, 1302); Qfahil, fl-ttiuiiT tielaJiimtt \alrr St.ifnt ApM-

(Rc-tau. Ifl02): BitAO-x. Dm BtnA dgr Si/nhadoM (SLuttcut ud
Vioima. 19001; AMyUAM MllUIOH, Ltl^t frata. AttVria (bO^

ilan, iaS7-.»9U 1di;h, QuarttHy Paptr (Loodon, laSO

Beuiles Ihn HyriQc ir-ililioaa d( the eervice- bnoka mi'Dtiiiiiod above.

1[e.\'hy Jennbr.

Syrian Bite, Wbst.— The rito used by the Jacobite
sect in Syria and by the Catholic Syrians is in its
origin simply the old rito of Antioch in the Syriac
language. Into this framework the Jacobites have
fitted a great number ctf other Anaphoras, so that
now tJiear Liturgy has more variant it»ins than ai^
other. The oldest form of the Antioohene Rite that
we know is in Greek (see Antiochene Liturgt).
It was apparently composed in that language. The
many Greek terms that remain in the Synao form
show that this is derived frcon Greek. Tlie version
mupt have been made very early, evidently before
the Monophysite schism, before the influenoe of
Constantinople and Bysantine infiltrations had begun.
No doubt as soon at" Oiristian communities arose
in the country parte of Syria the prayers which in
the cities (Antiodi, Jerusalem, eto.) were said in
Greek, were, as a matter of course, translated into
the peasanto' language (Syriac) for their use. The
"Peregrinatio Silvia" describes the services at Jeru-
salem as being Greek; but the lessons, first read in
Greek, are then translated into Syriac woptgr popu-
htm (ed. Geyer, p. 99). As long as all Western Syria
was one communion, the country dioceses followed the
rite of their patriwxh at Antioch, only chan^ng the
language. Modifioatioiis adopted at Antweb ia

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Greek weie copied in Syriao by those who aaid their
prayers in the naticmal tMi^ue. This point ib impor*
tant beoMue die Syriao Liturgy (in its fundamental
form) already contains all the changes brought to
Antioch from J^usalem. It is not the older pure
Antiocheae Rite, but the later Rite <A Jenisalem-Anti-
och. llie Syriac Liturgy in its Int^vession, like the
Greek "St. Jaaiea", prays first not for the Church
of Antioch, but "for the holy Sion, the moUier of
ail churches" (Brightman, pp. 89-00). The fact
Uiat the Jacobites as well as the Orthodox have the
JenuatontAntioeheiie Liturgy is the obief i»oof
that this had sapplanted the oldw Antiocheae Use
before die schism of the fifth century.

Our first Syriac documents come from about the
end of the fifth century ("Testamentum Domini,"
ed. by lenatius Rahmani II, Life of Severus of Anti-
och, sixth oentuiy). They give us valuable informa-
tion about local forms of the Rite of Antioch-Jerusa-
iem. The Jacobite sect kept a version of this rite
irtiioh is ^viouB^ a local variant. Its sdume and
most of its prayers oonespond to thoee of the Greek
St. James; but it has ami^cations and oaussionB,
■ueh as we find in all local forms of early rites. It
seems too that the Jaoobites after the schism made
some modifications. We know this for certain in
one point (the Trisagion). The first Jacobite writer
on their rite is James of Edeesa (d. 708), who wrote a
tetter to a priest Thomas comparing the Syrian
Lttui^ witli that <tf Egypt. This leUer is an ex-
ceedingly vahiable and rralV^ critical discussion of
the rite. A numbw of later .^cobite writers followed
James of Edeesa. On the whole this sect produ(»d
the first scientific students of liturgy. Benjamin of
Edessa (period unknown), Lazarus oar Si^netha of
Bagdad (ninth century), Moees bar Kephas of Mosul
(d. 003), Dionysius bar Satibhi of Amida (d. 1171)
wrote valuable commentaries on the Jacobite Rite.
In tile eighth and ninth centuries a controversy con-
oeming tne prayer at the function produced much
liturgical literature. The chronicle of their Patri-
arch Michael the Great (d. 1190) discusses the quee*
tion and supplies valuable contemporary documents.

The oldest Jacobite Liturgy extant is the one
ascribed (as in its Greek form) to St. James. It is in
tiie dialect of Edessa. The pro-anaphoral part of
this is the Ordo communis to which the other later
Anaphoras are joined. It is printed in Latin 1^
Renaudot (II, 1-44) and in Ekiglish bv Brightinan
fpp. 00-110). This follows the Greek St. James
(see Antiochkni Lttubot) with these differenoee.
AU the verting prayer and preparation of the offering
iProtkomide) are considerably extended, and the
prayers differ. This part of the Liturgy is always
most subject to modification; it began as private
pr^M* onhr. The Monopenes comes later; the litaoy
Moce tJbw usBonf is nusaing; the inoenam^
into a more daborate rite. The Trisatrjon eomes
after the lessons from the Old Testament; it oontains
the addition: "who wast crucified for us". This is
the most famous characteristic of the Jacobite Rite.
The clause was added by Fetor the Dyer (Fullo),
Monopfaysite Patriarch of Antioch (d. 488), was
believed to imply Monoi^yaism and caused much
oontroversy during those times, eventually becoming
a ki^ of watchword to tiie Jacobites (see Zacharias
Rhetor, "Hist eccl.", P. G., LXXXV, 1165). The
litany between the lenms is represented by the woid
Kvrwiton said thrice. There is no chuit at the
Great Eln trance (a Byzantine addition in the Gredk
Rite). The long Offertory praj^ of the Gredc
Rite do not occur. The Epiklesis and Intercession
are much the same as in Greek. The Lord's Prayer
follows tiie Fraction. At the Communion-litany
the answer is HaOsfinaA instead of Kyrie eMaon.

In this Syriao Liturgy many Qmic tonoa Temain:
Stamm ka&»t KvriBiton, Sopltia, Protehommf eto.

RcDSUdot gives also a second form of the Ordo com-
muni* (II, 12-28) witii many variants. To the Ordo
ctmmunU the Jaoobites have added a very neat
numbn of alternative Anaphoras, many of'(%i<di
have not yet bem published. These Anaphoras are
ascribed to all mapner of people; they were composed
at very diffwent periods. One explanation of their
attribution to vanous saints is tlu^ they were origi-
nally used on their feasts. Renaudot tnmslated and

Sublished thirty-nine of these. After that of St.
ames follows (m his work) a shortened formi^ the
saBM. This is the one commonly used to-di^.
Then: (3) Liturgy of St. Xystus^ which is pUoed first
in the Marooitebooks; (4) of St. Peter: (5) anotiier
of St. Peter; (6) of St. John; (7) of the Twelve Apos-
tlee; (8) of St. Mark; (9) of St. Clemfflit of Rome;
(10) of St. Dionysius; (11) of St. Ignatius; (12) of
St. Julius of Rome; (13) of St. Eustattiius: (14) of St.
John Ctffvsostom; (15) of St. John Chrysoetom
(from Chaidsan sources); (16) of St. Maruta; (17)
of St. Cyril; (18) of Diosoor; (10) of I^iknenus of
IDerapohs; ^) a second Liturnr also aaorttwd to
him; (21) of SraVerus of Antioch; (22) of James Bara-
dsus; (23) of Matthew the Shepherd; (24) of St.
James of Botnan and Senig; (25) of James of Edessa,
the Interprets; (26) of Thomas of Heraolea; (27j
of Moses oar Kephas; (28) of Philoxenus of Budad;
(29) of the Doctors, arranged by John tiie Great,
Patriarch; (30) of John of Basora; (31) of Michael of
Antioch; j32) of Dionysius Bar-Salibhi: (33) of Orcc-
ory Bar-Hwneus; (34) of St. John tiie Fatriarc£,
oaUed Accemetus (AKoltiirrot); (35) of St. Dioecor of
Kardu: (36) John, Patriarch of Antiodi; (37) of Igna-
tius of Antioch (Joseph Ibn Wahib); (30) of St.
Basil (another version, by Masius).

Bri^tman (pp. Iviii-lix) mentions sixty-four
Liturgies as known, at least by name. Notes of this
bewildering nunU>er of Anaphoras will be found after
each in Rcuaudot. In most oases lUl he can say ia
that he Imows nothing of tite real author: often the
names affixed are otherwise unknown. Many Anft*
irfioraa are obviously quite late, inflated witti kmg

Krayers and rhetoncal expressions, many contain
lonophysite ideas, some are insufficient at the con-
secration so as to be invalid. Baumstark (Die Meeae
tm Morgenland, 44-46) thinks the Anaphora of St.
Ignatius most important^ as containing parts of the
<ud pure Antioohene Rite. He oonsidav that maiqr
BttributioiiB to later Jacobite authors may be eorrect,
that the liturgy of Ignatius of Antioch (Joseph Ibn
Wahib; d.l304yis the latest. Most of these An^horas
have now fallen into disuse. The Jacobite cele-
brant gMierally usee the shortened form of St. James.
There is an ancient Armenian versioo (i^ortened)
of the Syriao St. James. The Liturgy is said in Syriao
with (since the fifteenth century) many Arabic sub-
stitutions in tiie lessons and jiroan^hoiml prayers.
The Leotionary and Diaoomoum have not been
published and are hardty known. Hie vestments
correspond aim oat exactly to those of the OrUiodox,
except that the bishop wears a latinised mitre. 1^
Calendar has few feasts. It follows in its main lines
the old order of Antioch, observed also by the Heato-
rians, which is the basis of the Byzantine Calendar.
Feasts are divided into three classes of dignity.
Wednesday and Friday are fast^iaya. There are
also tiie four great fasts, as with tiie Qrtiiodox. The
Divine Office consists of Vespers, Compfine, Noo-
tums, Lauds, Teroe, Sext, and None, or ratbw of
hours that correspond to these among Latins. Ves-
pers always belong to the following day. The great
part of this office (known in the Weet chiefly by the
Uniat books and now by Dr. Baumstark's "Fest-
brevier u. Kirchenjahr der syrischen Jakobiten")
oonaista of long poems oomposed fOT tiie puxooaa,
lilm tite Bysantine odea. Baptism is pcrframM by
immersion; the priest oonfirms at ones with duism

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Mewed by th« patriaroh. Confeaaion is not muefa
used; it has fallen into the same deoa)^ as in most
Eastern Churches. Communion is administered under
both kinds; the sick are anointed with oil blessed by
a priest — the ideal is to have seven priests to admin-
ister it. The orders are bishop, priest, deacon, sub-
deaooa, leettHr, and sin^. Tbsre are many du>re-
piseopi, not wdahwd bidiop. It wfll be Bem, thm,
that one little Jabobite Churdi has followed miioh
the same line of devek^naent in its rites ae its powerful
Orthodox neighbour.

The ^rrian TJniats use same rite as the Jaoo-
bites. But (as is the case with most Uniat Churches)
it is better organized with them. There is not much
that can be called Romanising in tibeir bot^; but
tiiey hare the advantaee oT weltananmd, w^-
edited, and well-printed bodiB. AU tM great
students of the West-Syrian Rite (the Assemani,
Renaudot, etc.) have been Gatholies. Their knowl-
edge and the tuEher Western standard of spholarship
in general are advantages of whioh the Uniats rather
thaii the Jacobites profit. Of the manifokl Syrian
Anaphoras the UniatB use seven only— -tfaoee of St.
James, St. John, St. Peter, St. Chrysostona, St. Xya-
tns, St. Matthew, and St. BaaL That of St. XraUis
is attaehed to uie Ordo ammyniB in tluar omdal
book: that^of St. John is said on the chief feasts.
The HBSons only are in AnJaic. It was inevitable
that ihe Syrian Liturgies^ coming from Monophyeite
sources, ^ould be exammed at Rome before they
were allowed to Uniats. But the revisers made v^
few changes. Out of the mass of Anaphoras they
chose the oldest and purest, leaving out the long series
of Ifttw ones that wne unorthodcn, or even invalid.
In the seven kept for Uniat use what alt^ations have
been made are chiefly the omissioii of redundant
prayers, simplification of confused parts in which
the Diaoonicimi and the Eucholc^ion had become
mixed t<^ether. The only impiutont correotion is
the omission of the fatal clause: "Who was crucified
for us" in the Trisagion. There is no su^ueion of
modifying in the direotioo of the Roman Rite. The
othur bo^ of the Uniats, the Diaconioum, offioe-
bot^, and ritual are eiUted at HcHne, Bdrut, aodthe
Uniat Patriarchal press at 9iarf<; th^ an oon-
siderably the most accessible, tin best-ananged books
in which to study this rite.

The West-Synan Rite has also been used at in-
tervals by sections of the (schismatioal) Malabar
Church. Namely, as the Malabar Christians at
various times made approaches to the Jaoobite Patri-
arch ot leoeired bishc^ from him, so did Uiey at
BUdi times use his litursy. Most of Malabar has
now letumed to the Nestorian eommuniooj but
there are still Jaoobite ecmunumyes nang tins rite
among them.

The Maronite Rite is merely a RomaniiaJ admita-
tion of that of the West Syrians.

I. Testa. — A. JkcobiM edition*: Boamuam, D. Sntnu
oZuawtrintM <U ritilnu baptUni « taera imaxi* (Antverp. 1672),

riac Hod Latin; Rbnaddot, LttwryMirttm orUntaliun alUetio,
(2nd ed., Fnuikfort, 1847), II, 1-660. Lnttn; BaioanUM,
MatUm LftervtM (Oxford, ISM), SQ-llO, vdnm Boonujnn for
ike Ordo comrnuni*. with bhs Anapbon of St. Judm.

B. Uniat edltiona: UittaU ayrioMm iuxia rUum tetlttia

(Ttome. 1843), Symo; DiakottUmt in 8y-
riae only (Belnit, lSS8)i PaiNcn Max or Suomr, UU*a
SKTo-Antioetima (RatisboD, 1008), witti the Anapbonof Sl John,
Xktin only.

C. Malabar «ditiona: Hotiob, ChriMimitv in India, II (Lon-
don, 1846), ^3-46; Howabd. Tfu ChriHan* c/ St. Tlumat
<Ojdani. 1864), ld»-319.

n. Commentariea: — Vie d* SMrtpar Zaeharit le StMatHqm
In Fatrelogia OrMnfalit, II (Paris, 1S03>, 1; La»odbt, DiowMiot
B»r SoUIh. ExpotUio hhirviatix Corp. Seript. Oritnt.: Script. Byri.
U (Paris, 1908), 93; Amuiaki. BU)Uath»oa oritnlalia, II (Ronu,
1710-28), 110; RxNAimoT, op. eit.; Bauhvtakk, Die Met**
im Morgmtand in KObbl, CtOettion (Kempton and Mnuioh,
IMS): rmObntiir %. KMmtjidtr dm vtiMfcan VoJbobitM (Psdei^
bon.1810).

AsBiAN FfntmccB.

lyfo-OlMMato Mt*. See Stbiah Bm, Ean. wti

Sjrro-jMobito Utu^. See Striah Rnn, Wur.
8yro-MaUbv Ohuroh. See Thomas Chku-

TIAN8.

Syro-Malabar Rite. See Stbiah Ritb, East.

8jro-Haroi^ Bita. See Mabohttbs; Strzaii
Rm, Wnar.

8Mmof-Ujnr. See Abuenibbstadt.

Si&nt6 (Aratob), Stgpban, b. in the Diooeee of
Raab^ Hungary, 1541; d. at OknQtz, 1612. On
finidiuuE his studies in Vienna, he attached himself
to the Diooeee of Raab, and in 1560 was sent by his
bishop to the German College at Rome. Hne he
joined the Jesuit Order, and after his novitiate was
ordained priest. In 1566 he returned to Vienna,
and thence went as professor to Nagy-Ssomb&t.
The succeeding years were spent at the universitiee
of Vienna and Graz, where he lectured on philosophy.
From 1568 3z£nt<S strove to found a Catholic mission
for TranOTlvania, where Protestantism was making
gr^t headway; this iHoject he continued in Rtxae,
whither he was summoned in 1579 as Hungarian

giuitentiaiy. This last position he held until 1579.
is endeavours to found a Hungarian college in
Rome after the model of the German College met with
but temporary success. The monastery of the Her-
mits of St. Paiil near St. Stephen's on the Co^ian
was to serve for this purpose; the deed of foundation
was approved by Grw>ry XIII and the college was
opened on 28 Nfay, 1579. The pope, however, soon
united the collMn with the German College. At
the end of 1579 Sziat6 left Rome, md proceeded to
Transylvania, where he displayed great 'activity in
the work Of Catholic mis^ons at Klausenbui^ (Eoloz-
BvAr) and later at Virad. At this time occurred his
literary polemics with the Reform preacher, Petw
Beregszdszi, against whom he wrote his "£piBt<^
apol^tica". In 1585 Szfint6 proceeded to (Wiita^
FdiOTfbr uid thence, on the expulsicm of the Jesuit
Order from Tran^Ivania, to S6Hye. In 1600 he went
to Zni^vAralja, and in 1605, on the destruction of this
(daoe by the troops of Bocskay, to Olmtitz, where he
remained until his death. During the' si^ of
Zoidv^ralja his books and manuscripts, inchiding the
Hun^irian catechism which he composed in Rome,
were lost; until his death he was working on a trans-
lation of the New Testament, which was later used by
Gewg KfUdy. Ss^td must abo be credited, as has
been recently proved, with the Hungarian portion
of the great dictionary of Calepino.

FrakmSi, Bin/ moffi/ar Jwuita a XVI. ndtadban (A. BuiwaioH
Jtndt in At StxlMnth Cmiwv) in KatoUku* SMmia (Budapeat,
1888) ; StiKNTW, ifiUHor irti (Hunnnu Aiithord. I; 9nui-
HUBBB. G—cK dM CoOtgivm Qtrmamemm^wvaneum, I (PW-

A. AidIst.

Sutmir, DiocsaB or (SzA-nuBnCNais), m Him-

gary, suffragan of Eger, from which it was fimned,
y King Francis I, at the same time as the See of
.Kassa. The diocese includes the counties (Komitate)
of Saatm^, Bereg, M&rmaros, Ugocsa. Ungrar, and
a small part of the Strict of bzabolcs. The first
bishop was Stephen Rscher (1804-7), later Arch-
bishop of Eger. Of his successors may be mentioned:
Peter Klobuuczky (1807-21), who rendered great
service m tiie organizatiw (rf the diocese; J6tak tUm
(1827-57), who gave great attention to education.
Under them tihe cathedral was enlareed and renewed,
and several other churches were built. Many <^ the
charitable institutions of the diocese owe their
foundation to Him, whose beatification is under con-
sideration. Tiburtius Boromisza (1906) is the pres-
ent bishop. His resdeooe is at Szatmir-N^meti.
The diooeee is ^vided into 5 archdeaneries, audc<m-
of 96 paiisheB. The dergy number 177. Then

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an: 1 tatolar abbey, 2 titular provoetehips, aad Ifi
mcMiaateries with 703 members. The diapter con-
asts of 6 members and 6 titular canons. Roman
Catiiolicfl number 140,807; and Greek Catholics,
«25,627.

A KalolikuM Manaevrtado, Catholia HuBmr (BoduMlt,
ISOl); 5eA«ma(imui (ISM, 1910). ,

A. AldIbt.

8M-<d>'wUk, Eastern, Vicariatb Apostolic or. —
The mission of Eastern Sse-ch'wan was separated &om
NorUi-westem Sse-ch'wan and erected m a vicariate
Apostolic in 1856. Its first name was South-eastern
SEe-oh'wan. There were nine European and ten native
priests. The Ri^t Rev. Mgr Desfl^hes (1844-87),
titular Bishop <rf Sinita, was elected first vicar Apos-
tolic Missionaries and Qiristians had at first to
undergo mai^ persecutkms. At last after the Franco-
Oiinese war, in 1860, they obtained entire freedom
to preach the CSuistian doctrine. In 1860 the mis-
sion was divided in two vicariates Apostolic: East-
em and Southern Sse-ch'wan. The nussionaries ^ot
from Qiinese officials a piece of ground in the city
(rf CSi'unff-k'ing, as compensation for the losses un-
' dergone oy the mission. New persecutions broke
out. At Yu-yanc Father Eyraud was put in
jail. Fathers Mabileau and Buaud were mur-
dered. At Kjen-Kiane Fathers Hue and Tay were
killed in 1873. On 8 March, 1876, the setUements of
the Christiana were pillaged at fCiang-j>e. Father
Coupat was elected coadjutor in 1882, and in 1883 suc-
ceeded Bishop Desfldohee, appointed Archbishop of
Mandianopohs. In 1886 the buildings of the mission
at Ch'ung-k'ing were piUaged and destroyed. The
bishop and missionariee had to retire into the Qiineee
tribunal. In 1891 the Right Rev. Mn Chouvellon,
titular Bishop of Dansara, succeeded Bishop Coupat.
In 1808 Father Fleury was captured by Vu-man-tse
and kept as prisoner for several months. The mission
is connded to the Society of the Foreign Missions of
Paris. The present vicar Apostolic is the Right Rev.
Cdestin-Feliz-Joseph Chouvellon, consecrated titular
Bishop oi Dansara in 1891. He resides at Ch'ung-
k'in^. In 1889 the mission numbered: 1 bishop, £2
missionaries, 33 native priests, 2 seminaries with 74
students, 151 schools with 1063 pupils, 105 churches
or chapels, 31,539 Catholics. In 1910, there were: 1
bishop, 51 missionaries, 46 native priests, 3 semina-
ries with 130 students, 341 schools with 5365 PupHs,
175 churches or chapels, 3 orphanages with SZf or-
phans, 40,587 CathoGcs.

Laciut, jUIh ii Is aoeUU det mittion»-ilrat»>im (189(9.

V. H. MONTANAK.

Bw-ch'wan, NoiiTH-wiieTBSN, Vicabiatb Apos-
tolic OF. — ^The mission of North-weetem Sse-ch'wan
includes the territories known as Qi'wan-si and Ch'-
wan-pe, the raties of Kiong-chu, Ta-y<Jiien, the Frinei-
ndity of Mu-pia, and a part m the dvil {Hrefecture of
Tsechu. There are 25,000,000 inhabitants, 23,600,000
are Chine8eandl,500,000are Barbarian Man-tse. On
17 August, 1658, the Holy See entrusted the mission of
8ze-<jh'wan to Bishop PaJlu, of the Society of the For-
eign Missions of Paris, Vicar Apostolic of Tons-king.
But neither Bishop Pallunor his successor, Bishop de
Lyoone (1699-1713) who was the first ^car Apos-
tolic of Sse-ch'wan. could get into the province. £a
1707 Fathers de la Balludre and Basset, of the Society
<A the Fore^ Missions of Paris, and Facers Mullener
and Appiani. priests of the Congregation of St. Vin-
cent de Paul, got into Sze-ch'wan where they found
some Christians who had emigrated from other prov-
inces. Father de la Ballu^re, elected vicar Apostolic
in 1713, died in 1715 before being consecrated Dishop.
Father Mullener was consecrated titular Bishop of
Myriopolis in 1717. Bishop Enjobert de MartiUat
■uoeeeded Urn. He established the Institute of the
^«ttui l%fini. Hie ff^winc four miiwfimflrifflt

20 OM^mnnai

were elected as vicars Apostolic, but were not ooose-
orated bishom: Fathers Laoerre, Maigrot (1752), de
Raymond (1756), Kerherv^ (1766). It is only from
the year 1765 azid the oonseeration of Bishop Pottier
(1769-92) that tmSfy dates the existenoe of this ma-
flioa. It numbered tlien about 4000 Christians, in-
ehiding Uiose of Yun-nan and Kwei-ohou. Fatlwrs
Ddpont and Deraux died in the jails of Pekin; Bishop
de Saint-Martin (1784-1801), coadjutor and successor
to Bishop Pottier, was baiushed with FaUier Du-
freese. 40,000 pagans were christened. Bishop Du-
freme (1801-15) succeeded Bishop de Saint-NUrtin,
with BuhcKD Frenchant as ooadjutor (1802-06). The
Synod trf oieHth'wan took plsioe and completed the
organisation of the mission. On 14 Septemba>, 1815,
Blessed O^rid Taurin-Dufresse, titular Bishop M
Td>raca, was sentmoed to death and executed. He
was beatified in 1900. At the death of the bishop,
Sie^'wan had only two missifuiaries, and the Chns-
tians were everywhere persecuted. This awful per-
secution came to an aid only in 1840, two years after
the death of Bishop Fontana (1820-38), whom Bishop
Perocheau (183»-«1) niooeeded. In 1840 Yun-nan
was separated from Sse-i&'wan; Kwa-diou was sep-
arated in 1846, South-eastern Sze-ch'wan in 1856, and
Southern Szo^h'wan in 1861. Bishop Pinchon, co-
adjutor in 1858, succeeded Bishop Perocheau in 1861.
In 1864 the seminanr of Mu-pin was burned and
many Christians killed. On 28 May, 1895, the build-
ings of the Protestants at Chen-tu were de^jroyed and
the follow^ da^ the Catholic settlements had a ami*
lar fate. Tbe mission ot North-western SseHih'wim i>
oitnisted to the Sodety of the Fmign Misucms oi
Paris. The present vicar Apostolic is ute Rkht Rev.
Muie-Julien Dunand, oonseorated in 1893 titular
Bishop of Cakw. He reeidea at Chen-tu. In 1880
the mission nun:d>ered: 1 bishop, 27 missJooaries, 39
native priests, 2 seminaries with 87 students, 413
schools with 3023 pupils, 43 churches or chapels,
38.800 Catholics. In 1910 there were : 1 bishop, 39
munonaries, 49 nativs priests; 2 seminaries witli 110
seminarians, 340 aabotUB witb 5322 pupils, 5 CMrphan-
i^es with 962 orphans, 105 (dturchea or chapels,
45,000 Catholics.

luxmAT, Alhu itn mMont i» Is nmkM dtt mUtimu-Unmokrm
(ISW).

V. H. MONTANAB.
BM-dl'mUli SOUTHBBH, VlCABIATB APOBTOUO

OF.— On 24 January, 1860, the mission of Soutii-
em SieHjh'wan was separated frtxn Eastern Sie*
oh'wan and erected into a vicariate Apostolic by a
Decree of Pius IX. The Right Rev. M^ Pichon,
titular Bishop of Helenopohs, was the first near Apos-
tolic. The mission numbered 12,000 Catholics and
the bishop there was the only European missionaiy
witli three native priests and four (]fa^)elB. BidM^
Desfldehes ^ve him one missionary, Father Laroher,
and one Cmnese priest. In 1862 Bishop Pichon es-
tablished a seminaiT at Ho-ti-keou. In 1871 he
died in France, and Bishop Leptey succeeded him.
Bishop Chataflnon suoceedoi Bishop Lej^y in 1887.
On 28 May, 1895, the buildings of uie notestants at
Chen-tu were destrOTcd. The following day the set-
tlranents of Bishop Dunand were also rumed. About
half <tf the Cathoye settlements in the Southern
Sse-ch'wan misuons were destroyed. Bidiop Chata-

fQQO escaped into the tribunal of Mei-cnou. In
uly^ 1808^ a new persecution broke out. In 1900 the
mission did not suffer much from the Boxers. In
1002 th^ was an awful persecution. Many Chris-
tians were killed. From 1895 till 1904 there were
about thirty Christians murdered od account of their
Faith. The missicm is entrusted to the Society of the
Foreign Missons of Paris. The present vicar Apos*
tolic IS Right Rev. Mare Oiatagnon, titular Biuiop
of Chersonesoi, irtio xosidefl at BAtk, ud M hai

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421

•ZYMOirOWZCZ

Coadiutor Ri^t Rev. Pierre-Mflrie Fayolle, conae-
erated titular Bishop of Lampas in 1909. In 1910 the
miflBiou of Kiea-Chang waa separated from SouUiem
Sse-oh'wan and Father J.-B.-Marie de Gu£briant
elected bishop and first vioar Apoatolic. As this mis-
aon has been newly fonned, it has been impossible
to get any information about the number of the
Christiana. In 1S89 the mission numbered : 1 ^ bishop,
26 miasifKiaries, 9 native priests, 50 catecbists, 38
churches and chapels, i seminary with 31 students, 68
schools with 1265 pupils, 18,000 CathoUcs. In 1910
there were 2 bishops, 40 missionaries 15 native priests.
98 eatechists, 2 s^nuiariea wiUi 115 students, 284
Bchools iritii 5765 pufHls, 6 orphanages with 153 op-
pluuis. 104 drarehes or diUMla, 30,618 CathoBcs.

V. H. MmiTANAB.

BiOw-IUilnftr* SeeSniHLwmBHaNBUBa, I>io-
CKSB or.

BMsaUftmjU MABTcr, b. at SsentiTAn,-Hungary,
20 Ootober, 1^; d. at Nagy-SiombAt Ctyrom), 5
March, 1708. He entered the Society of Jesuain 1653,
and waa prof easor of Scripture for five years at Vienna
and Na^-Stomb6t, profesapr of mathematioa and

Ehilosopny for nine yeats, and professor of canon
iw and theology for seven years. For twelve years
he filled tiie office of chancellor ctf the University of
Nagy-SaombAt, and in addition was im nine auooeasive
years govonor of the I^umiuieum in ^^oiua and of
the academy at Nagy-Siomblit. His numerous writ*
ings appeared in Hungarian, Latin, German, and
Slovak, and some were translated into French.
The most important are: "Curiosiora et selectiora
variarum scientiarum miscellanea in tree partes
divisa" (Tymau, 1689); " Dissertationes septem,
etc." (Tymau, 1689); "Rectus modus interpretandt
acripturam sacram" rryrnau, 1696); "Sununarium
chronologiffi Hungarie'' (Tyrnau,1697); "Hui^ariain
immaoulatam conoeptionem b. Marin viiginis magne
domins susd credens et iuvans" (Tyrnau, 1701): "Doo-
trina fidei christianffi" (Louvain, 1708); "Luther-
anicimi nunquam et nusquam" (Tyrnau, 1702);
"Relatio status futura vitse" (Tymau, 1699); "Dia-
aertationee hsresiologico-polenucn de hsreaiarchis,
fasresibus. et erroribus in fide, dogmatibus, hoc aieculo
nostro (lyTnau, 1701J; "Solutiones cathoUca, etc."
(Tyrnau, 1701); "Qumquaginta rationea et motiva
our in tanta vanetate religionum et eonf essionimi fidei
in chriatianitate modemo tempore vigentium, sola
reUgio Romano-oatholica rit eligenda et omnibus
aliis preferenda" (Tyrnau, 1701; Oermaa and Hun-
garian, Tymau, 1702).

SnmfTn, Manor IrOt (HungariMi Authors). XIII, 741-45,
ttmtaiiH » ootnplete liit <rf mi wuki moA Ublio|trftphy.

A. ALDiBT.

Baeny. See Zehoo-Modrub, DiooasB <a.

8»i»M. See Zips, Diocese of.

8M»m. See Sisuium, Diocbsb or.

Ssombathely. See Stxikauanqes, Diocese or.

Siujikl, Joseph, b. at Tamow, 1835 ; d. at Cracow,
1883. He studied at Tamow, then at Cracow (1854)
and at Vienna (186S-9). He began his career as a
poet, and Mntinued to write Temes till the end of lus
brief and fruitful life. Apart from many diort lyrical
poems, his first attempts were dramatic: "Samuel
Zborowski", "Halszka of Ostroe", and a translation
of the ".^amemnon" of iGschyJus. Before his mar-
riage (1861) he had also published his "Portraits,
not by Van I>yck", in which various tvpea of Poles
are characterized perhaps too roughly, but with
acumen, oftoi with accuracy. He bunn wotldng
at a manual of Pdbh hiatorT, pubushing two
vohimea in 18^, but was imseouy eonvinced the
oeeeasity of Indqiendent xeaeaich, of irtuob TohmMe

three and fou:: (1864-6) give good evidence. The
calamitous insurrection of 1863 waa a terrible blow
to Ssujald's buoyant hopes for Poland's future, and
he resolved to devote his whole life to seeldn^ this
causes of his beloved country's misfortunes, with a
view to her regeneration. At the time that he waa
publi^iing the poems: "The Servant of the Tombs",
'"Hie Defence of Csestochowa", and the dramas,
"George Lubomirsld" and "Wallas", he placed him-
self in the frrait rank of Polish histonans by his
work, "Some Tmths of our History" (1865). "No
nation", he said, "can fall aave tlm>u^ ner own
fault, nor rise agun, save by her own intelligent
labour and spiritual activity , and he most cour-
ageously indicated all Poland's faults, not however
omitting the means of reformation. He founded the
"Polish Review" (1866), and the next year brought
out "Hedwige" and "Twardowski", both dramas.
Wboi the use of the national langue^ was restored
in Cracow Untreratty, Szujdd waa named (1869)
profesBor iA Polish nistoiy; lat«r, he was chosen
rector. As early as 1872, Iw was the hie and the mov-
ing spirit <A the Academy <A Sciences at Cracow
in luB capacity of aecretary. About that time, for
bia rese&rcbee were not confined to Poland, he
published a sketch of the literary history of the non-
Christian world; studies on Marcus Aurelius and on
Lucian; translations from .^schylusandAristophanes;
"Maiyna Mnischowna", and "The Death of Ladis-
lauB iV", dramas of his own, together with several
othor works. After his rectorate (1879) Szujaki
was made a peer. But hia health, which had atwiqn
been preeanous, now fiuled completely, and con-
sumption set in. He continued to won, however,
till he could work no more.

As a historian, Szujski ranks with Kalinka. He
united the most ardrat patriotism with a supreme
love for truth and a remarkable compr^ension of
political situations and the characters of th(»e who
played their parts in them; consequently no one
could explain so well as he the sequence of events and
the causes which, for good or evil, influenoed na-
tion. His histoiy, first sketched in four volumes,
from the oxteentn (^turjr on, was supplemented by
three other volumes, entitled "Relations and Re-
searches") the most admirable parts being those
dealing with the Renaissance and the Reformation.
It has been said fA him that "the historian killed the
poet"^ and indeed his attempts to force into his
nistoncal dramas every incident relative to thdr
times in many cases impede thdr proper develop-
ment; but he allowed history to dommate hia art
throu^ a feeling of duty to hia country. The lessons
which he found m the annals of the nation he sought
to reproduce upon the stage. He was himself well
aware of hia soortcomings, and believed his plays
destined merely to pave the wa^ for a mmpler ex-
pression of palxiotic feeling;, without morbid a^
timentality. Thouj^ sometimes lacking in style,
due to the great amount of work which he undertook,
Sai^ski was a great historian, a poet of high ideals and
aspirations, and one to whom the Politdi nation of
the present day owes much.

Sholka, Jow^Stujgki (Craooir, 188S); Gsbiun, Odramalach
B*uj»kit9o (Cmcow, 1887); TAamnrsn, Snjaki iofa poits
{Cruow, 1901). Alsothehistoriwitf PtdUtUtontunnrBaeaK-
itaa, TAaHowBEi, mad others.

St. Tabkowbxi.

Siymonowioi, Swon, known also by the Latin
name of Simonidee, b. at Lemberg, 1558; d. 1629.
He studied first at Lemberg, tJterwards in the
Cracow Academy, and then abroad in the Nether-
lands and in France. On his return, he became a pri-
vate tutor; ummg other youiw men, he taught
Sotnerid'a father and the son John ZoUriewui,
who took Kfosoow. He enjoyed intimate idatioiu
Willi tiw famous John Zamt^aki, /wlioee aonihe

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SZTHONOWICZ

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ftZnCOMOWIGZ

also educated; after which (1614) he retired to the
country, where he remained until his death. He was
never married. SKymonowios may be styled the last
of the Polish Humuiists, to whom indeed he bdon^ps
both by his erudition and by the character of faia
creations. He spent t^e greater part of his hfe
writing Latin poems, once much appreciated through-
out Eiuvpe. Hie best of these are: "Flagellum
livoris", a collection of odes dedicated to -Zamoyski;
"JElinopsean", in honour of one of Zamoyski's vic-
tories; "Joel Propheta", a paraphrase of the Book
of Joel, inscribed to Clement VIII, whom our poet
had known personally as a l^ate in Poland; "Her-
cules Frodiceus", written for his pupil, the young
Thomas Zamoyski; and two drunas: Penthemlea'^
and "CastuB Joseph".

His first Polish verses were written in 1606, in
favour of the rebellion of Zebrzydowski. He also
wrote a few fugitive poems, but his fame mainly
rests on his "Idyls", which appeared in 1614. They
were the first and still remwn the best poems of the
kind in Uie Polish langua^^. They faithfully foOow
the old classical type, so of toi imitated by Freiich and

Italian Humanists in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
turies; but under this form tiiere is a true national
element, and the Polish landscape and peasantry are
graeefuliy described. Like YirnVs "Eclogaes'*, aU
are short; several were composed on special occasioDfl.
Not all are uniformly beautiful, indeed tiie finest arc
often marred by weak passages. But they have the
merit of simfilicity, not unfrequent depth of feeling
or pleasant wit and humour, tmrfound political allur
(dons, clarity of thou^t and a noble diction. His
influence is visible in the. writings of both the Zi<
morowicz, and also in Gavinski's "Id^". More
recoitly be has been imitated by_ Naruaiewiei, and at
times by Kmamin and ' Kax^nsB. hx Uw nine-
teoith coituzy fifiddeiricB appmaAteA bim adnur-
aUy in bis course ot lectures on Slavic literatiu«, and,
we may say, rediscovered hiuL

BnLownu. Sarmm AymoMMte (Cnunw, ISnO; Tnsmaai.
Stvpnoaowiet i inotiOanki (Warsaw, 187Q; WmuMwatx,
SManki Swymona atvmonomaa (Kutno. 1864): KaLUmACH,
SfipnimowUmtDnmal Cattut JottpK CWtnuw. 180^; UaamwKi,
A — «». Chb«a»ows«i, iVw

Zipoet S. &vmMi0w»cra (SSloeBOW, 1804]

Vamw, 1892); Bahs,

St. Tabhowbsz.

Digitized by Google

TibM, titular see in Carm, eufhanm of Stauropolis;
^' - to Strabo (XII, 570, 676) it was located in a
/giaontbeboundarieaof Caria. Stepliiuuu
Syiantius (b.v.) mentions two cities of this name,
one in Lydia, the other in Caria. Uvy (XXXVIII,
13) BtffB that it was on the frontier of Fiddia
ttmaroB the coast (rf the Gulf of Pamphjrlia. The town
in queetiqn, howereTf SDine ooins of whitik are extant,
was one which olaimed to have been founded one
Tabus. Others derive its name from toU, which in
Semitic lanmiagee means "good", and others (Km a
native word taba, meaning "rock", which seems a

Srobable derivation. In 189 b. c. the consul Gneius
lalius Vulso, having defeated the natives who
blocked his passage, exacted from Tabse a fine of 25
talents and 10,000 medimni of wheat. Three bishoiw
of Tabs aro luiown: Rufinua, present at the Comual

Ottholic ooDeges, and about 600 alumni; a notestaiit
college with 25 pupils; and 3 ohurehes.

Mm^^AuHimBat, 1881): CuniUH JR OMipwfe 7i KdoMit

Cahillus Crivxlu.

Tkbb. John Bannister, an American poet and ed-
ucator, b. at "The Forest" near Richmond, 1845; d.
at Ellicott Citv, Md., 1900. Descended from one of
the oldest and wealthie

.est Virginian families, he was
carefully trained by private tutors. At the age of
fourteen his sight was so poor that be had to give up
his books, and for three years q>ent much time at the
piano, becoming proficient in music. On the brog-
ue out of the Civil War he enlisted under the Con-
federacy and served in the navy till taken captive^
e V \. a i.-rt _* J.- 1 4t June, 1864. He was sent to the "Bull-Pen" at

^ Ephesus (431); SevMiis, at Conrt^tanople (553); p^j^t j^kout, where he formed an enduring friend-
Banhus, at Nics» (78?) O^.Quien, "Onens chnst.", ^th SidnW Lanier. Released fmm niS«on f,h«

I. 905). The "Notitue Episcopatuum" contmue to
mention the see among the suffragans of StaiiropoUs

until the thirteenth century. Tabs is now the village
of Davas which gives its name to a casa of the vilayet
of Smyrna; some inscriptions and numnous ancioit
remains are found.

Sifmr, DieL ofOntkand Roman aM0r„a.T.;PAra>Bsi(nm,
WMtr^viA lUr ffi-McAwcAm Kigimmamtm, m, v.; Tmn, Aait
twHMWv (Puu. 1862), 466.

apftiBiDte.

TUmico» Diocese or (Tabasquensis), in the R&-

?ublic of Mexico, suffr^an of the Archbishopric of
'ucatdn. It comprises the States of Tabasco, having

ship with Sidney Lanier. Released from prison the
following February, he was penniless. He undertook
to fit hiniBelf for a musical career and to that end
practised seven hours a day. His patron failing, he
was obliged to maintain himself as a teacher, securing
a poution at St. Paul's School, Baltimore. While
there he fell under the influence of the Rev. Alfred
Curtis, who later on was converted from EpiBCopalian-
ism to the Catholic Church. Tabb followed his mas-
ter into the fold in 1872. A few years later he entered
St. Charles's College to prepare for the priesthood.
On completing his classical studies he was retained bv
the faculty as teacher of En^isb. Hius interrupted^
his theological studies were not completed till the

an area of 10,872 sq. miles and a population (in 1910) Christmas of 1884, when he was ordained. He con-

of 183,805. The bishop and the governor reside at
San Juan Bautiata, founded in 1598 under the name of
Villa de Felipe II, known aa Villa Hermosa till 1826,
when it sot its present name. The eity has at pre^
mt (1910) a population of 12,084 inhabitants. In Uie
decree of Charles V, 19 September, 1525, we read: —
"At the recmest and with the express assent of the
said Bishop Don Fray Juli&n Garces. we declare, make
known, and appoint as the boundaries of the said
Bishopric of Yucatdn and Santa Marfa de los Heme-
dioB the following provinces and territories: First, the

entire Province of TIaxcaltechle, and San Juan de iuuu«s<> imiuibivu ui men ouiri
UUua, . . . .; the Villa de Medellfn and the territory opening poem of his "Later Lyrics":
of Tabasco", etc. The Gos[>el waa preached here in
the early period of the Spanish conquest. In 1545
the Dominican Fathers going to Chiapas passed
through Tabasco and in 1578 organized the house of
ChcolotUn, the first vicar of which was Padre Tomis
Aguilar. Christianity in Tabasco must already have
made considerable progress, for Philip II during the
^me of the Viceroy Velaaco planned tne erection of a
see tiiere. Philip III also intended to do so, in 1609,

tinned to teach English Grammar at St. Charles's till
a short time before his death and till he had become
totally blind. His "Bone Rules" is counted a valu-
able contribution to his art. It is his (mly proae work.
Father Tabb consecrated all his enei^ea to the voca-
tion of teacher. His poems were wntten here, there,
and everywhere; but eveiy one of them beans the
stamp of a highly cultivated and gifted mind. They
were contributecl to the foremost magazines and wcto
read with avidity. Concise and suggestive, these Ut-
eraiy gems cling to the fancv anothus realise t^e
modest ambition of their autnor as expressed in the

"O Uttle bird, I'd be
A poet like to thee
Singing my native song,
Brkf to the ear, but kmg
To love and memory."

In the lyric field he was greatly admired. Under
his muse inanimate thii^ took on life and beauty and
the abetract became concrete and pmonal. Hia

. . . . , , uync

tiiu, promoted the eetablishment of a see which was Mbtmilu FioKtr Tabb in Tk» Caiiu>iieW4>rU <M>., ina^t

created by Leo XIII on the petition of Mgr. Labas- 1>~». PoOm- TM la Am^ (5. 12. is *;«b.. wim.

tida. Archbishop of Mexico. The new diocese was ^' **■ ^<*<*an.
eotaolished in 1880 from parishea taken from the Sees

of Chiapas, Oaxaca, and Yucatto. It was suffragan Tabbon, a titular see in Africa ProoonBulane, suf-

to the Archdiocese of Mexico until 1891: to theSeeof ftagaa of Carthage. Tabbora or Talbora hae been

Oaxaca from 1891 till 1906; and finally in 1906 to the identified with two Q^ups of rums rather close to each

See of Yuoati&n. Hie diooeae oontams: an ecclesiastd- other, now called Tonbra, west of ^ga (an«^

ad seminaiy with 6 rtudents; 7 paroohial schools; 4 Bisica) in the valley of Wady auiana^^iuus. 'Ewo

423 - Digitized by VaOOgle

TABIBNAGU

424

TABIBNAGLS

Inshops are known: Marinus, present at the Confer
ence of Carthage (411), where biB rival was Victor, alao
rival of the Bishop of Bisica; and Constantine, who
signed the letter from the biMiops of the province to
Paul, Patriarch of CoDHtantinopte, against the Mono-
thelites (646).

1893), 267.

S. P^TBinilB.

Tkb«niMl« (TABBBNAcnLDu) signified in , the
Middle Ages sometimeB a ciborium-attar, a Btructure
nsting on pillars and covered with a baldachino that
was set over an altar, sometimes an ostensoiy or mon-
strance, ft tower-ehaped vessel for preserving and ex-
hibiting relics and the Blessed Sacrament, sometimes,
lastly, Uke to-(by, it was the name of the vessel hold-
ing the pyx. That is, at the present time in eccle-
siastical usage it is only the name for the receptacle or
ease placed upon the table of the high attar or of
another altar in which the vessels containing the
Bteesed Sacrament, as the ciboiium, monstrance,
ctutodia, are kept. As a rule, in cathedrals and
UMHiaatic churches it is not set upon the hidi altar
but upon a side altar, or the altar of a special sacrfr-
mentary chapel; this is to be done both on account of
the reverence due the Holy Sacrament and to avoid
impeding the course of the ceremonies in solemn func-
tions at the hif^ altar. On the other hand it is
generally to be placed upon the high altar in parish
churches as the most befitting position ("Csrem. ep.",
L adi, No. 8; "Rit. rom.", tit. IV, i, no. 6; S. C.
Episc., 10 February, 1579). A number of decisions
have been given by the Sacred Congregation of Rites
regarding the tabemacle. According to these, to
mention the more important decisions, relics and
pictures are not to be displayed for veneration either
on or before the tabernacle ("Decreta auth.", nos.
2613, 2006) . Neither is it permissible to place a vase
of flowers in such manner before the door of the taber-
nacle as to conceal it (no. 2067). The interior of the
tabemacle must either be gilded or covered with white
silk (do. 4035, ad 4) : but tne exterior is to be ec|uipped
with a mantle-like hanging, that must be either al-
ways white or is to be changed according to the colour
of the day: this hanging is called the cam^m (no.
3520; cf. ''Rit. rom., loo. cit.). A benediction of the
tabemacle is customary but is not prescribed.

HiSTOBT. — In the Middle Ages there was no uni-
form oustun in regard to the place where the Blessed
Sacrament was k^t. The Fourth Lateran Council
and many provincial and diocesan ffmods held in the
Middle Ages require only that the Host be kept in a
secure, well-fastened receptacle. At the most they
demand that it be put in a clean, conspicuous place.
Only a few synods designate the spot more closely,
as the Synods of Cologne (1281) and of Mttnster
(1279), which commanded that it was to be kept
above the altar and protected by locking with a key.
In general, four main methods of preserving the
Bleoed Sacram^t may be distinguished in medieval
times: (1) in a cabinet in the sacristy, a custom that
is connected with early Christian usage; (2) in a cup-
board in the wall of the choir or in a projection from
one of the walls which was constructed like a tower,
was c^ed Sacrament-House, and sometimes reached
up to the vaulting; (3) in a dove or pyx, surrounded
a cover or receptacle and generally surmounted
hy a small baMachino, which hung over the altar by a
chain or oord; (4) lastly, upon the altar table, either
in the pyx alone or in a receptacle similar to a taber-
nacle, or in a small cupboard arranged in the reredos
or predella of the altar. This last method is mentioned
in the "Admonitio synodalis" of the ninth century
by Regino of PrUm (d. 916), later by Durandus, and
in the relations issued by the SytuKls of Trier and
MQneter ataeady mentkuwd. Bowloses containing

cupboards to bold the Blessed Sacrament oan be
proved to have existed as early as the fourteenth cen-
tury, as, for instance, the attar of St. Clara in the
Cologne cathedral, althou^ they were not numerous
until the end of the medieval period, llie hi^ altar
dating from 1424 in the Church of St. Martin at
Landshut, Bavaria, is an example of the combination
vf reredos and Sacramrait-House. From the sixteenth
century it became graduiU^, although slowly, mme
customary to preserve the Blessed Sacrament in a
receptacle that rose above the altar table. IIub was
the case above all at Rome, yrben Uie custom first
came into use, and in Itidy in general, influenced
largely^ the good example set by St. Charles Borro-
meo. _ The change came very slowly in France, where
even in the ei^teenth centurv it was stilt customary
in many cathedrals to suspend the Blessed Sacrament
over the altar, and also in Belgium and Germu^,
where tha custom ct using the Sacrament-House was
maintained in many plaoee untU afte* the middle of
the nineteenth century^ when the decision of the
Sacred Congrc^tion of Rites of 21 August, 1863, put
an end to the employment of such receptacles.

Tbibhs, TraiU <U FexponHon du 8t-Saenm«nt de I'avtd (T aria,
1673); CoBBLBT, Hiat. du Sacnmmt dt VEueharittU, I (Pftiia,
18Sfi): RoHAHUT DK FutUBT, La Mut; 11 <Paria, 1883); Lub
ANB ScBWABS, Studim Hber dU QetehiehU dei tArittt. AUan
ffltattawt, 18S7): ScmoD, Zhr ekritO. AUar (RatiriMni. 1871):
RAXEtM, aUmtM Milt u. JtUt <Fnlb«E. 1S08).

JOBBPH BrAVN.

Tftb«nucl« (Latin UAenmeulvm, teat) in Bilirfical
parlance usually designates the movable tent-like
sanctuary of ttie Hebrews b^ore the erection of Solo-
mon's Temple. The various expressions in the He-
brew text in reference to the Tabemacle (ohel, lent;
'ohel mo'ed, tent of meeting; 'ohel ha-'eduih, tent of the
testimony; mUhkan, dwelling; miskkan ha- 'edulk,
dwelling of the testimony; mishkan 'ohel, dwelling of
the tent; beth Yahweh, house of Yahweh: qodeth, holy;
migdask, sanctuary; hekal, t«nple), while enabling us
to form a fair idea of this construction, raise, by the
seeming consistency of the passages in which they
severally occur, many problems with which all modem
commentators of tne Scriptures have to grapple.
ThuSf Exodiis describes the ark as sheltered in a tent
(xxxiil, 7; Hebr. 'ohd mo'ed), whose position was
"without the camp, afar ofT" (Cf. Num., xi, 16 sqq.;
24-30; xii; Deut., xxxi, 14 sqq.), guarded b^ " Josue
the son of Nun" (11), and at the door of which Yah-
weh was wont to manifest himself to Moses (9-11; cf.
Num., xii, 5; Deut., xxxi, 15). That this "tent of
tryst" (or better, perhaps, "tent of the oracle") was
not identical with the tabemacle modem independ-
ent critics urge from the fact that this 'ohd mo'ed was
in existence Wore Beseleel and Ooliab commenced
the construction of the Taljemacle (Ex., xxxv-xixvi)
and that the customary place of the latter was in the
very midst of the encampment (Num., ii, 1 soq.;
X, 15 sqq.}. Much stress is laid upon this and other
seeming discrepancies to conclude that the description
of the taljemacle found in Ex., xxv-xxxi, xxxix-xl, is
the work of the post-exilian authors of the Priestly
Code.

Assuming, however, the historical accuracy of the.
Biblical narratives, we shall limit ourselves here to a
bri^ description ca that "portable sanctuary" of the
Hebrews. In this sanctuary we should distinguish
the tent or tabemacle proper from the sacred enclo-
sure in whidi the tent stood. The "court of the
tabemacle" (Ex., xxvii, 9) was a rectangular space,
measuring 100 by 50 cubits (probably the Egyptian
cubit, 20?i ins.), screened off by curtains of ''fine
twisted linen" (xxvii, 9)^ 5 cubits nigh, 100 cubits long
on the north and south Btdes, 50 on the east and 16 on
the west, and 20 cubits on either side of the entrance,
Tb» emtraaoe was dosed a bangmg of fine twisted

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426

YiBlftltiOlU

Unea, embroidered in violet, purple, and seariet and
' ' twice d^oA " on a white ground (probable meanins of
Ex., xxvii, 16). All theee curtains were suapended
trom sixty pillars, but not in a " loose and flowine
manner", as JoeephuB wrongly states, since the total
length d the curt&ias is exactly the same as the perim-
eter of the court, one ^Uar being assigned to every
Sve cubits of curtain. These pillars of eetimwoodf five
ct^ita high, stood on bases (''sockets", Ex., xzxix, 39)
of brass and were held in position by means of cords
(ibid., xzxix. 40) fastened to brass pegs ("pins", ibid.,
XXXV, IS) which were stuck in the ground; the pillars
ended in a capital (','head", Exod., xxxix, 17, etc.; we
must believe that the height given above includes
both the base and capital ofthe pillar) witb.a baud or
neokiog (to hang the eurtain) overlaid with silver.
East ofthe entrance wen found successively : the altar
d holocausts (Ex., xzvii, 1-^, etc.), the brasen layer
(xxx, 18-21; xxxviii, 8, etc.), and the tabernacle
proper. The latter was conceived to be the dwelling-
tent of God; hence it consisted essentially of cur-
tains, the wooden framework, though indispensable,
being only of secondary importance. The whole
structure measured 30 by 10 cubits, and was divided
into two sections; the one to the west, the "Holy
Place", containing the altar of inc^ise, the golden
candlestick, and the table of ahewbreads: and the
other, the "Hot^ of Holies", containing the Ark of
the Covenant with the propitiatonr and t£e cherubim.
These sections were respectively 20 and 10 cubits long.

Jewish exegetieal tradition, followed by almost
every Christiaa exponent of the Bible, underetood the
wooden framework to be made up of 48 massive
boards (rather beams) of setim wood, measuring 10
by 1 }^ by 1 cubit, placed side by side. This means a
weight (about fifty tons) out of proportion with what
these beams would have to bear and very difficult of
transportation. Some modem scholars having studied
more closely the technical terms used in the original
adopt another view. According to them the "boards"
of the tabernacle must be understood as light frames
consisting of two upris^ts joined (probably at the top,
middle, and bottom) by ties or oross-rana (the "mor-
tises" in Ex., xxvi, 17). Of these frames, overlaid
with gold (xxvi, 29), there were 20 on the north aide
of the tab^acle, 20 on the south, and 6 on the east.
To provide solidity and rigidity, a slanting frame was
put at the north-«ast and south-east comers to but-
tress the structure (xxvi, 23); the lower part of the
uprights was sunk deep into mtnc sockets or bases,

frobably to be understood as square bkwks (about
cubit nl^h and 9i cubit square); finally, five wooden
bars, passing through rings attached to the frames,
ran along the sides (xxvi, 26-28). On the west the
frames were to be replaced by five pillus of setim-
wood overlaid with gold, suiuc in brass bases, and
crowned with golden capitals (xxvi, 37). Four pillars
of the same workmanship, with silver bases, separated
the Holy Place from the HoW of Holies.

A curtain, two pieces of fine tapestry joined by
golden rings, was spread over the whole framework;
each piece of tapestry consisted of five strips, 28 by 4
cubits, fitted toKetho* by loops. The total dimension
of this being 20 oy 40 cubits, it must have reached on
the north and south the top of the bases, fwainst which
it was possibly fixed (there were loops at t£e top oS the
curtains likely for this purpose), Wnereas on the east
it reached to the ground. Covering tiiis curtain was
another, woven of goats' hair (the ordinary tent mate-
rial), fitted in somewhat similarly; its dimensions,
11 (6-1-5) X4-=44 by 30 cubits, w^ so calculated as
to cover entirely the inside curtain on the ncoth, east,
and south sides and to hang down doubled on the west
side, thus covering the tops and capitals of the pillars
(Ex., xxvi, 7-13). Two outer covering (no (firoen-
sicHis are given), one of dyed rams' skm and one of
dugfiotfi' skin, i»oteeted the whoia structure. A

hanying, of apparently the same w<ykmanship as UuU
closing the entrance of the court, screened the en-
trance oi the tabernacle (ibid., 36) ; finaJly, a vatl (tf
the same tapestry as the inner curtain, hooked
from the four ptlhus motioned above, completed the
semratMHi of the Holy of Holies from the Holy Place.

Bittory.-~Ikixyoa by the people's outburst of
idolatrous wordiip Dendiiw the long intercourse ^
Mooes with God on Mount Sinai, tiie construction was
achieved 1^ the skilful workmen selected bv God, and
was dedicated on the first day of the second year after
the flight from Egypt. Henceforth the tabernacle,
under the special cai6 of the Levites of the family of
Gerson, accompanied the Israelites through their wan-
derings in the wilderness; during marches, it came
after the first six tribes and before the other six
(Num., ii, 3-34); in encampments, it occupied the
middle of the camp, three tribes being on each side.
After the crossing of the Jordan, it remained v^
likdy at Qalgala until its removal to Silo (Jos., xviii, .
1), where it remained many years. In Saul's time we
hear of the ti^macle at Nobe (I Kings, xxi, 1-6), and
Iat«r at Gabaon (I Par., xvi, 39), until Solomon had it
ronoved to his new Temple (III Kings, viii, 4; II Par.,
V, 6). It disappeared in the first years of ^e sixth
century b. o., being either taken away by the Baby-
Icmian army m 688, or, if credence be given the letter
prefacing II Maeh., hidden by Jeranias in an un-
known and secure place.

Jf-HSntvH, Jeic'iffi /I Fi(i./!iifi;?, in. ^-i; pBii.Or Dt Vita ATt^hj.
Fjilmuji Hihy!., Trapt. AInid'-iK. ii fnrfji/'i-i ^fi^'Pi tb(- n'[>iai<>nj tif
the an-cii-ni docioff an thi- siil-ji.ri. Mid hvn. T/ i' 7''<f'--'-ri-itlt ^Gtll
cd-, I'^'lt'); OptH, The Prahtem thr (l. 7", , Vr-,rk. 19f)CK
Ottllv. Anv-.tifflheO. T. [Oi\;T-\. IV.jTj; SV c li jht?hbk, Pra-
hgomtma CEdjiibkirgh. IhSS-); WppTi^ihrr, E'lnn i.ti thf flmmti
Sisnifirancf. nf tht Taiirrr'arle iij Thr Hjnrll' la tfi'. fl^brtipt fNffW
Ynrb, IHSPi, iWi ii).].; Binn, .S'^njii-^iJ; -Ut niumwrL KuUut

IMD: riRAF. Die artiMtchll. Hiidier dm A. T. tLeipiig,

i-.'- 'it filpv " " * - — -

Tfmpd (1396).

Chablbs L. Sowat.

TabemaclM, Fbaot op, one of the three great
feasts oi the Hebrew liturgical oalmdar, even the
greatest, according to Philo ihpr&w lurtlar^) and
Josephus {iopr^ ivywrdTTi koX fttylorij). The common
name, feast of Tabernacles — among Greek-speaking
Jews ffKTimrrrln, that is, "the pitching of the tent"
(John, vii, 2) — recalls to mind the custom establi^ed
bv the law of Lev., xnii, 40, of erecting on the roofs
of houses, and even in streets and pwlic squares,
booths of branches and foliage, wherem all who were
not exempted through illness or weakness were obli-
ged to live during the entire c^ebration. It is som&>
times asserted that the origin of the feast was simi-
lar to our "harvest-home' festivities.

This naturalistic view, based on the assumption
that the religious raactments of the Law are of reU-
tivi^ recent date and mere sacerdotal ordinances,
taikee no account of the significance which at all times
attached to the feast. TVue it is that one of the feap
turee of the celebrations was to be, after a fashion, a
harvest-home, and to offer thank^ving for the crops
of the year (Deut.,xvi, 13:Ex., xxiii, 16) ; and it is per-
haps owing to this special feature that the ch^cter
of the feast was one of joy and merriment (cf. Ps. iv,
7-8, in Heb.; Joseph., Ant., VIII, iv, 1), and that
numerous samfices were then offered (Num., sdz,
12-39); yet to the Jews the feast of Tabernacles wis
always and primarily in commemoration of their for^
fathers' indwelling in tents in the wilderness (Lev.,
xxiii, 43) and in thanksgiving for the permanent
abode given them in the Promised Land, and, later on,
after the erection of the Temple, for a permanent place
of worahip (cf. Ill Kings, viii, 2; xii, 32). The feast
b^an on the fifteenth day of the seventh month,
Etaanim of Tishri (about our September), and lasted

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TABSBNAOtI

serai daya (Z^., xxiii, 34-36) . Every male Israelite
was, acoordmg to law, obliged to go to JeruaaloBi, and
■'every one who was of the people of Israd" was
bound to live in booths, which, thmigh involving some
discomfort, at the same time contributed much to the
meniment attending the celdt)ration. The dutino*
tions between rich and poor were then aomewhat oblit*
erated in the general encampment, and thus the feast
had a most b^eficial social influenoe. The first dar
was held most solemn and considered a sabbath, all
ao^ile work being forbidden on that day (Lev., xziii,
80; Num., xax, 35); during the whole octave numer-
ous sacrifices were offered (Num.. xxix. 12-39) and on
the eighth day [styled the great(eBt) day of the feast
in Jomi, vii, 37), was held a sabbath like the first and
marlmd by apecial sacrifices of its own, tl» booths were
brokeD up aod the peopte returned home.

After the Exile, the feast was protracted to Ibe
twenty-fifth of the mtmth, and two new rites were
added to the oM ceremonial. Every morning of the
celebration a priest went down to the Siloe Foun-
tain, whence he brou^t in a golden ewer water which
was poured on the altar of holocausts amidst the sing-
ing <^ the Hallel ^es. cxit-crvii) and Uie joyful sound
of musical instruments. It was poesfl}^ the perform-
ance of this ceremony (the institution <tf whidi may
have been suggested by Is., xii, 3) which afforded to
Our Lord the occasion to compare the action of the
Holy Ghost in the faithful to a spring of living water
(John, vii, 37-39). The other new feature added to
uke ritual of the feast was the illuminations of the
women's court, together with the sin^g of the
Psalms of the De^^es (Pss. czix-cxxxiii) and the
performance erf damwa or processiMis in uie sacred
precincts. On the eighth day a prooeasi<Hi went seven
times around the altar, the people canying myrtle-
bouc^ and palms and shouting: "Hoeannahl" in
m^ory of the fall of JericJbo.

Every seven years, that is in the year of release,
during the feast of Tabernacles, the Law was to be
read before all tlie people according to the command
found in Deut., xxxi, iO. But this enactment was
Cffobabfy soon found to be impracticable; and thus the
Jewish authorities arranged to read on every sabbath,
commencing with the sabbath after the feast of Tab-
emaolee in one yen (rf release and ending with the
feast of Tabernacles in the next year of release, apor-
tion of the Law so calculated that the ^ole Pentar-
teuch would be read through in seven years. Thus
would in some way the commandment be fulfilled.
Some time later, the Jews of Paketine loigthened the
sections for each sabbath in such a manner that the
oitire Law could be read in three years (Tahn. Babyl.
Megillah, 2Sb). At present (and this custom seems to
so back to the first century B. c.) the Jews have the
Pentateuch so divided that th^ read it throu^ every
year, Uie first Parashah (divisitm) being appomted for
the sabbath after ihe feast of TabernAClee, and the
last chapters for the last day of the feast in the next
yeai, this bdng the day of "rejotcingin the Law".

GasaN, The HArw FtoM* (Cfneiiuuti, ISW): Ixn, An/i-
MMlolM Hcbraicd (Bremen. 1741]: KmtAm.AM^tiilaiM»aeni
(DtMObt, 1741): Babb, avmboUk det motaxtehtn CwttM (Hetdel-
berg, 1839); BuNSsnt, HerbrSiKlte Arth/UttagU (Frieburg im
fo., 1SS4); BcHxao, Bibiitehe ArdHK^otiM (Fniburg im Br.,
ISM), 691 aq.: Wili^ubmm, PnUgimtMa nir ffMc&KAto
/«nial* (4th ed., Berlin, 189$): Edbbskuii. Tht Life and
Time* ofJttu ti^ Mt-iai (Nsw York. 18S7). Il, U9, lM-100,
16S; iDcii, Tht TtmpU. m Uinialn and Btntef CLoadon,
1874). 232-49; Talmud. RoowNiOK (BMtoai. a. d.). IV^IW
Buoomh: EoBTUnnnB, ArOutoL Bibi. (Innabmok, IWS). 99-
101 ; Liaarsa in Vio., bid. d* la BQAt, V, 1961-Mb

Chabub L. Soutat.

Tabernacle Societies. — ^The Associatitm of Per-
petual Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament and of
work for poor churches was founded at Brussels in
1848 by Anne de MeeOs. By 1851 it had the approval
of the btibc^ of Belgium. Within a few yean a num-
ber <rf ita manbera formed themsdvce Ukto a idigioiia

cfmgregation, that of the Sisters of Perpetual hAan^
tion (q. v.), Mdlle de Mee<k8 becoming the first soperior
generaL In 1863 the society be<ame an archoon-
fratemity for Belgium, but quickljy^ spread to the
nearby countries where it met similar needs and re-
ottved similar privil^es, and in 1863 Pius IX granted
the mollHr^ociety at Bnieaela the right to affiliate
oonfratemities throughout the worid, except in tiie
city of Rome. This last restrictitm was removed
when the mother-house of the Sisters of Perpetual
Adoration was transferred to Rome, which thra be-
came the centre of the association. An arohoon-
fraternity with the same name and purpose already
existing at Rome, but founded subsequent to that
of Brunels, was merged with the latter. The statutes
of the ardiotrnfratemity were ^iproved by the Cou-
grcsation of BiSbope and R^Iars, 12 January,
im, and Leo XIII by a Brief of 21 June, 1881,
approved its transfer to Rome and ri^t to affil-
iate; and by a Bri^ of 30 July, 1895, granted it the
title of Prima Primaria.

The members pledge themselves to spend an hour
each month in adoration before the Blessed Sacra-
ment and to pay yearly dues into a fund for the bene-
fit of poor ohurches. The oontributions are used to
purchase materials for vestaooits which are made by
women memboB <rf the society and given to po<ff
ehundies. A neat work is tnus done and many
churches have dckd benefited in Belgium, Germany,
Austria, England, the United States, and the mission
fields. The eleventh Eucharistic Congre«e was held
in Brussels in 1808 in the church in which the society
was founded, and on that occasion a glowing tribute
was paid to its work . In Be^um alone it has nearly
200,000 members. Special mention diould be made
of the association as it is maintained in convents of
Religious of the Sacred Heart. It was founded in the
houses of the United States by Rev. Motho* Hardiey,
theai aamstant Bui>erior general of the Societv, on the
occasion of her vint in 1874. She eetablianed it in
eonnenott with the Sodality of the Children of Maiy,
andita marvelous growth and work for poor churches
are attested hy the annual reports issued by each
house. Paris is the centre of the Archconfratemity
of Perpetual Adoration and work for Tabernacles,
founded there in the Church of St. Thomas Aguinsa
in 1846 and with affiliations m ^e dioceses of France
and Algiers. It was approved by Pius IX m 1856
and made a oonfratermty in 1868.

BnuNan. Im Ind^dgmtcM, II (Puia, 190Q, 130, 1^:
HuaoiERi, L'mvMrt ds P AdonUim ptrpetiuO* «t dm igluei
vauwm (BnuMla, 1881) : Makt Aiatsu Hjutorr, RtUaimu ef th»
aaendBt^ (NawToA, 1010).

BXiANCBB M. KSIXT.

Tabernacle Sode^, Notre Dame Convent, I^hila-
delphia, a society of persons affiliated with the Associa-
tion of Pm>etual Adoration and Work for Churches in
Rmue. Iiie Philadelphia or^nisatimi was begun by
five graduates of the emvent in 1866, who fonned the
first Sodality of the Children of Maiy in that dtT,affili-
ated with the Roman Sodality, who resolved to do some
work for the altar. On 1 Oct., 1878, Archbishop Wood
had the society affiliated to the Association ttf Perpet-
ual Adoration and Work for Poor Churches in Brussels.
This association was transferred to Rome in 1879.
and the Philadelphia oi^amzation was ag^^ted
to it 8 Oct., 1881. There are now 22 societies in
ib» United States tima aoregated with the arch-
aawxiiation. The Philadelptna Assodation is author^
ised to affiliate parishes, and these share in all the
bmefits. From the booming until the present the
Philaddphia Society has enrolled over 10,000 mem-
bers. It now has 1800 active members in and around
the city, and many more throughout the country
in Abated parishes. It has the amatibtASaa of wS
archbisht^ and bidiops. It has heq>ed about 4600
paririua and miaeiona in eveiy part at the United

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TACRft

SUtea, and many fweiga oountriee. It aroenda
■bout S4000 tk year for materiala whidi are made np
by the members wiUiout oompmsatktn. About
100 sacred veasds are given awiqr eadi ^rear, and
Uieee are all donated, generaUy as memonah of the
dead or f ot some favour reoeived. The association pub-
bshea its "Annals" three times a year: the Januaiy
number contains the report for tiu previouB year.

JIommI 0/ TabtrnaeU 8oe^ and ^mmIi AmaelpMm </ At^
pttval Adontian and Work fir Poor Ckitrdm (Notn Daaw Coif
Tent, PhUadetphis),

Jambb p. TDBMn.

Tabor. See Thabor.

nwana Indi»ni, the collective designation for
a group of tribes constituting the Tacanan linguistic
stock m different dif^ects, occucying the upper val-
leys of the Beni and Madre de Dies Rivers, on the
eastern dope of the Andes, Department of Beiii jiortb-
westem Bolivia. The Kroup includes: the Tacaoa
proper, the laiamo, the Cavina, and Uie Atea or Leco,
all missioniied by the f^anciscan Fathers of the Col-
lie of Ooopa, Peru, about the end of the eighteenth
century; the still uncivilized Toromcma and Araume
and several others; and the more ranote Sapiboooiui
of the Moxoe mission farther to the south. In 1832
the five Tacana missiona contained 5304 Christian
Indians, while the wild Toromona were estimated
at 1000 mon. In 1852 the traveller Weddell spent
•ome time at the nussion of Guanay and has nven us
a good descrn>tkm of the Indians as he found them.
In 1883 Heath reports them as greatly reduced, the
1000 Cavina of 1832 having dwindled to 70 souls,
like their neighbours, the Mosetena and Yiuucare,
the TacEuia are noted tor their light complexion, fine
features, and tall stature, avera^g over five and a
half feet. Of their langua^, which is extremely gut-
tural and jerky inpronunciation, we have vocabuliuies
1^ Heath and WeddeU, besides a small devotional
publication. In their primitive condition they eub-
aisted, and still do, by agriculture, hunting, and fish-
ing, went naked except for feather decorations on
dance occasions, and hved in small oommunitiee sub-
ject to petty chiefs. Some of their tribes were reputed
eannibals. The civilised Tacana wear as their prin-
cipal garment a sleevelew shirt or cbaniae, keying
^e hmd and feet bare. They are expert at weaving
mad the making of straw hats, but are not industrious
beyond their immediate needs.

ABHVnu, Diario dd Fio/* al Madrt d» Diet (Ia Fm, 1890);
teiNTON, Amtriem Race (New Yoric, 1891); Huth ia Kantas
City AatMV ofSeienee, Vl (Kacaaa (Sty, 1883); Mauham.

Ml tlu FaOn ^ (JU Amaaon ia Jour. Antknv. /niNMs,
XXIV (London, 1898) ; sfOmmrt, VH«mm Amtticmb^ (S vols,,
Pkrl|,183»):WaM»u, VvnagtiaMlt NordMla BMtU (Jhxi*
■DdLmiclMi. 1863).

JamAb MocmsT.

TutftplB, titalar see of 'Aijpolitana in northern
lifrioa. The oBiaal fist of titobr of the Roman
Curia calls this see Taoane; the ancient milestones
bear the name Tacapas, Taoapa, Taeapes; the Greek
name was probably Tacape. It is mentioned in nu-
merous ancient geographical dociunents, but nothing
is known of its histonr. It whs located in the interior

Syrtis Minor in a fertile country, wasprovided with
several roads, and was the commercial centre of the
region. At nrst attached to Byzantium, in the third
eentury it became a Roman colony and formed part
of Tripolitana. It is now Gabes, cnief town of a civil
eontnu and the seat of a milittuy oommandery which
oomprisee all the southern part of Tunis. It has 1200
inhaoitants of whom 400 are French and live in an
oasis due to the waters of Wady Gabes, with the two
neighbouring villages of Djara (3000 inhabitantB) and
Mensd (^00 inhsBitanto). Three of its bishops are
known: Duloitius^ I^te of the bishops c^TripoIitaaa
to the Council of Carthat;e (403) and present at the
Onferenoe of Cartilage m 411; ServiHus, exiled by
Hunerio in 484; CaiuaorQalhi^ legateof theUaht^

<A his province to the Council of Carthage in 526.
The see still survived under Justinian wlw fortified
the town.

Shrb, Did. «f Ore** md Romam GMgr., a. v.; Mfltu^ ffotm
lo PtoUmn, ed. Didot, I, 636; Toclott*, OtoonphU A FAf-
riqua dMKmiM.- Bj/taeint at TripBiOaine (Mo&tmiil, 1894), Ml';
Dnu L'Afiitm AyMatfne (Pkra, 1896). PMrim.^^

Taidi6, ALBEAMDBB-AifTOinH, first Archbishop of
St. Booiiface, Manitoba, miasifHiary, prelate, states-
man, and wnter of Western Canada, b. at FrasorviUe,
Province of Quebec, 23 July, 1823; d. at St. Boniface,
22 June, 1884. By his fallier, Charles Tachd, he be-
Iraiged to one of
the principal
Ii>ench Canadian
families, and
through his moth-
er, Louise Henri-
etie de La Bro-

3uerie, he was a
escendant of
Lav6rendrye
(q. v.), the discov-
erer 01 tiie country
in which he was to
pass forty-nine
years of his life.
His olaasieal stud-
ies were made
at the College of
St, Hyacinthe,
whence he went
(IScpt., 1841) to
the seminary of
Montreal to study
for the priesthood.

ALafe*9n)fl»-AKTONTN Ta . irft
Firat Arc£iHi.-liii[. -if S' Cl^j.^Jucu

Thenoe he passed to the
vitiate of the recently-arrived Oblatee of Mary
Immaculate, and when Bishop I^venober ol>-
tained the co-operation of this Institute for his
dhtant missions of the Red River, Brother Taehfi,
though still a novice, was chosen to accompany tiiitfaeT
Father Pierre Aubert, O.M.I. After a two months'
uMimey through Canadian territonr, TachS arrived at
St. Bcmifaee on 25 August, 1845. On the first Sunday
following he was oroained deacon by Bishop Pro*
venehor, and, on 12 October oi &e same year, was pro-
moted to the priesthood, pronoun(sng the final vows of
an Oblate on the next day. For nine months he stud-
ied the Saulteux language; this knowledge, however, was
not to be of assistance to him untilyears later, for in
July, 1846, he was sent to Ile-jk-la-Crosse. There he
apent four vears, learning the language of the Chip-

Oans, his new flock, among whom he laboured,
y changing the mcvab, no less than the creed,
of the northern abori|;inaB. On snow-shoes and by
canoe he made long journeys for the benefit of the
Crees, Chimieways, Athabaskans, and Caribou-
Eaters, until, at the age of twenty-seven he was
chosen as tiie coadjutor and future successOT of Mgr.
Provencher. In obedience to the founder of his con-
gr^tion. Bishop de Masenod, he crowed over to
MarseiileB, and was conseerated (23 November. 1861)
titular Bishcnp of Aratii. On 27 June, 1852, he was
bade at St. Boniface, and on 10 September, 1852,
he arrived at Ile-A^la-Crosse. He then continued his
missionary life, which was rendered loyally all the
more useful as the Indians had resented his departure
and the presence of priests not familiar with their

absorbed was TacluS in his apostolic labours that
on the death of Bishop Pravenchw (7 June, 1863) he
did not deem it incumbent upon himself to inunedi-
ately return to St. Boniface. He went on with his
peregrinations among Indians and halfbreeds tmtil in
theooutseof 1854 he proceeded soutii to offidaDy take
pooseasion oi his see. On 5 June, 1856»he returned

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42»

north, going as far as Great Slave Ltake, wbere be es-
tabKghftH a miaaba for the benefit of anodur D6a6
tribe, tbm, as tUs diocese was becoming too lar^ for
one man to administer, he had one of his pnestB,
Father Vital J. Grandin, O.M.I., appointed his coad-
jutor. Between 1860 and 1861 Mgr. Tach£ resumed
his joumeyings among the natives, and, nine miles
from Edmonton, decided upon the site of a new mis-
awn iriuch Fath^ Laoombe was to eatablidi under the
name of St. Albort. Retuniing to St. Bonifaoe, he
learned of the destruetion by fire (14 December, 1860)
of his residence and the cathedral, the latter, whose
belljj hii^ i>> been stmg of by the Quaker poet Whit-
tier, wju* tho pride of the eettlf-niiui . Ih? (ben passed
into Canada, ns the East of the pre^nt D< inainion was
called, and, by hia appeals, secur^td tbe Inrjuifl of Oom-
mencing u new aud more modest cath^uL He even
.Mft^U br w Europe, and jwrocymi the erection, in
tSttsdiMfc florthem part of ms immense dinoeae, of a
now vicariate ApOfrt^lic which was entrusted to the
OKre of Bishop Far»ud.

This diviBiim r-iinblod Mfcr. T.K-hi^ to (rive man at-
tention to till' 1k>ii!p, "r :-'njiln'iii. ifiiH-siona and the
embryonic pijirislipj cif wltiit to-iJuy Manitoba.
Tbis territor\', th<-n cmIIhI AssiiiLbnia, was peopled by
a mixed population under the piitemal rule of the
Hudson Bay Conuany, aasiffted by ai , l^idative
bodty^iriuic^ tins ttiBoopaSSA. Boni&oe*«B8a mem-
Im*« a lestlese alien element^ hailing mostly from
OntiriD, wu at that time striving to rlh&nge a politi-
OHftH^ime which was satigfAf^t^jry to nil rtnssee of the
loellkKfe^, French and Kni^liish, Ciitlii^lioand Prot-
ffltant. Whi'Ti f,hp prtiviiirifj if iln-^ t'tir;!. had been
united int*J :\ ''"id'-Arrnut-w, "rn i.>f tht lirst cares of
the new power resulting fri>Di thi> iSG7 Act was to
^bifjit fnnn the ImperiBl GovtirmnBiit the transfer, in
flmaJdUmion of ^00,000, of AsBrmboia and sur-
nmnding renons which had previously belonged to
the Hudson Bay Company. Not only were the in-
habitants of those territories not consulted as to the
advisabiUty of this transaction, but the emissaries of
Ottawa in the valley of the Red River acted so rashly
and in such a dommeering way towards the Frenra
and Catholic part of the population, at a time wfa«i
ib» Federal authorities whom they represented had
not as yet any jurisdiction over the country, that the
dboontrat th^ caused culminated (11 October,
18^) in open revolt under Louis Riel.

The Federal authorities b^ged Tach£, who was
then attending the (EcumenioaJ Council of the Vati-
can, to come and intervene in the inta«st of peace.
On his way home the prelate had interviews with the
ffovemor-general and nia ministers, and was assured
by thou w a full amnestvforthe in anna if the
Ifrt^ would only send delegates to Ottawa to treat
ci the matters in dispute and would not oppose the
coming of the milita^ expedition that was dispatched
to Red River under Wolseley. In the meantime the
Provisional Government, regularly formed there by
the properly elected representatives of both portions
of the population, had lotmd it necessary to execute a
troublesome character named Thomas Scott. The
bishop's arrival (0 March, 1870), five days after the
execution, was timely, inasmuch as Riel had mani-
fested his intention of resisting the progress of the
Anfflo-Canadian troops. After Tache^s intervention,
which was based on the promise of an amnesty re-
ceived at Ottawa, the m^tis could no longer be reli«i
on to pursue an aggressive policy. Delegatee were
sent to the Federalcapitalf their ^orts resulting in
the Manitoba Act.

Unfortunately, the authorities took the execution
of Soott, a rabid OraQgeman, as an excuse for refusing
the amnesty to which they had solemnly pledged
themselves. This was a great blow to Mgr. Tacoft's
prestige amoiw his people. For years he laboured to
secure for the leaders m the movement of resistance

i^ainai the unwaxranted aggression <rf the represent**
tives (tf Ottawa that meed of justice to which he
thou^tthey had aright. Hewouldprobablyl^vebeai
more successful had oe shown hin^elf less confidoit
in their honesty in his dealings w ith politicians, and re-
qubed writtai assurances when it was aearoelr possible
to refuse them. It was not till the end of October, 1874,
that a nutial amnesty was {Hodaimed, but not before
one of Kiel's lieutenants, A. D. L^ine, had bem con-
demned to death, a sentence whidi Mgr. Tach6 had had
commuted into ei^teen months^ imprisonment.
Tach£ had been appointed Archbishop of St. Boniface
on 22 September, 1871. Thenceforth his efforts were
mostly directed towards bringing in Catholic immi-
grants to the new ecclesiastical province and found-
ing new parishes within his own archdiocese. In the
Budst of these labours the Saskatchewan Rebellion of
1885, und» the same L. Riel who had directed the
I^tunato rising of 1869 (see Sabkatcbcwan and
AIbebta], took place. Tach£ wrote (7 Dec., 1885} a
little pamphlet, "La Situation", a masterpiece of its
kUkd, m wnicfa he deplored the r^}ellion, y^ remained
to the end sympathetic to his forma- prot£g6. The
latter had paid with his life (16 Nov., 1886) for
excesses that were due to good intentions rend-
ered ineffective by the failure of an overworked
brain. From 13 to 24 July, 1889. were held at St.
Boniface the sessions of ite First Provincial Council.
But soon aiUx this joyful event the separate schools
which were guaranteed by the provincial Constitution
were ruthlessly abolished. The archbishop made
numerous attempts to obtain redress, publismng sev-
eral letters and pamphl^ to show the injustice dime
his people; he also had appeals takoi to the TariouB
courts, but the findings were contradictory, and there-
fore futile, until the Privy Council of the Empire
acknowledged the reality of the grievances and
pointed out the Federal Parliament as the party which
had power to redress them (29 Jan., 1895). Tach6
did not live to see this tardy justice. The anxieties
of the last few years bad accentuated the ravages of a
malady which carried him off, to the regret of friends
and foes alike. Apart from the respectful tributes of
tJie press, some 15,000 Protestante publicly testified
aftw his death their recognition of nis worth.

Archbisluip Tach£ had to a considerable extent
shaped the destinies of the Canadian West. He was a
writer of no mean ord^. His litermy productions
have a special aroma of delicacy and, at times, quiet
wit, which denote the well-bred gentleman, and his
French is remarkiJsly pure and free' from forei^
elements. Of his first book, " Vingt Annies de Mis-
sions" (Montreal, 1866), 15,000 copies were sold,
and it is now very rare. A ^ort time later he pub-
lished his "Esquisse sur le Nord-Ouest de I'Am^ri-
que", almost a classic on the subject; besides a
second edition, it had the honour of an Enj^lish trans-
lation. The harassing school persecution which
bwan in the year 1890 was responsible for several
public documents of Archbishop Tach^'s, prominent
among which is "A Pap;e of the History of the
Sobods in Manitoba"; this document was published
in En^if^ and French^ and is regarded as a model
of close dialectics and irrefutable rogic.

Datid, Monteifpitvr Alexandre- A nlonin Tacht (MoDtnal<
18S3); Harobatx, Red River (Montreal, 1871): HiLi, Jtfanitoba

Sonmto, «. d.}; Hclot, De VAllatUique au Pacifigiu (Padi>
iS); JoNQDvr, iroiu«wn<w Grandin (Montreal. 1903}:Bki«>[T,
Fie de Uffr Tacki (2 toIs., Montreal. 1904); Moricb, DieL kU-
Ufriqm del Canadimt el det Mtti* Francait de fOueM (Quebec,
19W); IBBH, Hut. of the CaikoUc Church in Wextem Camadu (2
voU., Toronto, 1010); SavaItb, Vers VAblme, Vll (Psrih 1910);
RocTHin, De QuiUo d Victoria (Quebec, 1803); Lamotbb, Cmf
moil che* let Francaia d^Amiriwt (Pwris, 1879).

A. G. MoBica.

Tsdht, E^mNVB-PAacjU.^ statemian, b. at St.
Thomas (Montmagny, Provmce of Quebec), 5 Sept^
1795, son <d Charles, and Genevi^e Michon; d. 30
July, 1866. Through his grandmother, he was a de-

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■e«ndant of JoUet, the diBcoverer of tlie Mnriaripin.
He ienred In the war ot 1812 u Uevtenant of the
"ChasBeora oanadiens". He waa a edfHnade man,
who after a mere elonentary oourse sueoeeded in
eraduating at Philadeli^ua as a phynoian, and latv
in tctldng the foremost rank among Canadian itatee-
men. Alter twentv-two years of Bueoessful medical
praotioe, he entered politics as member of the Le«iak-
tive AMembly at the first election following the Union
(1841), which he had atrenuouily OKweed. Re-
elected in 1844, he aoeepted (1846) the post of adja>
taut-general of militia. In 1848 he became diief eonH
misGKmer of public works in the Lafontaine-Baldwin
ministry, ana helped to save the fcnrmer's life during
the violent seesiona of 1840. M. Taoh^ was a mem-
ber of each successive Cabinet from 1848 to 1856. In
1858 he was knighted by Queen Victoria, and in 1860
appointed aide-de-camp to Her M^esty, with the
rank of colonel in the regular army. In 1862 Phu IX
bestowed on him the title of Commander of the Order
oi St. Grregonr. He aicted in reorganising the militia
at the time of the Trent affair. In 1864 he formed the
Tachd-MacDonald administration, and presided over
the conference of the delates of the British North
American provinces preparaUny to oonfederation.
Taoh£ was ever a loyu Catholio.

TUHuoTTi, Lc Canada mm FUnion (Qoebeo. 1873); Moboah.
BtNMJUca cmtuUntU (OtUw*. 1867); Rot, La fitmiO* 3beM
(Uria, 1904.

LiONKL LnmuT.

TfcdMMi a titular see in Manretania CMaiiauis,
of which nothii^ is known. Its bishop David is

mentioned among the bishops of Mauietania Ctcsari-
ensis in the "Notitife episcopatuum" of 482. He is
also the hundredth and fifth on the list of the bishops
of that province who went in 484 to the Conference
of Carthage and were subsequently exiled by Huneric.
His name is followed by the word probofus, showing
that he died in exile for the Faith.

TouLOTTa, OiaaravkU di* FAfiiVi» «MWmim.' Mmirtlaniet
(MoDtnuil, 18H), 14ft

S. F^TBmis.

Tmaaaxvm, atitular see in Greece, suffrantn of Cor-
inth. iSenarum, or Tsnams, was situated five Eng-
lish miles north of Cape Tainarum, now Cu>e Mata*
pan. It cMitained a temple of Demeter, also one of
Aphrodite. It is to-day the village of Kypanisos.
Juter their freedom from the Spartan yoke, the
maritime Laoonians fonned a confederation, and
founded a capital, called C^nnepoUs, i. e. new town.
From inscriptions we leun that thisnew city was reaUy
Ttmarum, which still preserved its old name. How-
ever, theremay have been two distinct cities, in close
proximity; but there is no mention of Tsenarum in the
"Notitin ^iscopatuum", or of any of its bishops.

Bmob, Dkt. of Grade and Roman Oaog., a.v.i Mtfujm, Notm to
Prabnw. vd. Dioor, I, SSL

S. P^Tamfts.

Taensft Indians, a tribe of Muskhogean stodc and
somewhat superior culture, living when first known
on the west bank of the Mississippi,' witJiin the
present limits of Tensas parish, Louisiana, and
numbering perhaps 1200 souls, in several villages.
The meaning of the name is unlmown. In langua^
n^on, ana custom they were nearly identical with
^ celebrated Natches, their new neighbours on
the opposite bank of the Mississippi, a little lower
down. The Taensa were sedentary and agriculturial
and expert canoe men, living in large houses described
as having walls of earth, but more probably
of logs plastered with cla^, uid rocked with mats oit
worm cane q>lit8. Their chiefs ennrised doqmtie
power and were treated with great respect, in marked
contrast to the custom among the northern tribes.
Chi one oceasion a ceremonial visit to La Salle the
diief was accompanied by attendants who, with
tbor haadii swopt the road in frcmt d him as he

advanced. Towards the French thev manifested
from tiw first a warm friendship, but althou|^
deecribed by the early e^lorers as digaified, polished,
docile, and even "humane", their rdigion, like that
<A the Natches, was notable for its bloody rites.
Their cdiief deities seem to have been the sun and the.
serpent. Their dome^haped temple was surmounted
by the figures of three ^igles facing the rising sun,
the outer walls and ^e roof being of cane mats
painted entirely red, andthewhole wassurrounded with
a palisade of stages, cm each of which was set a human
skulL the remains of a fwmer sacrifice. Innde was
aa altar, with a rope of human srato lodes, and a
peipetual fiie guarded day and nig^t by two old
priests. When a dsief died his wives and personal
attendants were killed that their spirits m^t
accompan;y' him to the other world. At one chief's
funeral thirteen victims were thus slaughtered. On
another occasion Father Montigny, being present,
interposed and prevented the sacrifice. Shortly
afteiwards, duriiif^ a thundw storm, the tfOnple was
struck by lightmng and entirely oonsumea. The
high priest interpreted this as a si^ of the ai^jer of
the god at the neglect of the ancient custom, and
for reparation called up<m the women to throw their
ciuldren into the fire. In response five _ mothers
rushed forward and cast their infants into the
flames and others were about to follow when the sol-
diers of Ibtfville's party interfered. The five mothers
tHio had thus given their children to death were after'
wards led in prooeswHi, clad in white robes woven
from the fiber of the inner bark of the mulberry.

The Taensa m&y have been visited by De Soto's
expedition in 1640, but thur definite history dates
from 1682, when the French commander La Salle,
accompanied by Tonti and the Recollect Father
Zenobius Membr6, stopped at their villa^ for a
day or two while demendine the Mississippi and
met a frigidly reo^tion. In 1686 Tonti again
visited them, and in 1690 he made their villages the
startmg-point for his expedition to the west in
seardi of La Salle. In 1698 they were terribly
wasted by a nnallpox epidemic which ravaged ul
the tribes of the lower Alississippi, but were still
estimated at about 800. In the same yeSTj^athers
F. J. de Montigny, Antoine Davicm, and Thaumur
de la Source were sent out from Quebec by the Sem-
inuy of Foreign Mismons (Missions £trang6res)
which had undertaken work amon^ the southern
tribes. After a preliminanr reconnaissanoe, Father
Mont^ny, with powers of vicar-general frtnn the
Bishop 01 Quebec, went in 1699 to the Taensa,
assigning Davion to the Tonica. Later on Father
Buiason de St. Cosm& of the same seminaiy, arrived
and was assigned to the Natdies. Father Mcxitigny
was well received, and, as has been stated, was
able at the time to prevent the funeral suiugb*
ter on the death of the chief, as also to make peace
b^ween the Taensa and the Natches. In 1700 they
wa« visited by Iberville, governor of the Louisiana
ook>ay. The missions^ however, did not proq>er. Iber-
ville himself waaunfnendly to the Quebec <»der, and
the Taensa and Tonica, while i^qiareDtty Idndlyi ynm
too much attached to tiieir own ritual and custom to
be moved. The murder of Father FOucault by a
neighbouring hostile tribe, the Koroa, in 1702. led
to the withdrawal of the seminary priests ana the
abandonment of the missions.

In 1706 the hostility of the Chickasaw and Yaioo
eompelled the Taensa to abandon their villages and
retire lower down the river. In consequence of their
treacherous attack upon a tribe which had pven
them shelter, they were again forced to become
refugees and finally, about 1740, r^oved to Teosas
river near Mobile, Alabama, under the proteotica
of the French. They were still mainly heatheo.
On the eesskm of Mobile ta the Tlntfthjn 176S thay,

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TAHITI

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TAIOl

wHii scrrenl other smaD tribes, a^ain moved orer
into Louimana, settling on Red River, where tbey
stiU resided in 1805, reduced then to 25 men or
perhaps 100 souls. Some years later they removed
south to Bayou Bceuf and thence to Grand Lake,
after wliich the rnmnuit disappears from history.

In 1880-2 considerable interest was aroused
among philologists by the publication in Paris of
what purported to be important material ot the
Taoua language, including pi^>er8, songs, a grammar
and TocabuJaiy, but which ivoyea to be the fraudu-
lent invention ot a young clerieal student named
Parisot, or of some one ebe from whom the manu-
scripts had originally come. The deception was
exposed by Brinton in 1886 and has been more
recently pointed out by Swanton.

Bbimtom, Buat/t of an Avuriamil (Philadelphia, 180Q);
Fmnch. Hitt. CotU. of Lmtinana. I (New York. ISW; Ham-
ilton, Colonial MobiU (Boston ana N«w York, 1897); Lb Paos
Bc Pbats. Hitt. la LouUan* (3 vols., Pans, 1758. W. LoadOD,
1793. 1774); Maboht, DteovverU* et ilablUtemmU dat Pranfau
(a volt., Paris, 1S79. 1880); aaiiA, XHaeoveru and Bxptontim of
a* MitaiMiippi Vatleu (New York, 1852; Albaiiy, 1W3): Idku,
Bitt. CatMie Ind. Mtfion* (New York, 1^ and 1870):
BwAMTOM, Ind. Tritm* oj fhs Lower Mi—, ia BuUetio 4S ol Bur.
^m. Jttijoiotri/ {Waahington, 1911). JameS MooNBT.

Tahiti, ViCABtATB Apostolic of.— Tahiti, the
most important tA the Society Islands, has aa area
of 600 square miles and a population ot ll,6ftl
inhabitants, and lies between 17* 29^ 30" and
ir 47' S. lat. and 29' 53" and 151* 66' W. long.
It was discovered by Walhs in 1767. This honour b
also claimed for Feradndez Quires, the pilot of the
Mendana expedition from Peru to the liiili^ines,
i^ut 1600. BougiunviUe, Cook, and other ex- .
plorers made Tahiti famoud in Paris aa "La Nonvedle
Q)rth6re", and in London aroused an enthusiasm for
"tiie lovdy isle", vriat^ led to the formatiim, by Dr.
Haweis and otiiers, of the London Missionaiy Society
in 1794r-95, and the despatdi of the "Duff^ in 1796
with some 60 persons, missionariee and teachers of
trades and crafts, for the convo^ion of the island and
its neighbours. The representatives of the society
made little prog'ess until Pomar£ II, King of
Tahiti, accepted Protestantism in 1815. Under his
successors th^ gained ^«at influence in the island
gjovenunent. In 1836 two priests of the Ooi^regi^
tkm of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Maiy trf
Piopus arrived in Tahiti from the Gambier Islands,
where Catholicism had gained a foothold. They
were twice expelled bj^ Queen Pomar^ IV, with the
supi>ort and approbation of the En^ish Protestant
mfflsionariea, and took their cause to Paris. In
1838 a French naval expedition exacted from Queen
Pomar^ an indemnity and guarantees for the future
for French residenta m the island. In 1841 a raksion
was established by the Congregation of Picpus. In
1842 Pomar^ IV signed a convention with Admiral
Dupetit-Thouars, establisfaii^ a French proteetorate
and guaranteeing full religious lib^y in Tahiti,
which was ratified by Louis-Philippe m 1843. An
uprising of the natives against the protectorate re-
sulted m a punitive expedition by the French ad*
miral, the fli^t of Queen Pomare,and the forcible
expulstoQ from the island of Rev. W. T. Pritchard ot
the London Misuonaiy Society, whom the admind
held renmnsible for the revolt. This act was dis-
avowed by the French Govemm^t and an indemnity
paid to Great Britain based upon the claim that
Pritchard, at the time of hw expnluon, had been ap-
pointed British consul.

In 1848 Tahiti with its dependent islands was de-
tached from the Vicariate of the Marquesas, and
placed under the able and adwlarly Mgr Jaussen.
In 1880 King Pomar^, with the eonaoit (tf the French
Oiambers, proclaimed Tahiti an integndpart of the
French Republic. In 1887 the French Government
HctUarixed the schools. Upon the death of Mtf
JaiuMn ia 1891 Mgr Verdier, his aidstMBt anoe USt*

soooeeded to his laboun, made doubfy difficult
the sectarian missioiis and the attitude of Frencb
officials. Siooe 1903 the various groups of Frendi
islands in Oceania, exclusive of New Caledonia and
its dependencies, have been united in one homo-
geneous colonial establishmmt, administered from
Tahiti by a governor and privy council, with an
adminiBtrative council. The imsent Vicariate of
Tahiti eovera the Sodety group, the Leeward and
Gambier Islands, the Tuamotu group, Tubuai and
Rj^a, all bek>nging to France; the Cook and Fairhyn
Islands, annexed to New Zealand in 1902; Pitcaun
(unattached) and Easter Island, belonging to Chile.
The Mission consists oS: 1 bishop (Mgr Hennel,
whose residence is at Ps^Mete, the chief town of
Tahiti), 1 coadjutco* with right of succession, SO
priests and several brothers <n the Congregation of
Picpus; 6 brothCT of Plo&md; 12 churches with resi-
dent pastors; 50 otlier churches and chapeb; 24 Sisters
ot St. Joseph of Chiny; 1 bo;i^ school; 1 girls' school;
20 parochial schools; 2 hospitals. The total populi^
tion of the vicariate is estimated at 31,000 inhu>itants,
with 7700 Catholics.

Baksaos, La PnuKX atonialt (Pftris, 1895); GAFTAmaL, Lm

ilonitt fntnfauM (PariB, 1893): db LAMEaBAN, L'txptuuion
eoioniaU dc la Franca (Paria, 1886); Lbbot-Bkauueit, CoIohmo-

iMEaBAN, L'eepofuion
. . , . _ _ t-Bkauueu, CoIohmo-

tion ehtM U* pmpUs moaemta (Paris, 190S) ; Pioi», Lat muttmw
eaXholittuaa /nmeai*at au XIX* tticU (Pans, 1902) : BATTAmtin,
Annuatn pontifiadl catholi^tt (Rome, 1911); Vicillmhaso,
MittioHt ealholimtu de la MSan^tit, Microneait et PdvUna
(Paris, 1896); JUMtwrnsi colAoIiiMB (Rome, 1907); Haweis. Travd
and TaUt, 1886-69-96 (London and New York, 1896); Lotett,
HUL of the London Mieeionary Sodety 17BS~189S djoadtm. 1899):
Wilts. Tahiti, a Amiew of the Origin, Charaatar and Pngnu of
Frmdt BomanCatholie BJforta for the Dtetntetian of BnMth Prater
tant ifistiotu in the South Sea (London. 1844); FBrrcHABS,
P0kn»*^an RamiKiMniem (London, 1800); Nobmak, Colonial
Fraaee (Londai. 188iB).

W. F. Sanhs.

Tklgl, Anna Mabxa. OsstraLDA Antonia Qnaiden
name Giannxtti), Venerable Servant of God, b. at
Siena, Italy, 29 Mav^ 1769; d. at Rome, 9 June, 1837.
Her parents, Luigi Gianuetti and Maria Masi, kept an
apothecary shop at Siena, but lost all their fortune
and were obligM to go to Rome in search of a liveli-
hood. Anna Maria was then five ^ears old. Having
been educated in all the domestic virtues, was mar-
ried in oourae ot time, 7 Jan., 1789, to DominicoTaigi,
B retainer of the noUe family of Chigi, with whom she
lived happily for forty-eight years. Hitherto nothing
extraordinary had happened in her life. But one
day while she knelt wiUi her husband at the Confesaio
in St. Peter's she felt a strong inspiration to renounce
such little vanities of the world as she had allowed
herself. She b^an to pay httlcf attention to dress
and to listen to the inner voice of ^race. Soon aftw-
wards she was xecaved poblicty in the Third Order of
Trinitarians in the Cmir^ of 8. Carlo aUe Quatro
Fbntane, andhavingfound holy spiritual directors, she
made rapid progress in the way of perfection. AH
the money she could spare she devoted to the poor
and miserable, and though not rich she was very
charitable. Of the hospitals she regularly visited,
the preferred one was S. Giacomo of the Incurables.
Despite her love for the poor, she never n^eeted her
own family. (K her children two died young, ttie
others grew up in piety under the surveiUanoe at the
mother. But she never availed herself of her con-
nexions with persons of good position to taice her chil-
dren out of their humble social environment. The
whole family were wont to assemble for prayers
in a small private chapel^ and h&K, later on,
Mass was celebrated by a pnest who dwelt with the
family. The great virtues of Anna Maria were rfr>
warded 1^ extrawdinary gifts of God's grace. Dop-
ing many years, when pra^ng in her chi^)d she had
ecstasies and frequent visions, in which she foresaw
the future. She exercised a peculiar influraoe over
individuals and oonvcrted many a sinner to God.
Duriai bir life she sufevd mudi both ootpoalOj

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and fpintually. and w«8 at thnee meanly ealummated.
But after death her name soon became venerated in
Rome. Her body was several timea tranrferred, and
restA flnallv at 8. CriBOgono in Tmtevere. The
process of her beatifioaUon ttia begUtt in 1863, but
has not yet been finished.

&LTUTBO DSLL' AsDOLOBATA, TUa d» In ff*n. MfW di Via
Atma-Matia Taigi (Rome, 1901); CjUJXT> B* U Psovidbncb,
Vie dt la tin. Anna-Maria TaXgi (4th ed., Toumu, 1877).
tr. SiOTH Suoo^tLondoQ, 1S73) ; LuQwr, Abriqt d4 ta vit iTAnna

iMi. lena di Dio,

O. LlVABIOB OUQSB.

Talt Indians (Te-U, "Those up river"), a colleo-
tive term for those members of tiie Cowiehan tribe, of
Salidian linguistio stock, ooeupying the Lower Fraser
River, Yale Distriot, Bntish Columbia (Canada), be-
tween Nieomen and Vale, where th^ border upon the
Thompson River Indians. They have several small
reserves within the juriadietion of Fraser River
SAency, of which the principal are -Chehalis (116),
Cheam (95), Hope (79), and Yale (76). From per-
hape 3000 souls a century ago they have decreased,
through smallpox, disease, and formor dissipation,
siiue the occupation of the country by the whites, to
932 in 1890 and 578 in 1910. The gospel vras pveaohed
to them bjr the Oblates, banning with Fr. Charies
Orandidier in 1869. at which time the whole Cowiehan
tribe was sunk in the lowest stage of degradation from
drunkenness and association with depraved whites,
drunken murders being of almost nightly ocourrenoe.
Within two years they were completely reclaimed, alt
Christians, sober and law-abiding; all due, acooraing
to Protestant testimony, "To the honest and pers^
Turing labours of a pocv Catholic twiest who receives
no salary, and is fed by the Indians" ("The
British Colonist", Victoria, B. C, 26 March,
1861, quoted in Morice, "History of the Catholio
Church in Western Canada", II, 312). Of the
whole number all but seventy-five are now Catholic,
the others being Anglican or Methodist, and are offi-
cially reported as law-aiding, industrioiu, strictly
moral, and generally template. Their prineiwl e»*
uoaticmal centre is St. Mary's Mission, on theTraaer
Rivw. established in 1861 under the management of
the Oblatea assisted by the Sisters <rf St. Ann, be-
sides a smaller and more recent mission school at
Yale. Of the Cowiehan language, which is spoken by a
number of bands about Lower Fraser and on the oppo-
site coast of Vancouver Island, very little has been
recorded beyond some vocabularies by Tolmie and
Dawson. Abritf sketch <rir the ethnology of the tribe
group is given by Boas in "Reports to the Britisb
Association for the Advancement of Science". In
tbdr primitive customs and characteristics they re-
sembled the cognate Songiah, Squamish, ^uswf^>,
and Lillooet.

BoAB, Firtt 0m4ral Report on Indiana of BritiA Columbia in
JUporU to tht Britith Auociation far 0\* Advanctmmt of Scimet
{London, 1889); Idem, Indian Tribet of Ike Lower Prater River
(toe. cU., 18B0}; Annual ReporUof tht Department of Indian Affair*
4^Canada (Ottawa); Morice, Hietorjf of tht Catholic Churth in
WttUrn Canada (2 vols., Toronto, 1910); ToLuia and Dawson,
CwwparaKw VorabuZon'M . . . of Britith CciumJna in Qioloaieal
and ffatMfol flittorv 8vn«u ofCarmda (Moottesl, 18S4).

Jambs MotBnr.

Takkali (more properly Takhbhl, plural Tak-
hkhlnb), the hybrid name by which the Canier In-
diana of the northern interior ctt British Cohimbia wwe
originalfy made known by the fur traden, who some-
times comprised under nhat denomination the Chil-
«otin and the Babine tribes as well. The Carriers
proi^er inh^it more or less permanent villages dia*
seminated from the forics of Lake Tatla in the north
to Alexandria in the south, or from 56*" 15' to 62"
30* N. lat. They are subdivided into a number, of ^
0a>t8, based mostly on differences in qieech, all of '
inieh aaa be cedueed t» two main braaehas; tha

Lower and the Upper Canriers, the line of demarea-
tion running between Stuart and Fraser Lakes.
They numbo* to-day some 1614 individuals, di»>
tributed in twelve vilh^^. We may remark that
under the fostering care of the missionaries, the popu-
lation some of tboee villages has of late years bem
eonstantly <m tiie increase. This ctumot oe said <A
their southern neighboura, the Chilcotins, a rather
restless h<n:de now temporuily settled along the Chil-
cotia valley. As late as 1864 they still numbered
fully 1500 souls; but attacks of small-pox and other
causes have reduced their population to some 450.
When the Babines in the norui were first visited b^
the whites, those amonsst them who claimed as their
home the valley of the kke called after them boasted
alone a popuwUon tS. at least 2000. TogeUier mtli
th«r congenoB on ^e Bulkl«y River th«y do not now
number more than 530 souls.

Socially speakii^, t&e Carriers and the Babines f<^
low matriarchy, succesmon to titles and property be>
ing among them along the female line. They are in a
way ruledover by a number of hereditary petty chiefs,
who alone own the land on which their co-clansmen
hunt for the baief>t of their reqiective headmen. A
number of elans divide the tribes, which in the ^yea of
the natives are the source of a rdationship at iMst as
bindmg as regular oonsuiguinity is with us. Before
the advent of the missionariea the main dut^ of these
diiefs, or noblemen, was the giving of noif^ feasts
called "potlatches" on the North Pacific coast, which
consisted in the public distribution, to the members of
clans different from that of the donors, of eatables,
dressed skins, blankets, and other pieces of wearin|[
apparel. These bounties usually cel^rated the dfr>
mise of some individual. Thc^* had to be sonipu-
lously reciprocated as soon as a similar occasioB pre-
sented itself to the recipients of the same. The Chil-
cotins knew also of those "potlatches", but among
them inheritance followed patrilineal principles, and
tiieir chiefs had more power because less numetoua
and unconnected with the clan system. With them
tiie eon of a chief succeeded his father, instead of a
nephew taking the place of his maternal uncle as
among the Carriers and Babines. Likewise, while
the two last-named tribes cremated their dead, the
Chilcotins buried them, generally on hills or k do lis.
The members or the three tribes believed in the im-
mortality of the soul and followed the relieious sys-
tem outuned in the article I>£n£s, whm toe reason
for the names Cairier uid Babine wUl also be found.

The first contact of the Carriers with the whites
dates from 1793;theChilcotmsfirBtmettfaemin 1808,
andtheBabinesm 1812, whilethefirst notions they ob-
tained of the religion of the newcomers were derived
from theCatholic servants of the traders among them.
In 1842 the Carrie received their first missionary in
the person of Rev. M. Demers (q. v.), and four years
later Father J. Nobili not only retraced his itineraiy
but also evangelized the Etabines. The good seed dis-
tributed by these apostolic men could not, however,
oome to full germination before the spring of 1873,
when a permanent mission was established by Father
J.-M. Le Jacq, O.M.L, on the banks of Lake Stuart,
whence the Carrier and Babine villases were periodi-
cally visited. The less sedentary Chilcotins mid al-
ready received a few visits from this priest since 1867,
the date of the foundation of St. Joseph's Mission,
some distance from their lands. The Carriers, espe*
ciallvj proved easily amenable to Catholic ways of
thinking, and in the course of years all of them were
fully converted to the Catholic religion. Such was
the state of affairs among them when A. G. Morice
left the north after a residence of nineteen years
among the Carriers. Though as religiously inclined,
the Babines took more time to fully attain the moral
standard presented to their ^preciatlon. To-day all
those aborigines are Catholics, and the oonduct of

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DKMt of tilCTL IB an honour to the Faitih they pro-
fess.

MACKBMsn, FoiNVwyrom Umtrmt to Ou Frozen Padfie Otmn
(3 V(^. Londoo. 1801); Hasuon, A Journal of Voyaatt (Aod-
OTM, 1820); Ross. Adtmlvru on llu Columbia Rittr (New Yock,
1832); MacLbmt, NoUa of a TvKnlj/-Pife Ymtm' Serviet in th4
ButUon'i Ttrrilon/ (London, 1849); Mouca, Th4 Wuttnt
DMt (Toronto, 1889); Idem, Carrier Soeioloov and Mylhotofftf
{OttavA, 1892)1 Idem, Notts on the Wettem Dtni* (Toronto,
ISH); Ideu, Three Carrier Mifihe (Toronto, 1896); InEU,
pav* de Vour* noir (Puis. 1897); Idku, HiMorv of M« Noi^em
/nJtrior o/ £ri(uA Columbia (Toronto, 1B04): Idsh, Uiit. of Ute
CathoUc Church m Weelem Canada (Toronto. 1910); l&EH, The
OmU DM Root On ooutM of pgbliofttton at vlsnna, Anatn^t

A. O. MoRicn.

Talbot, Jambb, fourth son of George Talbot and
brother oi the tcmrteenth Earl of Shrewsbury (h.
1726; d. 1790), is chiefly known for having been the
last priest to d« indicted in the public courts for say-
ing Mass. He was educated at Douai, to which col-
le^ he was a great bmefactor. In 1759, at the age of
thirty-three, he was consecrated coadjutor bishop to
Dr. Challoner. During his episcopate he was twice
brought to trial, on the information lodged by the
well-known "Informer" Payne, in 1769 and 1771
respectively. In each case he was acquitted for want
of evidence, but the judge, Lord Mansfield, was plainly
on his side, in consequence of which, though be was
no friend to Catholics as such, his house was sacked
during the Gordon Riots in 1780. On the death of
Bishop Challoner in 1781, Bishop James Talbot be-
came Vicar Apostolic of the London District, which
he ruled for nine years. He lived a retired life at
Hammersmith, his unbounded charity gaining for
him the title of "the Good Bishop Talbot". His
diief work during these years was the completion of
the purchase of the property at Old Hall, Herts, vhen
he had a preparatory academy which afterwards de-
veloped into St. Edmund's Coll^. The paial I#w
against Catholic schools still existed, and Bishop Tal-
bot was again threatened with imprisonment; out he
contrived to evade punishment. During the last
years of his life the Catholic Committee was already
threatening trouble. In order to control it. Bishop
TaU)ot allowed himself to be elected a member; but
it was soon evident that the laymen were beyond
control. The crisis however had not yet arrived when
Bishop Talbot died at his house at Hammersmith.

Ths only ooniwcted account of hia epiaoop&t« is in Wun,
Dawn of Catholie Reeieai (London, 1909). For details of hia
trials, sae Barnard, Life of Challoner (London, 1784); Burton,
The Life and Tiwtee of Biehop Challoner (London, 1910);
fuithsr alluBons in Hosznbetb. Life of Milner (Dublin.
1862); Braot, Catholic Hierarehv (London, 1877]: AifHBRsT,
Rittory of Catholie Emanci-paHon (London, 1886); Ward,
HietoryofSL Bdmund^e Colleoe (London, 1803); Hatw Am
BOMNRT, Life of Lingard (London, 1911). See also MlunCR's
Obituary Sermon (MS. in Westminster Arobives).

BERNABn Wam).

Talbot, John, English Catholic layman, b.
1535(7); d. 1607(?). Only son and heir of Sir John
Talbot, of Grafton, Worcestershire, he was the father,
by Katharine, d. of Sir William Petre, of the Rev.
George T^bot, Catholic priest, and ninth Eari
of Shrewflbury. He became a member of Lincoln's
Inn, 10 February, 1555-d. It was when pasmng
thrmudi Smithfield, London, in July, 1580, with Mr.
and MIS. TaJbot, that Bl. Robert Johnson, the martyr,
was recopiized by Sledd, the informer. Indeed, Fr.
Pereons, 8.J., calls Bl. Robert "Mr. Talbot's priest"
(Cath. Rec. Soc., II, 27), though, as it appears, he
was, rather. Lady Petre's. Talbot was committed
to the custody of the Dean of Westminster, 24 August,
1580, and afterwards removed to the house m his
brother-in-law. Sir John Petre, in Aldersgate Street.
On 1 October, 1581, the plague being then rife in the
City, he was moved to some other house wiUiin ten
or twelve miles of London. In 15S3 the priest, Hugh
Hall, confessed that he had in past years been enter-
tained hy him. Later Talbot was restricted to the
house of one Heniy Whitney, at Mitduun, Su»^,

and two miles round it. In 1588 he was imfnisoned
in WUwch Castle for having heard Mass contrary
to the proviaons of the statute 23 Eliz. c. i. From
9 Dec.. 1588, to about 13 May. 1589, he was liberated
on biul, owii^ to his own ana his wife's bad he^th.
He then seems to have been restricted to his house in
Clericenwell. On 12 March, 1589-90, he was ordered
into confinement at the house of Richard Fiennes
at Broughton in Oxfordshire, whence he was released
on bul tor a fortmghton 24 May, 1S90. He wasagain
allowed out on btul on 20 December, 1^0, and 22
Julv, 1591. In 1592 he was at "Bickslie" (Becdey or
Bickley?) Kent. On 27 August, 1592, the recusants
formerly imprisoned at Ely, Banbury, and Brough-
ton were ordered back to thdr respective prisons;
but an exception was made (17 September, 1692)
in favour of John Talbot. However, next year we
find him in El^ guA. Th«u» he was liberated ml
bail fw a considerable period to aet as umiMre in a
family dispute. Later on he was allowed to take
"the Bathes", presumably at Bath, on account of
his health. Between Michaelmas, 1593, and 10 March
following, he paid £120 in fines for recusancy. After-
wards he was imprisoned in Banbury Castle, whence
he was released on bail for two months, 27F«)., 1596-
7, his leave bcdng subsequently extended on 29 April,
1507, and 6 Nov., 1597. In 1601 he was living in
Woroestoshire and pressure was broudbt to bear on
him to secure his influence to promote Uie candidature
of Sir Thomas Loghtcm as one of the parliamentary
representatives of the shire. In 1604 he was paving
£20 a month in fines for his recusancy, the benefit m
which was on 26 August granted to Sir William
AnstrutJier, who on 13 October in the same year ob-
tained his pardon. On tiie following 8 December
a warrant was nsued im the release to fadm. of £160,
due from him to the Crown in fines for recusaney.
In 1605 he was suspected of complicity with t£o
conspirators of the Gunpowder Plot, one of whom,
Robert Winter, of Haddington, near Droitwich^ had
married his daughter Gertrude. Robert Wmttf,
however, declared that he had said nothing on the
subject to his father-in-law, knowing that he would
not j<Hn the plot under any drcumstances. Indeed
he had actuaUy driven the runtive conB|aratora from
bis doOT. Talbot was, neverthekss, arrested, and on
4 December, 1605^ examined. On 26 Soitember,
1606, the value of his recusancy was granted to Lord
Hay. His second son, John, father of the tenth
Eari of ShrewsbuiT) died in London in 1607, and ha
himself probably died about the same year.

Caiendare of SfaU Paper* DomeMe, 1581 to 1610; DAHUn,
AeU of the Privy Councif (London. 1800-1907); Strtpr. £<A
andAeU of John WhUgifl, I (Oxford, 1822), 529; IobA. AmtaU
of the Reform in Bngland, IV (Oiford, 1824), 276; BUL
kaa. Cmnmfsriwi Cd. 4/ CeoU MSS.. TV. 268: CouTm,
Comptes Pmace (London, 1887-1898); Ree. of Hon. Soc ^
LineebCe im, AANiwiOns, I (Loadon, 189B), S2.

John B. WAramnaoHF.
Talbot, JoHNfViiNXBABia. SeeFALAsoBfTtenufl:,

VBNBHABUt.

Talbot, Pbtbb, Archbishop oi Dublin, 1669-1680;
b. at Malahide, Dublin, in 1620. At an eariv
age he entered the Society of Jesus in Portugal
where he pursued his sacred etudiee with great ais^
tinction. He was <Hdained priest at Rome, and
subsequently for some years held the chair of theol-
ogy at the College of Antwerp. Meantime, through
the Oomwellian usurpation, Charles II and t£e
rtml faidW were conuwlled to seek a lefuge first
in Paris and then at CoIokiw. Throughout the vrbaSia
period d[ tite kim^s exile, t^e four brothers of Dr.
Talbot were attached to the royal Court. The eldest
broUier, Sir Robert Talbot, had held a hi^ comnua-
aon under Lord Ormond in the army in Ireland
during the Federatkm period, and was now reckoned
among tha king's DM»t oonfidential adviiws. A

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youneer brother. Colonel Richard Talbot, was also
Tanancable for his devotedneBs to the cause U the
diled monaieh and stood h^ in royal favour.
Undw James II he becune Duke ot l^rnxmnell and
IxNrd-Iieutaiant of Ireland. Dr. Talbot himsdf
was constantly in attendance on the tdns and his
Court. On account of his knowledge of the con-
tinental laiwia^es he was repeatedly dispatched on
private embassies to Lisbon, Maarid, and Paris,
and in all of them gave abundant proof of ability
and fidelity to the royal cause. It appteara unques-
tionable that during his exile in Colocue, Charles II
reoaved instruction in the Catholic faith, and was
private received into the Church hy Ht. Talbot.
It used to be said of the king by his friends that
whenever he was in a soious mood he was a Catholic,
but when he was in a merry mood he bade adieu to
all religion. Unfortxmately this second mood gen-
erally prevailed, eq>ecially after the Restoration,
and Hm CKplains why he needed to be again received
into the Church on hia death-bed by Father Hudle*
ston&O.S.B. On the return of the king to London,
Dr. Talbot received an appointment as Queen's
Almoner, but the Clarendon and Ormond faction,
that was then predominant, feared his influence
with the king. A plot was devised against him.
He was even accused of conspiring with the aid of
four Jesuits to assassinate t^e Duke of Qnnond, and
BO fierce was the persecution stirred up against him
tliat he was forced to seek safety by rcaupoing his
pantkm at Court and retiring to the Continent.
The king allowed him a pennon of three hundred
pounds a year. Before his return to England Dr.
Talbot had, with the ^proval of the General of the
Jesuits, dissevered his connexion with Uie Sodety.
He was appointed Archbishop of Dublin on 11 Jan-
uary, 16d9, and was consecrated at Antwop on 9
Mi^ the same year, by the Bishop of Antweip, as-
asted by the BisboiM of Ghmt and Fwns. It was
a prc^bous time for appointments to the Irish
Lord Ormond was no lonaer in favour and was soon
after removed from the Viccroyalty, and those who
succeeded him were supposed not to be so hostile
to the religious interests of Ireland; they were even
said to have received instructions from the king
to be lenient in their dealings with his Irish Catholic
subjects, and to show special favour to Dr. Talbot.
The aronbi^op entered with great seal on the ad-
ministration of the diocese and was untiring in his
efforts to promote the interests of his long persecuted
flock. In the month of August, 1670, he held his
first diocesan synod in Dublin. It was a memorable
event that gave joy to the CattioKo body. It was
opened with High Mass, which for forty years many <^
the faithful bad not witnessed. To add to the aolem-
nity, nxii embrmdeiy and otiier OTnaments mxe sent
ttma the vicer^al castie to adorn the altar. One
of the abuses that called for remedy tells of the dif-
ficulties that pressed upon the priests of those days
in their endeavour to meet the wants of the faithful.
On mek days they had been accustomed to duplicate,
whilst on Simdays they had to celebrate holy Mass
three times. In the same year an assembly of the
archbishops and bi^ops and representativee of the
clergy was held in Dubhn, havii^ for its nuun purpose
the consideration of a form or Dedaraticm ot Alle-

f lance which was drawn up by Father Peter Walsh and
is associate Remonstrants, and which was urged on
the bishops for general acceptance by the Ormondist
party, the better to sow dissensions among the Iri^
Catholics. The assembled bishops and clergy re-
jected the proposed form of allegiance, but, to prove
that this was not done through any lack of loyalty,
they drew up another Declaration exraesolve of tbor
due all^^ce, but onutting some pnraaeB offensive
to Cotiiolics that had been cunninmr inserted in the
nieeted Declaration. A fiene discuiBkn was in
XIV.— 28

33 TALBOT

coneequenoe raised by Ihe Remonstrants backed by
the Ormondists, that distracted the country for
several years. At this assembly the question of
iwecedeoee and ot the primatial authority gave rise
to oonoderable disousmon and led to an emtuttered
oontroversy between the Archbishc^ of Dublin and
Ven. Ohver Flunkett, Archbishop of Arma^. Both
prelates considered that they were asserting the rights
of their respective sees, and each published a learned
treatise on the subject. Whilst this controvusy
lasted Dr. Talbot wrote some severe censures r^arding
the Archbishop of Armagh, but when in prison for
the Faith <n later years, he addressed to the Arch-
bishop of Annadi, tiien a brothur inisoner, an ample
apology asking nis forpvoiees for the hush things
that rutd been formeriy written, and the Ven. Oliver
Plunkett, as we will just now see, showed in a most

Eractical manner how sincerely and affectionately
e was reconciled to his former opponent. Another
meeting of the Catholic gentry, convened by Dr.
Talbot, at which it was resdved to send to the Court
at London a r^iresentaUve who would seek redress
for some of the grievances to which the Catholics
U Ireland were subjected, gave great alarm to tiie
Cromwellian settlers and to the Otmondists. It was
an attempt, th^ said, to reverse the Act of Set-
tlement and to foster a fresh rebellion. An address
from Parliament was presented to the king praying
that by royal edict all the Cathohe prelates and deiK^,
and in particular "Peter Talbot, pretended Arch-
bishop of Dublin", be banished from the tdngdom,
and further " that all convents, seminaries, and popish
public echoola be suppressed; that no Irish pwist
be admitted to inhabit in anv corporation of uiat
kingdom; tJiat all the Irish Prists might be dis-
armed, and no Papist be dther continued or admitted
to be a commander or soldier in that Kingdom".
The king knew full well how groundless and absurd
were the pretences for such a royal edict, but he was
too weak to offer any reostanoe, and thuB, in 1673,
a fierce storm of posecution was let loose agiunst the
whole Catholic body in Ireland^ and Dr. Talbot was
compelled to seek safety in exile. During his ban-
ishment he readed generally in Paris; but by pas-
toral letters and writt^ instructions he continued to
do all that was in his power to guide and comfort his
lock. }a 1675 Dr. Talbot, worn out with infirmities
obtained permiaaon to return to England only, and
for two years he redded with a family fii&ad at
Poole Hall in Cheshire. Towards the close of 1677,
he petitiimed tiie Crown for leave come to Ir^
land to die in his own country", and through the in-
fluence of the Duke of fork lus petition was granted.
Just then the "Popish Plot" was being oi^anised
by Lord Shaftesbury and Titus Oates, and very soon
information was forwarded to the Lord-lieutenant,
the Duke of Ormondj to the effect that a rebellion
was being planned m Ireland, that Peter Talbot,
Archbishop of Dublin, was one of the accomplices,
and that assassins were hired to murder the duke
himself. Ormond rephed that he had no appre-
hension whatever on these heads, and that as regards
Peter Talbot there could be no foundation for them,
as he was in a dying state. Neverth^ess as it was
necessary to give some colour to the existence oi such
a pk)t, on 8 October, 1678, he signed a warrant for
the archtushop's arrest, and he writes on the same
■day to the Council in London: "I have sent a smiad<
ron of his Majesty's guard of horse to appreihend
Peter Talbot, the Titular Archbishop of Dublin".
He was arrested at Cartown near Maynooth at the
house of his brother, Colonel Richard Talbot, and, as
Carte attests, was removed to Dublin "in a chair,
and oommitted close prisoner to the Castle with a
person to attmd 1dm in his misaable and helpless
oonditum, the violoioe of his distonper bang scarce
nqiportable and threatening his daath at ewy
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moment." For two years Dr. Talbot oidured iHth
heroio constancy all the sufferinga of tus piunful
disease and the hardshipB and filth of his loathsome
dungeon. He died in prison in the b^inning of
November, 1680. Ormond, in a postscript to a letter
of 20 Nov.. 1680. addressed to Lord Sutherland,
writes: "I have for two or three posts forgot to ac-
quaint your Ltvdship that Beter Talbot, the Titular
Ardibiuuni of Dublin, is dead, and titaX care mm
taken to have the body looked upon by some that
knew him." It is the tradition that he was iit-
terred in the churchyard of St. AndecAi's, cloee hy
Lord Portlester's tomb. From his prison celt Dr.
Talbot had written on 12 April, 1679, petitioning
that a priest be allowed to visit him, as he was bed-
ridden "these six months past" and was now in
imminent danger of deat^. Hie petition was re-
fused, but the Venerable Oliver FhiDKett, Arehbishim
of Armagh, was a prisoner for the SiSik m an act-
joining cell, and on hearing of Dr. Talbot's dying
condition forced his way through the warders and
administered to the dying prelate the last consola-
tions of religion. Dr. Talbot may justly be ctyled
a confessor of the Faith and a true martyr of CHrist.

Wkitinos. — Dr. Talbot, whilst living on the Con-
tinent, published several works^ as well before his ap-
ponntment to the See of Dublin, aa during his years of
exile. His principal writings are: "A Treatise on the
Nature of Catholic Faith and Heresy with Reflexions
upon the Nullity of the English Protestant Church
and Clergy" (8 vols., Rouen, 1657); "The Politician's
Catechism", by N. N., printed at Antworp (sic) in
the year 1658; "The Nullity of the Prelatique
Clergy" (Brussels, 1669); "The Duty and Com-
fort of Simering Subjects" (a pastoral letter to the
Irish Catholics). Paris, 1674; ''^Blackloanie Hsresis,
Histwia et Gonmtatio, Auctore M. Lomino Tbeologo,
Gandavi anno 1675'' (mainly directed against Dr.
Sargent; in the appendix is uiserted a letter of the
nuncio m Paris of 26 July, 1676, congratulating Dr.
Talbot on his excellent work and intimating that
Sargent had retracted his erroneous propositions);
" Pnmatus Dublinensis. vel summa rationum quibus
innititur ecclesia Dublinensis in possessione et
lirosecutione sui juris ad tn^i&tum ^bemis. In-
sidis, Ex Offioina Nicolu de Rache, sub Bibliis aurds,
1674" (an ^ceedingly rare work ; there is a copy in
the library of the Coll^ of Propaganda at Rcwne,
with the inscription, "Ex Ubris Jacobi Eustachii,
Dublinensis, 1683").

Patrick Francis Cardinal Mohan.

Talbot. Thomas Joseph, b. 14 February, 1727; d.
at Hotwells, near Bristol, 24 April, 1795. Brother of
the fourteenth Earl of Shrenwniry, and ot Bishop
James Talbot (q. v.), he was sent to Twyford School,
and thence to Douai (1739). In 1746-46, together
with his brother James, he made the grand tour under
the tutelage of Alban Butler. He returned to Douai
to study theology; and after ordination he spent some
time with Alban Butler at Norwich. In 1754 he was

S laced at Brockhunpton. On the expulsion of the
eeuits from France, Talbot was named President of
the College of St. Omer's by the oommittee ctf the
Parliament of Paris (August, 1762), a post which he
accepted only ^ter much hesitation and wiUi great
reluctance. He was consecrated to the titular See
of Aeon (March, 1766) as coadjutor to Bishop Hom-
yold, whom he succeeded in the government of the
Midland District (26 December, 1778). His rule
fell in a time of transition, when the desire and pros*
pect of relief from the Penal Laws led many promment
Catholics to adopt a policy of excessive compromise,
the period of the Catholic Committees and the
Cisalpine Club, for the difficulties of which his peace-
fill character was but ill-adapted. Although he
joinwl the tiiree othw vioan .^lostoUa in emidanains

tiie proposed oath in 1789, he hesitated to promulgate

the condemnation in his district, and in the second
condemnation which the other vioan Apostolic pub-
lished in 1791 he thought it neither ^edient nor
justifiable to oonour. Tne «^lanation of this action
is to be found in his conviction that peace and con-
cord «)uld only be restored to the distracted Catholics
by means of mutual concession and charity, a sen-
timent which almost all his letters manifest. Cer-
tainly the most memorable, as also the most |>ei^
manent, act of his administration was his invitation
to Dr. John Bew (November, 1793) to take charge oS
the mission of Oscott and to undertake there the
training of students for the priesthood, whereby
was made the beginning of Oscott College. Deeply
characteristic of the man is his only recorded literarv

Eublication, a small treatise on "Almsgivinz" which
e translated from the Frent^. He was buried in
the vault under IVenchard Street church: in 1906
his remains were removed to Downside Abbey.

Bradt, Kpiteopol SwxMtion (London, 1877); KiBK, Bioff-
rapAiet of BnglUh Catholiet (LoiMloa, 1909) ; Ward, Dawn «/
Calholic KcnnoJ tn Bni/tand (2 vols.. London, 1000); Idkh, Hi*-
torjf of St. EdmiMd$' Collage (London, 1893); Bdbton, Ia/* 4tf
BUhop ChaUoTter (2 vols., London, 1909); AiiHEitn-, Hittorg V
CalMie Bmaneivmm (LoDdon, 1886) ; Idkx . Bittam <^ Otcett in
Oacatian: Khox. Domv XHarUt.

J. L. WHrmsLi}.

Talisman. See Axmjst.

Talleyrand- Pftrlgord, Chakles-Mauricb db^
Prince of Benevento, Bishop of Autun. French minister
and ambassador, b. in Paris, 13 February, 1754; d.
there, May, 1838. The eldest of an ancient French
family, he was destined for Holy orders, owing to an
accioent which had made him lame. After naving
completed his studies at the Colldi^ d'Harcourt, he
went to St^ulpice and, against his inclination, be-
came an abb£. He then read the "most revolution-
ary books", and at length, giving up his priestly life,
plunged into the licentiousness of the period. Having,
nevertheless, been ordained priest (1779) and ap-
pointed general agent of the clergy (1780) he rapidly
acquired a reputation as a man of ability. The As-
sembly of the Clergy of France of 1782 appointed him
Aeir promote', and in 1785 he became secretary.
Owing to his notorious immorality he obtained an
episcopal see only throu^ a promise wrung from the
dyk« kii^ by his father, Comte Daniel de Talley-
rand. Consecrated on 16 Januaiy, 1789, and pro-
moted to the Bishopric of Autun, he appeared in his
diocese only to be elected a member of the "Etats
G^n€raux". He soon became one of the most im-
portant personages in Euro^, and utilised every op-
portunity to advance his private interests.

Opposed in his heart to a revolution which he ao>
eused <MF having "dismembered France", he first
advised Louis XVI to dissolve the Assembly, but be-
lieving the democratic movement irresistible he joined
it. As a member of the Constitutional Committee,
he took part in the "Declaration of the Rights <A
Man". He extolled the spoliation of the clei^ and
took the oath to the Civil Constitution. His chap-
ter, however, having described him as deeorvinR
"infamy in this world and damnation in tiie next j
he resigned hia see. But he had consecrated
several constitutional bishops, given Gobel the
Bishopric of Paris, and was excommunicated by pon-
tifical Brief of 13 April, 1791. In 1792 he was sent to
London on an unofficial diplomatic mission and en-
deavoured to o^anise a Franco-English afiiance. He
did not, however, obtain more than a promise of
neutrality. Finally banished by the Convention^ he
escaped to the United States. He returned to Para in
March, 1796, and, owing to the influence of Barras,was
appointed Ministerof Foreign Affairs. He immediately
welcomed Bonaparte as the great auxiliary "who
would mA» everythii^ smeoth". With

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and Siorte he ptmtaed the coup d'ibU of Bnimaire,
alter wbidi he asButed the First Gonaul in the draft-
ing of the Concordat. The pope meanwhile had re-
leased him from the ban « excommunication and
restored him to secidar life and the lay communion.
Nwoleon then compelled him (1803) to marry by
civu lav his mistreee, Madame Grand, an EngUaa
divorcie, who had not lived with her former huslxand.
Afl the principal a^t in the treaties concluded by
Napoleon, he obtained for his eervicee a fortune <x
snne dxtf million francs. He was made grand
diamberlam, viee-deetor of tin Empire, and Sover*
eign Prinoe of Benevento. However, he advised
a^unst the Franco-Ruflsian Alliance and resigned the
ministry in August, 1807. His oppontion to the
Spanish War in 1809 was the cause of his cMnplete
disgrace, and he awaited at Valengay at his hotel
in the Rue St. Florentin the fall of N^raleon.

In 1814 the Emperor <A Russia, Wa guest, "com-
mitted himself enturely into his hands". Oirae man
leader ci the proviedonal Qovonmcnt, he made the
Senate establuh a oonstituticm to ^ve poww-to
Louis XVIII. On his appointment as Minister of
Foreign Affairs he preserved to France its frontiers of
1792, and at the Congress ot Vienna be broke the
union of the great powers by secretly concluding a
treaty with Austria and England. Again appointed
minister of Louis XVIII {1S15) he preserved his
country from diomnnbennent, but left the presidenc7
of the Council after the election of 22 August, 1815.
As grand ehambo-lain and peer of France, he hence-
forward contented himself with watching and aea-
tentiously criticizing events. In 1830 Louis Philippe,
whose accession be had favoured, appointed him to
the embassy of London, where the representatives of
all the countries "bent before him". After having
established the entente corduUe with England, he re-
signed office m Nov^ber, 1834. In his ma^ifioent
"solitude" of ValenQay he wrote bis "MtouMres", in
which he asserts he "never had betrayed a govon-
ment which had not betrayed itself first", nor ever
put his "own interests in the balance with those of
France". Four hours before his death he signed, in
the presence of Abb^ Dupanloup, a solemn declara-
ticn in which he openly disavowed "the great errors
which . . . had troubled and afflicted the Catholic,
Aposb^ and Roman Church, and in which he him-
self had had the miafcMrtune to fall".

Pallun, CoTTetjtondanct diploimitique d» TUIevron^, La Mia-
«MHid> Twmnaid i Londrtt m 179t. LetUtfnaa'Amtri^ilord
Latudaimt fPaiis. 1S87) ; Iitnt, Commotubmes diptomatioM tU
TalUyrand. Lc minuarm dt TaU^tfrand ktim la Direetaira (PMia,
18ei-1882)j in BKoaua, Mtnunm dv print* de TaJUyrmd
^Bito, ISn): Plammbbmont, De VaulhtnticUi de9 Uhncira d4
nSwiinmd (Paris, 1893); Sonet, TaUayrand d m IShnoirea
(Puu, ISM); BniTBAND, M. de Baeourt et le* M*tnoirf da
TaUi^nnd (Fui% 1803) ; Bulwib, Hitorieal Chandert, TaUetf
nnd (London, 1867), tr. Pebbot jParis, 1868); Saintb-Beuvk,
Mmauur da TaUmnnd (Paris, 1870) ; Pichot, SmtvtnxTa inft'mM
Mr fbUavraml (Pvis, 1870); MABCADi, T^tUayrand prttrt at
awigu* (PMit, 1888) ; PofQAUD, Le Congri* da Vianne H ia poiiti^
da TaUti/rand in Ratua HxMtorigua, LXX: BLBNNBRHAunr,
TaUevnnd (Berlin, 18M): de Nojmon. TaUei/nnd prince d«
BMaat in Amm HiUoriqae. LXXIII (NosoDt-le-Rotniu, 1900) ;
DS IiACOHBB, TaBaynnd, d'Autun (Pnris, 1903); Bosbn-
raxL, Ftrit TUIwrand u. die auauiartiga PalUik NdpoUoiu I
rLa|mc> 1905); MacCabb, Tallavnttd, a bionrafAiixU atudy
(London, 1906) ; Lmor, TalUyraTtd Aeonomfcte at ftnancitr (Patit,
1907): DB BABAim, La eon$anu>n H la mart da M. da TaOatmnd,
rSeU da Tim dn dnq Uwmna, la Baron da BofanU, pMil par aon
p^^Ua If Bam da Ifarvo a*«iB, 1910); ra LACxmas, La wit
p^da3Wlwninl(Farii,1910).

GnsTAVB Gauthebot.

Tallis, Tboicab, English composer, b. about 1514;
d. 23 Nov., 1685. He was a chorister at Saint Paul's
Cathedral, London, becoming organist of Waltham
Abbey in 1536. In 1540 his^)8t was forfeited on the
dissolution of the Bhhey, and in 1542 he appears as a
gimtlemBn of the Chapel Royal, continuing as such
uuter Henry VIII, Edward VI, Queens Maty and
Elii^>eth. Owiiw to his extraordinary eminence as a
mwitt'thPi he lefaunsd his Ch^id Rt^al ^ppomtment

unmolested, althoufdi he steadfastly clung to tiie old
F^th amid all the duoges from 1546 to 1584. like
^rd he was an avowed Catholic, and even EUxabeth
herself connived at the retention of Tallis in his oourt
i^i^intments. In conjunction with Byrd he ob-
tamed the valuable monopoly of printing music and
ruled music paper from 1575 till his death, and he was
also given lands valued at 30 pounds sterling per year
by Elisabeth, as well as various tithes. He was
buried in Greenwich parish church. The metrical
epitaph which was plaeed over his tamh was sd)se-
quoitly set to musie by De Codce. His fecundity as
a composer was enormous, and he wrote sevCTal tours
deforce including a forty-fuurt motet "Spem aham non
huiui". Many of his masses are of great merit, espe-
cially tus "Salve intemerata" and his mass for four
voices. Owing to his religious views most of his com-
positions were not printed during his lifetime, but in
recent yean his MS. work has received much atten-
tim from skilled editors. His Dorian service and
five-part Litany are gems of musical aii, bat are not
to be compared to his exquisite Latin motets, and
above all his glorious "Lamentations". Some
charming motets are included in his printed "Can-
tiones" (1576), while many of his Latm settings are
tinkered to suit Anglican tastes, e. g. his "O Sacrum
Convivium" adapted to "I call and cry "by Barnard.
He essayed all the existing art-forms, including
"Fancies fw the Oigsn" sad some vii^nal pieces.
Unfortunately, he has been too frequent^ judged by
his English services, but these were merely written
ex officio and do not reveal the genuine TalHs, whose
best contraptmtal work may be placed almost on a
par with t^at of Palestrina.

Emnn, QutUtn Lexikon OjApn^ 1900-04); G>on, Did. et
Mutic and Uuaieiana. V (LMidon, 190A-W: TSBBT. OMaUt
Church Miuie (London, 1907); Wauxb, A Statary «f Uiuie in
StH/tand (Oxfoid, 1007).

W. H. Gbattan-Flood.

Talmud.— L DuFiNmoN.— ilT3^n,apos(>-BibIical
substantive formation of Pfelm?, "to teach" ori^
nallysignified"doctrine","study". In a special sense,
however, it meant the justification and explanation
of religious and legal norms or Halakhoih ("conduct",
signifying "the law in accordance with which the con-
duct of life is to be regulated"). When in the third
century the Halakhoth collection of Jehuda I or the
reomxled Mishna became the chief object <rf study, the
expression "Talmud" was applied chiefly to the dis-
cussions and explanations of the Mishna. Finally, it
became the general designation for the Mishna itself
and the collection of discussions concerned with it.
For the latter, the designation Gemara, interpreted as
"completion from ^TiJ, "to complete", Aramaic
H'yai, abbreviated subsequently became the ao-
cepted term. The word first found entrance into the
Talmud editions throu^ Christian censondiip; manu-
scripts and the old printed editions use the expression
Talmud. We theriefore understand by Talmud a
compilation consisting ai the Miskna, i. e. the codifi-
cation of Jewish religious and legal norms, and of the
Gemara, or the collection of discussions and explana-
tions oonoeming the Mishna.

II. Origin or thi Tauhtd. — Since Esdras the
foundation of the Jewish religious omnmimity was
the law. Everything was regulated in accordance
with fixed norms; notning could be added or changed
in the law laid down in the Pentateuch. Yet the
ever-varying conditions of life called for new ordi-
nances, and these were decreed in accordance with
the needs of the time and the special cases to be deter-
mined. There were thus formed a traditional law
and custom orally transmitted. Every decree of
this kind (halakm), if it had existed from time
immemorial and nothing further could be said in
regard to its origin, was called "a^DB TChTij a

law given to Moses on Mount EHnai. £«en fw otuo-

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TALMUD

436

TALMUD

den Jodaiaiii of to-day it is an artiole of faith that
Moees, at the aame time that he received the written
law, recorded in the Poitateucfa also received detailed
ejqiianations of the different lawa, which were handed
down by tradition as oral law. In addition to this
the scribes at an early pmod attempted^ by interpre-
tation the Torah, to make the law applicable to
the changed conditions of life, to base the new pre-
oepta at least retrospectivedy on the Torah, ana Co
draw out of it further religious laws. For this kind
<tf ScripturaJ learning hermeneutic rules (Middoth)
were at a later period established, at fitist seven,
which were then divided into fourteen, and finally
increased to thirtv-two. All the older additions to
the Torah as well as the constantly increasing new
material were for a long time transmitted orally,
and. according to the prevailing view, it was for-
bidoen to record it in wnting. But it is at all events
wrong to assume that there was a formal probibititm
to record Halakhoth in writing. The prohibition
probably referred to written records intended for
public use; for a fixed record of the traditional law
would have acted as a hindrance to its further devel-
opment in accordanoe with the existing needs (A the
dav. It is by no means impr6bri>ie tiiat the final
reauotion of the Misbna was preceded by previous
written records, especially after Rabbi Anba, at the
beginning of the second century, had divested the
study of the law of its previous Midrash character
and had undertaken to arrange the materials sys-
tematically. Among his pupils it was probably
Rabbi Me ir who continued these systematic labours.
But of sudi collections only one finally attained
canonical recognition, and therefore ms called
Mishna par ext^ence, vis. the one edited about the
end of the second century bf our era by Rabbi
Jehuda I, called Ha-iuwhi (the prince) or aa-i/adotk
(the saint) or simply the Rabbi. This then is our
Mishna, tne basis of the Talmud.

Rabbi Jehuda had adopted onhr a part of the
doctrines, which in course of time had been handed
down in the different sdiools. Although he selected '
what was most important, he sometimes omitted
much that seemed important to othen; and, on the
other hand, it was felt that even the unimpOTtant
Aould not be allowed to sink into oblivion. In
consequence, other collections soon originated, which,
though not canonical, were nevertheless highly val-
ued. All the Halakhoth which were not included in
the Mishna of Jehuda received the name Baraithoth
(sing. Baraitha, "omitted doctrine"). The most
important Baraitha collection is the Tosepfata.

The precise brevity of expression and the preg-
nant form in irtiidi the Mishna had codified the Hala-
khoth made an interpretation of them necessary,
Triiile the casuistic features of the woric were a stimu-
lus to further casuistic development. In the pro-
found study and explanation of its ooatents much
weight was placed upon the Haggada, i. e. the doc-
trines not included in the law (folk-lore, legends,
histtme recoUeeticHis, ethics and didactics, eto.),
of which Jehuda, who aimed to draw up a code of
laws, had taken little or no account. Shroything,
in fact, that tradition offered was brought within the
range of discussion. In order to give a suitable
desienation to the new tendency in the teaching
the law, scholars, up to the time of the final transcrip-
tion of the Mishna, were known as Tanna'im (sing.
Tanna, "teacher"), those who came after them,
Amora im (sing. Amora, "speaker"). The collection
eX the Amoraim, as finally recorded, was called, as
stated above, Talmud, lat^ Gemara: that of the
Palestinian schools, the Palestinian Gemara, that of
the Babylonian schools, the Babylonian Gemara.
The combined edition of the Midina and Gemara,
Of the Talmud in our sense <rf the word, disorinunates,
mnion, betwem Mishna and Palestinian Gemara,

or "PakBtinian Talmud", and Misbna and^Ba^-
kmian Gemara or "Babylonian . Talmud". The
latter is meant when the Talmud without further
q>ecification is referred to.

III. The Mibhna (n^Ci:, "repetition", translated
by the Fathers of the Church Swripuvu). The word
is a substantive formation from the root n^c, "to
repeat". From this meaning was developed, in
the language of the later schools, the chuaetraisUe
method of teaching and learning, particularly of
doctrines orally transmitted, which was accomplished
by repeated enunciation on the part of the teacher and
frequent r^tition on the part of the pupiL Both
expressions (n^lS and n^vn) thus became a term for
the science of tradition, the former signifying the
q>ecial study of orally transmitted law, the latter the
law itself incontiastto tf\pQ (from K^;?," to read"),
the writtoi law. But tibe expression is also used
tar each d tiie doctrines oruly transmitted, and
differs from Halakha in that the latter signifies
the traditional law so far as it is binding, while the
former designates it as an object of study. Further-
more, the word Mishna is implied to the systematic
collection of such doctrines, and finally to that
collection which alone has attained canonical recog-
nition, i. e. the collection of Jehuda I. TbiB coUeo-
ijoa rei»esenta Jewi^ law codified in that develop'
meat irtiitdi it received in the schools of Palestine
up to the end of the second ooitury after Christ.
Through it the orally transmitted law was finally
established along with the written, law or the Torah.
The foundation of this collection is formed bv tlie
collections which already existed before Jehuda-
particularly that of Rabbi Me'ir. The Mishna does
not pretend to be a collection of sources of the Hala-
kha, but merely to teach it. Whether ite fixati<m
in writing was the work of Jehuda himself or took
place after him is a debated point; but the former
18 the more probable theory. The only question
then is how much of it he wrote: in the extended
form which it now presents it could not have been
written by him alone. It has evidently received
additions in course of time, and in oUier reqwots
also the toxt has been Stored.

As regaxds the subject matter the Mishna is divided
into six institutes or ^sdortm; for this reason Jews
are accustomed to call the Talmud Skaa. Each
Seder has a number (7-12) of treatises; tlieee are
divided into chapters or Peraqim, and each oh^ter
into precepts. The six institutes and their treatises
are as follows:

A. Seder Zera'im (harvest), containing in eleven
treatises the laws on the cultivation of the soil and its
products.

(1) Berakhoth (benedictions) blessings and pray-
ers, particularly those in daily use. (2) Pe'a (cor-
ner), concerning the parts of the fields and their
products which are to be left to the poor (cf. Lev,,
xix, 9 sq.; xxiii, 22; Deut., xxiv, 19 sq.) and in general
concerning the poor laws. (3) Demai, more properly
Dammai ^doubtful), concerning the fruits oi the
soil of which it is doubtful whether the tithes have
been paid. (4) Kil'ayim (heterogenea), concern-
ing the unlawful combinations of plants, animals,
and garments (cf. Lev., xix, 19; Deut., xxii, 9 sq.),
(5) Shetnith (seventh), i. e. Sabbatical year
(Deut., XV, 1 sq.). (6) TenanoOi (heave offerings)
for the priests (Num., xviii, 8 sq.; Deut., xviii, 4).
(7) Ma aarolk (tithes) for the Levitee (Num.,
xviii, 21 sq.). (S) Ma'euer ahent (second tithe),
(Deut., xiv, 22 sq.; xxvi, 12 sq.) which had to be spent
at Jenisalem. (9) HaUa (yeast) (cf. Num., xv,
18 sg.). (10) 'Orla (foreskin) concerning uncir^
cumcised fruits and trees (Lev., xix, 23). (11)
Bikkurim (first fruits) brought to the temple (Deut.,
xxvi, 1 sq; Ex., xxiii, 19).

B. Stitr Mead (seaam of faaitiO, tnati in twslv*

Digitized by

tnatises at the precepts gorenung rest on the Si^
bath, the other feast and holy days, as well aa fast
days. (1) Shabbaih. (2) 'EnUn (oombtnationB), the
means by which one could circumvent enoecialfy
onerous provisions of the Sabbath laws. (3) Peta^m
(Passover). (4) Sheadim (shekels), treats of the tax
of half a shekel for the maintenance of Divine service
in the temple (cf . Neh.. x^ 33), based upon Ex., xxl
12 sq. (6) Yoma (day), i. e. day of expiation. (6)
Svkka (Tabernacle), treats of the feast of Taber-
nades. (7) Beea (egg), taken from the first word
with which the treatise begins or Yom tob (feast), is
oonoerned with the kinds « work permitted or pro-
hibited on festivals. (8) Roak hathana (begimiing
of the year), treats of the civil new ye«r on toe first
of Tishii (Lev., xxiii, 24 sq.; Num., xxix, 1 sq.). (9)
Ta'anilh (fast). (10) Megilla (roll) of Esther, t«-
meeting the laws to be observed on the feast of
Purim. (11) Mo'ed gatan (minor feast), the laws re>
latins to the feasts intervening between the first and
last days of the Passovw aadSukkoth. (12) Uagiga
(feastH)ff»ing), treats (chaps, i and iii) of Uie duty<^
pilgrimage to Jerusalem and the inivato oScringB m
sudi occaaioDs (of. Deut., xvi, 16 sq.i).

C. iSsrfer Naahitn (womeoi), elucidates in seven
treatises Uie laws of marriage and all pertuning
thereto, vows, and the marriage laws of the Nasarites.

(1) Jebamoth, levirate marriages (Dent., xxv, 5 sq.).

(2) Ketkubwi ("marriage deeds" and marriage set-
tlements). (3) Nedaxim ("vows") and their annul-
ment. (4) Naax (Nasarite; cf. Num., vi). (5) Sofa

guqMoted woman": cf. Num., v, 11 sq.). (6)
terBofdiv(aoe;cf.Deut.,xxiv,lsq.). (7)0^iufttn
Lrothals).

D. j$«d0r NeHain C'damoffia''), ezpluns in eight
treatises civil ana criminal law. ui this institute are
included the Eduyyoth, a oolleofcion of traditions, and
the Haggadic treatise, Aboth.

The treatises 1-3, Baba Kamma (the first gate),
Baba mepi'a (the middle gate), and Baba btUJira (the
last ^te), originalhr fonmed a sin|^ treatise, the
subdivision of wbieh was oaused by its great len^
(30 chaps.). TImt treat erf the laws of property, m-
heritanoe, and obligation. Baba Kamma treats
of damages in a narrow sense (aloni^ yrHh theft,
roUjery, and bodil)^ injury) and the n^t to dam-
ages; Baba me^Ca is concerned chiefly with l^gal
questions in regard to capital and treats finding, de-
posits, interest and loans; Baba Baihra is con«nied
with questions of social polity (posaeanons, limitai-
tions, Duying and selling, security, inb^tanee and
documents). (4) Sankedrin, i. e. wwHptor, treats of
the law courts, le^ processes, and criminal justice.
(5) Makkolh (stnpes), treats of punisbment by
stripes legally acknowledged (cf. Deut., xxv, 1 sq.).

Sh^'oth (oaths). (7) 'Eduyyoth (test), con-
taining a collection of le^ decisions gathered ^m
the testimonies of distmguished authorities. (8)
'Aboda Zara (idolatry). (9) 'Abetit (fathers) or
Pirqe Aboth (secticms at fattiers) contains eUiieal
maxims (A the Tamta'im (200 b. c.-a. d. 200). (10)
Horayolh (decisions), conoeniing leigak deeUions and
rriigious questions which were erroneously rendered.

E. Seder Qodashim (sacred things), treats in twelve
treatises of the sacrifices, temple service, and dedi-
cated objects (1) ZtbcJiim (animal sacnfices). (3)
Menahah (meat ofFcdngs). (3) Hv&in (things
profane) of the sacrifice en pun aad inmun imi*wftlH
and of laws concemii^ food. (4) BaeKan^ (first
bom) of men and animals ^cf. Ex., xiii, 2j 12 sq.;
Lev., xivii, 26 sq.; Num., viu, 16 sq,; xviu, 16 sq.;
Deut., XV, 19 sq. (5) 'Arakhin (valuations), that is
equivalents to be given for the redemption of persons
and things dedicated to Qod (Lev., xvii, 2 sq., xxv,
15 sq.). (6) Temura (exchange) of a sacred object
(Lev,, xxvii, 10-33). (7) KeriUath (excisions), crai-
eeniiiig the sins punished hy this penalty, and

437 TAUIDD

what was to be done whsn anycme intenticMiany ooflft-
mitted such a sin. (8) Me'ild (violation) of a
sacred object (of. Num., v, 6 sq.; Lev., v, 15 sq.).
(9) Tamid (continual sscrifioe), conoeming tihe
daity morning and evening sacrifice and the temple
in general. (10) Middoth (measurements), a de-
scriptkm of the temple and trf the temple servioe.
(11) Qutnmm ("nests" of bnds), of the sacrifices of
doves by the poor (Lev., i, 14 sq. ; xii, 8).

F. Seder Teharoth (purifications), treats in twelve
treatises of the cvdinanoes of cleaimess and of puri-
ficati(»s. (1) Kdim fvessela), treats of the condi-
tions under which domestic utensils, mrments,
etc., beooue unclean. (2) Ohaioih (tents) of the
d^ilemoit ot dwellings by a corpse (Num., xix,
14 sq.). (3) Nega'im (leprosy). (4) Para (red
heifer; of. Num., xix). (5) Teharoth (purifications)
(euphemistically), treats of the lesser degrees <A
defilement lasting only till sunset. (6) Miqwdoth
(weUs), the eonditions under which wells ana reser-
voirs are fit to be used for ritual purificatitm. (7)
Nidda (moistruation). (8) Makhshirin (prn>arer8),
tiie ooMtitiiHis under which certain artidu, 1^
coning in omitaot with liquids, bectHne rituaUy
unclean (Lev., xi, S4, 37, 38). (9) Zabim (persons
afflicted with running issues; cf. Lev., xv). (10)
Tebtd yom (immerseof at day), i. e. the condition
of the persojrwho had taken the ritual bath, but who
has not been perfectly purified by sunset. (U) K«-
ddytiR (hands), treats of the ritual uncleannees (rf
the hands and their purification. (12) 'Ugdn (stalks)
of fruits and shells and thdr ritual undeanness.

In our editkms the number treatises is lAxtj-
three; originally there were only sixty, because the
four paragraphs of the treatise Baba kamma, Baba
bathra, Baba mecfa, likewise Sanhedrin and Mak-
koth, formed only one treatise. The Mishna exists
in ttu«e recensions: in the manuscripts of editions of
the separate Mishna, in the Palestinian Talmud in
which the commentaries ai the Amora'im follow
short paswges trf the Mishna, and in the Babykmian
Talmud, in wliidi the Qemara is f^ipended to an
entire carter of the Mishna. The contents of the
Mishna, aside fn»n the treatises Aboth and Middoth,
are with few exceptions Halakhic. The language, iJie
so-called Mishna Hebrew or New Hebrew, is a fairly
pure Hebrew, not without proof of a hving dev^p-
ment — enriched by words borrowed from Greek and
Latin and certun newly-created technical eo^iTeasions,
whieh seem parthr developed as imitations of Roman
legal formubs. Tlie Mishna is cited by giving the
treatise, chapter, and precept, e. g. 'Berakhj i, 1,

Among the commentators of the whole Mishna iiu
following deserve ^>ecial mention: Maimonides, the
H^rew translation of whose Arabic ordinal is
printed in most editions of the Mishna; Obadia di
BertiiMwo (d. 1510), Jom Tob Lippmann Heller
(d. 1654), Jisrael L^Mchats (his Mishna with com-
mentary l^tnv^mMCn (6 vols., KAnigBbers, 1880^).

The Brat edition of the complete Mislma was at
Naples in 1492. Texts with Hebrew commentaries
nrist in great numbers. Of importance as a conflma-
tion of the Palestinian version is the edition of W. H.
Lowe (Cambridge, 1883), after the CambridfT- manu-
stnipt. Also dee^rina of mention are: "Misna . . .
Latinitate donavit G. Lurenhusius" (text, Latin
trandation, notee, Latin translatim of Maimonides
and Obadia, 6 vols., Amsterdam. 10M-1703);"Mish-
najoth with punctuation and Omnan tesradatioii in
Hebrew letters, b«nm by Ssmmter (Beriin, 1887—
still incomplete); Ger. tr. of the Mnhns by IUb4
(6 parts, OnoUbach, 1760-63).

IV. Thb Paubunian Tautud. — On the basis (rf
the. Mishna, juridical discussjons were oontinuedj at
first in the sonools of Paleetrne, particularly at Tibe-
rias, in the third and fourth centuries. Throu^ the
final codifieatkm of the material thus oolleoted, there

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TMiOV 4

aroee in the aeoond half of fourth eentuiy the
BO-called Jmisalem, more propearlv Paleetinian, Tal-
mud. The usual o|»nkm, whioi cnigiiiated wUh
Maimonides, that its author was Babbi Jodianan,
who lived in the tbixd ceotuiy, ia untenable because
(tf the names of the later scholars which occur ia it.
in the Palestinian Talmud the text of the Midbna is
taken sentence b^ sentence, and explained with in-
creasingly casuistic acumen. The Barait^oth, i. e.
the T"anin?ff of the Torah not found in the Mislma, as
well as the legal paragraphs are always ^ven in
H^rew, and so are most td the wpended nufadationi ;
the remainder is written in a West Anunaie dialect
(G. Dalman, "Grammatik dee jQdisoh-Palfistinischm
Aram&isch", Leipzig, 1905). Along with the Ha-
lakha it contains rich Haggadic material. Whether
the F^eetinian Talmud ever included the entire
Midma is a matter of dispute. The only parta pre-
served are the commeatanee on the first four Sedarim
(with the exception of several chapters and the
treatises Eduyyoth and Aboth} and on the three first
diviakms of the treatise NMda m the sixth Seder. The
aupposed discovery by S. Friedl&nder of treatises on
the ^Ui Seder isoased upon a forg^ (cf. "Theo-
logische Literaturzeitung , 1908, col. 513 sq., and
"Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Morgoilfindisch. Gesellscb.",
LXII. 184). The Palestmian Tahnud is generally
cited bv giving the treatise, chapter, page, and column
alter tne V^wtian and Cracow editions, mostly also
^e line, indicated b^i (= jenia.) or pal.; e. g. paL
Makkoth, 2 Bl. 31d M. Many scholars cite m the
aame manner as for the Mishna, but this is not to be
recommended.

Editions: Venice (Bomberg), 1523-24; Cracow,
1009; Krotoshin, 1866; Zhitonur, 1860-67; Piotrkow,
1000-02. French translation by M. Schwab, 11 toIs.,
Paris, 1879-80; 12 1890.

Several treatises are printed with Latin translations
mUgodini, "Thesaurusantiquitatumsacrarum", vols.
XVTfl-XXX, Venice, 175&-65; Wtlnache, "Der pal-
istinisohe Talmud m seinen h^adischen Bestand-
teilen ins Deutsche QboBetit" (Zurich, 1880).

V. Babylonian Tauotd. — The Mishna is said to
have been brought to BiUiylon by Aba Areka, gener-
ally called Rab (d. 247), a pupil of Rabbi Jehuda.
In the schools there it became a norm of legal religious
life and a basis ai juridical discussion. But while
in Palestine there was a greater tradency to preserve
and propagate what had bem handed down, the
Babyioman Amora'im developed their interpretation
of the law in all directions, which explains why the
Ba^lonian Talmud acquired a greater significance
for Judaism than the Palestinian. Thus the material
grew rapidly and gradually led to a codification, which
waa undertaken by R. Asbi (d. 427), head of the
Bchool at Sura, and by R. Abina or Rabbina (d. 499),
the laat vt tba Amoraim. The acholan who
lived after him (at the end of the fifth and in the
first haJf of the sixth centuries), called Sahoraim
("those who reflect, examine", because they weighed
and also completed what had been written by tiie
Amora'im), are to be regarded as thoae who really
completed the Babylonian Talmud.

Like l^e Palestinian, the Babylonian Talmud does
not include the entire Mishna. In the first and sixth
divisionB only tJie treatiaea Berakhoth and Nidda are
oonaidered; m the aectmi dirimcm Kiesalim is oodU
ted, in the fourth Eduyyoth and Aboto, in the fifth
Miodoth, Ginnim, and half of Tamid. It is indeed
questionable if the greater number of these treatises
were included in the Babylonian Genuu^; Eduyyoth
and Aboth are excluded, by reason of the subject
matter, while the remainder treat for the most part
ordinances which could not be applied outside of
I^Jeatine. The Babylonian Talmud thereftwe in-
abides only 36H treatises, but is at kaat four times
the extent of tite Palestinian, althou^ the latter deals

S8 ULOW

with S9 treatises. The Haggada ia even more fidly
represented than in the Palestinian. The language,
excepting the legal paraarai>hB and the quotations «
the older scholars and Palestinian rabbis, is that ctf the
East Aramaic dialect of ^bykmia (ei. Iteriaa, "A
Grammar of the Aramaic Icwna contained in the
Babylonian Talmud", Cincinnati, 1900; M. L. Mar-
cobs, "Grammatik des babyk>nischen Tahnuda"»
Munich, 1910). The Babykmiao Tahnud is cited ao<
cording to treatise, folio, and page, as the content in
nearly all the editions since that of the third Bomberg
one (1548) is the same, e. g. Berakh 22^. In these
editions there are usually appended at the end of the
fourth Sed^ seven smaU treatises, partly from Tal-
mudie, partly from poet-Talmudic times, among
which is the poet-TtUmudic treatise Sopberim (direo*
tions for the writer and public reader of the Torah).
Among the oommentariee the first place belongs to
that of Raahi (d. IIOS), completed W his grandson
Samuel ben Me ir (d. about 1174). Ohiefly of a sup-
I^oneDtary characto- are the worics of the Tosaplasts
or authore of the Toaaphoth (additions), who lived
in France and Germany during the twdfth and tldr-
teentfa centuries. TheygiveamplificatinuaiHlleamed
explanations of certain treatises. Other commentaries
are enumerated by Strack, op. cit. infra, 149-^1.

The Babylonian Talmud has often been printed,
but until the t»esent time a critical edition has re-
mained a desideratum. Material for this purpose is
furnished by Raphad Babbinovicz, among others, in
hia" Varis tectiones in Mischnam et in Talm. Babyl.
etc. (15 vols., Munich, 1808-86) ; Vol. XVI was edited
i>y Ehrentreu (Frzemjvl, 1897). Serioua mutilatjona
and bungling chan^ in the text were caused by the
Christian cenBorship, at first in the Basle emtion
(1578-81). The numerous bickerings among the
Jews had the further consequence that they them-
selves practised censorship. The exc^Kd passages
were partly collected in aniall treatises, pubhshedfor
the roost part anonymous^.

Editions.— Raphael Rabbmovicz, retlH by IttKlS
^llsb^.'^ (Mdamar al hadptuaih ha4almiid\ (Mtmiohi
1877), a critical review of the editions of tne Bfijbyk>-
nian Talmud, as a whole or in part since 1484. The
first complete edition appeared at Venice (Bombenc),
(12 vols., 1520-23). The advantage of this edition
consists in its complete character; the text itself is fuU
(tf eiTors. A certain reputation ia enjmred by the
Amsterdam editicm (1644-48), in which tne eensiued
passages have been as far as possible restored. The
edition of Frankfort (1720-22) served director or in-
directly as a basis for those which followed. Of the
later editions may be mentioned those of BeriUn
(1862-68), Vienna (1864-72), and Vihia (1880-86). A

auarto edition, the text after the editio princm*, with
le variants of the Munich manuscripts and a G^
man translation, was bc»un by Laiarus Goldschmidt
in 1897. Up to date 6 vols., ccmtaining tJbc Insti-
tutes I, II, IV, V, and the two first treatises of HI,
have appeared. Unfortunately this publication is
by no means faultless. M. L. Kodkinson, "New Edi-
tion of the Babvlonian Talmud", New York, 1896;
M. Mielziner, "IntroductiMi to the Talmud" ('C^-
oinnati, 1894; New York. 1903); M. L. Rodkinson,
"The History of the Talmud" (New York, 1903);
B. L. StradE, "Einleitun^ in den Tahnud" (L^Mdg,
lM6),pp. 139-175, containing an extensive Inbli^gra-
pfay of tin Tahnud and tlie questions oonoetning it.

F. ScbOhlxin.

Talon. Ji^N, first tntendant in exercise of New
France, b. at Ch&lons-sur-Manie, 1625, of Philippe
and Anne Beuvy; d. at Versailles, 23 Nov., 1691.
After studying at the Jesuit college of Clermont, in
Paris, he embraced the career of militaij admiius-
toation, bqpnning as war commissary m Flaaden
(1064), where he acted aa intendant to Tvamatl^

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TAtOlt

TAIOir

army. His success won Cardinal Masarin's favour,
and he was promoted (1656) Intendant of tlie Prov-
ince of Hainaut Louis Xlv taid Colbert being de-
fccTmined to save Cuuda, then in great distrese.
Talon was appointed intendant the same day (23
March. 1655} that Courodlee became Govemor of
New France. They, with Tracy, lieutenant-geneiflJ
of all the French posseesioDs in America, formed a
powerful triumvirate. Talon's faculties were most
ample, comprising justice, police, and finance.
Reaching Quebec in 1665, he inunediately b^an
colonizing in the neighbourhood. In 1666 he had
the first Canadian census taken; H ntve onlv 3215
souk. Hod his cokuusation polknr/Deai aaapted.
New France would have had oOO,000 inhabitants in
1760, instead of on^r 60,000. Tahm shared the gloiy
of Tracy and Courcelles's expedition against the Iro-
quois (1666), b^ the^preparation that had alone
rendered it possible. He consentod to remain after
the two years of his term of office. The annexation
of the New Netherlands to the French domain,
which be su^eeted to Colbert, was not favoored by
the king. He ooncurred (1666) in reorganizing the
Sovereign Council and in nftnmuig the petty courts.
By his plan of grouping settten round the city, a de-
fence oorpsof volunteer militia would have dispensed
wilit reinforcements of recular troops. Three years
of Talon's administration had renewed the face of the
ooimtiy. Agriculture had progressed, cod and seal
fishing were developed, Bhipbuiiding b^an to thrive,
and trade with the Antilles was inaugurated.

After retuniing to France (1668} hestnive to pnn
mote Canada's intereets. R«ippomted in 1670, he
brot^t with him freedom of trade. He sent ex-
pkirera north, west, and south. St-Lusson took
possession of Lake Superior. Forts were built and
the Kennebec route opened between Quebec and
Acadia, lately restored to France by the treaty of
Breda. Father Albanel and his party reached James
Bay and olanted the cross in the far north. Jolliet,
charged by Talon to find the north-west passage,
flisoovered the Mississippi. At Talon's bidding, New
France set her seal on the three-fourths of North
America. He retiuned to France in 1672. after
having, during his last weeks in ofiice, createa many
seigniories for officers of the Carignan renment,
thereby contributing to the development of ccHonisa-
ticm and to the foundation of an anstooraoy. Durii^
his seven years of office Talon had realised the pro-
gramme he had traced in 1665. By establmiing
administrative and judiciary institutions that lasted
throughout the entire French r^ime, by encouraging
industry and commerce, fostering charitable works,
creating new centres of population, and fortifying
the colony's frontiers he prepared the way with re-
markable foresight for the future development of the
country, and ranks among the foremost maken of
Canada, Louis XIV created hun Count d'Orsain-
ville (1675), honouring him with several important
dignities and ample emoluments. Tal<m generously
aided James II in his efforts to regain his throne,
likewise assisting the exiled followers of the Stuarts.
Naturally influenced by the Gallican spirit of his a^e,
he was inclined to overm^^nify the rojyal authority
in its oentraliz^ and donuneering attitude towards
the Church. Em eneasive leal tm the financial
pron>erity of tite State caused him toresent imrea-
Bonaoly the wise restrictions imposed by Bishop
Laval on the liquor traffic with the Indians.

Fnumt, BitMra du Canada (QwbM, 1802); Oabmmtt, HU-
Mte du Canada (Montrnl, ; BocsniaiiinDC. Lat JtauUu tl
la NmtMU»-Franea (Paris, UM); Caauis, Aon 3bte» (Qudbw,

LnnnBii Lindbat.

lUim, Nicolas, Fraieh Jesuit, historian, and
HKsetieal writer, b. at Moulins, 31 Atwust, 1605; d.
at Paris, 28 March, 1691. Entering the Soeiet;r in

1^1, he taught literature for several yean, with re-
markable success. After his ordination he gained
some reputation as a preacher, was a devoted work^
in the prisons and hospitals of Paris, and served as
am^-cnaplain with the Fxmdh ttoape in Flanden,
winning the admiration and love oS the men and the
life-long friendship of the Prince de Cond^. He
assisted the notorious Aim€ du Poncet during his
painfully protracted execution. Thanks to Talon's
gentlmess, the terrible outlaw died penitent and re-
signed. This striking conversion made a profound
impression. As a wnter. Talon had original, if not
always correct, views, a uvely imaginatioo, a quaint
and cMnparatively pw« and decant style. Besides
hfa "Onm fun^re de LouisXlII" (Paris, 1644).
a "Description de la pompe fun^bre du Prince de
Cond6" (Paris, 1646), and some books of minor im-

Sortance, Talon wrote "La vie de St. Francois de
ales" (Paris, 1640), "La viedeSt. Frangoie Borgia"
(Paris, 1671), "Las pcintures chr^tiennes" (Paris,
1667 acoordink to Weiss, 1647 accordii^ to Sommer-
TMBel), and a Bible history, the first part of which,
" Histoire sainte ", was publfihed at Pans in 1640. The
autiior's purpose was to interest his readers in the Old-
Testament story. Hie book became popular and was
several times reprinted, notably in a fine Oamoisy
edition (1065). The Marquia of Winchester gave an
English translation in 1653. Talon's "Histoue
sainte" is deficient in taste and critical jud^ent;
it is a romance, not a reliable exposition of facts.
Its methods, if not as objectionable as Berruyer's in
his "Histoiredupeui^de Dieu". are unsound. The
author published a sequd, "L'histoire sainte du
Nouveau Testament" (Pans, 1669). It met with
little success. Talon's portrait has been engraved
by Heer. Sommervogel mentions 300 of his letters
in the d'Aumale collectioD at Chantilly.

SoTTTHWiLL, BiUiUkeiM ttriploTum toc. .Tnu (Rome, 1676), 636;
d'Abtiont, JVouveaux mimoirt*, IV (Paris, 1749), 138-48; CAsf-
TON, Uns txtaition m ploca d« OAm, au X VII' uidt (mfa* inSd-
iU) (PoiUera, 1863) ; db Backbb, BibL de» taiaaitu de laC.de J.,
Inea., V, 717; db Gdilbzbut, Utnoioge de laC. d» J., Aitut-
anee de Frmee (Irt nd., Paris, 1892), 429; Huhtih, Nomenelor-
for, n. 467; SoHMBBToasu £iU. delaC.de J., 1. VII, 1821-3;
LBMOm-IjCBTBinBBOXS, Troiefamilieredu OstuJ Condi. Cabbi
Bimrddol, U pire Talm. U pin Titier (P&rii, 1909).

JoBff C. Hevillxs.
Talon, PiBBSB, a French-Canadian explorer, b. at
Quebec, 1676, of Lucien and Isabelle Planteau; d. in
frauce in the first half of the eaghteenth centuiy.
His entire family had just emigrated to France, when
ihey were all engaged to follow Cavalier de La Salle
in his attempt to colonize Louisiana (16S4). Shortly
after landing there, Pierre Talon was sent to learn the
tankage of the C^nis Indians, and spent six years in
their country about one hundred leagues inland at the
limit of La Salle's discoveries. After the murder of
the latter by one of his party, and the massacre of
many of the colonists, in their first settlement by the
ChuncoM Indians, the countrv was occupied by the
Spaniards. Talon's father haa perished in the woods,
but hie brothers and sisters had been saved by Indian
women. They all followed the invaders to New Spain,
first to San Luis Potoei; and then to Mexico City,
where they spent ten years. The viceroy took them
all into his palace as servants and treated them well.
Talon and his brother Jean-Baptiste enlisted as Span-
ii^ marines and embarked at Vera Cruz. When their
vessel was captured by Captain Desaugurs, they
begged to be sent back to Spain, but were enrolled in
theFou^erolles company of French marines. Talon,
in his evidence sworn at Brest (1698), gives abundant
details regarding the character, customs, and religious
rites of the Indian tribes with whom he had lived, as
well as of the fauna and flora of the southern portion
of the continent. The tribes he mentions are in-
scribed undo- the following names: ClamcoCts, Tem-
erk>uans, Tohos, Cenis, Ayennys, Amalchams, Caoo-
tinoSf Baouitas, and Chomans. There is a great

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440

TAMBUSINI

f^babOity, although Talon cannot affirm it as cer-
tain, that one of the rivers seen by him duiini^ his in-
tercourse with the Indians was the Mississippi which
La Salle's premature death prevented the discoverer
from seeii^E again.

Tj^navAT.DieL gMalogiqut (Montn*!. 1881); ArekuM of
Marin* (Frmnoe. 1698); Qjuuiuu, Biat. du Canada (MontrMl,
1883).

LlONliL LiNDSAT.

TamuiM Indiani, a formerly important tribe of
Cariban linguistic stoclc occupying the territory i^Hiut
the Cuchivero River, a tnbutaj^ of the lower Orinoco,
V«iesuela. In 1749 thejy were m p«rt, toother with a
part of the S^va, gathered into the mnsiott of Saa
Luis del Encaramada 0)nefly Encaramitda), eetab-
lished in that year by tlie celebrated Jesuit missionaiy
and hist<maa, Father S. Qilii, on the east bank of the
OrinooOg some distance above the Apure. Father
Gilii resided with the tribe for eighteen years until the
expulsion of the order, whm the Jesuit missions of the
Orinoco were turned ova- to the Franciscans. Change
of administration, dbordere of the revohiUonaiy
period and goronmental n^eot ruined the missioDS,
while frequent fero* epidonios and terrible losses dur^
im the War of Independence decimated the Orinoco
tnoee, and as early as 1840 ^e Tamanac woe virtu-
ally extinct with tne exception of a few scattered in-
dividuals. In culture anomode of living theTamanao
resembled the Maipure. They had a lengthy genesis
myth, with a deluge, in which a man and a woman
saved thanselves oy climbing to the top of a high
mountain called Tamanaoa and miraoolously created
a new human race from the fruit of the mauiitfus
palm. H«iee the name of the tnbe. Their ||reat cul-
ture hero was Amaliraca, who came to them in a boat
from over the eastern ocean and finally returned in the
same way, after carving nnmerous sacred pictograpbs
upon now inaccessible cliffs in the Tamanac countiy.
Hence the missionaries were supposed by some of the
Indians to be messengers from their lost culture hero
and benefactor. (See also Mjupurb; Sauta.)

Oilh, Samio di ttvria awricana (Rmme. ITM); HtniBOLDT,
3Va*4i in At Bqumadial Stgwn* <4 Amtrim Qjoodm, 1818);
Hbrvas, CiMUoo de lot Imffiiaa, I (Madrid, 180(0; OMutn,
OtognM dt r«fMnMlB (Pub, 18il); BnMTOii, ApuHea» Rae»
(NmrYork. 18W).

Sjoob- Moonxt.

TUnMnu, 8 titular see in Cypnu, saffng^ of
SalanuB, was situated in the great ceatral plain of the
island^ south-west of Soli, on the road from SoU to
TremithuB. As there were copper mines in the neigh-
bourhood, it is very probably tne Temese, mentioned
by Homer (Odyssey, I, 184), which was in his time
the principal copper market of the island. To-day
the three yitlages of Fera, Episkopio, and Politiko
occupy Uie former site. The coins warrant our use
of the qwUing, Tamassua Aoetwding to the legends
of Saints Barnabas and Auxibius, the fiist consecrated
bishop was St. Heraclides, later transferred to Salamis,
where he was succeeded by St. Mjrron, like himself
a martyr (27 September). Three other bishops are
mentioned: Tychon present at the Council of Con-
stantinople, ^1; Epaphroditus at the Council of
Chalcedon, 451; Nicetas in 1210. l^e see was sup-
pressed by the Latins in 1222, and never re-establishra.

Stan, Diet. o/Gt. and Rom. Ow^., B.V.; Hacxxtt, A Butorv of
the Orthodox Church of Cttpru* (London, 1901), 240 sq., 313; Xk
QuiKN, Orietu cArwl., II, lOSB; MOllcb. m. Didot, NMet on
PMemw, I. B69; DsLaaATS in Anabela BoOandiana. XXVI
(BniMW, 1007), 237,

S. FfTBIDiB.

TaznauUpai, Diocbsb of (CirrrAiis VicroRiiB
fitvB Tauauupbnbis), in the Mexican Bcpubliih
•uiTr^an of Linares. Its area is that of the state of
the same name, 31,758 sq. miles, besides two parishes
in the northern part of the State of Vera Cms; it
has a papulation of 240,253 (Census of 1010). The

residenoe of the bishop and governor is in Ciudad
Victoria^ 2467 feet above sea level, which has a popula-
tion of 17,861 inhabitant* (1010). Father Andr^Olmos,
who was the first to preaw the Gospel in the r^ion
now known as the above bie^opric, came from Burgos,
Spain, in 1528, and worked until 1571, when he died at
Tampico, bebved by all. In 1530 the fVanciscan
Fathers founded the Guardianship of San Salvador,
which comprised twelve oonventa, and were almost
all situated in the territory now known as the State
of Tan^aulipas: a few of these convents, however, were
situated outside of this toritory, for instance, that
Ozuloama, which is now a parish, and which, al-
tboufl^ situated in the State of Vera Cruz, belongB to
the Bishopric of Tamaulipas. In 1748 the Fathers of
the Aix»toliG College of Nuestra Sefiora de Guada-
lupe de Zacatecas took charge of the missions; these
•were placed in the hands of the Fathers of the
Province of Santo Evangelic de Mexico in 1768.
This see was planned as early as 1722. In 1860
Pius DC made a vicariate Apostolic of the teiritoiy,
and in 1800 the pope's Bull "Apostolicum in Um-
TOsas Orbis Ecclesias" raised it to the rank of a
bidiopric, naming Ciudad Victoria as its episcopid
see, and making it suffragan of Mexico. When
the new Archbishopric of Linares (or Monterey) was
created in 1891 it became part of it, and so remains
to this day.

There are no seminaries in this bishopric, priests
and rectors bdn^ fumidied the Diocese of 2uncn«
and othos. It is credited, howera*, with 3 parodiial
schools, and 6 Catholic collies with 700 studoits;
there are 10 Protestant colleges, numbering about
600 students, and 14 Protestant cbiu-ches. The
episcc^al city of Ciudad Victoria was founded in
1750 under the name of Santa Maria del Refugio de
Agua^o, and has been known by its present name
only since 1825.

'naA, CattcUato g»oer4JI» hUUrieo, y Mtadtdico it la IgUata
moxiama (Anwoameea, 1881).

Cauillus Crivclli,

Tamborinl, MicHiLANaELO, fourteenth General
of the Society of Jesus, b. at Modena, 27 Sept., 1648;
d. 28 Feb., 1730. After having taught Scholastic
philosophy and theology for twelve years, he was suo-
cessiveur made rector of several coUeges, was chosen
by Canunal Reynold of Este as his private theologian,
held the offices of secretarv general and vicar to
Thyrsus Gonzalez, and finally, on the hitter's death,
was elected general on 3 Jan., 1700, a post which he
occupied till his death. The reputation for solid
virtue, patience, and coura^ce, which he had acquired
in tbe oifferent grades of his order, was by no means
dimmed in tbe lon^ years of bis generalate. During
Tamburini's supenmsbtp, the i^Mjstolic activit;^ of
the Society was at its best; but, at tbe same tune,
could be seen signs of the storm which was, half a
century latv, to annihilate it. The Reductions of
jParaguay were beginning to bear fruit; missionaries
were laying down their lives for the pest-stricken
In the Levant or were pushing into the steppes of
Tibet amid untold hardships. Peter the Great,
desirous oi ^ving his barbarous subjects the benefits
of true religum and genuine civilization, admitted tbe
Jesuits into Russia. Jansenism, the Society's bit-
terest foe, received its death-blow in 1708 by a Bull
of Clement XI ordering the suppression of Port-
Royal. Three Jesuits, Tobmei, Cienfu^os, and
Salerno, were, in short succession, raised to the dig-
nity of the cardinalate. John Francis Rc«ia was
beatified, Aloyaius of Gonzaga and Stanislaus Kostka
were given the honours of the altar. At the same
time, future saints (St. Francis de Hieronymo and
Bl. Antiiony Baldinucd in Italy, Emmanuel Padial
in Spun) were labouring with extraordinary sueoees
for the salvation of soub. But at this penod, too,
the debate over the Chmese Rites was at its ho^t.

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Hw Jesuit miesionariea in Qiina had been Msouaed
not obeying the orders of the Supreme Pontiff.
Tambunni, though naturally of a gentle disposition,
could be firm when the honour of the Society was at
stake. In the name of all the assistants and pro-
curatora gathered at Rome, he protested to Clement
XI the odelity and obedience of the whole Society
to the Vicar of Christ. Thus ran the finwt>ing ^m-
tence of his declaration: " But if, which God forbid,
there be anyone among us who should harbour other
thoughts or breathe ouiareentiments— for, vban the
numfier of subjects is so large, human prudenoe fiiuls
it difficult to prevent or hinder all such thiofli — ^the
General, in the name of tiie Society, declares, aasures
and protests that we reprove and reject him even now,
that he is worthy of chastisement, and that be cannot
be r^Lfded as a true and legitimate son of the
Society of Jesus".

CsinMaATi-JoLT. Hut. d* bt Cmu. d» Jttut, fT-V; oa Qmv-
■■aHT, lihutoga, Aaridanet fHam, 360-^; BouinnroaaL,
BOU df la C. lb J., TII, lSS7-8a

A. C. COTTBB.

Tamburioi, Thomas, moral theolc^ian, b. at Cal-
tanisetta iD Sicily, 6 March, 1591; d. at Palmno, 10
October, 1675. He entered the Society of Jesus when
fifteen years old; there he beeame distinguished fw- ex-
traordinary virtue and a rare talent for teac^iing.

After a sucoessf ul
oourae of studies,
he held the pro-
fessorship of phil-
osophy four years,
of dogmatic theol-
ogy seven years, of
moral theology
sevaiteen years,
and during thir-
teen years was
rector of various
colleges. His writ-
ings are: "Metho-
dufl expeditee con-
fessionis" (5 vols.,
Rome, 1647);
"De eemmuni-
one" (Palermo,
1649); "Exolicatio
decalogi" (Venioe,
1654, 1707; Milan,
1665: Munich,
1659); "De sao-
rificio misse"
(S vols.. Antwerp,
1656); "De buUa orudata" with other works
(Palermo. 1663); "Juris divini, naturalis et ecclee.
expositio" (3 vols., Palermo, 1659-60). All these
works exhibited solidity of doctrine and elegance
of style and went through several editions.
Thou^ severe towards himself, Tamburini, when
deciding cases of conscience for others, was in-
tlined to follow the milder views which he found
reputable authors declaring probable. This is the
basis of the accusation of bxity frequently brought
against him, and led to his controversy with Vincent
Baron. Tamburini published a refutation of the at-
tacks of his adversary under the title, "Germana doo-
trina R. P. Th. Tamburini, S.J." In determining
the value of Tamburini's works, it is well to recall the
criticism of St. Alphonsus Liguori in his "Theolt^ia
Moralis": "Let us add a word about this author
[Tamburini^, who is not estimated by many at his full
value. It cannot be denied that he was apt to oon-
mder some opinions probable which do not deserve
that note; hence he must be used with caution. But
when Tamburini establishes his own opinicHis, he
flbowa that he is a tborougjitheolo^an and solves the

Tbohu TAMsuBoa
TtomDesroebera"'R«oueildeP«rtndW.
177a

queations by reducing them to their last princi^es.
CompebenH judges will find ^t the opinions whion he
then sets down aa the mne tenable are in the majority
of oases the more eoirect'*.

Dk Fsllss, Diet. Him., VIII, 3fi3; Hdxtb, WMMNdfalor, II.
270: Bmninvoosu fiiWotUgM, VU, 1830.

JoHH M. Fox.

TaoMtil (Auiboitgh), the first word of oh. i, sess.
24, De Ref. Matr., of the Council of Trent. This
cluster contains the legislation of the Church which
was in force until Easter, 1908, concerning clandestine
marriage. It decrees thus: Those who attempt to
conlraot mairiage otherwise than in the presence of
the parish priest or of another priest del^ated by him
or by the ordinary, and before two or three witnesses,
the holy synod readers wholly incapable of contract-
ing and declares such oonteaeta null and void. The
reader is referred to the article Clandsstinitt for a
complete study of this decree. In a modified form
the prescnptk>ns of "Tametei" were extended to the
universal Church by the decree "Ne temere". The
chapter "Tametsi" declares that clandestine con-
tracts of marriage freely entered into are valid, imless
rendered null by the non-observance of regulations
made by the Church, and anathematizes those who
hohl the oontoary , as well as those who falsely assen
the invalidity of s marriage contracted without
parents' consent, or who affirm that parents by their
approval or disapproval may affect tbe binding force
of such oontracta. It is declared, however, that the
Church has always disapproved of marriages con-
tracted secretly, or without the consent of parents.
This same chapter of I'h- Tii'li-ii^inf Ci^^tn!■i! ]in.'-
scribee the promulgation <ii the; hoixu^ niarriugc,
whidi is a repetition of the Foiutb lAtsnm CqubsiI,
the fonn expressit^ consent to Be V9id and ^ itfer
scribing of the marriage in the parochial register.
It decuues also that any priest, secular or re^ular,-
other than the pastor, a.^)4i.?tin£t M mrtrriofte or
giving the solemn nupUiil lil'^^i^iii^ iviiliont prtvpor
del^ation is suspendeii onuc and rein^ui^^ undf-r
suspension till rigntly abdolvtd by thf fihl iu.-tiy rif tbo
parish priest of the ooritractuog partn-^ii. Tins cen-
sure, however, is no toswv teernnd. though puniib*
ntent may be meted ont to tiHAie who ofTend in tfett*
matter. Finally, "Tametsi" recommenda that those
about to marry approach llie Sacra-meiils nf Penance
and the Eucharist, and ihiit li^cuf r^ud^jnis and rites
connected with marriage be observed. (See also
Mabbiaob, Mobal and Canonical Aspect of.)

Andbbw B. Meeban

Tunlsier, Marib-Marthe-Baftibtine (called by
her intimates EmuA), initiator of international Eu-
charistic congresses, b. at Tours, 1 Nov., 1834; d. there
20 June, 1910. FnHn her childhood her devotion to
the Blessed Sacrament was extraordinarvjehe called a
day without Holy Communion a veritable Good Fri-
day. In 1847 she oecame a pupil of the Religious of the
Sacred Heart at Marmoutier, remaining there four
years. Without any special attraction for the life of a
reli^ouB she made three unsuccessful attempts to en-
ter it; the third was in the Convent of Perpetual
Adoration founded by Ven. Pftre Eymard, wto as-
sured her she still belonged to our Lord in the Blessed
Sacrament. A lady of wealth sought her aid in e»*
tablishing a community of perpetual adoration but
this plan also came to naught. She then (1871) went
to live near the tomb of Blessed Jean Vianney at Ars.
Coming under the direction of Abbi Chevrier of
Lyons she found her true vocation, at once contempla-
tive and active, in the Eucharistic cause. She had
been prepared for it by many trials and disappoint-
ments. Throu^iout (Vance and b^ond, bv exten-
sive correepondenee and by travd she spread the devo-
tion. Wiyvilttibelp oTMgr de Skur and KLp

Digitized byVjOOglC

TANAOBA

442

TANIY

Kchard, then Bishop of Betlev, pilpimages were
started to aanctuaries where Euenanstio twiwuHlw had
taken place. Thdr success led to Eudmristio om-
peeses. At the Lourdes Congress she was called
the Jeanne d'Arc of the Blesaed Sacrament, but faw
name was not publicly associated with the con-
gresses until aiter her death. Canon Vaudon's his*
tory of the congresses published just before her death,
though giving a detailed account of her apoetoUc
career, calls her only "Mile . . . She Uved for
some years at Issouaun and ministered there to the
^irine of Our Lady of Uie Sacred Heart. All her
spare means, tiiough often depriving hoself, she
devoted to the educatkm of poor aapinmts to the
priesthood.

MIU Taminer [d The Smtittd of |A« BUutd Sacwnva (New
Yoric. July, 1911); Vaodon, L'tEiwre dt» CmgrU EvOtanttir'n
CFwia ud Mootoeal, 1»10}; L'Idtal (Pvb. ISIQ).

B. Randolph.

Tuugr&,atitular8eeittHella8,8uffraganofCormtfa;

it was a town of Bceotia, in a fertile plain on the right
bank of the .fsopus. It was also called Poemanaria
and its territorT Poemandris. Zn 467 b. c. the
Athenians were defeated near Tana^a by the Lace-
dnmonians, but early in the foUowmg year they in
tarn defeated the Bceotums, therwy becoming
masters of Bceotia. The city walls were destroyed.
In 428 the Athenians invaded the territotr of
Tanagra and defeated the Tanagrians and Boeo-
tians. The people of Tanagra were noted for
their frugality, loyalty, and hospitality. Their
land yielded little wheat, but the best wine in
Boeotia, and the town

was also noted for its
Bghting-oocks. Under
Augustus Tantwra and
Thespis were the chief
towns of Bceotia. It had
numerous temples, one
of Dionyaius with a
famous statue by Calanus
and a remarkt^le Triton,
other temples of The-
mis, Aphrodite, Apollo,
Hermes Criophorus, and
Hermes IVomacliuB. The
gymnasium contained a
portrait of .the poetess,
Corinna, who was bom
at Tanagra and oommem-
orated there by a monu-
ment. Pliny calls Tan-
agra a free state. It waa
stdl important in Uw
sixth century, but must
soon after have been de-
stroyed by Slavic inva-
sions. A station on the
railway between Athens
and Thebes is now called
Tanagra; it connects with
the village of Skimatari
(650 inhabitants), about
ei^t miles south of which are the ruins of the uicient
town including the acropolis, necropolis etc. Excava-
tions have made the tombs famous for the pretty Uttle
terra-ootta figurines which they contain. Duchesne
has publish^ ("Bulletin de oorrespondance hell6-
nique", III, Paris, 1879, 144) a Christian inso^ption
dating from the fifth or sixth century. Only one
bishop is known, Hes^ohius, who in 458 si«med the
letter from the provmcial synod to the Emperor
Leo (Le Quien, "Oriens Christ.", II, 212): Uw other
bishop mentioned by him belongs to aaouier see.

SMtn, iXtf. (/ Oraak owl Smmh Om0^ T.

Tanerod, Prince of Antiooh, b. about 1072; d. at
Antiooh, 12 Dec., 1112. He was the son of Manniflss
Odo and Emma, probati^ the daughter of Robert
Guiseard. He took the (joss in 1006 wiUi the Nor-
man lords Southern Italy and joined the service of
his uncle Bohemund. Having disembarked at Ar-
lona (Epirus), they marched towards Constantinople,
and Tancred soon attracted attention by his activity,
braverVj and somewhat undisciplined zeal; according
to his bugr^h^, Raoul de Caen, he was noted also
for his humanity and kindness towards the defence-
less. He brilliantly repulsed the B^rsantine anny
which attacked him as he was crossing the Vardar
(28 FA., 1097). from which time Tancred became and
remained tha bitter enemy of the Greeks. Unlike
Bohemund, he was the only one of all the leaders who
refused to take the oath of fidelity demanded by Alexis
Conmenus. He played an important part in the siege
of Niceea, and later, during the difficult march throu^
Asia Minor, he led the way southwards and captuiid
Tarsus which B^dwin tried in vain to wrest from him
(Sept., lOdT). While Baldwin advanced towards the
Euphrates, Tuicred seized the towns of Cilicia. He
took an active part also in the siege of Antioch. In
the march on Jerusalem he conunanded the vanguard,
and on 15 July, 1099, he entered the city, after
making a breach in the gate of St. Stephen. He
vainly endeavoured to save the lives of 300 Mus-
sulmans who had taken r^uge in the Mosque oi
Omar {TemjAutn DominS). Cta the other himd he
looted the treasures amassed in tiiat building and
distributed them among hie kni^ts. He received
from Godfrey de
Bouillon, who had
been selected over
him as king, tiie fiefs
of Tiberias and Calfa.
When Bohemund was
captured by the Turks
in July, 1 100, Tancred
assumed the govern-
ment of the Princi-
pality of Antioch, and
extended its bound-
aries at tiie expense
of the Turks and the
Greeks. During the
war between Bohe-
mund and Alexis
Oomnenus (1104-08),
Tancred def ended
both the Principality
of Antioch and the Tancbmd, Pbincs or Aimoca
Countdhip of Edttsa: "'^ p™*

he abo strengthened the Christian power in those
districts, and refused to reooKnise the Treaty of
DurazBo by which Bohraiund nad ceded t^e suw-
rainty of Antioch to the emperor. A skilled politician,
he knew how to placate the Greeks and issued Greek
money on which he is represented adorned with gold
and jewels, wearing a turoan surmounted by a cross.

Raoul Dv Caen, (7«iia Tancndi (tbe author went to FftleatiDe
in 1107 ftod wma Httaohed to thti umy of Tftncred) in Bitt.
Oedd. dM CroUadea, III. 537-601; SGHLUMBBRan, t/umi»ma~
tioM de I'Orient Uain (Paris. 1878), 4S; DiSaulct. Tanetidm in
BOtiotk. EeoU dm CharUt (lSi3] ; O. db Srnow, Tankrtd (Leip-
aig, 1880) ; Hit, HUt. dn prinMt iTAntiaehe in Rmte Oritnt LaHn
(1898), 334; Kvaun, Bogmiind u. Tantrtd (TDbingen, 1M2);
CaaUJnKnt, Xnn attr te rigtu^dU*tt Comnhie (Paria, 1900):
SnramoM, t%$ Crunden & the Stut (Cambridge, 1607).

LotTIS Br^hieb.

Tanoj. RoauR Brooeb (pronounced Tawney),
fifth chief j[u8tiee <rf the Supreme Court of the United
States, b. m Calvert County, Maryland, 17 March,
1777; d. at Washington, 12 Octob^, 1864. His
father, Michael Taney, waa a gentleman of Catholic
uioestiy and educatiOD| and his mother, Monica
Brooke was abo a Cathdio. He waa«dueated at pri-

digitized by CjOOgle

TANOTAT 4

Tftte Bchoole and by tutors until 15 years old, when he
entered Dickinson College, Carliide, Pennsylvania.
Be obtained his B. A. in 1705, and in the firing of
1796 went to Annapolis to read law in the office ot
Jeraniah Townley Chase, one of ohief justices td
the Ckxieral Court of Maryland. Early in 1799 he
was admitted to the bar. Returning to his fathoms
home in Calvert County to practice bis crofession,
he shortly afterwards was elected to the Qouse
of Delegates, being then scarcely twenty -three
years M age and the youngest member o$ the
Aaaembly. In March, 1801, he went to Frederick
to establish himself better in bis l^al ]n*actice^
faaving been defeated ior re^ilection to the Legislv
ture from Calvert County. He was a candidate for
member of the House of Delegates from Frederick
county in on the Federal ticket, but, the county
being strongly Republican, he was again defeated.
On % January, 1806, he married Anne Phoebe Oiarl-
ton Key, only daughter of John Ross Key, and sister
of Francis Scott Key, a law student with Taney, at
Annapolis, who afterwards wrote the "Star-q)angled
Banner".

When General WiUdnsrai, theo Commandcf^
Chief of the United States Memy, was tried before a
court martial, convened at fVederiok in 1811, on
charges of being an accomplice of Aaron Burr, Taney
was one d the counsel in his defence, and^ t<^tb^
with John Hanson Thomas, succeeded in winning hu
acquittal BoHi refused any fee for their service be-
cause thev had shared the suspicion against the ac-
cused. Taney was defeated on the Federal ticket fc?
member of the House of Repres^tativee of the United
States, but in 1816 was elected to the state Senate.
At the March term, 1819, of the Frederick County
Court, he successfully defended Jacob Gruber, a
Methodist minister, who was indicted for inciting
alttvee to the disturbance <tf the peace of tlw state. In
1828. he moved to Bahimore, and was soon reeog-
nised as the leading lawyer of that city, bdug ap-
pointed in 1827 by Governor Kent as Attcmiey-Gai-
eral of Marylanc^ upon the unanimous recommen-
dation of toe Baltimore bar. President Andrew
Jackson, a warm admirer <A Taney, appointed him
Attorney-General (A the United States on 21 June,
1831, and, upon the refusal of William J. Duane, Seo-
retaiy of Uus IVeasury, to remove the government
deposits fn»n the United States Bank, the president
removed X>uane from office on 23 Sept., 1833, sndjOn
the same day. appointed Taney in his stead. The
latter assumed the duties of Uie secretaryship on the
following day, uid two days later gave the order for
the ronoval of the dq)OBits to take effect on the first
of October following. His appointment to the office
of Secretary of the Tnaaary navii^ been made during
a recess of Congress, his nMmnation was sent to Hm
Senate by the presidoit on 28 Jime, 1834, and was
rejected after a heated debate. Tms was the first
time in the history of the Government that a cabinet
officer appointed by a preeid^Qt had been rejected.
Taney immediately submitted his resignation to
President Jackson, and the latter accepted it with
much regret. _ Judge Gabriel Duvall of Maryland, an
associate justice of the Supreme Court of the Umted
StfOeft resigned in 1836, and Pteaident Jackson non-
inated Taney in his stead, but the nominatKm was not
brouglit dp m the S«iate until the end of the session,
and was then indefinitely postponed, which amounted
to a rejection. This was due to the fact that the
Senate as then constituted was violently opposed on
political grounds to tbepresident. In the same year
Jackson again named Taney fc^ a place on the Su-
preme Bench, this time as Chief Justice Marshall's
successor. The nomination was stron^^ oapomd
by Senators Wd)ster and Clay, but was malfy con-
firmed <m 16 March, 1836, by a maj<nity of fourteen
YOtea.

13 TANn

tn ^e outbreak of yellow fever of 1865, Justioa
Taney's wife, who never became a Catholic, was
strickra and died at Old Point Ccnnfort on 29 Sep-
tember, and their youngest child died the following
day. The most famous case decided by the Supr^e
Court during Cliief Justice Taney's incumbency was
that of Dred Soott v. John F. A. Sanfonl, tibe opin-
ion in which, deUvered by Taney^ has been much mis-
quoted and misunderstood. Chief Justice Taney did
much towards the building up of the ^^stem of prac-
tice in the Supreme Court, tuning it after that of the
English courts, yet so modified as to be adaptable to
the changed o^litions ensting in the United States.
His opimons were arrived at rather by de^ reftection
and ^plication of establi^ed l^al principles to the
questions presented to him than through eidiaustive
research oi authorities. While giving due respect to
former decisions, he did not rely slavishly upon prece-
dents. By hi dimified, though kindly, bearing, he
always commanded the utmost respect for his Court.
He had few, if any, personal enemies, uid the purity
of his private life was never questional even by hu
political opixnients. Earlv in life he mantunltted the
ajaves inherited from his father, and as long as they
lived, heprovided for the older ones by monthfy pen-
sions. He was buried at Frederick by the side of his
mother's grave, in accordance with his own request.
There is a handsome statue of him in Mount Vernon
Place, Baltimore.

Vajt Sandtoor, Um of A« OiUf JMt(e—,(,2 voln, Albuur,
1822); Ttlxk, Mtmoir of Bogtr Btvokt Timay (Baltinton,
aouthm Library U—mger. IV UtiolUDoad. 1838), S«; J&-
tional qwiUrbi Rtnew. X (N«w 1864), »; Tht CalMic

Wartdjjiym (Now YaA. 1896}, 896; TAa Or«m Baa, XIT

J. P. W. McNbal,

Tangui^ Ctfbibn, genealogist, b. at Qud>ec,
1819; d. 1902. After a course of olassioa and theology
at Quebec Seminary, he was ordained in 1843. The
first twenty-two years of his priesthood were devoted
to parochial work, especially at Rimouski, where he
ETCntly contributed to the foundation of the future
diooesatt seminary. His early taste for genealogical
Btudiae fully manifested itself after his official ap-
pointment to the Dominion Statistics Department
(1867). His whole time was henceforth spent in
(xmsulting and compiling parochial and historical
records t&oujjiout Queb«!, the Maritime I^vinces,
Ontario, and the old fVench settlements in the
United States. He also twice visited IVance for the
same pun>ose. As the result of his labours he pub-
lished (1871-90) hia "Diotiomuure g&aSalogiqu« des
famiUea canadimnea fran^aises depuis les ongmes do
la eolODie jusqu'^ nos jours", cominiaing seven
lai^ double column volumes of over six hundred
pages: a ocdossal undertaking, fit for a numerous bo^
of collaborators, which he achieved alone. Althoa0a
he was unable to realise the latter part of his pro-
gramme entirely and many inaccuracies have crept
mto hia work, ^et on the whole it is highly reliable
and almost unique. Every French C^oiadian by
comjdetin^ from contemporary r^;isters the informa-
tion supphed by this dictionary can proudly trace back
bis geneidogy to bis ancestors from old France. It
has proved valuable for the discovery of canonical
impediments to mairia^ through reLatiooabipv and
has given birth to a copious genealogicat literature of
leas comprehensiveness. In recognition of his
labours the author received a preuture from Leo
Xm (1887). He likewise published" Repertoire du
olerg6 eanadira^ranQais" (1868) and "A travos ks
regutree" (1886).

MoLmut-Iueiw CoModian Biogmphv CTonnto, ISSO); \UMmm,
Diti. bwff. du Argt eanadita-fiansaia (Hoatnu, lOllQ.

LiomL LranaAT.

TiDli, a titular flee, su&agan of Felurium in Au-
gofltammca nrima, capitid of Uie fourteenth distrist

Digitized by VjOOglC

TAXNIR

4U

TAMimt

oi Lower Egypt. Tanis (in Egyptian Zani, m He*
brew Zoan) was situated on a branch of the Nile, to
which it gave its name. It waa one of the oldest citiee
in the world, as the Bible bears wibnees (Num., xiii,
23), and hieroglyphic inscriptions attest ita existence
under Pharao Pepi I Merira of the sixth dynasty. It
flourished especially under the pharoas of the twelfth
dynasty, under the Hyksos, or shepherd kinss (fif-
teenth to sevwteenth dynasties), under the pnaroas
of the nineteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-third dy-
nasties, who had made Tania their capital. It was un-
der the shepherd kings that the Jews installed them-
selves in EgyyA in the land of Geasen, near Tanis, and
it is in this city, which was theresidenceof RamesesII,
that Moees and Aaron j>erformed many wonders (Ps.
honrti, 12 and 43). It is a mistake to confound Tuiia
with the Ramesses built by the Israelites (Ex^ i, 10
and 11) and situated very probably at TeU-Rotab.
The Prophet Isaias (xix, 11-13; xxx, 4) denounced
Tanis and the Jewish politicians who had recouras to
its kings; so too Ezecniel (xxx, 14 and 18), who an-
nounced its ai^roaching destruction. Jeremias, who
also propounced (ii, 16) anathemas against the city,
was forced to follow the Jews thither f^ter the con-
quest (A Palestine by NiAuohodonosor (Jer., zliii, 7-
10; xliv, 1; xlvi]_14}. In these last passages however
the Bible uses Tbacphanes or Thaphaohes, in Latin
Taphnes, and it is not absolute^ certain that this ia
the same as Tania, some identifying Taphnes with Tell
Dafandif about seventeen miles uom or Tanis.
The earheet Bishop of Tanis is Eudsmon, a Melitian
bishop at the beginning of the fourth century. Men-
tion may be made alao of Hermion, bishop in 362;
Apolkmius^ present at the Robber Bynod of Ephesus
and Paul in 458. Besides theee Le Quien speaks of
eig^t Jaoobite bishops (Oriens christ., II, 535-38),
the last of whom lived in 1086. About 870 the Vwmcii
monk Bernard visited Tuiis, "in qua aunt christiani
multum reliposi, nimia hoepitalite ferventes" (Tob-
ler and Molmier, "Itinera hierosolymitana", I, 313).
At the present tmie Tanis is a poor village called Saia
el Haftgar containing 1570 inhabitants, near Lake
Menza^. The niiiu^ situated about twenty min-
utes distance, consist d a large temple, a small
gnuiite tonple, and of other monuments not identi-

Pvrsn, TanU ia Bayp* Exjiontion Fund (Loadoo, ISBfr^;
Rocoi, Oiog. ancMRfw ta Ba—-Smvi» <nais, 1891); 9l>-0;
Julukm, L'Snvt* (Lillfl. 1691), 161-7; AiiiuMaAV, La gteg. da
TBmf A Vivogpu wpU 1698), 413

8. Vanoi.

TaiUMr, Adam, eomtroverrialis^ b. at Innslvudc
in 1571; d. at Unken, 25 Blay, 1632. He entered
the Society dl Jesus in 1589, and taii^t at first
H^rew, apolt^tics, and moral theology. When in
1601 the religious debate between Catholics and
Lutherans was arranged at Ratisbon, Tanner aided
his fellow Jesuit Gretser in proving that the dead word
of the Bible could not 1:>e the supreme arbiter in mat-
ters of faith. He himself published an account <^
the proceedings (Mum, 1(102) and in subsequent
apolwies huried ludc tlie charaea tm>ught anainst the
Catholics by the Reformers. In 1608, the Bavarian
duke invited him to occupy the chair of ScholaBtio
theology m the Univermty tu Ingolstadt. A stranger
in no field of science and gifted witli a keen intellect.
Tanner now developed an increasing activity both in'
teaching and writing on Uieologic^ subjects. In his
"Anatomiie ccofesaionis augustaoe" (Ingolstadt,
1613), he ptnnta out the faluciea 61 Uw Augrinirg
Cwueasion, boUi from Luther's own aanrtkms and
from the qualities essential to the true Church.
Against the so-called Vtraquists, he wrote several
works, both in Latin and in German, defending the
Church's practice of giving (jommtmion under one
qMdee on^r, aul Uk aaouce of the Mass. Other
pamphlets were issued by hhn to dear his nder from

the false accusations of its enemies. When Uie Mm*
fiiot between the Venetians and Pope P»il V (q. v.)
broke out, an able defence from his pen, " Oefensionis
ecclesiw Ubertatis bliri duo" (Logolstaat, 1607), vin-
dicated the Church's freedom against tlie tyraanical
aggressions of the State.

^ter fifteen yean spent at Ingolstadt, he was
called by the Emperor Matthias to the University <A
Vienna. While there he published his sreatest work,
the "Universa theoloeia scholastica'" (Ingolstadt,
1626-27), which resembles the " Summa "of StTThomas
not only in its arrangement, but also in its solidity of
doctrine and conciseness of diction. Ferdinand II,
Matthias's successor on the throne of the Habsburgs,
appointed him chancellor cA the University of Prague.
Ileeing from the Swedes, Tanner died at Unkoi, an
insignificant village near Sabburg. There he still
rests amid unlettered peasants in an unknown grave.
But, as Ck)rdara says, "his virtues, coupled with his
eminent erudition, will ever be his most splendid
epitaph and mausoleum."

COMDABA, RUL Soe. lent. VI, 883; Qvilbbbxt, MMottve, I,
470; TaftUDT, limattgkmt, 33Si Hmnn, NonmOator. I. 2Mi
SoMianvooBL, KUMUbiu TII, 1848, M|q.

A. C. COTTBB.

Tuiiur, CoNBAD, AUwt of Einaieddn, b. at Arth
in the Caotan of Soliwyi, 28 Deo., 1752; d. 7 April,
1^. He studied the dassidi and theology at
Emsieddn; made vows in the Order of St. Boiedict
on 8 S^., 1772, and was ordained in May, 1777.
He was engaged as teacher at the gymnaaium of
Einsiedeln andlater at BeUinsona. In 1787 be held the
position of librarian at his abbey, and in 1789 he was
made director of the ooll^ at Bellinzona. During
the Revolution Tanner fled to the Tyrol, taking with
him the miraoukma statue, the bead of St. Memrad*
and other valuables, and rrau^ned there until he
could restore the treasures to the abbey. He was w-
pointed pastor of St. GeroM m VwarUrav in 18QS,
where he remained for three yean, untu recalled
to act as master of* novices. At the death of Abbot
Beat in 1808 Tanner was dected abbot. With ^reat
fvudenoe he aeoommodated himself to the pohtioal
situation and thus secured the existence of the monas-
te^r. He enoounwed the pursuit <rf studies, renovated
the buildings, and rebuilt the Holy Chap^ which
had been destroyed 1798 by the French. Although
the village of Einsiedeln was no longer under his
jurisdiction, he retained for it a fatherly solicitude
which he manifested especially in the years of famine
(1816 and 1817). It was the intention of Pius VII
to create the new Diocese of Waldstfttten out of the
cantons Uri, Sohwys, and Unterwali^, to make
Tanner bishop, and to constitute the monks tA Ein-
siedeln as •oatliedral diapter. The matter was no-
posed in 1818, but was declined 1^ the abbot and his
c^itulitfs. Tanner's writhigs are: "Betraohtungen
fur sittlichen AufklArung im neunsehnten Jahrhun-
dert" (5 vote., Augsburg^ 1804-1808); "Bildung des
Geistliehen duron GeisteeQbungen" (Augsbuiv^
1807), of which a fifth edition app«u«d at Einsiedeln
in 1816; his pedagcwioal worlcs were publi^ed by his
successor. Abbot C^estine Mdller.

RiifOROu, H^>^fltArtip<«cUcAt« un««r«r lUbm Frau ton ffiiui*-
idn (Freiburi, IStS), 38: Kuhm, Der jeUic* St^tbau mm U. B.
ffiilHlwMB, 1888), 111; Rioinn, Chroniqut iTBinaiadMlit (Paria.

1887), an.

Francis Mbbshman.

Taoner, EpHimn, Bishop of Cork and Cloyne,
Ireland, 1574^-1579; b. about 1526; d. 1679. Tba
statement in his brief of appointment that he waa
bom in the ecdouastical province of Dublin is all
that is known of his earlv life. His surname waa
borne bv persons of humble station at Calverstown,
Co. Kilaare, which, coupled with his familiarity with,
the Eustaces of Baltinglas, may give ooiour to a sur-
mise that he waa a native of uat district. In

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TAHTUM

h« me at Rome, being then probablv in Holy orden,
and entered the Society of Jesus; after a year in the
Roman College be was sent to DilHngen university
in 1S67, and became doctor of divinity. His health,
however, fuled and he left the Soonty. In 1574
he was again at Rome, and the See of Cork and Cloyne
being vacant, he was appointed thereto, 5 Novem-
ber, 1574, and was consecrated at Rome. In May,
1675, he set out for Ireland with exceptional faoiu-
ties for his own diooeee and for those of Caabd,
Dublin^ and its suffragan sees in the abseooe ol their
respective prelates. Not long after his reaching
Ireland he was captured while exeroisinf; his funetioos
at CSonmei, and was thrown into i^xmoa.) hero, as
K>ling tells, be was viuted 1^ a schismatieal bishop
whom he reconciled to the Church. A few da^
later he was hinuelf released throng the influenoe of
a noble earl. Thereafter he did not venture into his
own dioceee. but as commissarY-Aposti^io he traversed
the other districts assigned nim, administering the
sacraments and discharging in secret the other
duties of his office. Four years he laboured thus in
continual peril and distress, and ai, leogUi suooumbed
to his ivivations and f atigoeam the Diooese <tf OsBory,
4 June, 1579. Bruodin states thai be died in Dobui
Castle after aghtem moutlis of impriaonuMat and
eruel torture.

HOOAM. DitlmntUhad IrMmm af Ota 10lh CMtarw (Loadtm.
ISM): fiSADT. Emaan^ Svre—ion. in Qnat A-tteM owl l>w-
hmd (BoBM, 1676-1877); Mobak, ByUiUgivm 0—arinM, I
goUU BaooDor, Propiiona<mlw eoAMea -mriUtU$

Chabus McNsiUb

TkmuTf MATTmAS, b. at PUsen in Bohemia, 28
Fcb» 1630; d. at Prague, 8 Feb., 1692. He entered
the Sooiety of Jeeus in 1646. The greatest part of hia
life was spent at Prague, where he taught humanities,
philosophy, theology, and Scripture, was made rector
of the impniat university, and guided for six years the
Boheidan province of his order. Not only did Tan-
jier bum to imitate the apostles and martyrs of the
Society, but. to awaken in bis brethren a like desire,
he employea his leisure hours in recounting to them
the lives and deaths of the most prominent sons of
St. Ignatius. His two works, Societas Jeau ad
aanriinis et vitae profusionem militans" (a history <rf
the Uvee and deaths of those Jesuits who suffered
martyrdcon for the faith) and "Societas Jesu Aposto-
kniim imitatrix" (desoriDing the heroic deeds and vir-
tues of the Jesuits who laboured in all parts of worid
wil^ extramdinary success Ux the salvatbn of souls)
were written in this spirit. He paid special attention
to reverence and devotion during the holy sacrifice
of the Mass. According to his Sif^rai^ier, he used
to celebrate with such hving piety that he was like
a lodestone, attracting the faitmul to the altar where
he offered the saoiifios. To foster this reverence in
others, he wrote two oUier works, "Explanation <tf the
Koody Sacrifice <^ Christ in the Unbloody Saiaifice
of the Mass", which was re-edited three times, and a
panwblet proclaiming God's wrath axainst those who
should dare to desecrate holy temples by their mis-
behaviour. His name became more widely known
through his work, "Dialogue controversisticus" on
the validity of the Holy orders conferred .on Andrew
Frommena during the lifetime of his wife.

SoMUEBVooiL, Bai itlaCdt J., VII, lS&»-ei: Di Qmv-
BKaiir, ISinsiogt. AwaUtanot d4 OtrmmaU. I. 133-34; Fblum.
Ditt. AM., VIU. 357-fi8: Huana, Nommdatar.l. 364; II, 661.

A. G. COTTKB.

Tantum Ergo, the opening words of the penulti*
mate stansa of the Vesper h^rmn (see Panqb Lingua
Glokiobi, II) of Corpus Chnsti. This stanta wd the
<Boaing one, or doxology ("Genitori" etc.), form a
separate hymn which is prescribed for BefMoiotkm of
the Blessea Sacrament (q. v.).

Id private expositkm, niun pmntadon has

been obtained to give benediction with the pyx,
the two stansas are recited by the priest (or
sung by a choir, if this ia feasible: "si fieri
potest, optandum eet", says Van der Stappen). In
other expoaitrans thfqr must alw^ be min^. Cus-
tnns vary in respect of the method of singing. In
some places the choir sings the stanzas; in others, the
oeldvant sin^ the opeoin^ words of each stansa, the
choir oontinumg. The Ritual (Tit. IX, c. 5) speaka
of all the clergy {veeent ■■nging the stanzas, and Beho-
ber {Ctaetaouitd missarum solemnium et pontifioa-
lium), commenting on this, suggests that either the
cdebrant and aasisting cler^ should intone the first
line of the atania, or the dioir akme should sing both
Ctansas. A profound inclination of tiie head is made
at the words "veneremur oemui" (Wapdhorst). The
"American Ecclesiastical Review" (XXI, 1880, 644)
points out that the rubrics do not prescribe
an inclination of the head at the words ^'venere-
murcemui", although the practice is frecfuent. "Qar-
dellini, in his "Commentary on the Clementine In-
struction" (XXIV, 9-10). cites the custom of the
ehurdiea of Rome; and tne Rituals before his day
make mntion of we pnrfound indinaticMi at the Tan-
tum down to the word "cemui": "naminverbo
cemui completur dictionis sensus, qui incllnationem
poetulat". Authorities differ as to the time for in-
censing. MartinuGci directs the placing of incense in
the thurible before "Tantum ergo" and the incensing
after "veneremnr oemui". De Carpo stu^ests both
either before "Tantum ergo" or after veneremur
oemui", aooording to tiie eustom ot the particular
dnirdk. Wapelhwat, IbUowin^ De Herdt, direeta
that both take place when "Qeutori" is intoned.

The "magnmoent doxok>gy" (W. A. Shouhs in
Julian, "Diet. (tfHymnoL") is a fitting climax to the
great hymn. It borrows, however, toe expressions
Genitori Genitoque" — "Procedenti ab utroque,
Compar" from a Penteoost sequence by Adam of St-
Vietor. Dreves, "Analecta hymnica", IV, 70, gives
a aaquenee in hononr (rf St. Agnesi in which ooeon
theatania:—

Genitori Genitoque^
Psallat nostra concio;
Frocedoiti ab utroque
Compar sit laudatio;
Virgmalis ipsum quoque
Laudet benediotio.

Of the muaieal aettinga, which are very 'abundant,
the ^>propriate word must be one of oauttoD
in view of the directi<m of Pius X in his Instrue*
tion on Sacied Music (22 Nov., Id03, filV): "In the
hymns of the Church the traditional form of the
hymn is to be presoved. It is not lawful, therefore,
to compose, for instance, a Taniun ergo in sut^ wise
that the first strophe presents a Tomarua, a ematma,
an adaaio, and the Qmitori an attegro." Sinnniber*
«r, "Guide to Catholic Church Music" (St. Fniam.
Wiaoonain, 1905), gives gnule, vmce8,oompoeer,eto.,«f
more than six himdred settings of the "Tantum ergo"
and the "Pange lingua", almost wholly of the German
Ceoilian School. Sinoe 1003 many settings, also li^
urgically correct, have ameared 1^ composers of
other nationalities. The Vatican Graduale (1906)
(dvep two phunchant mekidiea, or rathv two forms of
the same melody.

Neale, "Medueval Hymns and Sequences" (3rd
ed., London, 1867, 178-81), discusses translations of
the "Pange lingua", and, speaking of the penulti-
mate stansa, remarks that tbo lines "Prsestet fideesup*
plementnm Sensuum defeotui" are "avoided by all"
the four authors he mentions, and notes that ''Cas-
wall's translatiiHi, unshackled by rhyme, is nearest"
to the original Latin: "Faith for all defects supplying.
Where the feeblC'Senses faU". Neale's own transla-
tim of thii atanaa ia giv«oi| with ali|ht ahmtiona. in

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vunioox 4

"^nms.Aneieiit and Modem" in the (Baltimore)
"Maaufti of Prayers", and in the "Englidi H/mnal".
Ekxne of the earliest tranaUtimia oi the two Imes are:
"And whwe our Koise is seen to fail, Thm must faitik
supply restore" (Primer, 1604); "And faith with alL
those wants suppb^ Wherein the senses feel defect
(Primer, 1619) ; ^' Let faith in Jesus Qirist mxwly The
senses' insufficiency" (Prima*, 1685); "And faith for
all defects supply. Whilst sense is lost in mystery"
(Primer, 1706). One of the most recent translationa
is that of the revised Husenbeth, "The Missal for the
Use <rf the Laity" (London, 1903, 286) : "Lei iu rao-
f oundly bmd befwe This awful mystery, and adore:
Let types of former days give wav, like ^i-lma^ at
the blaze of day; And sense's failure be siqqdied By
faith, our firm sapp<wt aod guide. "

H. T. Exaa,

Tanuool, Bbrnabdo, Marchess, Italian states-
man, b. at Stia in Tuscany, of poor family, in 1698: d.
at N^>ka, 29 April, 1793. At the University of Pisa,
whne certain benrfactors enabled him to study, he
was appointed in 1726 to a chair of law, and attracted
att^tion in the republic of scholars by the vehe-
mence, rather than by the midition, with which he
drfended the authenticity of the Codex P»anus of
the Pandects.' When Charles, son of Philip V of
Spain, passed through Tuacany on his way to con-
quer the Kingdom of Ni4>le6, he took Tanucci with
him; he qipomted him at first oouncil <tf state, tium
8upainten<uiit of posts, and finally prime ministar.
On the 'last oeoasi<m uie king ennobled him. As
prime minister he was most zealous in establishing
the supremacy of the State over the Church, and in
abolishing the privil^es of the nobility together with
feudalism. He restricted the jurisdiction of the
bi^ops, impeded the last incr«nent of the so-caUed
mortmain, and reduced the taxes belonging to the
chanoo^ of the Roman Curia. All this was sanc-
tioned m the Concordat of 1741, the implication of
iriiioh, however, went far be^nd the mtaiticHis of
tiie Holy See. For controversies which might arise
in consequence of the Concordat a mixed tribunal,
composed of ecclesiastics and laymen, was consti-
tute. But Tanucci went much farther, establishing
the principle that not more than ten priests should be
ordained for every thousand souls, which number was
later reduced to five for each thousand. The Placet
wu rigoroiKly enforced. The censures bishcqw
against l^men incurred by obedienoe to the state
laws were annulled. Without pemuBsicm ftf the king
new churches could not be erected.

His hostile policy to the Cbureh led Tanuoci to
neglect other interests, above all the foreign relations.
In 1742 an English fleet serioudy threatened the Nea-
p<^tan coasts, and the kingdom was saved cmly by
tiie mgnatuxB of an act of neutrality in the war be*
tween Spain and Austria. For the reformation of the
Uws he instituted a commiBBion of learned jurists with
instructions to compile a new code, which was, how-
ever, not put into force. When Charles III of Nicies
succeeded to the throne of Spain in 1759, Tanucci was
made president of the coimoil of r^toioy instituted
for the nine-year-okl Ferdinand V. Tbe latter, even
when he attamed his majonty, preferred to hold aloof
from the government businees and plunged into the
pleasures of the chase. Furthermore, the former
King Charles III, fUthouf^ in ^ain, continued by hia
instructions to Tanucci to govern the kingdom. The
latter could now with greater freedom take up bis
hostile policy to the Church. The revenues of the
vacant bishoprics and abbe^~and as time went on
their number ahn^ incnased — were oodfiscated.
Thir^-ei^t convents were suppressed; tithes were at
first restncted, then abolished; the acquisition of new
property by mortmain was forbidden, and new re-
oteietions were made against the tecnutment of the

16 vAomi

clergy. The Plaeet was even extended to aaaent
P^mU Bulls, and the piim^le was eetaUished that
ooDceasicaia of an ecolesiastio^ nature, not made or
asBHited to hy the Idog, oould be revoked at ideasun
by the same king or by his successors. In this ma^
ner it was possible to suppress or change teatamenta
in favour m the Church at the pleasure of the kinf ,
who, according to Tanucci, possessed this powa di-
rectly from God. Appeals to Rome woe forbidden
without the royal pmnission. Matrimony was de-
clared a civil contract hy nature, from which principle
the trial <A matrimonial cases by ^vU oomtB was
deduced. By the order of Charks III the JsMiitB
were suiniraaed and en>elled from the Kingdom of
Naples (1767).

This e]q>u]sion of the Jesuits was part of the
movement oS the Bourbon courts throughout Europe
to destroy the Society, Pombal in Portu^ Aranda
in Spain, Choiseul in France, and Tanucci m Nimlee
acting in concert to this end. Scarcely had Clement
XIV been elevated to the pmitifioate than he was
u^iently solicited by the Bourbon courts to wagptem
the Jesuits, and no ^ort was leit untried oy the
Bourbon ministers to aocompluh this purpose. The
pope pleaded time and patimce in the examination
of the charges against the Society, but was ovobome
by the incessant and menacing attitude of the Bour-
bon league against the Jesuits. Tanucci laboured
with no less eaergy in the war upon the Society of
JeeuB than FwnMl, Aranda, and Choiseul, with
whan he was in close sympathy in their genoal hos-
tilily to the Qiurch as well as in their determination to
bring about the complete suppresdon of an order (rf
men, whose widespread influence was a chedE upon
their own high-handed methods against the freedom
of the Church. To excommunication by Clemmt
XIII Tanucci responded with the occupation of Bene-
Tento and Pontecorvo, which were not evacuated
until after the supmeasion of the Jesuits in 1773.
The inotests of the bishops against many <rf the new
teachings in the schools after the expulsion of the
Jesuits were dismissed as invalid- One of the last of
his acts was the abolition of the chinea, that is the
annual tribute which the kin^m of Naples since ihe
time of Charles of Anjou had paid to the pope as
sovereign (1776). His unfortunate polity in fimmce
and in regard to the food taxes invoked popular
revolutions on several occasions. But when, m 1774,
Queen Caroline, an Austrian princess, ento^ the
Council of State, the power of Tanucci bc^an to de-
cline. In vain he endeavoured to neutralise the in-
fluence of the qucOT, and in 1777 he fell into disgrace
and was dismissed. Retiring hito die ooimtiy, he
died neglected and childless.

Tanucci represaits the Italian type of that unfor-
tunate species of statesman of the eighteenth centmy
the most prominent example of which was Uie notori-
ous Fombal. Sceptics in faith and in morals, ihay
were "anti-clerical" because th^ aspired to a um-
versal tyranny of the State, in which the king should
be a figurehead while the minister Imnself was the
mastw. They desired to expel the Jesuits, accusing
than, as one would say torday, "of hboalism"; they
ably prepared the way tot the power of sects and tin
crash of revoIutionB.

(Florenee, 1783) ; Collxtta, Sloria dd regno di Napoli dot J735 si
tStS. I (Ckpolaeh ISM). 8w al»o tb* dooummta tad itatntM
m u» wppiwMoa of Um Jamtta. Among tha publio*tioM of
Tuaodan BpltUh ds fondadiM pimit (2 vols., ^orawM, 1731).

U. BbnionI.

Taoiim (Tao-kiao) is the second of the three state
religxms OSan-ikvKi) (rfChina. This leligiim is derived
from ihe (^osophioal doetrinse ol lAO-tse. "Lao-
tie's Taoum", says Lecge (Reli^ons of China,
229), "is the exhibition ofa way or method aS hving
irtuoh men should cultivate as toe highest and purest

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TAOmM

4^

TAOmH

develoiHDeDt of their nature". Aaxuding to De
Groot (Religious System of China, IV, p. 66):
"Taoism, as the word indicates^ the RelisioD of
Tao, a term meaning Path or Wi^r, but deootiajg in
this peculiar case the w^, oourse ot moranent wtfae
Unrrarae, Iier TwocesBeB and meUwda. In other
wwds, Taoism is the Religion of Hecven and Earth,
of the Cosmos, of the World or Nature in the broadest
sense of these words. Hence we may call it Na-
turism".

Lao-tse, the equivalent to "the Old or Venerable
Philosopher" (if tekenasatitleof req>ect), or to "Old
Boy" (if literally translated), was bom in the third
year of Ting Wanfc Prinoe of Chou, L e. in 604, at
K'io-jin, in the Kmgdom <A Ts'u. to-di^ HoHoan
Provmce. The legend oven by Ko Hung in his
"Recwd of Spirits and Immortals" (written in the
fourth century a.d.), says that "be was not bom till bis
mother had earned him in her womb seventy-two
years or, acpording to some accounts, ei|^ty-one
years". "NV wonder", adds Leege (L c, pp. 2^-4),
"that the child should nave had white hair, — an 'old
boy' of about fourscore years"! This date of 604,
in acocutUnce with histwioal tradition, is not gjvcn
by Sienna Ts'ien in the bit^raphy which he devoted
to the philosopher in his "She-ki'' (Historical Mem-

oirs); if this date be accepted, it is difficult to admit
of the authenticity of the meeting between Lao-tse
and Confucius, 5()0 b.c; if the latter was then 0fty-
one years old according to Chwang-txe, Lao-tie was
^en one hundred and four years old. The family
name of Lao-tse was Li, his name Eul (meaaiag
"Ear")» his honorary title Pe^ang, and his posthu-
mous name Tan (meaning "Plat-eared")- He was
one of the "Sse", recorders, histmioKraphers, keep-
ers of the archives oi Lo, the Court oT the prmoee of
the Chou dynasty. Foreseeing the decay of this
dynasty, he gave up his office, and undertook a
journey; at the Han-Lou Para, Ho-nan Province, the
watchman, Yin Hi, begged him to write his Uunigbts
for his own instruction before he r^ired from the
wcHidi consequently, Lao-tze wrote his wwk in \mo
parts m the Tao and the Te, and having entrusted it
to Yin Hi, be disappeared; the time of the death of
the philosopher is not known. Lao-tse had a son
called Tsung who was a general the Kingdom of Wei
and who obtained the grant of land at Twan-kan.
ECis son named Chu had himself a child Kung; Hia,
^nndsoD of Kung, was an official under Emperor
Hiao-wen-^, of the Han dynasty; Kiai, son or Hia,
became a ministCT of K'iang, King of Kiao-si, and,
owing to this circumstance, settled with his family in
the iQngdom of Ts'i.

This story is too matter of fact and lacks the mar-
vellous legend which should surround the person of
the chief of a new religion. Legend was provided for.
Ko Hung, already mentioned, had placed the legend
of Lao-tse at the bei^nning of the "Shon-sion-ch*-
wan" (Records of Spirits and Immwtals), and he
says: "His mother carried him after the emotion she
felt in seeing a laree shooting star. He received from
Heaven the vital oreath: as he was bom in a house
whose proprietor was called Li (Pear tree), so he was
named Li Some authors say that Lao-tze was bom
before heaven and earth. According to othors, he
posMssed a pure soul emanated from heaven. He
bdoI^sed to the class of epirits and gods. The chief
work of Lao-tze, in fact the only one which has
been ascribed to him with some probabiUty, is the
"Tao-teh-king". In the "China Review" (March-
April, 18S6), Dr. Herbert A Giles wrote a sensational
article, "The Remams of Lao Tiu", to show by vari-
ous argum^ts that the "Tao-teh-km^" is a spurious
vnak. and that its now spurious portions have been
moBt^ mistranslated. It was the starting-point of a
onttrover^y in whieh Dr. Chalmers, Dr. L^ge, Dr.
Edkinff and aome other lanologiiwi took part. Hie

autiuntieity of the work has been admitted by most
of them. WyUe si^s (Notes on Chinese Litera-
ture, new ed.. p. 216): "The only work which is
known to be truly the production of Lao Keuu is the
'Tadu tih king', which has maintained its r^utation
and secured a popularity to a certain extent among
reading men generally of every denomination."
L^^ writes (Religions of China, p. 203): "No other
wnUng has come down to us from the pencil of
L&o-tsze, its author", and (Brit. Quart. R^v., July,
1883, p. »): "We know that Lao Tzu wrote the 'Tao
T6 Clhing'", and (p. 11): "The 'Tao T6 Ching' is a
genuine retic of one of the most original minds of the
Chinese rao^ putting his tbou^ts on record 2400
years ago." The Geaman £■ Faber (China Rev.,
XIU, 241) says that "there ia little room left for
doubts regardmg the authenticity of our Canon."

Besides the '"Tao-teh-king", a good many works
treat of Taoism: the "Yin-fu-king-kiai" which pro-
fesses to be an enmsition of the oldest Taoist record
in existence; "Ts^ing-tsin^-king" (The Book of Pui^
ity uid Rest); the "T'ai-hsi-king" (Respiration of
the Embryo); the "T'ai-shang-Kan-yiw-pien" (Trao^
tate of Aoticms and their ReUibutiond. Hie chief
Taoist philosophers are: Tsou-yuen (400 b. c),
author M a work on the influences <^ the five ruling
elements, influenced by Buddhist doctrines; Kwei-
ku-tse (380 B. c), a mystic, astrology-, and fortime-
tella; Ho-kwan-tze (325-298 B. cp, an orthodox
Confucianist when writing on jurisprudence, a
Taoist in other writings; Chwan^-tze (330 b. c),
the authw of the "Nau'jiua" classic, the adversary
to MenduB, and according to Eitel "the most
original thinker China ever produced": Shi-tze
(280 B. c), a Taoist writer, influenced by the
heterod(a philosopher, Yang-chu ^50 b, c), the
Apostle (A Selfishness; the statesman Han-fei-
tse (260 B. c); Liu-ngan or Hwai-nui-tze (d. 112
B. c), a coemc^nist. But the first disdpks of Lao-
tze were Kang-sang-tze (570-543 b. c), the first
eqwsitw ct Taaaata as a distinot system, the sceptie
Li-tie (600 B. c.),and Wen-tae (500 b. c). The his-
torian Sze-ma-ts'ien spiking tA Chwang-tze says:
"He wrote with a view to asp^se the Confucian
school and to glorify the mysteries of Lao Tze. . .
His teachin^^B are like an overwhelming flood, which
spreads at its own sweet will, d^nsequently, from
rulers and ministers downwards, none ooula apply
them to any definite use." Giles (Chinese Literature,
60) conoluoes from this passage: "Here we have the
key to the triumph cl the Tao of Confucius over the
Tao of Lao Tze. The latter was idealistic, the former
a practical system for evenr-day use."

As De Groot observee (1. s. c, IV, 67): "Taoism
being fundamentally a rehgion of the Cosmos and its
suboivisions, old Chinese (Joemogony is its Theogony.
It conceives the Universe as one lar^ (Kganism ai
powers and influences, a Uving machine, the core of
which is the Great Ultimate Principle or T'oarkih,
comprising the two cosmic Breaths or Souls, known
as the Yang and the Fin, of which, respectively.
Heaven and Earth are the chief depositories. These
two souls produce the four seasons, and the phenom-
ena Nature represented by the lineal figures
called kwa". In fact the Yang and the Yin produce
by the -power of their co-operation all that exists,
man inenided. AncMmt Ohmese philoBophy attrib-
utes to man two souls: (1) the ahen, or immaterial
soul, emanates from the ethereal, celestial part fA the
Cosmos, and consists of yonj; mibstance. When oper-
ating actively in the linng human body, it is called
h'i or 'breath', and hwan; when separated from it after
death, it lives as a refulgent spirit, styled ming.
(2) The kwdt the material, substantial soul, emanates
mim the terrestrial part ctf the Universe, and is
formed of ym substance. In living man it operates
undm the name of p'oA and on his death it retuniB to

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TAOS

TAOS

the Earth" (De Oroot, IV, p. 6). Thus the koH u
burled with the man and the thm lingers about the
tomb. Marking the distinction between the two
bouIb, there existed in the l^endaiy penod. acoording
to the "LMti", a saerifidal wwahip to each aoul sep-
arately: the hwm or Jb'i returns to heaven, the ^oA
returns to earth. These two souls are composite;
in fact all the viscera have a particular then. ''There
are medical authors who ascribe to man an indefinite
number of souls or soul-parts, or, as they express it,
a hundred ahen. Those souls, they say, shift in the
body according to the age of the owner; so, e. ^. when
be is 25, 31, 68 or 74, ana older, they dwell in his fore-
head, so that it is then vmr dangerous to have boils
or ulcers there, because ^Fusion of the blood would
entail death. At other times of life they nestle
under the feet or in other parts and limbs, and only
in the 21st, 38th, 4l8t, and 50th years of life they are
distributed equally through the body, so that open
abscesses, wherever they aiq>ear, do not heal then at
all. Such pathologic nonsense r^ulates, tif course,
.medical ^actice to a high degree^* (De Groot, IV,
p. 75). The liver, the lungs, and the kidneys corre-
spond to the spring, to the autumn, to the winter, aa
well as to the east, the west, and the north. The soul
mav be extracted from a hving man;_ the body may
still live when left by the soiu, for instance during
sleep; the soul of a dead man may be reborn into other
bodies. Ghosts may enter into relation with tiie
Hving, not otify in dreams, but tiiey may take re-
venge on their enemies.

At the head of the Taoist Pantheon is a trinity oi
posons: (1) Ytten-ahi-t'ien'-lmn, "the honoured one
of heaven, first in time", residing in "the jade-etone
r^on", who created the three worlds; (2) Linff-pan'
fien-tsun, "th# honored one of heaven who is valued
and powerful", residing in the "upper pure r^on",
collector of the sacred books, calculator of the suo-
oession of time, and the r^ulator ol the two prin-
cdples yin and yang; (3) Lao-tse himself, who exposed
to mankind the doctrines uttered by the first pawn
in the trinity and collected in the form of books by
the second. Next come: Ytih-kvxm{/-4a-ti, "the great
jade-stone emperor", who Koveme the physical uni-
verse; Hen-t'u-kvxtng-ii-k'i, Spirit of imperial earth,
ruler of the soil"; the star gods^whoee lora (atfHf-cAu)
reudes in a star near the pole: T'im^VKmff4ehti, who
in the pde star, etc.; lAvrtgu, the "father <rf
thunder", ''whfle he discourses on doctrine, his
foot rests on nine beautiful birds. He has under him
thirty-six generals, t'ien tsiang" (Edkin^ "Joum.
North China Br. Roy. Asiat. Soc.," Ill, Dee., 1859,
p. 311): the sun and moon; the Smi-yuen or Saii-hoan,
''the three rulers" who preside over three depart-
ments of physical nature, heaven, earth, and vaier;
Hiuen-leim^hang^i, " hign emperor of the darii heav-
en", who ia described as the model of the true aacetic.
He has transftmned himself eighty-two times to
beeopoe the instructor of men in the three national
religions (Edkins, 1. c, p. 312). A number of per*
soni^ee were worshipped under the name of tou,
patnarchs. Confucius himself has a place assigned
him among the deities of this rehgion, and he is
addrrased as "the honoured one of heaven who causes
literature to flourish and the world to prosper"
(Edkins). Some men have been worshipped as gods
after their death: Kwan-tt, the god of war; Hu-tsu,
a physician; a medical divinity, Ko-tsu Sa-tsu; etc.

One may well ask how the pure, abstract doctrine
of Lao-tze was turned into a mealey of alchemical
researches, a practice of witchcraft, with the addition
of Buddhist superstitions, which constitute to-day
what is called Tao-kiao, the religion or the teaching of
Tao. This was the work ot a legendary being, Chang
Tao-ling, a descendant of the eidith generation of
Ouuig Leaiu, a celebrated adnsor of Lin-pang,
foiuuur of ths Han dynasty. He waa bom in the

tenth year of the Emperu- Kwang Wu-ti (a. d. 34^
in a cottage of a small Village oS the Che-kiang Prov-
ince, at the foot of the T'iai^mu-8han, in the Hang-
ohou Prefecture. At an early age Chaiig studied the
works of Lao-tse to which he added' researches of
alchany, a seiaice aiming at "prolonging life beyond
Ihe limits assigned by nature". He found the drug
oS imnunrtality, and by order of Lao-tee he destn^ed
the six great demons of the province; Lao-tce gave
him also two books, two sworffe, one male, one female,
a seal called Tu-kimg, etc. Chang gave his swords
and books to his son Heng, bidding him to ctxitinue
his pontificate from generation to generation. At noon
on the seventh day of the first moon til the seoond
year Yung-ehou of the Han Emperor Heng (&. n. 157),
Tao-Iin^ ascended the Cloudy Mountain (Fun-
<Aan) with his wife and two disciples, and with them
disappeared into heaven. Chang Hene, son of
Chan^ Tao-ling, continued his father's tradition both
in spuitual and alchemical researches, and Chang
Lu, the grandson, played an important part in the
Yellow Ow^Reb^on at the beginning of the Han
dynasty. Dining the fifth century a. d., when the
Wei dvnasty was ruling in Northern China, a cer-
tain E'iu Kten-che tried to substitute himself to the
Chang femily and received in 423 from the emperor
the title of T'ien-thi, "Preceptor of Heaven", which
formo-ly belonged to Tao-ling. In 748 the T'ang
Emperor Hiu^-Tsung conferred this title upon the
heirs of the latter, and a grant of a larf^e property
near Lung-hu Shaii was made to them in 1016 by
the Sung Emperor Chen-Tsung. Heredity in the
charge of high priest of the cult was secured to the
descendants of Chang by the transmigration of the
aoul <A Tao-ling's successor, at the time of his demise^
to the body of a junior member of the family, whose
sdeetion is indicated by a supernatural phraomenon.

To-day, at the bead oi the Taoist hierarchy is the
Cheng^irW'kiao-eAtnFjen, "Heir to the fcwndo* ctf the
Taoist sect"; this title was conferred by the Ming
dynasty upon Chang Cheng-shang, descendant frcon
Chang Tao-ling of the thirty-ninth generation. This
title '*Delong8, by an hereditary privil^e, to the first-
born descendinff in a direct line from Chang Tao-Ung.
He lives upon the Lung-hu Mountain, in the Kiang-si
Province. His office consists in using his magical art
to frighten demons away, to baffle diabolical influ-
ence, and to rrfrain the evil-doing souls of the dead.
He names the new Ch'enff-hwang, 'tute^ry deities of
the cities', and for a fee, he gives to Tsioists titles per-
mitting them to celebrate the ceremonies with more
solemnity" (P. Hoang, "Melanges sur 1' Administra-
tion ".34). In the capital of the empire the Taoist
priesthood includes: two Tao4u-sxe, superiors, a title
CMTesponding with that ot the Buddhists, Seng-iu-
ue; two Chei^f^, Taoists d right simpUcity; two ren-
/o, ritual TatustB; two Ch»4inii, Taoists of great excel-
lence, thaumatuiisus: and two Ch»-4, Taoists cit ^reat
probity, an inferior class td priests. In the provmcee
at the hotd of the priesthood are: Tao-H-ue Ton-H,
superior of the Taoists of a fu (pr^ecture), and Tao-
H-sze Fou Ton-fct, vice-superior of the Taoists of a/u;
Tao-chmn, superior oi the Taoists of a chou or a ^ing;
Tao-ktpei, superior of Uie Taoists of a him. The
superiors are appointed by the govemors-genoul
it»mg-lu), or by the govemors (fu-(*ai), on the preeen-
tation ol the praect oi sub-prttect of the dwu, finff,
or trim. Henri Cohdier.

Tftos Pueblo, an important town of the Pueblo
group, inhabited by Indians speaking the Tigua
bnguage of Shoehonean linguistic stock, and situated
on Taos River, Taos County, New Mexico, United
States of America, about fifty miles north-east from
Santa Fe. From an estimated pf^iulation of 2500 in
1630, and 2000 just previous to the outbreak of the re-
bellioD in 1080. it had dwnidled to 678 in 1788 and

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440

TAPXfiT&T

Btaads now at about 460. It waa first visited by
Coroaado'B men in 1540. About the year 1&20 a
Spaoiab Fraociacaa misaion waa eBtabliahed there un-
der the name of Saa Gerdoimo de Taoa. In the great
Pu^lo revolt of 1680 the people of Taoe took a promi-
nent put, their town being the headquarters of Vop6,
the leader of the rebellion; the two resident miasion-
aries were killed. On the reoooqueet of ttie country
some fifteen years later, most of the missioDs were re-
established, but under the attacks of the wild Ute and
Navaho the proq>erity of the Pueblo steadily de-
clined. In 1347 the pe(^le of Taos resisted the Amm-
can occiroation, killmg the nswty-appointed govonor,
Charlra Bent, uid a number of others. Asaresuktfaeir
town was stormed by the American troops, and some
IfiO of the Indians ware killed in addition to sixteen
othera afterwards executed for their part inthemasssr
ore. In 1910 troc^ were again called out to quell a
threatened rising. In eeneral culture and condition
the Taos people resemble the other Pueblos, but are
noted for thdr extreme tenacity of ancient custom,
and for a greater boldness of spirit, probably due to
the la^ admixture of Ute blood. The mission of San
C!er6nimo still exists, served by a secular priest, and the
principal festival occasion is the patronal feast of San
Gertfnuno, 30 Sept., a leading feature being a relay
foot-race; but maiQrof the old-time tribal rites are stiU
kept up by a large proportion of the people.

MiLin. PtvUm. ata^ttf tlu PiubU t/ Too* la Univwai^ oi
CbkMS pvtbUoBUons (Chw«to, 1808); Me kin UbUocrq^
uadar PuistA iNBum.

Jamu Moonst.

Taparelli (d'Azmouo), ALomus (christened
Prospkro), phuosoplm and writer on sociological
subjects, b. at Turm, 24 Nov., 1793; d. at Rune,
20 Sept^l862; interred near the altar of St. AJoystus
in the Church of St. Ignatius. His father, C^are,
was at one time ambassador of Victor Emmanuel I of
Sardinia to the Holy See, and his brother, Massimo,
was one of the Italian ministers of State. He was
educated under the Calasanctians at Senis and in the
Atbouo of Turin. He attended the miUtary school
of St-C>T at Paris for some months, but he was not
destined to be a soldi». He entered the Society of
Jesus at Rom^ 12 Nov., 1814. In his youth he dis-
played a bent tor mechanics, painting, and music, and
later invented a musical instrument which he called
tl^ violicmibolo (highly praised by Liszt and after-
wards at his swKestion named the gj/mpkanium), and
which was exhibited at the London Exhibition. He
was the first rector of,the Roman College after its
restoration to the Jesuits by Leo XII. He tau^t
phUosophy for sixteen years at Palermo, and tot many
years futerwards was attached to the editorial staff of
the "Civiltft Cattolica". His chief work, "Sa^o
teoretioo di diritto naturale apponato sul fatto", i. e.
" A liieoretical Essay on Natural Right from an His-
torical Standpoint" (2 vols., 7thed.,Rome, 1883), was
in a way the beaming of modem sociology. It was
tnmslated into German (RatMran, 1845) and twice
into French (Toumu, 1851; Paris, 1806). Herdn was
developed the position, at onoe_ widely accepted in
ocnaervative circles on the Continent, that the nor-
mal origin of civil government was by extension oS
paternal power through the patriarchal head of a
group of families. This essay was later abri(^ed into
^'An Elementarv Course in Natural Right" (6th ed..
Ni4)lee, 1860; also in French, Toumai, 1864; and in
i^panish, Paris, 1875), which was in use as a text-book
in the Universit^r of Modena. Next in importance is
hifl "Esame criuco degh ordini rappresentetivi neUa
society modema", i. e. "Critical Examination Rep*
reaentatrve Government in Modem Society" (2 vols.,
Rome, 1854; in Spanish, Madrid, 1S67). Bendes his
striking monogr^hs on "Natiuiality" (Rome, 1847),
"Sovereignty of the Vwtite" (Paknna 1848; Flor^
fluoe. 1840), and "Tlw hwnmAm oT War" (Qeoo*.
XIV

1847) be left a long list of articles in the "Civiltft
CattoUca" chiefly on subjects in poUtical economy
and social right, as well as an equaily long list of book
reviews on kindred tt^ios, which were acute and p«ie-
trating essays.

Dt darit MdolibtM prvtiniim ftwriiMMM fTurin. 1006);
SOMinnroosL, UMmMom da la C. 4a. J. jBnmeia. 1^;
CMM OamHea, mimV. voL IV. and aaiea X, voL XI. Tba
iaat nfenDMBlrai » eiitieftl of hfa wtiuno.

ffHAWtTO MaCUBT.

n^iMtrs. — ^A word of I^Vench ori^ naming a fab-
ric in which the two prooesses of weaving and em-
broidering are combined. The woof is not made in
the usual way by tbrowii^ the threads with a shuttle,
but is added to the warp by the aid of a needle carry-
ing a short thread of the colour called for by the ae-
sign. The fabric produced by this method of work,
in which richness of colour and exquisite gradation of
tints are easily obtainable, is a mosaic made up of
dyed threads. It u used for watl-baogiaip, floor and
furniture coverings. *It was so employed by the an-
cient Egyptians, passing from tbem through Western
Asia to Europe. Here, during the later Middle Ages
and the Renaissance the art of the tapiser reached a
high state of perfection, more particularly at Arras in
France, so much so that arras-work came to be the
common desimiation for all sorts of tapestry, no mat-
ter where made. In England, prior to the Reforma-
tion, the making of ta^lry was the special handi-
oraft of the monastic houses; and their arras-work was
in very great demand for reredoses, altar-fnmtals,
antependiuma, heatBS-cloths, sanctuary carpets, pal-
ace waU and choir hangings. They were not only
wrought alone purely ornamental lines, but more often
reittesented Biblical subjects, incidente in the lives of
the saints, historic scenes, or illustrated by aymbols
some point of Faith.

Matthew Paris records the fact that, among other
ornaments which, in the reigu o( Heniy I, Abbot
Geoffrey had made for his Church of St. Albans
"were three tapestry reredoses: the first a large one
wrought with uie finding of the body of St. Alban;
the other two figured with the parables of the man
who fell among thieves and of^ the prodigal son".
Antedating this ^ft, the Abbot Egetric gave to the Ab-
bey <A Croyland, some time before the year 992, "two
latge footrclothes (tapestry-carpets) woven with
lions to be laid out before the high attar on great festi-
vals and two ediortw ones traikd all over with flowers
for the feast da/s of the Apostles". A number of
these early English tapestries, in a Rood state of pres-
ervation, were saved from the vandalism of the first
Reformers, but the art of making ti^ieetiy declined
bef <»e their mistaken seal, bo much w that, when ti^i-
cetriM were wanted to decorate the walls of the House
of IxHds, representing the defeat of the Spanish Ar-
mada, the order had to be placed in Flanders. A
number of great artists have made designs for tapestry
work, notably Raphael, who, with the assistance of
Francisco Penni and Giovanni da Udine, executed
the coloured cartoons for the tapestries of wool, <nlk,
wd gold that now hang in the Vatican at Rome, the
most beautiful in existence. Raphael also prepared
cartowu for other tapestries; the lut he designed,
twelve in number, were made for Francis I of France
in 1510. He did not, however, live to finidi the car^
toons; his pupil, Giulio Romano, completed them.
The ti^Kstnes made from them now hang in the Vati*
can, in ttie apartment of Pius V.

D> CBAHMEAint, Tapaalni (LoDdoo, 1878); Cols. Tupaalnt and
Bmlbraidtm (London, lSS8) ; OoivvaBT. Biabiira da ia tavuatria,
damtU la moyan d(Miiw9u*diiMirar> (Toon, 1886); TaouaoN.jl
Butory of TivaMry fro^ tf*a BarUad Timaa wOU Oa Pr*»ent Day
{London. 1006); Onmu, Aram onMdUtfiiMdinri (Room. 1897);
HAUBn T Unrar, Tapieea da la Carina da SapaHa (Mndrid.
1903); Own, il.8korlflM«Keal5MeAm TdvaatryoMdKnAnidani
(N«« Ytmk, 1896): Rohcbaifd, La tapUtaria dona TmUqvUf
^wk Mflim, la tapiaaaria CPvia, 1882), tr. Davis, A

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450

TABANTO

Tapis, KuTUBAN, b. at Santa Coloma de Farnes,
CaUlonifl, Spain, 25 Aug., 1754; d. 3 Nov., 1826.
He entered the f 'ranciscan Order at Gerona, 27 Jan.,
1778, and joined the niisnonaiy College of San
Fernando, Mexico, in 1786. Reaching California in
1790, he was in Buccession stationed at the Indian
missions of San Luiu Obispo till 1793: Santa Barbara
till 1800; San Carlos tiU 1811; Purlsima Concepci6n
till 1813; Santa Ines in 1814; San Juan Bautista to
the day of his death. He was three times elected
■presuienie, orauperior, of the California mifisions, hold-
ing the office from 1803 to 1812. During the same
period he was also viaxrio forceneo of the Bishop of
Sonera for CalifOTnia. Father T^is was famiUar with
several Indian lai^ages, and noted for hie fondness
for teaching Indian boys to read and write. He was
a truly evangeUcal man, and was held in the highest
esteem by the missionaries for his learning and piety^.
Numerous letters from his hand are still extant. His
best and longest literary efEprt was his defence of
the missionary fathers and their missionary system
against the acciisations of Captain Goyoechea of the
Santa Barbara presidio. The arguments proved so
crushing that the Government denned it advisable to
promote the officer to a poet in Mexico. Fatho-
Tapis strenuously opposed taking the oath of alle-
giance to the so-called Republic of Mexico, which to
him was nothing but an attempt at putting Voltairean
principles into practice.

Santa Barbara Mitrion ArchtMt; Mianm Record* of varioua
rainsiona, notably San Juan Bautitla; EMGELaAXDT. The MUtiont
and Mittionariea of California, II (San PnnoiBoo. 1912); The
FratKuoana in Caiifnmit (Harbor Sprincs, Mioh., 1807).

Zbphtbin Enoblhabdt.

Tarabotti, Helena, nun and authoress, b. at
Venice, 1605; d. there 1&'52. Obliged by her father,
who was descended from a family of Bergamo, to
enter the Convent of Sta. Anna at Vem(», at we age of
eleven years, she remained t^ere, under the name of
Arcangela, without any rdigious vocation. In earn-
est study, her keen spirit found its element, and
through various works she became an authoress of
some repute. Her first books betray an unsettled
state of mind, but later she wrote treatises on the
spiritual life in which, through the influence of Car-
dinal Cornaro, Patriarch of Venice, ^e finally found
peace. Her more worldly works, J^riily pseudcm^-
mous, are: " Antisatira d'A[rcangela]T[arabottii in na-
posta alia satira Menippea contro il lusso donnesco
di Francesco Buonins^i", Venice, 1644; "Lettere
famiUari e di complemento", Venice, 1650; "Difesa
delle donne contro Orazio Plata", Venice, 1651; "La
sempIicitjL ingannata", Leyden, 1654; the last two
were written under the name of Galerana Barcitotti.
The books referring to spiritual life are: "La luce
monacale"; "Via per an dare al delo"; "ParadiBO
monacale"; "Purgatorio delle malmaritate"; "Com-
templaziom dell' anima amante".

CiOOONA, DeUt Tuaeriiioni Venetiane (Venice, 1824-^), I
laiHSS, 104. 350; II. 430; V, S36-37; VI, 807-06; I>iMumario
gatgnjuo larieo biograjleo Uaiiano.Dvt II (Flon&oe, 1848), 1610;
CANTfr. Parini a b Lombardta (MiitTn, 1854), 119.

LiVAHIUS OUOER.

Tumdius, Probus, and Andronicm, Saints,
martyrs of the Diocletian persecution (about 304).
The " Martyrologium Hieronymian." contains the
names of these three martjrs on four different days
(the four days 8-11 October evidently signify no more
than the date of a single day), with uie topwraphical
idoitifioation: "In Tarso CUicie", on 27 Sept. (ed.
De Rossi-Duohesne, 126), to which corresponds the
expreesioii, "In Cihcia", given on the two oi 5
ApriL and ^11 October. The expression, "In Pales-
tina' , given under 13 May (ibid., 60), is either an error
or refers to a special shrine of the martyrs in Palest'ne.
There are two accounts of the glorious martyrdom of
these three witnesses by blood, the first account being
held by Ruinart (Acta Martyrum, ed. Ratisbon,

448 sqO to be eutirely authentic. According to these
Acts, Tarachus, a native of Claudiopolis in Isauria,
Probus <A Side in Pamphylia, and Anc&onicus, who be-
longed to a prominent family of Ephesus, were tried
and horribly tortured three times in various cities, at
Tarsus, and at AnaEarbus of Cilicia. Thmr
then oondemned to death by wild beasts, and when
the animals would not touch them in theamphitheatK
they were put to death wiUi the sword. Hamack,
however, expressed doubts as to the genuineness of the
account (Gescbichtc der altchristlichen Literatun pt.
II: Die Chronologie, I, 479 so., note 5), andDele-
faaye (Les Wgendes hagjognmhiques, 135 sq.) puts
the martyrdom in the class of legends of martyrs that
he calls "historical romances". At the same time,
however, there can be no doubt as to the actual exist-
ence of the three martyrs. Their feast ie celebrated
in the Latin Church on 11 October, and in tiie Greek
Church on 12 October.

i4<te 8S., October. V. DM aq., eariiMt form of the AeU, P. O.,
CXV, 1008 aq., aeeond form, Biblialiuea kagicgnphioa graca,
mL Bolland. (2nd od.), 230; QrainiN, Lm mat^itolooM U»-
larivuM (Paria, 1908). Zti.

J. P. KiBSCH.

T^tfuito, Diocese op (TABEimMA), in southtfn
Italy, on a bay in the GuV of Taranto. The ancient
city was situated on an island, joined by two bridges
with the mainland, where the new city is built. Two
islets, S. Pietro and S. Paolo, protect tiie bay {Mar
arande), the commercial port. whUe the old city
forma another bay (Mar piccoto)^ a military port next
in strat^c importance to Spezzia; the coast and islets
are thero'ore very strongly fortified. The city has a
large export trade ana extensive works connected
with the construction of warships, whfle the fishing
industry, especially in the JIf ar piccolo^ is flouridiing.
The cathedral dates from the eleventh century, but
has been partially reconstructed in modem times.
The high altar h^ a silver statue of St. Cathiddus;
the saint's chapel, rich in marble and statues, with a
cupola decorated with a fresco of Paolo de Mattda,
is due to the munificence of Archbishops Lelio Braneao-
cio, Sarria, and Pienatelli.

Tarentum, called Taras by the Greeks, was founded
in 707 B. c. by some Spartans, who, the sons of free
women and enslaved fathers, were bom during the
Messenian War. "niey succeeded in conquering the
Menapii and Lucani. Like Sparta, Tarentum was an
aristocratic republic, but became democratic when the
ancient nobiuty dwindled. Its government was
praised by Aristotle. The- people were industrknia
and commercid, employing a mercenai^ army com-
manded by foreign leaders, like the King of Sparta
Archidamus II, Cleonyraus, and later Pyrrhus.
Alexander, King of Epirus, tried in vain to capture the
city; he then became an ally of the Romans, and hia
death in a new expedition against the Tarentinee led
to the first dispute between the two repubhcs. War
resulted from the violation of a maritune treaty by
the Romans (281). Tarentum engaged the services
of Pyrrhus, who, victorious at first, was finally con-
quered at Beneventum (275); in 272 the city was
taken by the Romans and included in the federation.
Even in those early days it was renowned for its
beautiful climate. In 208 it sided with Hannibal,
but was retaken in 205, losing its liberty and its art
treasures, including the statue of Victory. In
ancient times its poets Apollodorus and Glinias, its
punter iSeuxi^ and its matnematician Arehytas were
renowned. The Byzantines captured Taranto in
545 during the Gothic wars, but abandoned it in 6SSi.
In 668 it mionged to Romuald. Duke of Beneventum.
In 882 thr Saracens, having been invited by Duke
Radelchis to assist him, captured it and held it for
some time. It was retaken by the Byzantines, who were
forced to cede it to Otto II in 982; in 1080 it fell into
the hands of Robert Guiscard, wl^m^^ ^e ^pitoi
Digitized by ^

TABAPACA

451

TAKASIUS

of the PnnoinUitj of Taranto, and gATC it to Boflouind,
his aon. When the House of Anjou was divided.
TaiBDto fell to Durano (1394-1463). In 1004
Ferdinand, Kin^c of N^les, viJiantly defended this
extremity of his kingdom, but had to cede it to
Gonsalvo di Cordova. In 1801 it was taken by the
French, who fortified t^e port; in 1805 the Russian
fleet, allied with the British, remained then for
several months. TVanto is the birthplaoe of the
musician PaisieUo.

Aecording to the local legend, the Gioq>et was
preached in Tazanto by the same St. Peto' who had
consecrated St. Amasianus bishop. The city vene-
rates also the martyr St. Orontius. The first bi^op
wboBe date is known is lonocentius (406). In the
time of St. Gre^ry the Great, three bishops filled the
episco^ chair : Andreas (590), Joannes (601 ) ,
Hononus (603) . It is uncertain whether St. Cataldus
belongs to the sixth or the seventh century. Joannes
(978) IS the first who had the tide <A arvhbtshop. It
is weU known that Tanukto even under the ^^BMitines
never adopted the Greek Rite. Stephanus perished
in the battle of Nelfi (1041 ) fought bv the Greeks and
the Normans: Draco (1071) erecteci the cathedral;
Filippo (1138) was deposed for supporting the anti-

e>pe Anacletua II, and died in the monastery of
hiaravalle; Archbishop Angek) was employed in
several embassies by Innocent III ; Jacopo da Atri was
slain (1370) ; Marino del Giudice (1371) was one the
cardinals condemned by Urban Vl (1385). Cardinal
Ludovico Bonito (1406) was one of the few who re-
mained faithful to Gregory XII: Cardinal Giovanni
d'Aragona (1478), was son of King Ferdinand of
Naples; Giovanni Battista Petrucci suffered for the
complicity of his father in the conspiracy of
the barons: Cardinal Battista Orsini died in 1503
in the Castle of Sant' Angelo; Cardinal Marcantonio
Colonna (1560) introdu(^ uie Tridentine reforms
and established the seminary; Qirolamo Gan^>ara
(1569) was a distinguished nuncio; Lelio Brancaccto
(1574) suffered considerable persecution on account
of his efforts at reformation; Tommaso Caraociolo
(1630}, a Theatine, died in the odour of sanctity.
The city of Tarauto forms a single parish divided into
four pUtagerii, each of which contains a avh-pii-
tagerio. It includes the Basilian Abbey of S. M^ria
di Talfano, where there are still some AttuaUana fol-
lowing the Greek Rite. The suffragan Bees are
CasteUaneta and Oria. The archdiocese contains
25 parishes, 214 secular and 47 regular priests; 5
religious Iwuses of men, and 12 of nuns; and 220,300
inhabitants.

CAPPXLwm, £• dome d'HaKa, XXI; i>a VicBrmn, Sioria di
Taranlo (Tinuito, 18d5).

U. Bbnioni.

TanifaA, Tioabiati Apoerouc or (db Taba.-
PAcl), Situated in Chile, bounded on the ncnlh 1^ Uie
cafim ct the Cunarones and on the south by the
Loa RiTcr. It otunprises the civil province of the
same name, has an area of 19.305 square miles, and
a population of 106,215 Catholics and 3821 non-
Catholics. The diocese is divided into 11 parishes,
and has 63 churches and chapels, and 30 secular and
14 regular priests. The male reliuous orders are
represented by the fVanoisoans, Redemptorists, and
Salesians; they have 4 houses and 24 mesnbers. The
female orders are Sisters of the Good Sbqiherd of
Angers, of St. Joseph of Cluny, and the Salesian
Sisters; they have 50 members and 5 houses. In
Iqoique the Salesian Fathers have a ooll^ for boys
and tne Salesian Sisters one for gurls, the latter having
more than 200 pupils. The Sisters of St. Joseph of
Cluny have a school in Pica, and a hospital and
asylum for children in Iquique. The Sisters of the
Grood Shei^erd have a house of correction for women
in Iquique. There are many eooieties and pious
vmoiations in the dwoese, tlie pEtneipal being tnat ot

Ordm 8ooial for xaea, the Cmtro CrmHano and tbs
Society of St. Fhikuneaia for women in Iquique, and
the Society of St. Andrew in Pica. There are 5
primary schools with 481 pupils. The State pays an
annuity to the vicar Apostolic, and to the employees
of the vicarage, the parish priests, and curates, and
also contribute towards ' the construction of the
churches. The vicariate was erected in 1882, when
Chile took possession of the Province of Tarapaoi,
which had formerly belonged to Peru and to the Dio-
oese of Arequifn. Five vicars apostolic have ruled
the vicariate since its erection: Camilo OrtAzar;
Pl^ido Labarca; Daniel Fuenzalida; Guillermo Juan
outer, titular Bishop of Anthedk>n; and Martin
Raoker. The principal cities are: Iquique (45fW0
inhabitants) and Pisaqua (5105 inhabitants). The
population is composed mainly of miners and workers
in the saltpetre beds, who are homeless and little
given to the practice of their relijgion. To provide
a remechr and alleviate this condition, missions are
preached almost every year in the saltpetre works.

CatiUgv d» Jot EeUiidttieo; tic. dt CkiU (Santiaco, 1911);
Anuario BtladUtiea de ChiU (Suitiaeo, 1910); C«iU9 de In lUpOb-
liea de ChiU m 1907 (S^tiago, 19m.

Carix» S. Cotapos.

Tarailuf , Saint, Patriarch al Constantinople, date
of birth unluiown; d. 25 February, 806. He was the
son of the Patrician and Prefect of Constantinople,
George, and his wife Eukratia, and entered the serv-
ice of the State. In 734 when Paul IV Patriarch Ot
Constantinople died Tarasius was an imperial secre-
tary, and a champion of the veneration of images.
It may be that before his death the patriarch had
recommended Tarasius as his successor in the patri-
archate to the Empress Irene who was regent for h»
son Ckinstantine VI (780-797). After the burial of
Paul IV a ^eat popular assembly was held before the
Magnaura Palace to disaus the filling of the vacant
see. The empress delivered an oration on the new hp-
pointment to the patriarchate and the people pro-
clauned TarasiitB as the most wortfajr candidate. The
empress agreed but said that Tarasius refused to ac-
cept the position. Tarasius now made a speech him-
self in which he declared he felt himself unworthy of
the ofBce, further that the elevation of a layman was
very haiardous, and that the position of the Church
of ConstantiiMi^ had become a •nsey difficult one, as
it was separated from the Catholics of Western Europe
and isolated from the other Oriental patriarchat^;
consequently he would only be willing to accept the
position of patriarch on condition that Church unity
DC restored and that, in connexion with the pope, an
(ecumenical council be called. The majority of the
populace approved of these views and the imperial
Court agreed to it. So on 25 December, 784, Tara-
uus was consecrated patriardi. In 786 he oeat the
Iciest George as his le«ate to Hadrian I with a letter
m which he umounced his appointment. In his reply
the pope expressed his disapproval of the elevation of
Tarasius directly from the laity to the dignity of a
bishop contrary to canonical relation, but ^owed
clemency to rule in view of the orthodoxy of the new
patriarch's views, and recognised hiin as patriarch.
After this by joint action with the pope and the im-
pmal Court Tarasius called the Second Council of
Nioea, the Seventh (Ecumenical Counqil, which re-
jected loonoclasm (q. v.). Union with the Roman
Church was restored.

After the synod the patriarch had a number of
sliuggles not only with the Iconoclastic party of the
coital but also with a party <A Orthodox monks.
First, the latter upbraided him for restoring to office
the Inshops who had formerly maintained Iconoclasm.
but who had submitted to the decrees of the Council
of 787. As, however, this was in acoordance with the
decrees of the council the accusation was allowed to
drop. Aiiotb« accusation was mudi^iiioie swious.

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TAAAZONA

452

TABAZONA

nam^, that TarasiuB tolerated and encouraged
mxoiaay^ beoauae those bishops who had given money
to obtain thdr poaiti<»i8 were only eonunanded by him
to do a year's paoanoe and were pennitted to retain
their offices. The patnaroh daended himself in
writing against this accusation which he denied in
toto; moreover, he issued a severe ^odal lett^
against Simonists. The monks, however, were not
satisfied : they maintained their aoousattons and also
attackea the Council of 787. At a lat^ date Theo-
dwe of Studium, vbo took part in tiiese disputes,
dian^ his <^imon Tararius, and also of the Seo-
ond Council of Nicea, the oeeumenical character of
which he acknowledged. Many serious difficulties
still existed in regard to Western Europe. There were
also fr^ disputes in Constantinople when the Em>
peror Constantine VI put aside his lawful wife and
wished to mairy Theodata, a relative of Abbot Theo-
dore of Studium. Taiasius positiTely refused to
perfcMmtheseoondmamageaDdexpreaseahiBdiinleas*
ure at the conduct of the priest Joseph had mar-
ried the emperor. Hie zealous monks, whose leaders
were the Abbots Plato of Saccudium and Theodore of
Studium, accused the patriarch M weakness, because
he took no further et^ against the emperor. Thev
refused to have Church fellowship any longo- wHn
Tarasiua, and were, conseouently, violently perse-
cuted by the emperor who, however, also trra.ted the
patriarch harshly. After Irene had dethroned Con-
stantine in 797, Tarasius deposed the priest Joseph
and peace was once more restored between the patri-
arch and the m<mks. (See Th no dork op Stddiuu).
In 802 Tarasius crowned as emperor Nicephorus^ who
had overthrown Irene, an act that greatly dissatisfied
t^e populace. The patriarch had nothing to do with
tiie inbrigues of the Court. His life was ascetic and
simple, he checked the luxury of the clergy, preached
with great seal, and was very benevolent to the poor.
After his deatn he was venerated as a saint. His
name is also placed in the Roman Martyrology under
the date of 26 February.

loMATnm Duomnis, Vita 8, Jlvanf, «d. HatnL (Habbw-
Um. mi) ; HaMEwiilH'— a. Warim, 1 (lUtliboii. 18a7}.3M-dT:
HaaomiMM— -Kiasce, MtnluKgnAn II. 26 m.

J. P. ElBSCH.

Tamona. Diocusa of (Tubiabonbnsis), com-
prises the njanish provinces of Saragossa, Soria,
Navarre, ana Logrofio. The city <tf Tarasona has a
population of 8650, and is situated on a commanding
pomt, surrounded by a beautiful open plain, through
which the River Queiles flows. Turiaso was one of
the principal towns of the ancient Celtiberian prov-
ince, and within the confines of the diocese are found
many very ancient cities: Bilbilis (Calatayud) ;
Aqus Bilbilitanorum C^lhama); Ataeum (Ateca);
Augustobriga (Muro): Boverca (Buvierca); Bursao
(Borja); Cascjintum (Cascante): Gracuris (Corella);
Mon6briga (Mun^brega); and Vereegium (Verdejo).
Pliny numbers Tarasona among the principal cities
of the Celtiberians, and its inhabitants had the privi-
leges of citisensnip. Its coat of arms bore the
motto "Tubal-Cain built me and Hercules rebuilt
me". Nothuudefinite is known of the origin ot
Christianity in Tarasona. Owing to its proximity to
Saragossa it is supposed that it was viaited at an
early date by the oisciplee of St. James, but until the
fifth century there is no reliable mention of a bishop
oC Tarazona. The chronicler Idatius names Leo and
says that he lived in 449; the chronolo^cal list of
bishops gives St. Prudentius, but the history of this
saint is not positively known. The Tarasona Br»-
viary gives 390 as the date, but other sources place
him as late as the ninth eoitunr. Idathis tm Uut
Leo was killed in an uprising led by a certain Basiliaa
where the Bi^^de took refuge in the cathedral, and
In which a gnoA number were killed.

St. Gaudiosus, a fwmor monk of the Monuteqr of

Asanense and a disciple of St. Victorian, was bishop in
530. He worked a^unst the Arians, and died in his
native city, Escoron. His rranains were translated
to the Monastery of Asanense, and King Sancbo
Ramirez had them removed to Montearag6n. St.
BrauUo, in his life of St. Emilianus, speaks of a
Didymus, Bishop of Tarazona. A Bishop Stephen
assisted at the Third Council of Toledo and at the
Council of Saragossa; Floridius,' at that of Gundemar
(fill)} Elpisius, at the Fourth and Fifth Council of
Toledo; Anthoius i'SSS) sent a deactm to reweseDt
him at the Thuieentfa Council of Toledo; and N^o-
tianus assisted at the fifteenth and seventeenth. He
seems to have been the last bishop of the Visigothie
epoch. When the Moors took Tarazona they were
able to hold it for a long time on account of its forti-
fied position' near the Moncaya, between the Douro
and the Ebro. The names of its Mozarabic bishops
have not come down to us, although it is very prob-
able there were eaeb; on the other hand we Imow at
the Mosarabic saints, St. Attilanus, Bishop of Zamora
and St. Ifiigo of Calatayud. Alfonso I the Warrior
id BtUc^lador) took possession of Tarazona in 1110,
and named Miguel Cornel the bishop. Alfonso VII,
in an effort to |;et possession of Tarazona, intruded a
certain de Bujedo into the see; but de Bujedo re-
pented shortly afterwards, restored the see to its
ru^tful owner, Miguel, ana retired to the Monastery
ofV a^esta. The Council of Burgos, which was oon-
vened in 1139, and was presided oyer by the legate
Guide, took from the jurisdiction of Tarasona most
of the towns of Soria, but bestowed m its place Uie
Archdeaconry of Calatayud.

Miguel was the real restorer of the see. He
governed for thirty-three years, and established the
chapters of Tarazona, Calatayud, and Tudela, under
the Rule of St. Au^tstine. In his time also were
founded the Monasteries of Fitero and Voiiela.
Three bishops of the name of Frontin succeeded him:
Juan (1173-94); Garcia', who was present at the
battle of Las Navas, and Garcia II, the counsellor of
Jaime the Conqueror (el Conquistador). In a species
of national council held at Tarazona, the marriage
of Jaime to Leonor of Castile was declared null on
account of the relation^p existing between theoL
The Franciscans, Mereedarians, Dominicans, and
Trinitarians, and the Cistercian and Poor Clare nuiia
were established in the diocese at this time. Migud
Jimenez de Urrea, bishop from 1309 to 1316, was pro-
tected by Jaime II, and during the time of Pedro
Perez Calvillo the war between Pedro IV the Cere-
monious (el Cerenumioso) and Pedro the Cruel of
Castile took place. Tarazona was laid waste and
its cathedral desecrated by the Castilians. The
episcoi»l palace was burned, and la Zuda, sometimes
abo callea Alcftear de Hercules, the palace of the
Arab governors, was taken to replace it.

The following bishops are also worthy of special
mention: Jorje Bardaji (1443-^), son of an Ara-
goneee m^istrate; Oudinal Pedro Ferriz, favourite
of Paul II and Sixtus IV; Guillen Ramon de Moncada;
Pedro Cerbuna, founder of the seminary and of the
University of Saragossa (1585-07); Joteimo Ca»-
teUon y Salas, last InquisitorOffineral of Spain
(1815-35). The Churoh of the Magdalen was the
ancient cathedral, but the Moors, objecting to its
prominent position, compelled them to use a church
on the outsKirts of the town. In the records left by
Miguel this was variously called Santa Maria de la
Hi&a, de la Vega, or de la Huerta, on account of ita
position. It was endowed by T«%sa Cajal, mother of
Pedro de Atarte and wife of Boria, and had hma.
oommenoed in 1152. ArebitecturaUy it is a combina-
tion of Byzantine and Gothic, with a high portico en-
trance and a high brick-trimmed tower. The centre
nave with its pointed arches rises above the side
bUm and macsBB into a ^atnowu^ruis^. . In Um

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TAABIS

453

TAKBBB

windows the Gothic gives place to the PUteraque,
but in the side chapels dedicated to St. Lawrence,
IBt. Andrew, the Rosary, St. Peter, the Beheading of
St. John the Baptist, the Annun<uatioQ,St. Elizabeth,
the Purification, and St. James, the Qotfaic prevails
in the reredos and mausolrauns. Bishop Moneada
attempted to rebuild the beautiful cloister which had
been destroyed in the war with Castile, but aa late as
1529 this had not been completed. Beeidee the
Church of the Magdalen, the Church of St. Michael,
with its simple Giothic nave and that of the Con-
ception nuns, are also notable. The Church of St.
Francis is said to have been founded by St. Francis
himself in 1214, and CisomM was consecrated Bishop
of Toledo in the Chapel of La Fiedad in 1496.

The episcopal palace, the ancient Azuda. is built
upon a commanding eminence and has a beautiful
view. Bishop Calvillo purdiaaed this from the
Aragonese governor, Jordan F^rei de Urrles, in 1386,
and ontailea it to the bishofxio. The diooeean semi-
nary, dedicated to St. Gaudiosua, was founded in
1593 by Bishop Cerbuna. It has recently been ex-
tensively renovated. Mention should be made of
the monastery of Nueetra Sefiora de Veruela, a
Cistercian abbey founded by Pedro de Atar6s, and
now a Jesuit novitiate; also of the Church of Borja,
ranking as a coUwiate church since the time of
Niclwlas V (1449), favoured and .protected by Alex-
ander VI; and of the ancient oolladate churdi of
Calatayud, Santa Maria de Mediavilla, whose priors
ranked as mitred deans.

Di La Fdente. Eti>a*a Saarada, XLI7C, L (Madrid. 1865);
COADiuiH), Btpalia, Sua monutwnto* {Barcelona, 18S4); AsaAit,
SoUJad laumda if ttalro mmaHica de Tarazona, the most com-
ptots hlstwy of tms diocese.

Rauon Roiz Ahado.

TrtImi, Diocesb or (Tasbia), comprises the De-
partmoit of the Hautes-Pyrfe^ea (ancient territory
of Bieiam), included in 1802 in the Diocese of Bay-

onne, re-estab-
lished theoretically
by the Concordat
of 1817 and actu-
aUy by the Bull of
6 October, 1822.
The new Diooeee
of Tarbes lost
twenty-one p a r -
ishes which were
added to the Dio-
cese of Bayonue,
and twenty to the
Archdiocese of
Auoh; but the par^
isheeof the country
of the Quatre Val-
ines and of the
Valine de Louron,
formerly part of
the archdiocese of Auch and the bishwKrio of
ComnuDgee, were reunited to the Diocese oi Tarbes,
suffragan of Auch. Tradition has presored the
names of St. Girinus and St, Evex or Erex, as
the first martyrs of Bigorre. The district was
laid waste by the Vandals, who were afterwards
put to flight bySt, Missolinus, a priest; it was dis-
turbed by the Priscillianiat heresy and finally terror-
ized by the Arian Visigoths, who, in the reign of
Ewarik, waged a bloody persecution agunst the derfcy,
Mgr Duchesne oonsidns St. Justin miom Uie " OfuBa
Christiana" cites as the first in the list of bishops of
Tarbes, to have been only a priest, and excludes from
that Ust St. Fuustus, who, in nis opinion, is none other
than the celebrated Faustus of Ries. He considers
Aper, represented at the Council of Agde in 506, as
Uie first historically known bi^op of the see. Among
the successors are cited: St. Lanoeolus, bishop in S70;

Tbm Cathsdbai., TASsae

William I (1 120-41 ) who helped to draw up the ancient
"For de Bigorre," one of the oldest and most curious
monuments of we law of the Middle Ages; Pierre de
Foix (1462-64), cardinal in 1437: Gabriel de Gramont
(1524-34), cardinal in 1531, who attempted to ne-
gotiate between Henry VIII and the Holy See to
prevent a rupture.

The Benedictine monasteiy of St. Savin of Lavedan
was founded by Qiarlana^^ and shortty took the
name of the hermit and miracle woiker, St, Savin,
who was one of its monks and died before 840; the ab-
bot was lord of the territory and the villagee under his
obedience were called a republic. The Benedictine
Abbeys of St. Orens of Laireule and of St. Orens of
Lavedan were foimded, one in 970 and the other be-
fore the eleventh centuiy in honour of St. Orens,
Bishop of Auch, who had first lived as a hermit in
the Lavedan. The monastery of St-F6 de OtoSrte,
was founded about 1032 by Sauche, Duke of Gasoony ;
it was the cradle of the town of Saint-P£. The priory
of Sarranoolin was founded about 1050 in memoiy of
St, Ebboos, who fought against the Moors in Cata-
lonia and died at SarrftnooUn. The Abbey of Escale
Dieu woB founded in 1140; it was the daughter of the
Cistercian Abbey of Morimond. St. E^rtrand of
Comminges was one of its monks; another, St, Ray-
mond, was sent to Sfwin in 1158, whoe he founded
the Abbey of Fit^, and the celebrated semi-religious,
semi-militaiy order of Calatrava. St. Bertrand,
Bishop of Comminges (1073-1123), preached the Goe-
pel in the Valine d'Azun in the Diocese of Tarbee. To
make amends for the hostile reception that had been
given him, the inhabitants pledged themselves to give
the See ot Comminges all the butter that should be
produced in the territory of Anm during the we^ pre-
oeding PentecoBt; this impost mm paid down to 1780.
As natives of Bigorre may be cited: Cardinal Amaud
d'Ossat (1536-1604), bom at Larroque Magnoac, who
played an important part in the r^gu of Henry IV;
Bernard Pierre Caraase, bom at Tarbee at the open-
ing of the sixteenth century, who, from bein^ a war-
rior, became general of the Carthusians, revued the
constitutions of the order, and was so iUustriotis in his
day, that in 1582 Catherine de Medici vimted La
Chartreuse to see him.

The fame of the Diooeee of Tarbes has been Bpnad
throu^out the Christian world since 1858 by the pil-
grimages and the miracles of Lourdes (q. v.). Men-
tion must also be made of the pilgrimage of Notre
Dame de Garraison at Monl6oii, dating back to the
fifteenth oentury ; that of Notre Dame de Poueyl^un
near Eaux Bonnes, dating back to the sixteenth cen-
tury; the pilgrimage to Mazdres, near the vacant
shrme of St. Liberata, perhaps a martyr under Julian
the Apoetate; the pilgrimage to Arreau, to the oht^Ml
of St. Exuperius, friend of St. 3&rome, who died Arch-
bishop of Toulouse, about 417, after combating the
heresy of Vigilantius, Before the application of the
law of 1901 against the congregations there were in
the Diocese of Tarbes, the Priests of the Immaculate
Conception at Lourdes, Carmelites, and various teach-
ing orders of brothers. Several congr^ations of nuns
were originally founded in the diocese: the Sisters
of St. Joseph, hospitallers and teachers, with th^
mother-house at Cantaous; the Sisters of Notre Dame
des Douleura, hospitallers, with their mother-house at
Tarbes, and a branch house in Cairo; the Sisters of the
Immaculate Conception of Notre Dame de Lourdes,
with their mother-house at Lourdes. At the close of
the nineteenth century the religious congregations di-
rected in the diocese; 5 schools, 1 home for ^ck chil-
dren, 1 school for the deaf and dumb, 6 giris' orphan-
ages, 6 worlcshops, 3 homes for the poor, 12 hoepitab
or hospices, 3 houses of retreat, 6 houses of nuns de-
voted to nursing the sick in their own homes. At the
time of the abrogation of the Concordat (1905) the
DioeeBe TadM cmtained 215,546 iojiabitants. 28

Digitized by VjOOglC

TABINTAUK 4

eoTQi, 300 snoeonal ehureheB, and 186 Tmriatca

wards the Bupport of which the State contributed.

OaiUa ChriMoM (nm) (1715), 1, 1333-43. f/utnim., 191-7; Dc-
CBE8ME, FaiUt tviteopoux, II (Pftria, 1S94-9), 101-02: Coutusb,
Lt dioeite Tanu tt ton d^mitr hUlorien in SmtM at Gateognt.
VI (1S65), S7&-S5: DB LaorAib, UUloir* rdviMiM d* In Bvom
(Park, 1862): BAtsns, Msvti——: TMm <( wt «wtrMM, Ba^
«n*«t, AaiKMan. <piMdM (TWbM. 1888).

Obobois Gotau.

TknotalM, DsocMK or (Tarantabdsmbib), oran-
prisea tin arnnu&BeDwnt of Moutiera in the Demrt-

ment of Savoie; it is also sometimes called the Dio-
ceee of Moutiers en Tarentaise, and is 8ii£Fragan of
Chamh6ty. Legend relates that the "Centronee" were
evangelized in the fifth century by Jamea the Aasyiian,
secretary to St. Honoratus, Archbishop of Aries.
He became the first Bishop of Darantasia or Tarea-
taise, the metropolis of the "Cenbrooes' and named St.
Marodhu as lus suceeasor. The first documentin
which the Dioceee of Tarentaiae ia reliably mentioiied
is a letter of Leo the Great (5 May, 450) which aaagns
to the Archdiocese of Vienne, among other suffragans,
the Bishop Tarentaiae. The first histoncally
known bishop is Sanctius who in 517 aaasted at tbe
Council <rf Epaon. A plea was brou^t before the
Council of Frankfort (794) against thedeciaon of Leo
I that had be«i confinned by Popes Syimnachus and
Gregory tlie Great. Leo lU partly acceded to this
plM, sad made Darantana a metn^lia mth three
suffragans, Aoeta, Sion, and Maurienne, but main-
tained the primacy of Vienne. For four centuriee
this primacy was uie cause of conflicts between the
archbishops of Tarentwse and those o( Vienne;
subaequentty Maurienne was agun attached to the
metropolis of Vienne.

The city of Darantasia was destroyed by the
SaraoeDB in Hhb toith century, iriiereupon the arch-
bishoPB mored their rendokoe to the ri^t bank (rf
the wre, CfJling it their mmOier (monastery), and
it was at this place that the town of Moutiera began
to be built in the second half ol the tenUi centt^.
In the twelfth century the archbishops of Tarentaise
were powerful sovereigns. In 1 186 a bull of Frederick
Barmurossa recognized the Archbishop (A TarenUuse
80 inuiMdiate vaas^ of the empire and pnnce of the
HoW Roman Empire in disrerard of the pretendons
<rf Humbert' III, Count of Savc^ but in 135S a
transaction between Archbishop Jean de B^rand
and the Count of Savoy, Amadcus VI, fixed the respec-
tive rights of the archbishops and the counts. Taren-
taise belonged to France from 1535 to 1559, and from
the sixteenth to the eighteenth century was on four
oocafflons wrested for a time by France from the
House of Savoy. In 1702 it formed the Department
of Mont Blanc. The Treaty of Paris (30 Mav, 1814)
gave it to the King of Sardinia, while the Plebiscite
of 22 and 23 Apnl, 1860, gave it to France. The
Arch<Uoce8e of Moutiera in Tarentaise was suppresBed
in 1792 by the French Revolution. In 1825 a dio-
cese was re-established at Moutiers, suffragan of
Chamb^, and was mfuntfuned in 1860 in virtue of
a special clause in the treaty ceding Savoy to France.

Among the archbi^om of Moutiera in Tarentaise
may be mationed: St. Peter I (about 1130), the first
Osterdan raiaed to tlie episcopate, who founded in a
defile the CSsterdan Abbey of Tanii^, to serve as a
shelter for pilgrims and travellers: ike Cistercian
monk St. Peter II (1141-74) founded the charity of
the pom de Mai, which until the second half of the
aghteenth c^ntuiy distributed bread at Moutiers
at the expense of the archdiocese during the first
twenty-^ht days of May; it was he wno upheld
Alexander HI s^ainat Frederick Barbarossa ana the
Antipopp Victor IV, and muntained in obedience to
Alexander III the seven hundred abbeys of the Cia-
tercian Order. Alexander decided (3 Feb., 1X71)
that thenceforth the mebropolitatt See of Tarentaise
ibouM dqiend only on Home; St. Peter III (1371-

4 TABaVM

88); Ovdhial Antoine de Caulant a402-lS), to
whom has been ascribed "Le livre du Roi Modus et
de la reine Ratio", a much-esteemed treatise on
hunting; Cardinal Jean d'Arcee'( 1438-54), who at the
Coimcu of Basle in 1440 supported Dt^e Amadeus
of 8^voy, anting under the name aS Felix V, a^unst
Bhwene IV; Cardinals Christopher and Dominic de
la Rovdfe (1472-78 and 1478-83), whose tomb
erected at Rcmie in the Churdi of Santa Muia dd
Ft^pdo is a rolendid monumoit of the Renaiasanoe;
GeiTOonio (1607-27), who played an important part
in the seventeenth-century reform of the dewy and
whose "Commentaries" and "Acta EccleaiffiTarai-
tadensis" are imptHtant documents f<ur the hiattwy
of the time. As natives of the diooeee may be men-
tioned: Pope Nicholas II (1059), b. at Chevron-
ViUette of we family of the lords of Miolans: Pierre
d*AiKud>landie, wlui in 1240 became ArdibislM^
of Hereford tn England, and (cs'twenW-five^arswas
councillor and minister to Henry III of Kpgland;
Blessed Peter of Tarentaise, who became pope in
1276 under the name of Innocent V.

liie chief pilgrimages of the diocese are: Notre
Dame de Bnan^on^ which dates from the victory
over the Saracens m the tenth century. fYancis 1
and Henry IV visited this shrine; Notre Dame dee
Vemettes, at Peisey, created in the dghteenth cen-
tury near a miraculous fountam; Notre Dame de la
Vie at St. Martin de Belleville; Notre Dame de
Beaufort; St. Anne at Villette dating from 124S.
Before the application of the Law of 1001 regarding
associations tnere were in the diocese Auguatiniana
of the Assumption,, Capuchins, and two orders of
teaching brothers. Tiie Sisters of St. Joseph,
nursing and teaching sisters, separated in 1825 from
the Cuttremtion tit Puy. Several hospitak and
schoc^ m Bradl are dcoendont on their mother-
house at Moutiers. At the end of the nineteenUi
century religjous congr^ations in the diocese were
charged witn; 4 infant schools, 2 orphanages for
girls, 6 infirmaries or hospitals, 4 houses of retreat.
In 1905 (end of the period of the Concratlat) the
diocese numbered 68,000 inhabitants, 7 parishes, 79
sucoursal churches, and 21 vicariates remunerated by
the Government.

GiUlia Chrut. (noto) (1779), XII, 700-^; tiutnuRMite. 377-
420: DucHWKB. FoMas tpiaeopaw, I (Puis, 1894). 207-41:
PascaLXin, Hitt. d« TarmtaUt /u««u'«n l7Bt (Moutien, 1903);
Idem, HM. de la Tartntaitt otpwM t799 (Moutiera, 1&87);
BOBRBU Hitt. dt la JMmIhKm m TanniaiMtld* la Hmurndt
la Saioie A ta Pimee m 179M (Moutfm, 1901).

GnnoBB Gotau.

Tannm (Tabouhiu; D-ttWin singular, mann
"translation'' (cf. namtt, Ezra, iv, 7) is the dis-
tinctive designation of the Aramaic translatbns or
paraphrases of the Old Testament. After the return
from exile Aramaic gradually won the ascendancy as
the colloquial language over the slowly decaying
Hebrew until, from probably the last century before
the Christian era, Hebrew was hardly more than the
language of the schools and of worship. As the
maK>rity of the population ceased to be conversant
witn the sacred language it became neoeeeary to pro-
vide translations tat the better understanding of the
pass^^ of the Bible read in Hebrew at the bturgtcal
services. Thus to meet this need it became customary
to add to the portions of the Scriptures read on the
Sabbath an explanatory oral translation — « Tamun.
At first this was probably done only for the more aifii-
cult passages, but as time went on, for the entire text>
The "Misnna" gives elaborate instructions as to Uie
way in which tma translatiiuc should be done. Ao-
cording to the "Megillah" (IV. 4), when the ksson
to be read aloud was from the "Torah " only one verse
was to be read to the translator {Methurqtman.
paiTTO)- When the leeson was from the "Nebi'im'*
it waff permitted to read three to him, unless each
verse formed a special division. Tbc^direetionfl also

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45&

state which portions are to be read abud but not
translated (a. for instaooe "Me^.", IV, 10), and a
warning is ziven f^ainst translations Uiat are either
too free, palliative, allegorical etc.

Another regulation was that t^e Tamun was not
to be written down ("Jer. Meg.", IV, i^foL 74 d).
This pvofaibition, however, probably referred onW
to the intepretation given in the synagogue and did
not ^ply to private use or to its employmoit in
study. In any case, written Targtuns must have
existed at an early date. Thus, for instance, one on
the Book of Job is mentioned in the era of Gamaliel
I (middle of the first century a. d.). which he, however,
was not willing to recognise (''Sabb.", 115a; cf.
"Tos. Sabb.", 13, 2=p. 12S, ed. Zuckermandel).
If Matt., xxvii, 46, gives the Aramaic form of Ps.,
xxi, 2, the last uttmncse of the Saviour upon the Cross,
this shows that even then the Psalms were current
among the people in the Aramaic language; moreover,
Kphes., iv, 8, has a closer connexion with theTargum
to Ps.. Ixvii, 19, than with the Masoretic text. In
addition, the "MishnaYadayim", IV,5, and "Sabb.",
XVI, also indicates the earty existence of MSS. of the
Targum. These MSS., however, were only owned
IHivatel^ not officially as for alongperiod the Targums
were without authoritative ana official importance
in Palestine. This authoritative position was first
gained amongthe Babylonian Jews and through their
influence the Targums were also more big^Uy esteemed
in Palestine, at least the two older ones. £q the form
in which they exist at present no Targum that has
been preserved goes back further than the fifth cen-
tury. Various mdications, however, show the great
antiquity of the main contents of many Targums,
their theology among other things. That as early as
the third century the text, for instance, of the Tai^um
on the Pentateuch was regarded by the synagogue
as traditionally settled is evident from the " Mishna
Meg.", IV, 10, "Jer. Meg.", 74d, "Hab. Kidd.",
49d, "Tos. Meg.", IV, 41. There are Targums to all
the canonical Dooks excepting Daniel, Ezra, and
Nehemiah; for some books of the Bible there are sev-
eral Targums. As r^ards age and linguistic character
they may be divided into three classes; (1) Targum of
Onkelos and Targum of Jonathan; (2) Jerusalem
Targums; (3) Targum on the Hagiograpna.

The form of language used in the Targuma is called
specifically the "Tai^m dialect". It belongs to
western Aramaic and more particularly to the Aramaic
of Palestine. Its home is to be aonffxt m Judea, the
ancient seat fA the learniiuc of the scribra. It should
be borne in mind that this Tar^mic language does not
represent the spoken Aramaic, but is the result ct
the labours of scholars. Consequently the point
under discussion tiima on a literary Aramaic orig-
inally formed in Judea. This is particularly true
of the two earlier Tarfj^ms; the later ones show
generally an artificially mixed type of language. The
traditional pointing of the texts is valueless and mis-
leadiiu: a more certain basis was first ofl^ed by MSS.
from Southern Arabia in which the pointing for the
vowels was placed above the line. In Arabia the old
syn^if^l custom of reciting the Targum at the re-
ligious services had been retained, and consequentU'
more interest was felt there in the pronunciation. It
must be acknowledged, however, that this cannot
be regarded as a direct reproduction of the Palestinian
immunciatkm; it may have spnmg (nm a tanaal
treatment of the Targum of Onkelos customary
among the Babylonian scholars. As regards toe
method of translation all Targums in commcm strive
to avoid as much as po^ible antliropomorphisms and
antluopopathic terms, as well as other apparently
undignified ex^essions concerning, and descriptive
of God. The Targums are printed in the RabbiiiiciU
and Polyglot Bibles, although the two do not always
contain same Targums or an equal number of

them. See bdow tor partioularB as to individoal

editions.

ZuNi, Z>t0 goU—dimtliielun VortrOge dv Judm CBerlin. 1832),
61-^: HATTSDOBrr, Zur Qeteh. d«r TwvuMtm naeh uUnuditchm
QueUm in MmaUckr. ftir Ge«ch. u. WUwnaeh, d«t Judmlumi,
XXXVIII (1804), 203 oqq.. 241 sQq.. 2Sd sqq.; Matbaitu, Die
AtMropomorphUn u. AnthropopaUiien bat OnJcetoi u. in lim
tpOtertn Tarettmim (Breslau, 1878); OufSBURasB, Die Anthropo-
morpAwmm - in den Thargumim in JahrbOcher f&r prot. ThiaL

glniiuwii^ ISOl), 202 ana., 430 itqa. Aa racards tbo lucuace:
ALiiAN, Oraimnaiik dtt ^diatiii-v<uaatbti»Am AmmSiteh (2oiA
ad., Leiptii, 1905); lom, Aram<H*Aiuuh^. WOrterfruch (Prank-
fort, 1807-1901).

I. Thb Tabqdu of Onkslos. — The official Tar-
gum to the Pentateuch (min btf.DUin) is designated
by the name of Onkelos ^l7pjN). In the Babylonian
Talmud and in the Tosephta, Onkelos is the name
of a proselyte who is mentioned as a contemporary
of the elder Giunaliel ("Aboda sara", 11a; cf. "Tos.
sabb.", 8=p. 119, ed. Zuckermandel). The labours
of Onkelos are referred to in "Me^.", 3a, in the fol-
lowing words: "Rab Jeremiya, according to oth»^
Rab Hiya bar Abba says; 'According to the state-
ment ("DD) of Rab Eliezer and Rab Josua. Onkelos
the proselyte has said, ll^K that is, has orally formu-
lated, tbeTamim of Uie Torah' ". Gaon Sar Shaton
(d. 850) was the first who, taking this passage as a
basis, called the Pentateuch-Targum the Tai^m of
Onkelos. This he did in an opinion concerning the
Targum which he evidentb' had before him at the
time in a written copy. The designation that thus
arose became customary through its acceptance by
Rashi and others. It is evident, however, that in
the passage mentioned ("Meg.", 3a} there has been
a ocmfusion with the name of Aquiht, the translator
<A the Bible, for the oldor parallel passage of the
Palestinian Tahnud ("Meg.'' I, 11 = fol. 71c) says
the same of Aquila and his Greek translation of the
Bible. Compare also Midrash, Tauchuma, Mishpa-
tim, 01. 02 (ed. Mantua, 1S63. fol. 36b). Thus it
seems that in Babylonia- the old and correct knowl-
edge of the Greek translation of the proselyte Aquila
was erroneously transferred to the anonymous Ara-
maic translation, that consequently Onkelos (iuBtead
of Akylas) is a corrupted form or a {xroviucial modi-
fication of Aquila (D?''p2'), as, for instance, the To-
sephta has oVpaX always (five times) for D^*''p3'. It
is not necessary to discuss here earlier views concern-
ing this point. The effort to prove the existence of an
Onkelos distinct h^m Aquila is still made by Fried-
mann ("Onkelos und Akylas" in "Jahresber. der
Israelit.-theol. Lehranstalt in Wien", 1896), but the
proof adduced is not convincing (cf. Blau in " Jemsh
Quarterly Review," IX, 1897, p. 727 sqq.).

Thus it is not known who wrote the Tai^m named
after Onkelos. In any case the Targum, at least the
greater part of it, is old, a fact indicated by the con-
nexion with Rab Elieser and Rab Josua, and belongs
prc^ably to the second, or it may be to the first cen-
turv of our era. It arose, as the idiom shows, in
Judea, but it received official recogoition first from
the Babylonian Rabbis, and is therefore called by
them p*T D131.n (our Targum), or is quoted with
the formula ';3'?2:\-|?213 (as we translate), Rab
Natronay (d. 869) in speaking of this p3n ri says,
that it 13 not permitted to replace it in the ser-
vices of the synagogue by any other translation of the
Pentateuch. The nigh r^utation <A this authorized
translation is shown by the fact that it has a Masomh
of its own. The fixing of the written form, and thereby
the final settlement of the text as well, should not be
assigned to a date before the fifth century. The lan-
guage is, in general, an artificial form of speech closely
connected with the Biblical Aramaic. It is probably
not the spoken .-Vramaic usiwi :« a dialect bv the Jew-
ish people, but a copy made b>' Kch'il.-vra of the Hebraic
original, of which the Targum cluinis t«» give the most

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456

faitiiful reproduction possible. In doing this the
Aramaic language ia treated similarly to the Gnek in
the translation of Aquila, consequently the manv
Hebraic idioms. There is no positive proof (Dal-
man, "Gramm", 13) of a oorruptins influence the
Babylonian dialect as Noldeke held ["Semit. Spra^
ohen" (1887), 32; (2nd ed., 1899), 381.

As r»ards the character of the toanslation it is,
taken altogether, fairiy literal. AnthropMnoqdiie
and anthroipopBthic expresaons are avmded by
roundabout e:^ressions or in other ways; obscure
Hebrew words aie often taken witiiout change into
• the text; proper namee are frequently interpreted, as
Shinar-Babyion, Ishmaelitee-Arabe; for figurative ex-
preauona are substituted the corresponding hteral
ones. Haf^adic interpretation is oi^ used at times,
iot instance m propheticpaaeagee, as Gen., xlix; Nimi.,
xxiv; Deut., xxxiii. This Tai^um was first prmted at
Bologna (1482) togetiier with the Hebrew text of tiie
Bible and the commentary of Rashi; later, in the
Rabbinical Bibles of Bombea^and Buxtorf, and with a
Latin translation in the Complutensian Poh[glot
(1517), and the Polyglots of Antwerp (1569), Paris
(1645), and London (1667). Among separate edi-
tions of the Targum roecial mention should be made
of that iKrinted in 1567 at Sabbioneta. M(n« modon
editions are: Berliner, "Targum OnkekM" (2 vols.,
Eterlin, 1884), in which vol. I contains the text ao-
eordiog to the Sabbioneta edition, and vol. II, ehioi-
dations; the Yemanites at Jerusalem have printed
with an edition of the Pentateuch (s^er Keter tora)
from MSS. the Arabic translation by Saadra (Jeru-
salem, 1894-1901), in which publication tbe vowel
pointing above the line has been changed to subllnear
pointing: Bamheim, "The Targum oi Onkelos to
Genesis^ (London, 1896), on the text of the Yemen
manuscripts. In addition to the Latin translations
in the Polyglot Bibles there is one by Fagius {Strae-
burg, 1546); there is also an English tranalacion by
Etherid^e, ''The Targum of Onkelos and Jonatiian
ben Usziel on the Pent., with the Frt^nents of the
Jerusalem Targum", from the Chaldee (2 vols., Lon-
don, 1862-«5).

Kautsscs, JtfiMilwfv liber «itM atts Haniaekr. d— Targ. 0»k.
in Cod. Soeini, JVo. 84 (Hftlle, 1893); Bkhunkb. DU i&MoniA
sum Tars. O. (LeipaijE. ISTT); Lansaubb, Die Mii&rdh turn O.
(Amatcro&m, 1896); Bkbderbk, CimeordanM turn T, 0. (OiaiiM.
1906); Idem, Vber die Art der UbereeUung im T. Ont. in ThtoL
Studien u. Kritiken (Qotha, 1901), 351-77.

The Taroum of Jonathan (Yonathan). — ^The
Tai^m to the Prophets {vriorea, historical books;
posteriores, the actual Prophets) now in existence is
asoribed to Jonathan ben Uszifu, who is said on the
authority of the Babyk>niaa"M^illah",3a,to have
formulated it orsXly (TITSM), in acconlance with
the instructions ("DK) of Haggai, Zachariah, and
Malachi. This assertion probaJsly means that in
his enxisition he gives the traditional interpretation
that had been handed down from one graieration
to another since early times. According to tbe
Babylonian "Sukkah" (2Sa=:baba bathra 134a), he
was the most noted pupil of the eldw HiUel, and ia
thwefore assigned to the first duriatiaa century. The
Babylonian Talmud in quoting passages from this
Targum ascribes them to Rab Joseph bar Hiya (d.
333), the head of the school at Fumbaditha. Rab
Joseph was regarded as a great authority on the tra-
dition of the Tar^m and nis judgment on the trans-
lation of individual pass^ee was eagerly listened to;
he may perhaps be considered as the editor of this
Targdm. For Jonathan as for Onkelos the final set-
tlement of the written fwm did not occur until tiie
fifth Christian century. ComiU claims to show
("Einleitung", 2nd ed., 1893. p. 308) that the Taz^

fum on the Prophets is older than the Torah-Taivum,
ut the reasons produced are not convincing (cf. Dal-
man, 15, passim). Linguistically, this Tuigum ap-
proaohes most eloBety that of OokeloB ; in grammatieal

construction the two tore alike but the wrads used
differ, and this Tai^um is more part^hrastic. In the
historical books Jonathan himself is often the ex-
pounder, but in the actual pro^etic books the expo-
sition is in reality Ha^^adic. The relijdous opinions
and tJieok>gical conc^tions of the era ttiat are inter-
wovm are very inatnictiTe. The t^, further, is not
free from later additions: from this cause wise the
double translations of whidi the Taigum contains
several. The "Propheta priores" was first printed
witii the Hebrew text and me oommentaries 01 Gimhi
and Levi at Leiria, Portugal, in 1494. At a later
date the whole Targum was printed in the Rabbinical
Bibles of Bomber^ and Buxtorf and in the Polyglot
Bibles <rf Antwerp, Paris, and London. Tbe last edi-
tion is that'of deXa^ude, " Prophetse di^daice e fide
eodieis Beuchliniam" (Leipzig, 1872). lliere an
supplementary additions to this from an Erfurt MS.
in ''Sjnnmicta", 1, 139. The Targum to the Haph-
tarah is to be found in what is called the Pentateuch
edition of the Yemanites at Jerusalem. English
translations are: Pauti, "The Chaldee Paraphrase on
the Prophet Isaiah Translated" (London, 1871);
Levy, "Targum on Isaiah," I (London. 1889).

FSAOrOBiVB, Dot Ibrmtm tu Joma naeh YenunUelur Vbtr-
tUftniHQ (Borlu). 1890); IDBU, Daa Targvm Mm BwA dtr RieUw
naeh imnm. Ubtrliefenmt (Berlin, 1900) : Woltbobn, Dot Targum
atom Propluten Jeremia* m t/eman. Vhm. (HkUa, 1902), oh. f-iU;
SiLBtaMunf, Dot Tarfptm tu EMtehid naeh einer •fldoroMackM
HatUU^rift (StnaburK. 1902), oh. i~x; Wxiobt, Tanmm n Jomu
(London, 1857); Adlkb, Tbivum to AoAum In Jew. Qnart. Am..

Vn (18*6). Add aqo.; BAcass, KritUche Vntertuekmgtn turn
Pto^uiiommm ia ZDMG, XXVIII (1874), 1 aqq.: Klhh is
loe. ofL, XaX. (187S), l&7tM,;Pluuntai, 2Hdm Tart^dtt
Pn>pheUH <BmImi, 1872).

n. The Jbbdsaleu Tabqums. — ^This deeignation

?' I not otnrect; the older and more correct name.
Vnt^ 3nK DUm, i. e. PalestinianTargum, is found fat
inatanoe m tlue writings of Gaon Hal (d. 1038). At a
]a,ta (Ute this designation was displaced by the term
"biaVIV, just as before this the Palestinian Talmud
ibtriV ymhVt) is called in the writintp of Gaon
Sar Shakm ^nbmn* 'n. Fundamentally the language
of these Taqpims is Palestinian Aramaic but of a
very mixed type. Neither of them is homogeneous
nrammaticallr and lexically. Besides expressions
mat recall tLe Galilean dialect of the Palestinian
Talmud a preference is shown for imitation of the
lai^guage of the Targum of Onkdoe, while there are
aba various tenns buonging to the language of the
Babylonian Talmud.

A. Targum Yeruthalmi I on the PerUateuek. — ^This
is geoerafiy oalled the Tarpum of Jonathan or of
Pseudo^onathan, because it is cited in the first

Srinted edition (Venice, 1591) under the name of
onathan ben Usziel. This designation, however,
rests on a mistaken solution of the abbreviation
* n, that is, ^^nsnv'n. The Targum could not
have am>eared in its preeeot fona btnore the second
half of the seventh century. For example (Gen., xxi,
21), a wife and daughter of Mohammed are men-
tioned. Compare also (Gen., xlix, 26) the position of
Esau and Uimael as representatives of the Qiristian
and the Mohammedan wwld. The Targum covers
the entire Pentateuch. The only passages that are
lacking are: Gen., vi, 15; x, 23; xviii, 4; xx, 15; xziv,
28; xli, 49; xliv, 3(^1: Exod., iv, 8; Lev., ixIt, 4;
Num.^ xxii, 18; xxx, 20o, 21«; xxxvi, 8-0. As to ita
form it ia a free Haggadic treatment of the text, that
is, ui exposition rather than a translation. A large
part of it is made up of legendary narratives^ there are
also diaioffues, riietoricai and poetical digressions.
The ^ara^hrase also discusses rd^ous and meta-
physical conceptions, as was the custom of the Jewish
mystics of the seventh century. This Targum was
first printed: as •"'K-n33pin31*rnrn at
Venice in 1591. It is also to be found in volumelVftf
ihe Loiulon I^IlyKlot. A separate edition of this T»r~

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467

TABim

Bm waa edited fnuu the manuscript in the Britiifa
uaeom (MS. Addit. 27031) by Ginsburser, "Tar-
gum Jonathan ben Uaiel zum Fentat." (Berlin, 1903).
Concerning this codex cf. Barnatein in "Jew. Quart.
Bev.", XlfiSQS), 167 Bqq. An English traiulatHm
has been published by Etheridge (supra).

ScuoBOHH AND Tbaub. Uher dm Ontl atr Ubrr»ettunQ <Im
Jonathan ben Uriti nim PerU. eU. in Uonalaehrifi JUr Oeteh. u.
Witmte/taft dM JwfontuM (1857), 96 aqq., 138 aqq.; Mabmok-
raoM, Sfuiltan mm Pmmdo-Jvual/uin Tarattm (Pmours, 1905).

B. Targum YenufuUmi II on the Pentateuch is also
called the Fragmentary Targum, because the Targum
on tixe entire Pmtateuch has not been praervedilnit
only portions of it on numerous longer and shortw
passages, frequently only the Tai^um on individual
verses or paits of such. These fragmrats were first
printed in the rabbinical Bible of 1517 as Diain
"Q^VI^. In lai^age, method of translation, and exe-

rtical fwm they are related to the Pseudo-Jonathan,
per^cuously arranged compilation of the frag-
ments that have been preserved is given by Gins-
burger in the "ZDMG'^. LVII (1903), 67 sqq., and
in loc. tat., LVIII (1904), 374 sqq., on a page that
came from a geniMa or repository in a synagogue for
damaged manuscripts. A Latin translation from the
Venice edition (tf 1517 waa published by Taylor r Lon-
don, 1649); English tr. by Etheriike (nipro).

QiKBBQWiBB, Dot FronMMmAiraum (Seribi, 18M): (1) Tu^
cum MoordiDc to Cod. 110 of the Nstioiul LCbniy mt nm; (3)
variuta frmn Cod. Vst. 440 and Una. 1; (3) quotsthwa fron old
writon; mattar ainmlementary to uaa work ia ahm hr Uabx ia
ZtiUehrifl far Aobr. BiUiognphui (1902). 55-<6&

Opinions concerning the connexion between the
Targums Jerushalmi I and Jerushalmi II agree in gen-
eral that both are to be traced back to different lecoir
flions ot an old Jerusalem Targum. Th» is the view
of Zunx (p. 73, and passim), and also that of Geiger,
"Urschrift und Ubersetzunsen der Bibel" (Beriin,
1857), 454. Bassfreund (infra) reaches the conclu-
sion tiiat the basis both of the Fragmentary Tareum
and that of the Pseudo-Jonathan is a complete Jeru-
salem Targum of post-Talmudic origin, but that the
two 'Targums, Jenishalmt I and II, presuppoae tiie
existence of the Tacgum <rf Onkdos. The fragmeo-
ta<7 Targum oves frmn this anoieiit Jenualem
Targum, according to Bassfreund, only matter
euj^lementary to Onkelos, while Onkelos and the
Jeruulem Targum have been used in preparing the
Pseudo-Jonathan. In the preface to his edition cu the
Pseudo-Jonathan (see below) Ginsburger tries to
prove that both the Fragmentary Targum and the
FMudo-Jimatiuui may be traced back to a very an-
dent Palestinian Tamim, which was not influenced
^ the Taqpnn of OiUEelos until a later date. The
Fragmentary Targum, in Ginsburger's opinion, rep-
resents a variant collection, not to Onkelos (as Bass-
freund thinks), but to another recension ot that an-
cient Jerusalem Targum. Ginsburger's views will
have to be accepted as the more probable.

BAaaraanMD, Daa Froffmententargum u. Min VerhOltnit tu dm
ondtrta poldtt. Tarffumim in Monaitdirift fUr (Jaseh. w. Winm
ttAaft dn Jvdmtiuiu, XL (1896), 1 aqq., 49 aqq.. 07 aqq.. 145 ■qg.,
241 aaQ., 862 aqq., 306 sqq.; OiNuraom, Ioo.dt..XU Q8S7),
289 aqq., 340 aqq. ; pnfaoe to PtmdifJmathan, ed. Idbh (Berlin,
1903) ; NzuiuBK, LexikaliMAe Unterau^mgm tur Spraehe dtr
imnaaimtitehm Pmlat. TVnvutiM (Berlin, 1905).

C. Targum Yernshcdmi III is the name asstgned by
Dalman (Gramm., 29) to fragments which are given in
old editions of the Pentateuch, as Lisbon (1491), Sa-
lonioa (1520), O)nstantinople (1546), Vemce (1591),
ftndinsevendMSS. Nearly all have been publiuied by
GHnaburger, " Das Fiwmententargum" (1890), 71-74.

D. Tnm have also been JerusalonTuKums on the
nN4»hets and on individual books of the Hagtographa.
As regards the Targumson the Prophets de Lagarde
lias given ReuchUn's notes from the "Nebi'im
Codex" in the introduction (pp. VI-XLII) to his
"Ptofiu^ ohaldaice" (infro). There are frag-
HMots on Josue, JwlgBs, Samuel, Kings, Isaias,

Jercmias, Amos, Jonas, Zacharias. [Ct. Backer in
"ZDMG" XXVm ^1874), 1-72; XXIX (1876),
157 sqq^ 319 sq.)

III. Tabouub on the Haqioorapha.— They are
the work of various authors and have the charaeta
more or less of private undertakings, with the pro-
duction of which the schools had nothing to do.

belong to the same era; the Targum on Chronicles
may be somewhat later. Three groups are to be
distinguished as regards liiwiistic character and re-
lation to the original text: (a) Targums to Proverbs,
Psalms, and Job; (b) Targums to the five MegiUoOi,
that is Ruth, Esther, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes,
Canticles; (c) Targums to the Books of Clm)nicle8.
The TarE^ims mentioned under (a) adhere relatively
closest to the text of the Bible. The Targum to
Proverbs is in language and contents very dependent
on the text of the Syriac Peschitto, and is but little
more than a Jewiw recension of the same. [(jf.
NOldeke in " 'Merx* Archiv fOr wissenschaftl. Erfor-
schung des A. T.", II (1872), 246 sqq.; Baumgartner,
"Etude critique sur T^tat du texte du Uvre des
ftoverbes" (Leipzig, 1890), 267 sq^.] Haggadic
additions are found only occasionally in the Targum
on tihe Psalms. In a number of passages a second
translation is introduced with the remark 'X Ti (that
is, mK Dl3in another Targiun). The Targum to
Job contains many more additions. There are also
variants of the usual formula of citation 'X 'n, and
much oftener than in the Targum on the Ps^ms. In
style and language Uiis Targum resembles that on the
PBalms, consequently both perhaps are the work of
the same author.

(b) The Talcums on the Afa^ObfA are not in reality
trajislations but rathw Haggadic commentariea. The
Biblical text is most clearly evident in the Targums
to Ruth and to Lamentations. The Targum to
Ecclesiastes is a tasteless declamation upon the text
on which it is based; that on Canticlee is an aUe-
iprico-myatical Midrash. There are two Targimis to
£!sther, the one closely resembles a paraphrase and has
no legends interwoven with it; the other, called Tar-

nseheni, has altogether the character of a Midnudi.
only to a small d^;ree a translation; the greater
part of it consists of stories, legends, and discourses
that have but sU^t connexion with the contents of
the book, (o) ATargtun on the Books of Chroniclee
was edited from a MS. in Erfurt by Matthias Beck
(2 pts., Augriiurg, 1680-83); a more oomi>lete and
coneet tact taken from a MS. at Cambridge was
edited by Willdnaj "Parap^iraaiB Chaldaiea in librum
priorem et postenorem Chzonioorum" (Amsterdam,
1715).

All the Targums to the Haraogra^dia (excepting
Chronit^) were printed for the first time in the Bom-
berg Bible in 1517; afterwards in the "Polyglots"
of Antwerp, Paris, and London. A modem edition
from the Bomberg textf with Chroniclee from the
Erfurt Codex, was edited by de Lagarde, "Hagio-
grapha chaldaice" (Leipzig, 1873).

LiTT, DoM Tarffum lu Kohelelh naeh aOdonifr. Bandaekriftm
(Berlio, 1909); OoLLAtrct, Tarffumto th»8<moof Song* {tioaaao,
1908), trualatioii: Posnbb. Dot Targwn Ritchon m d. bibi. B.
Balhtr (Brealau, 1896); Datid, Dai T^iraum tchmi turn B. Btilur
(Beritn. 1898) ; TArLOB, Targ. priu* tt povUriu* in Btthanm . . .
m KnmoM Lalinam frondoAun (LondtMi, 16S5) ; QsiAUTra, Da*
IfarviMi adM am B. StUut (Rnkfcwt, 1893).

Fb. BcBttBSJBTH.

Tvrisdf PiKBBB, masto^maaott to the king, b.
about 1442; d. in August, 1510. (In 1555 thetitie of
architect was used at Amiens for the first time, but it
was not until 1609 that a master-mason of the town
called himself an architect). We have no details con-
cerning his birtiiplace, save that he belonged to no
family of maKoa known at Amiens. It is certain that

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he was tiie iiioet renowDod master-mason at Amiens at
the time in which he lived. He was already famous
in 1475, when he was summoned to inspect the cathe-
dral of Noyon, which threatened to become ruinous in
many places. Although he was not then entitled
master-masoQ of the city, he was so in fact, as noth-
ing of importance was done without him. In 1477 he
was at Arras, at wmk tor the King of France. In
1500 tJbe plan of Martin Cambiche for the restorap
tion and oecoration of the cathedral <A Beauvais was
submitted to him. On 4 Nov., 1483, at the death of
Guillaume Postel, Pierre Tariael was appointed mas-
ter-mason of the city of Amiens. His predecessors
had been paid at the rate of 4s. per day; according to
the accounts which have been preserved, Tarisel re-
ceived 5s. The rate was again reduced to 4s. for his
Bucoessor, which shows with what esteem his talent
wasr^irded.

There is no document to show in what year he be-
came master-mason of the cathedral; but it seems
certain beyond doubt that he fulfilled these duties in
1482-83. On 7 March, 1497, Tariael visited all the
cloistered houses subject to the cathedral chapter.
Shortly afterwards he undertook the task of restoring
the cathedral. The second pillar of the choir, on the
left, threatened to fall, but under Tarisel's direction
it was re^ored in 1497. The projecting arch and the
arches near it were restored, and the outer wall was
propped by an additional flying buttress. In 1503 the
same was done for the remaining pillars. Between
1497 and 1503 the pillars of the transept "buckled",
owing to the weight of the rear side arches, and cracks
formed. The remedy was found in bands of Spanish
iron, reaching from the transept to the ends of the
choir, the nave, and the cross bars. The great iron
chainwork uphokling the four large piUsn oi the
transept running the length of the triforium in four
directions still exists, wd is justly funous. AH ^lis
was the work of Tarael, by whom the cathedral of
Amiens was saved from ruin in the fifteenth and six-
teenth centuries, and which is a sufficient claim to
renown.

DtTUND, Stattrt Pierre Taried, maitre mocm du rot, de la
n'Qe ttdela ealMdraU tf Anucm,- Idkh, IdmaoraphU de la eatM-
dralt d'Aminu; Dwabdinb, Aiflotre d$ la eatUMe de Bene-
mm; archives of the elty of Axmew; uohivee of the Department
of the Sonime. M. Vaocon.

TarkJn, Saint (Talabican), Bishop of Sodor
(including the western islands of Scotland), was prob-
ably of purely Pictish origin, thou^ the Aberdeen
Breviary (1509) says he was bom in Ireland. The
legend in Uie Breviary states that he was raised to the
episcopate by Pope Gregory; and Adam Eii^s
Kalendar (1558) styles him "oischopand confess, m
Scotland under King Solvathius". The Bollandists,
following the chronology of the Dalriadic kings as
adopted by I^nkerton and Skene, place the reign of
Selvach from 706 to 726; and, as Gr^ry II was pope
from 715 to 731, conclude that Talarican became
bishop ^>out 720, a few years after the Columban
monks of lona had been mduced St. Ef^bert to
conform to the Roman Rite. He is said to have
offcr^ the Holy Sacrifice every day, to have been
noted for his seal and his mortified life, and to have
converted many paffans in the northmi coasts oi
Scotland through his preaching and example. Ac-
cording to Dempster, he died m the Island of Lis-
more. Many churches subseauently founded in the
Dioceses of Moray, Ross, and Aberdeen were dedi-
cated in his honour. His name is perpetuated in the

elsewhere.

Acta SS.. LXI (Paris, 1883). 447-W; JTaltwIara </ SeaUiah
SainU. ed. FOBSEa (Edinbur^, 1S72). 216, 440; Bmianim
Abtrdonetue (London, 1854). par* Mtiv., foL onzv; OHtfim
J^mdL Sad. CBtUaburgh, IBBOi, 1, 43; II, 8S8, 377; Knm, J9W.

CaL SeeUieh BieKope. ed. Roscei. (Ediobur^ 1834), 2S6.
Pmebwok. Bn^irt wife Ike HieL ef BceiOand, if fEdfltbor^
U141, 123; Onrnmi, BUL BeeUe. Omt. SeoL, U (Edinbursh,
182W.611. D. O. Honter-Blaib.

Tamow, Diocese of (Tarnovibnsib), in westem
Galicia, Austria. The See of Posen, founded in 968
by Duke Miecyslaw, was the only one in Poland untfl
1100. In that year Otto III and Duke Bokalaw Cha-
bry founded the Sees of Gneoen and Craoow, to i^idi
also belonged what
is to-day western
Galicia. When in
the First Partition
of Poland, in 1772,
the latter fell to
Austria, it was
separated from the
f<n<eign See of Cra-
cow, and the ad-
ministration en-
trusted to the
vi car-general. Jo-
hann von Duval,
who resided at
Tamow. On the
erection of the See
of Tamow in 1783,
he became its first
bishop. By the
Thml Partition of
Poland in 1795,
Cracow too fell to
Austria, whereupon

Tn Catbbdul, Tabkow

it was considered advisable after the deatii of the i
ond bi^op (1801) to divide the See of Tamow be-
tween Craoow and Przemysl. By the Peace of Vi-
enna in 1809 Austria was obliged to relinquish westom
Galicia and with it Cracow, both assigned to the
Duchy of Warsaw. The Diocese of Tamow there-
upon came under Lemberg, whose bishop gave the
management of it to the prior of Alt Sandek as his
vicar-general. In the Coiug^ess of Vienna, Austria
once more incorporated the Kingdom of Galicia. Hie
Emperor Francis in 1822 gave Tamow anotba- bishop,
Gregorius Thomas Ziegler. He had been a Benedic-
tine at Wiblingen, but was at that time pnrfessor of
dogma at Vienna. He established his residence in the
former Benedictine monastery of Tyniec. This, bow-
ever, was too near CracoWj and Ziegler removed
thence to Bochnia and finally in 1826 back to Tamow.
There are to-day in this dmc^ 809,000 Catholics;
379 secular priests: 72 male religious and 340 nuns.

ZAOHAHiAaiEiriGS, vibe eptetnorum Premyalieiuimm (naana.
1844), LXVIII-LXXIII.

C6U8TIH WoLnOBUBBB.

Tarquini, Cahillus, cardinal, Jesuit canonist and
archsologiBt, b. at Marta in the Diocese of Mon-
tefiascone, Italy^ 27 Sept., 1810; d. at Rome, 15 Feb.,
1874. Tsrquim entered the Society of Jeeus on 27
Aug., 1837, but before his entrance he had published,
as a thesis for his dootoratej a work on canon law:
"Institutionum juris canonioi tabuke ^optics juxta
ordinem habitum a Joanne Devoti" (Rome, 1835).
As a professor, Tarquini held the chair of canon law
at the Roman College, and he attracted notice by his
masterly explanations of Sacred Scripture at the
Gesd. Besiaes his published works, he contributed
many articles to reviews, notably to the "CivittA
Cattolica". It is nrincip^ly as a canonist tiiat be
achieved fame, ffia firat work on the law of the
CSnireh to bring him into intonational celebrity was
tlwt on the R^um Placet, or BxeqiuOw, for pin>al
Bulb (Rome, 1851), which was traiislated into Ger-
man, Spanish, and fVench. This treatise is generally

Eublished as an ^pendix to his main woi^ on canon
kw: "Juris eccleaiastioi publiei institutionee" (Rome,
1862), which has gone through fourteen "* ~

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The work was tiaaslated into French (Bruaeels,
1868). Other woricB on canon ]a,w are his treatise on
the French Conoordat of 1801 (Home, 1871), and a
dbquisition on the Pauline Privitege (publislMd poe-
tfaumously in 1888).

Though beet known, perhaps, as a canonist, Tar-
quini was also an arcbteologist no mean repute,
especially on matters relating to the ancient Etrus-
cans of Italy. His earUest archieological treatise is
"Bieve commento di anticbe isaiEkmi wpartenenti
alia citt& di Fenno" (1847). He began the Etniscan
BericB of his worka qwdfically with "Diohiaraiioiie
deU* epigrafe del lainpadario di Cortona" (1862),
which was soon followed by a more general treatise:
"Disz^axioni intomo ad alctml monumenti etni-
Bchi" (Rome, 1862). The "CivUta Cattolica" of
1857 and 1858 contains many of Tarquini's articles
on Etruscan antiquities^ the most noted being:

lingua . - --

etrusche m monumenti autofoni" (Vol. IX); "Di
vasi etnischi divinatorii" (Vol. X); "Iscrizionc
etnisca di Perugia" (Vol. XI); and "Sopra il semi-
tismo della lingua etrusca" (Ser. 4, Vol. VII). He
also wrote an Etruscan grammar and a dictionary- of
tlie Etruscan language. Other archieological treat-
ises are: "Della iscrizione della cattedra Alessan-
drina di San Marco" (1868), and "De I'ori^ des
ph^nidens et leur ideAtit^ avec les Pasteurs qui en-
vahirent I'Egypte" (1870). Tarquini was a member
of the Pontifical Roman Academy of Archseotogy tmd
of the Inyerial and Royal Academy of Science of
Lucca. He was also president of the historical uid
archffiological sections of the Accademia de' Quriti.
He was raised to the cardinalate by Pius IX with the
diaconal title of St. Nicholas at the Tullian Prison on
22 Dec, 1873, only a few months before his death.

SoHHSBvoaKi., Bibli. de U eamp. de Jtmu, VIII (Bnuaeb,1896) ;
Db Backer, AiUi. det ttrivaiiu d» la amp, de Jfmu, II (Louvain,
1876).

WiLUAU H. W. Fanning.

Tarragona Abchdiocbse or (Tarraconensib)',
bounded on the N. by Barcelona and L^rida, on the E.
by Barcelona, on the S. by the Mediterranean Sea and
Tortosa, and on the W. by Tortosa. It comprises the
civil Provinces of Tarragona and L^rida, and its
capital city has 24,335 innalntants. Its suffragans
are Barcelona, L^rida, Gerona, Utgel, Vicb, Tortosa,
and Solaona. Tarragona is one of the most ancient
cities of Snain, probaBly of Iberian origin, as its coins
and Cyclopean walls indicate. The Romans selected
Tarragona as the centre of their government in
Spain. In the division it was the capital first of
Hither Spain (Hispania CUerior) and then of the
ProTince of TairaooDensis. In the 6fth centurv- it
was overrun by the Vandals, Suevi, aad Alani. The
Visigothie king, Euric, took ptMseasion of it in 475
and totally demoli^ed it. During the occupation of
the Visigoths it flourished once more, but toe Arabs
again destroyed it in 719.

The Church of Tarragona is undoubtedly one of the
most ancient in Spain, holding as it does the tradition
of tJie coming of St . James and St. Paul. The visit of
St. Paul to Tarra^na is not altogether beyond the
range of possibilities, supposing that he came from
Rome to Spain, as he promised to do, in the Epistle to
the Romans, and as St. Jerome affirms that he did.
The first written testimony which we have concerning
the bishoiM of Tarragona dates from the third cen-
tury. This is in the Acts of the Martyrdom of the
bishoi) St. Fruotuosus and his deacons Augurius and
Euk^ius. The list of the bishops of Tarragona,
theitfOTB, bwna with St. FructuoBUs, but it is sup-
posed that outer bishops, whose names have been lost
to US, preceded him. The see irf Tarragona, whidi
vaa vacant at that time, was loprossntMi at the

Council of Aries (314) by two procurators, the i»ieBt.
Probatiui and the deactm Castorius. Himerius, who
sent the priest Baeianus to Pope St. Damasus, and
who obtained a letter from Pope St. Siricius, was
Archbishop of Tarragona in 384. It is also con-
jectured that the Hilarius who was the subject of the
Decretal issued by Innocent I was also a Bishoj) of
Tarragona. Ascanio was bishop in 465, and previous
to 516 we find the name of Archbishop John, who, on
6 November 516, assembled all the bishops of his
province and held the first provincial councd of Tar-
ragona, at which ten bishoiw were present. In 517 he
assembled another provincial council in Gerona.

S^gius, wbo was bishop from 535 to 546, held coun-
cils in BaJTcelona and L£rida. St. Justus, Bishop of

TowEB AKD Aphe or the Cathbdrai., Tarbagona

Urgel, dedicated to him his commenUiry on the Song
of Solomon. Tranquillinus was bishop for many
years previous to 560. He had been a monk in the
Monastery of Asana under the direction of St. Vic-
tornus. Artemius, bishop prior to 589, was not able
to attend the Third Council <A Toledo, but sent a sub-
stitute, Stephen. He called provincial ooundls at
Saragossa (599) and Barcelona. Eusebius (610-82)
held the council of Egara (Tarrasa) to enforce the
canons ai the Coimcil of Huesca. Audax (633-38)
was present at the Foiuth Council of Toledo, and
Protasius (637-46) at the Sixth and Seventh.
Cyprianus (680-88) sent representatives to the
Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Councils
of Toledo, and Vera assisted person^ly at the
Sixteenth and Seventeenth. In his time or in
that <^ his successor, George, the Mohammedan
invasion took place. Ludovico Pio appears to have
temporarily taken possession of the city. A portion
of its territory was bestowed on the Bisnop of Barce-
lona, and the metropolitan rank was given to the
Bishop of Narbonne, but was recovered in 759.
Ctesarius endeavoured to obtain recognition as titular
Archbishop of Tarragona, but was not succonful,
although he was consecrated by the inshops of Leon
and Galicia, and obtained frcmi the pope the ahbey
of Santa Cecilia, which belonged to the Archbishop Ot
Tarragona. Burell, Count ctf Bamnleiia, indtued

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Patpe John XIII to oonfer the title of Archbiihop of
Tarragona mi Bishop Attte ot VUiXt althou^ he
new was called Anhlnshtv of Tarragona but of

AuBona.

The Bishop of Vich, Berengariue of Rosanes, peti-
tioned Pope Urban II for penniseion to promote a
crusade for the leconqueet of Tarragona. Count
Berenguer Ramtfo II (the FMtricide} succeeded in
taking the city and made it a fief <rf the Holr See.
The pope, in recognition ti the efforts trf the Biuiop of

oonawti he oontributed a thousand mari» in gold
and twdve hundred armed men. In 1242 a provin-
cial council was cooToked at Tarragona to regulate
the procedure of the InquisitioD and canonical pen-
ancee. In 1312 a provincial council wae aasembled
in the Corpus Christi Chapel of the cathedral cloister,
to pass sentence on the Teanplars, whom it declarea
innocent. Don Pedro Za^rriga^ Archbidiop of
Tarragona, was one <rf the aroitratora at Caape. One
of the most celebrated prelates of Tt

'na, Don

Vich, conferred on him the pallium aa Archbishop <d Antonio Agustin (d. 1586), a native of ^ara^goesa.
Tarragons, tnuisfenring to him all rights to the city was an eminent jurisconsult and numismatist. He
and its churches which had previously belonged to the put an end to the struggles referred to in "Dim
Holy See. The new bidiop, however, was to remain Quixote", between the Narroe and Cad ells faeticns,
in {toeeesBion of the Church of Vich. A similar con- which had disturbed the peace of Catalonia.

cession was granted to St. Olegarius, Bishop of Bar-
celona, who was permitted to retain posseesum of hie
ftmner Church until he had obtained complete and
peaceful posaeesion of that ot Tarragona, of which he
had been named Archbidiop. It was not until 1116
that Tarragona was
definitively recon-
quered by Ram6u
Berenguer III (the
Great). Bishop Be-
renguer had died in
1 1 10, after having as-
sisted, in 1096, at
the Coimcil of Ntmes
convoked by Urban
II. His successor in
the See of Tarragona.
St. 01^;ariufi, haa
been a canon regular
at St. Rufus in Pro-
Tmce, later an abbot,
and wen Bishop of
Barcelona. To him
is due the restoration
of the metropolitan
authority of Tarra-

Roman Aookduot, Tauaoona

Kona. In 1117 Count Ram6n Berenguer III con-
ferred on him the government of the city that he
might endeavour to recolonise it, which work he
carried on with great seal. He asnstcd at the coun-
cils of Toulouse and Reims (1109), of the Lateran
(1123), and of Clermont (1130), and aooompanied
the Count of Barcelona as pontifi<»l legate in the war
which terminated in the imposition of a tribute upon
Tortosa and L^da. The Norman Robert Burdet
also joined the forces of the Count of Barcelona,
established himself in Tarragona and obtained domin-
ion over a great part of the city. The consequent
dissensions amoM his sons led to the murder by tbem
of Archbishop wun de Cervelldn 22 April, 1171.
On the death of St. Olegarius (6 March, 1137),
Gregory, Abbot erf Cuxana, succeeded him in the
vacant See of Tarragona, and was the first incum-
bent of that see to receive the title of archbishop.

The diss^isions between the archbishops and the
kings, on account of the jurisdiction over Tarragona
granted to the bishops who had begun its resettle-
ment, continued durii^ the time of Alfonso Il^ho
bestowed Uie city as a dowry on his wife. Dofla
Siueha, and of Pedro IV (the Covmonious), who,
after forcU»ly seising the dominions of the arch-
bishop, repented in his last illness and restored to St.
Tecla, patroness of the city, all that he had unjustly
acquired. By special privilege of the pope, ul the
kings of Araeon were crowned at Saragossa by the
archbishop of Tan^ona, until the metropolitan See
of Sargpssa was re-established. When Jaime I, a
child m six years, took the oath, the Archbishop
of Tam^ona, Don Aspargo Barca, carried him in
bis arms. Although he was far advanced in years, he
wished to accompany the kiiw in his expedition to
conquer Majorca, and when Don Jaime refused his

The cathedral, it is believed, was begun by St:
Ok^arius. The edifice is solid and eksant, com-
bining the Rmnanesque, Arabic, and (Sothic tiyVBa of
arohiteetun, producmg a veiv original and unique
effect. Its lagade is oomposed of t&ee sections, uid

the ground plan, in
the form of a lAtin
cross, has three naves
and a wide transept.
In the right nave is
the chapel of St.
Tecla, patroness of
the city, begun in
1760 under the direo-
tioQ of Don JosS
Prats and finished in
1776. Thebaptismal
font is a magnificent
marble bosin found
in the ruins of the
palace of Augustus.
The chapter house,
celebrated for the
councils held there,
has a Byzantine
door and a notable

dome. As late as the fifteenth century the ca-
thedral had not yet been completed, as the sculp-
tor^ Pedro Juan, did not b^in work on Uie
mam altar untU 1426. The choir was not finished
until 1493. The chapel ai the Blessed Sacrament,
the orgui, built bv the cura of Tivisa, Don Jaime
Am^o, the staineci glass, etc. date from the idxteMth
century.

Among the buildings worthy of mention are the
Churches of San Pablo and Santa Tecla, the convent of
the Poor Clares, near the walls, that of Santa Teresa,
and the church of the C^uchins, the parish church of
the port. The former Convent of Ssin Fnuudsco haa
been converted into government offices and a seomHl-
ary school, the Jeamt coll^ turned into barracks,
their chun»i, however, having been restored to them.
The convent of the Dominicans is now the town hall,
and the convents of the Mercedarians and Camelitea
turned over to military uses. The archiepisct^al
palace is situated on the site of the ancient a^itol,
one tower of which still remains. The palace was
rebuilt by Don Romualdo Mon y Valarde (181&-19).
Near the sea, in the ]ttoman amphitheatre, is the edi-
fice called el Miiagro (the Miracle), whidi belonged
to the Knights Templar. It was afterwards used oy
the Trinitarian Fathers, and has since been converted
into a penitentiary. The remains of many Roman
buildings are to be found at Tarragona ; the walls, the
capitol, or citadel,' the fwum, the p^ace of Augustus,
called the house of Pilate, the circus or amphi-
theatre, the aqueduct, known as the Puente del Di-
ablo, the so-called tower, or sepulchre, of the Boipioa,
the arch of Sura, or of Bara, and the Aurelian yfa.-y.
Thereisalsoagoodarchffiologicalmuseum. Theconctl-
iar seminary <n San Pablo and Santa Tecla was founded
in 1570 by the cardinal archbishop, Q^Mpar de Cervmn-

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TAR8ICIU8 4

tee, and was the first to bomply with the decrees of the
Gouneil o( Trent. In 1868 Archbishop Costa v Bor-
E^a built a fourth wing. Benito ViUamitjana built a
new seminary behind the cathedral in 1886, in the
courtyard of which stands the old chiqwl ot San
Pablo. Leo XIII raised ths to the rank of a pon-
tifical university. In the district oS Montblanc, in
this archdiocese, is the ancient mmuutel^ Pobm,
founded in 1151 1:^ Ram6n Berenguer IV, whidi wm
the pantheon of tl^ Idi^ Aragon.

PiriBBE>.£apaAa «u« tiumummiot: Catalvila <Baroalon>, 1884):
Fi^RSE, Htp. Sairada, XXIV, XXV (Madrid, 1859): Fdloobio,
Crdniea g«n«ral de Stp.; Tarraeotta (Madrid, 1870); AouBTm,
aaOoaa 44 IM prelodM tanaconMiMt (u86).

IUm6k Rrni AiiiUH).

Tarticius, Saint, martyr. The only positive in-
formation concerning this Roman martyr is found in
the poem composed in his hoAour by Pope Damasua
("Damasi epigrammata'*, ed. Ibm, 14). In these
lines Daroasus compares TarsiciuB to the protomartyr
Stephen: just as the latter was stoned by the people
of JudeasoTarsicius, carrying the Blessed Sacrament,
was attacked by a heathoi rabbl^ and he sufFerea
death rather "than surrender the Sacred Body (of
Christ] to the raging dogv". Hiis tradition so ijosi-
tively asserted by Danianu is undoubtedly historical.
Nothing definite is known concerning the personality
of this martyr of the Euchuist. He may have been
a deacon, as Damasus compares him to Stephen. An
addition to the sixth-century legend of the martyrdom
<rf Pope St. Stephen makes Tarsicius, for some un-
known reason, an aooWte; tiiis addition, boweve^ is
based on the poem of Damasus. It is evident tbat
tiie death of this martyr occurred in one of the perse-
cutions that took place between the middle of the
third century and the beginning of the fourth. He
was buried in the Catacomb of St. Callistus, and the
inscription by Damasus was placed later on his tomb.
In the seventh century his remains rested in the same
grave as those of Pope Zepbyrinus: according to Wil-
pert th^ li^ in the bunal ^wilt above ground (crila
frieAoFa)whi(di was situated towards the west over the
Catacomb of St. Callistus. The feast of the saint is
observed on 15 August.

WiLPEBT, DU Paptlgrabtr u. dit CSdKtnomflinderKatakombe
da U, KaBMua (Freiburib 1000). 91 aq., there is in the nune moA.
a note Feanchi ds' Cataubbi, 96-08; Mabucchi, La calia
triaora A S. Solere ed U ffmppo tojngrafico di Uano-MamOiano a
Damato in Nwni BuiUtHtto di onA. mat. (190^. 157 eq. (1910).
SOS aq., opposea Wilport'a oiumon oonoanung tu cnva ct Tar>
denua; Iiambsot, Aud> kiatonmu M cnUoK* «r St. IbrticAie
atone, 180Q); Aiaabd. BiMl. dn panfaOSmu, III. 71 aq.

J. P. KiRSCB.

Tkzviis, a metropolitan see of Cilioia Prima. It
appears to have been of Semitic origin and is men-
tioned several times in the eampaigns of Sahnanaaar
and Sennadimb. The Greek Iwend connects it witii
the memory of Sardanapalus, BtiUpreserved in the Du-
nuk-Tadi, called tomb of Sardanapalus, a monument
of unknown origin. When in the year 401 B. c, the
younger Cyrus marched gainst Babylon, the city
was |i;ovemed by King Syenneeis in the name of the
Persian monarch. Tarsus was already Greek and had
a tendency to become more and more hdlenised.
Alexander the Great came near meeting his death
tiiere after a bath in the QydnuB,l4ie modem Tarsw-
brmak. By its literary schools. Tarsus rivalled
Athens and Alexandria. It was then comprised in the
kingdom of the Seleucides, took the name of Antioch,
ana the Bible (II Mach., iv, 30) records its revolt
against Antiochus IV Epiphanee, about 171 b. c.
Fompey subjected it to Rome. To flatter Csear it
took the nameof JuliopoUs; it wastherethat Cleopatra
and Anth(n^ mettanditwastbesoenecrftbecelebrated
feasts which they gave dorii^ Hie construction
of their fleet. Tarsus was already the caput CUv-
eia, the metropolis, where the governor resided.
When the province was divided it remained the civil
and rdigious metropoliB of Ciliaia Prima. The yieat-

II TABTAGUA

est glory ot Taisiu is that it was the birthplace of St,
Paul (Aotfl, ix, 11; xxi, 39; xxii, 3), who took refuge
Uiere after his conversion (Acts, ix, 30), and was
joined by Barnabas (Acts^ xi, 25). It is probable
that at this time a Coristian oommuni^ was esti^
lished there, although the first bishop, Helenus, dates
only from the third century ; he went several times to
Antioch in connexion with the dispute concemiiw Paul
of SamosaU (Eusebius, " Hist . eccl. ", VI, xlvi; Vll; v).

Le Quien (Oriens ehristiaiiUK, II, 869-76) mentions
twenty-two of its bishops, of whuin several are legend-
ary. Among them are Lupus, present at the Council
(rf Anc^ra in 314; Theodorus, at that of Ni«ea in325;
Helladius, condemned at Ephesus, and who appealed
to the pope in 433; above all the celebrated exegete
Diodorus, teacher of Theodore <^ Mopsueetia and
ooiuequaitly one of the fathers of Neetorianism.
From Uie anth century the metropoHtui See of Tar-
sus had seven suffragan bishoprics (Echos d'Orient,
X, 145); the Greek archdiocese is again mentioned in
ins tenui century (op. cit.^ X, 93), and has existed
down to the present day, being comprised in the Patri-
archate of Antioch. Owing to the miportance of Tar-
sus many martjrrs were put to death there, among
them bemg St. Pelagia, St. Boniface, St. Marinus,
St. Diomedus, and Sts. Cerycus and Julitta; several
Roman en^erors were interred tfaere-^iame^t Tac^
tus, MazimmuB Dasa, and Julian the Apostate. The
Arabs took poesesaon of Tarsus from the seventh cen-
tury and k^t it until 965, when Nice^orus Phocas
annexed it again to the Byzantine Empire. The
union continued for near^ a century. The crusa-
ders captured it again from the Turks in 1097, and then
it was disputed between Latins, Greeks, and Arme-
nians of the Kingdom of Lesser Armenia; these last be-
came definitive masters until about 1350, when it
was sold to tJie Egyptians. Since then Tarsus has be-
longed to the MuBsulmaus. About the end of the
tenth oentuiv^ the Armenians established a diocese of
their rite, wnich still exists; St. Nerses of Lambroun
was its most distinguishcHi representative in the
twelfth century. Tarsus, which has preserved its
name, is a caza of the vilayet of Adana on the rail-
road from Adana to Mersina; the city numbers about
18,000 inhalntants, of whom 10,000 are Mussulmans,
the ronainder are Greek or schismatic Armeniaa.
Only a few Catholics are found there.

Bjina, DieL ^ Oreek arui Roman Oeoa., a, v.; Lakolou, Toyaoa
dmwia CUieia (Faria, 1861), 259-331 ; CuiinT, La Twvaa ^Aaie,
IZ, AuauM.^tootKn (Vaniiw, 189B). 305-31.

S. VAUal.

Tartaglla (Tabtalea), Nicol6, Italian mathema-
tician, b. at Brescia, c. 1500; d. at V^ce, 13 Decem-
ber, 1667. His father, Michde Fontana, died in 1606,
leaving his widow, two sons, and two daughters in
poverty. As a result of a blow across the mouth in-
flicted oy some French soldiers at the sack of Brescia
in 1512, NicoUk stammered in his speech, this obtain-
ing the nickname of Tartaglia, afterwai<cui assumed by
himself. He was self-taught. In 1521, he wae
teaching mathematics in Verona and in 1534 he went
to Venice. By 1541, he had achieved the remarkable
triumidi (rf solvii^ ttie cubic equation. In a mal^e-
matioal contest with Antonk> del Fiore, bdd m 1635,
he had shown the superiority of his methods to the
method previously obtained by Scipiooe del Ferro
(d. 1526) and known at that time to del Fiore alone.
The glory of giving these results to the world was not
for Tartaglia, as Cardan (q. v.) having in 1539 ob-
tained a knowledge of them under the most solemn
pledges of secrecy, inserted them, with some additions
and with some mention of indebtedness, in hia "Ars
Magna", published in 1646. A long and bitter con-
troversy ensued in whidi Cardan was supported by
hia pupil Fmari. In 1548 Tartaglia became pr*-
fessor of Euclid at Brescia but roturnf^, after eighteen
mfmths, to Venice, where he died. In Juq will be ex-
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TABTZNI

462

TASCBHUUU

pressed the reQuest to be buried in the Church of San
Silvcstro, whicn wish, according to Dr. Giuseppe Tas-
8in ("Curiosity Veneziaae"jyenice, 1864), was fulfilled.

The published works of TartagUa include: "Nuova
Scienza", dealing withnmneiy (Venice, 1537, Frraich
translation by RieCFel, Paris, 1345-6); the first Italian

teamlatkm of Eu-

Nicol6 Tartaoua

did (Venice, 1543);
the eariieet Latin
version of some of
the works of Archi-
medes (Venice,
1543) "Quesiti
ed Invenzioni Di-
verse", including
probksDB in baf
listics and fortifi-
cation (Venice,
1546, new ed.,
1554); "Regola
Generale i>er sol-
levare c^i affon-
data Nave, intlto-
lata laTravagliata
Invenrione" (Ven-
ice, 1551, English
version publi^ed
by Satusbury, Lon-
don, 1664); "Ra-

K'onamenti sopra
Travagliata In-
venzione" (Venice 1551); "Trattato Generate di
Numeri e Misure" (Venice, 2 pts. in 1556, 4 pts.
in 1560); "Trattato di aritmetica" (Venice, 1556,
French tr. by Gosselin, Paris, 1578); "Opere del
FanHMrissimo Nicold TartagUa " (Venice, 1606) ; and an
Engli^ translation, by Lucar in 15SS, of his writings
on gunnery. A letter of Tartagha's is in the archives
of Urbino and another letter and his will are in the
archives of Venice.

TARTAnu<'sQu<>Ktfi (Venice, l654);BmAim,Di*eoriodiIfiixM
Tartaglia (lln-BCM, 1871); BcONcOMPAain,ed. Cbkmoka amdBki/-
TRAUi, Intor no aii tin Ttitamenio Inedtlo dxNieoli Tartaclia in Col'
haatua Math., Mem. Dom. Chelini (Milan, 1881). 363-^10;
GlOROANi, / »n eartelli di mat. ditfida jirxmanurtU itUarno alia gtn-
eraU ritotiaione dtUt eqtttuiimi cubiehe i ctm mi Coniro^Carfelli in
Tiai>ogla di If. T. (Milan, 1870); Rossi, Elogi di Breieiani lUtutrt
{Brescia, 1620), 386; Tonni-Bama, Di una kttera inedita di Ni-
eol6 Tartaglia in R. Aeead. dei Line«i. Rendieotdi, Clatte d, td. fit.,
MM. 5, X, pt. II (Rome. 1901), 39-42; Tonni-Baiba, Di Nieoli
Tortaetia: /rammerUi di nuoM rieerehe, loo. dt., ser. 6, XIII, pt. I
(Rome, 1904), 27-30. pAUL H. LXNBHAN.

Tartdni, Giitsbppe, violinist, composer, and
theorist, b. at Pirano, Itahr, 12 April, 1692; d. at
Padua, 16 Feb., 1770. He resisted the earnest
desire of his parents that he enter the Franciscan
Order, and matriculated at the University of Padua
in 1710 as a student in jurisprudence. It was not
long before he abandoned this for the study of music,
esnecially the violin, and the art of fencing, in which
latter he soon became a master. Haviw secretly mar-
ried a rdative d Cardinal Comaro^ anabeinff aooosed
of abduction, he fled to Assim, where he found an
aayhim and a guide of the first order for his musical
studies in the person of Padre Boemo. After two years
he emerged from his seclusion — the charge against him
having in the meantime been dropped — and returned
to Fwua, settling later in Ancona for several years.
There he developed into one of the greatest violin
players ct all time, and also continued his tiieotetioal
studies. In 1721 ne was ^>pointed soto ^linist and
orchestra conductor at the Cathedral of Padua, a
position which he held, with the exception of two years
spent in the service of Count KmEiky at Prague,
until the end of his life. He refused manyflattwin^
invitations to visit other countries. In 1728 Tartim
established at Padua a school for violin-playing which
has given to the world some of its greatest masters,
anumg them Na>dim, FasquaUno, rani, and many

others. The manner of boiring originated hjr Tartini

is still standard. He published an enormous num-
ber of compositions for the violin imd for several
combinations of instruments. Of the former many are
the repertoires of present-day violin virtuosi. His
ain^e co'imxwition for the Church was a "Miserere"
for four, five, and ei^t voices, which was pofOTmed
by the Sistine choir m 1768. Although not the first
to discover the so-called combination tone, or third
tone, which results when two tones forming a pmf eet
consonance are sounded, his name has always been
associated with this discovery because he made it the
basis of a new system of harmon>[. This system he
laid down in his "Trattato di musica" in 1754.

MWD&uMu»ikali*chaCo»ter»aluma-Lexikon, X (Berlin, 1878);
FamQaso, OratioM ddU lodi di Oi*uepp* Tariini (Padua. 1770);
Vaom, Oiiuappa IbrtM, nw wUa (Bnacia, 1802).

Joseph Oiten.

TuelurMUt, EleAab-Alexakdrb, Archbishop of
Quebec and first Canadian cardinal, b. 17 February,
1820, at La Beauce, Province of Quebec: d. 1808, at
Quebec. He entered the Seminary of Quebec in
1828, and graduated after briUiaut studies in 1836.
While pursuing further
studies in Rome he was
on the point of joining
the Benedictines, ow-
ing to lus relations
with Dom Gu^ranger.
He reconsidered his
decision, however, and
retiimed to Quebec,
was ordained priest at
La Beauce, 10 Sept.,
1842, and thenceforth
devoted himself to the
work of the seminary.
He was successively
occupied as disciplina-
rian and professor, and
as memlHT of the sem-
inary council was one
of the founders of Laval University in 1852. In 1854
he again studied in Rome, residmg at the French
Seminary, where he took the degree of Doctor of
Canon Law in 1856. He was superior, 1860-66. In
1862 and 1864 he retmned to Rome in defence of the
rights Lavalj and again in 1860, as theol^jian of
Archbishop Baitlargeon during the Vatican Council.
In the same year ne was re-dected superior of the
seminary and Rector of Laval University, and in
1871 was made Archbishop of QiidMc._ In 1886 he
was raised to the cardinalate, takii^; his title from
Santa Maria della Vittoria. He was particularly
zealous in educational matters; the Seminary of
Quebec found him at all times a devoted protector:
he saved from extinction the classical college of
Sto. Anne de la Pocatidre, and aided the growth of
new cdlqces at L^vis and ChicoutimL

Mgr Tuchereau's episcopal administratiai was
very fruitful. He founded at Quebec the Sa/cnd
Heart Hospital, canonically erected forty paridkes,
founded thuly missions, estwlished various devotiuifl,
procured the creation of an episcopal see at Chicoutimi,
consecrated seven bishops, ordained more than three
hundred priests, convened three provincial councils,
and introduced the Redwaptorist Order into his dio-
cese, eving it charge trf the parish of St. ^tiiek,
and <H the shrine of Sto. Anne de Beaupr^. He or-
ganized the memorable celebration of the second
centenary of the foundation of the See of Quebec, con-
secrated the new basilica of Ste. Arme de Beaupr6, and
performed the solemn translation of the remains of
Mgr de Laval. He was much devoted to the Hoiy
See, to which he paid episcopal visits in 1872, 1884,
and 1888. He also welcomed at Quebec on three oo-
carions.tbe repreaentathraB of the Holy See, Mon^i-

Euiaa-AuKAiiDBS, Camooui,
TascBMBuir

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TASaUMU

463

TAMK)

giu)ri CoDToy.Smeulders, and Merry del Val. In 1871
Ee was himself ohaiged with the office of papal dele-

f ate in a importajit matt«- concerning Montreal.
[» thcologiciU wility and literary gifts were of a high
wder. Thou^ oUiged to give most of his time to
admini^alivemattCTB, be l«t a manuscript "Histwy
or the Seminary of Quebec"; his published discourses,
and pastor^ and other letters fill six folio volumes t»
900 pa%cs each. Cardinal Taschereau was of a silemt
disposition, but his speech was always pointed and
effective. He was venerated by his clagy and people,
who admired his Christian piety and dignified bearmg.

TtTu, Let EtSqutt de Qu&>ec {Qviebec. 1889); Iobm. A^otte* «<w.
S.B.Uaxrd. Tiuehveau {Quebec. 1891); AiioK.,£«pmnMr Cofriuul
Canadim (Quebec, 1886); Axon., JtAiU Sacerdobil da S.E, It
eardiiuit B. A. 7WA«wu (Quebee, 1892).

H. Thtu.

Taimanla. See Hobabt, Archdiocese or.

Tassach, Saint, Irish saint, b. in the first decade
of the fifth century; d. about 497. He was one of
St. Patrick's artificers. When St. Patrick founded the
Church of Raholp he placed St. Tassach over it as
fiiTst bishop. This ancient monastic see (RaUi-coIpa),
a couple U miles north-east of Saul, County Down,
ultimatebr merged into tJie Diocese vl Down. Taa-
sach's rule is tat met memorable f<»- the fact that he
was selected by the natioiud Apostle to be with him in
his last moments and to administer the Holy Viati-
cum to him. ' This event is thus chronicled m "The
Martyrol<^ of Donegall": "Tassach cf Rdiolp nive
the Body m Christ to Saint Patrick before his death in
the monastery of Saul". His feast is on 14 April.

avoSM, 7WparM(aL<fto/^/W»ci;(LoiidoD,18S7);0'LAVEK-
TT, Zlown and Cormor (DuUln, 187S-05); O'HAifum, lAtn of
TriA Sunt*, IV (Dublin, s. d.); HubT, Lift and WrOmat (tT
SL Patrick (Dublin. 1906).

W. H. Gbattan-Flood.

Taisi, JosBFH, writer and journalist, b. at Mon-
treal, 23 Oct^ 1848; d. 17 Jan., 1895; son of Joseph,
imd Adeline Daoust. He received a classical educa-
tion at Boui^et College, Rigaud, Province of Queb(«,
and began his literair career at nineteen, as chief edi-
tor of "Le Canada , a tri-weekly, then daily, news-
paper at Ottawa. In 1889 he b«»me editor of " La
Minerve", Montreal, the foremost Conservative or-

fan, resigning in 1872. In 1878 he was elected mem-
er of the House of Commons for the City of Ottawa,
and re-elected in 1882. He was appointed to the Sen-
ate in 1891. Besides contributing over a hundred
articles to "La Revue canadienne ', and presenting
several valuable historical articles to the Royai So-
ciety of Canada, he wrote the following highly-appre-
ciated works: "Philfimon Wright ou colonization et
commerce de bois" (1871): "Le chemin de fer cana-
dienduPaeifique" (1873):''LaVall£ederOutaouais"
(1873); "Le38* fauteuil*' (1891). His most impor-
tant work is: "Les Csnadiens de TOuest" (1878).
Tass^ lectured frequently and effectively in Canada and
the ITnited States. His style is characterized by
clearness and warmth.

McLBAN-Roas, A eydopeSia ef Canadian Biography CTonrnto,
ItaSiiLaMinerM (Montreil, 17 Jan., ISiSiiUCowriiribt Can-
ada (Quebec, 18 Jul, 1898).

LiONSL Lindsay.

TMUdn, RxsNi-PBOSPBB, Wenoh histoiian, belong-
ing to the Benedictine Congr^ation of Saint-Maur,
b. at Lonlay, in the Dioceee of Le Mans, in 1697; d.
at Paris, 1777. He was professed at the Abb^ of
Jumilges in 1718. United m close friendship with his
brother-religious, Dom Toustain, he collaborated
with him on a new edition of the works of Theodore
the Studite, which task led them to visit Rome to-
gether. Their work was interrupted by a dispute be-
tween the Benedictine Abb^ of St. Ouen and the
chapter of Rouen which was supported by the erudite
Saas. Tassin and his friend wrote against Saas in
defence of tiieir brethroi. They then resided at the

Abbey of Rouen where they remained till 1747, when
they were summoned to the convent of Saint-C>er-
mam-des-PrSi, at Paris, by their general. To defend
the authenticity of the deeds of their abbey th^
were obliged to make a deep study of diplomacy, a
■eience dealing with diplomas, charters, and other
official documents, which MabilloD had already set
forth in bis celebrated Latin work, "De re diplo-
matica". As a result of their researches th^ wrote
the "Nouveau traits de diplomatique", six quarto
volumes, which appeared between the years 1750 and
1766. Toustain having died before the second volume
was entirely printed, Tassin completed the great work
altme, but he wished the name of his friend to be afco-
ciated with all the volumes; these, consequently, ire
known like the first two as the work of " two Bene-
dictines". Later Tassin wrote his " Histoire litt^raire
de la Con^gation de Saint-Maur" (Paris and Bru»-
sels, 1770, in quarto), a model history containing the
lives and list of works, printed or in MS., of all the
learned authors of the C>on^er^ation, from its formation
(1618) till the time when Tassin wrote, to&^ther with a
list « theii worica, printed or in MS. Sever^ MS.
woriEs of Tasrin are in tiie Naticmal Library at Paris.
HAuaiAV, BiM. Huermrt du Mamt (PMis, 1870-77).

QSOBGBS BVRTBIN.

Taiso, ToBQUATO, Italian poet, b. at Sorrento near
Naples in 1544; d. at Rome, in 1595; son of Bernardo -
Tasso, who was also an author and of noble family,
and of Porzia de Rossi. He enriched the Italian litera-
ture of the Renaissance with an eptc glorifying the
Crusades. The
depth of his Cath-
olic feeling ac-
cords well with
the growing re-
sistance t o the
Reformation de-
veloped at Rome
in toe latter half
of the sixteenth
century. Edu-
cated at the Court
of the Dukes of
Urbino and later
at Venice and Uie
University of Pa^
dua, and soon oar^
ried away by the
whirl of frivolous
society, he mani-
fested great pre-
cocity, composing
his poem "Ri-
naldo" before
reaching the age
of twenty. Aheady he had determined to celebrate
in verse the prowess of Godfrey de Bouillon, and had
composed the entire first canto. When be had settled
at Ferrara in the suite of C^ardinal Louis d'Este, he re-
sumed the work. In 1570 he accompanied the' cardinal
on a voyage to France, and returned in time to hear
at Rome the news of the victory of Lepanto. The
atmosphere was suitable for the composition of the
" Genualemme liberata", on which Tasso continued to
work after his return to the Court of Duke Alphonso II
at Ferrara. Moreover he composed an excellent pas-
toral idyl, "Aminta" (1573). The poet had now
adopted the practice of consulting some learned
friends, among others Mgr. Scipio Gonzaga, on the
definitive form of his great work, and was very careful
not to violate the rules good literature then com-
monly accepted.

After 1575, in addition to hiBliterair anxieties, Tasao
suffered from intense religious scruples. His life had
not be»i free from reproach; he had frequently been

TtMVJAJO Tamo
Portr^t hy AleeMuidio AUori In
the Dffln

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carried away by the storma of passion, and now he
became an almost helpless victim of remorse of con-
science. He was tormented by the thought of the
libaties he had allowed himself m his poems, and con-
sulted the inquisitors. Months of painful doubt

followed, with
happily a little
respite which al*
lowed him to com-
plete hia work,
some dangerous

Eassages of which
e wished to jus-
tify by allf^rical
interpretation. In
1587 his anxieties
returned with in-
creased intensity.
Court life became
unsuitable for him
under the circum-
stances. He began
to travel and left
Duke Alphonso,
but only tempora-
rily, for he re-
turned a prey to
a kind of mania
about persecution

VmnntmsT or Tuao m thb Convent
or 8. OMomo. Bonn

which induced the duke^ who had lost patience, to send
him to St. Anne's lunatic asylum. The pubhcation of
the "Gerusalemme hberata" was undertaken by his
friends Aogelo Ing^neri and Febo Bonna, the latter
working almost in accordance with the wishes of the
po>et. When at length Tasao left the asylum and was re-
ceived by the Gonsaga, he began about 1586 to revise
his poem and after six years he transformed it into the
"Gerusalemme conquistata", an inferior work. It was.
however, more satiaactory to certain critics, who had
taken umbrage at the "Gerusalemme liberata". Fi-
nally, accepting the invitation of Cardinal Aldobran-
dini, Taaso went to Rome, where he died in the Con-
vent of Sant' Onohio, under the protection of the pope,
the day before he was to be crowned as poet laureate.

OtnualamtM Hherata (Florence, 1895), oritieal edition by
SoHvn; tnwMltUioiM of the epio hy Smrn (London, 1861)
aai Jutu {Lomlon, 1S6S) ; Optrt minon r!i T, Ta—o (Bolonia,
Uttt^; Pram dirmt iFEorcDoe, 1S75); LeUm di T. Tatio (Flor-
«IMH>4 )B&fi-t<); AppendKe alLe opera in pra»tt (Florenee. 1893);
BmAHl. Vila di TarT'aiD Ta»vt (1785); Bolbrti, VHa di Tar-
ottal4 Tntto CTufin, WJh) : Miului, Lift of Ttiromto Tano (Lon-
Son, 1850); D*OviDta,J^iu£i criMci (Xaplee. 1S79}; Mazioni, Tra
Libri c sarJerCAvrtr, Storia tMlaletteraiiifoiialiarui,7il (Florence,
18fl5>; OK HAsrrnn. Storia delta litLHol,. Jl (Naples, 1894). xvi;
FuHAUi. T. Tafta (BuaAaDo, liiSa): T. Tsho r. i bmedettmi
Mifiwewt 0Ron»B,186^T)3onLTiHai Tauaaiid Ms TVnw (London,

(smBpra Gallatbebi.
Tusoni, AiiBSSANnRO, Italian poet, b. at Modena
in 1565; d. therein 1635. He spent his life in the serv-
ice of prelates and princes in Italy, acting as secre-
tary or in some similar capacity. His fame depends
chiefly upon the undoubted success of his mock-he-
roic poem, the "Secchia rapita" (1614), which deals
in a pretKidedly serious way with a mighty strugele
between the citizens of two adjoining towns in Italy
over the purloining of a well-bucket. The comic and
the serious are skilfully blended throughout and the
methods of the ancient epic description are faithfully
copied. While in a measure the poem develops germs
of the mock-heroic already perceptible in Italian liter-
ature back as far as the fourteenth centuiy, it is more
particularly significant as maricmg a natural outcome
of poetizing on chivalrous, romantic subjects, such as
Anosto and Tasso had treated, once these subjects
ceased to be regarded with any degree of seriousness
as meet for artistic treatment. The "Secchia r*-
pita" belongs to the same category as the ancient
"Battle of the Froes and Mice^', Lope de Vega's
"GAtomacfuia". Boileau's "Lutrin" and Pope's

"Rape of the Look", and ranks worthily with than.
The patriotic Italian's dislike of the arrt^ant invad*
ing ^aniard is clear in his " Filipjiiche contra ^ 9ptr
gnuou"; his views on literary criticism and his diasf^
proval of the bad taste of hie time may be seen in lus
''Considerazioni sopra le rime del Petearca" and his
"Fensieri divnsi". There an various editima of the
"Secchia rapita", e. g., Paris (1622); Modena (1744),
with a life by Muraton; Florence (1861), with astudy
by Carducci; Florence (1887); with the additioB of
certain minor writings in prose and verae.

RotmjL, La Stecfiia ropUa di Alettandra IWont (Cittenintta,
1884); Chi ceo, L'umorinto e la Secdua rapita (Punu, IS9t).

J. D. M. FoBD.

Tatiui. a second- centmry apologist about whose
antecedents and early history nothing can be afBrmed
with certainty except that he was bom in Awpi*
and that he was trained in Greek philosophy. Wnile
a young man he travelled extensivdy. DisKUSted
with the greed of the pagan philosophers with wbom
he came in contact, he conceived a profound contempt
for their teachings. R^ielled by the grossneas and
immorality of the pagans and attracted by the bolineai
of the Christian region and the sublimity and ant-
plicity of the Scriptures, he became a convert, prob-
ably lUwut A. D. 160. He joined the Chnstiu
communii^ in Rome, where he was a "henor" d
Justin. 'Tbereisnoreascmtothinkhewasoravertcd
by the latter. While Justin lived Tatian remained
orthodox. Lata- (c. 172) he apostatised, became a
Gnostic of the Encratite sect, and returned to the
Orient. The circumstances and date of his death
are not known. Tatian wrote many works. Only
two have survived. One of these, "Oratio ad
Grsco8"(nj9it'EXXiii>af), is an apology for Christianity,
containu« in the first part $-xxxi) an exposition
of ^ Christian Faith vith a view to showing its
superiority over Greek philoeop]^, and in the second
part a demonstration of the ni^ antiquity of the
Christian religion. The tone of this apology is
bitter and denunciatory. The author inveighs
against Hellenism in all its forms and e^ieases the
deepest contempt lot GreA philosophy and Greek
manners.

The other extant work is the "Diateeseron", a
harmony of the four Gospels containing in contini:ouB
narrative the principal events in the life of Our Lord,
libe question rc^jarding the language in which thia
work was composed is still in dispute. Lightfoot,
Hilgenfeld, Bardenhewer, and others contend that
the orwinal language was Syriac. Hamack, Buridtt
and others are equal^^ positive that it was composed
in Greek and translated into Syriac dtuing the life-
time of Tatian. There are only a few fragmaifa
extant in Syriac but a comparatively full reconstruc-
tion of the whole has been effected from St. Ephraem'e
commratary, the Syriac text of which has been lost,
but which exists in an Armenian version. Two revi-
sions of the" Diatesseron" are available: one in Latin
preserved in the "Codex Fuldensis" the Goqwb
dating fnnn about a. d. 646, the other in an Anbie
version found in two manuscripts of a later date.
The " Diatesseron" or "Evangelion da Meballete"
(the Goq)el of the mixed) was practically the chiIt
gospel text used in Syria during the third and fourth
centuries. Rabbula, Bishop of Edessa (411-435),
ordered the nriests and deacons to see that evoT
church should have a copy of the separate Gospeb
(Evangelion da Mei^uureshe), and Theodoret, Biauv
of Cyrus (423-467), removed more than two hunam
copies of the "Dlatessnwi" from the churches ia bib
diocese. Several other wotks written by Tatisn
Iwve disappMtfed. In his apology (xv) he mentionB
a work "on animals" and (xvi) one on the "nstwre
of demons". Another work in refutation dt the
calumnies against the Christians (xl) was pl^f^
but perhaps never written. He also wrote a Boot

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UTOJOt

or Problems" (Bus., "Hist. Eed.", V, 13), dealing
with Uie difBctutiee in the Scnptures, and one "On
Perfection according to the Preciepts cS Our SaTiour"
(Clem. Alex., "StWMn.", Ul, 12, 81).

T«zt of Orako la Bchwakis, T*xU u, VnUnuehwvm, IV
(Leipaig, 1888), tr. a AiU»-NietM ro&tn, II, Pvmcu,
tUeherchM «ur le diMcom aux Ortct d» 7aJte» wtfwitt d'tuu frodit^
Hon du dueowf, oKC nolM (Puis, 1903) ; ZaHN, TWan'a JNbIw
Mran <188[); Ciabca, T^itiniM fMfiMKmM ffonnonto AnMei
(BoUB, 1888), to. Hooa in AitU-Nicmtt FaUnri. IX. 38-188;
BOBKm. BwaagtKM da JAjikarrMA* (Cunbridge, 1904).

Patbick J. Hbalt.
Tittt. Jacopo. See Sanbovino, Ahdsu Com-

TTOCI.

Tatwin (TATtmn), Saint, Archbishop of Canter-
bury; d. 30 July, 734. A Mercian by birth, he be-
came a monk at Briudun in Woroestersbire. The
Venerable Bede describes him as " a man illuatrious for
religion and prudence and eteellen^ instructed in the
sacral letters" (Hist. Eccl., xxiii). HewascSected
to succeed Brihtwald as Archbishop of Canterbuiy, and
was consecrated there on 10 June, 731, afterwards re-
ceiving the pallium from the pope. (Symeon Dunelm.,
"Hist. Reg.", n, 30). DurinK his brief ^iscopate
« f three years he blessed Nothbald, the new Abbot
of St. Augustine's Abbey, who had succeeded Tat-
win's friend, Albinua, and he also consecrated bishops
for Linds^ and Selsey. After his death miracles
were wrought through his intercession, an account of
which was written by Goscelin. Certain rhymed
eeniamata or riddles (published by Giles in " Anecdota
Beose", 1851) are ascribed to hun, and he is said to
have written some poons in An^^o-Sanm whieh have
perished.

VcN.Bna,ffMl. Aec, V.zxiti-sziv; William or Malmmbctt,
Oetta ponUAeum in R. 3. (Loncton, 1870); CHALLOiin, Brilannia
Saneta (London, 17^; KtuBu, CotUz aipitmalieu* mi Saxoniei
(London, 1839-48) ; Haddan and Stobm, CtntnciU and Eodoriat-
tieal DoaiHunU (Oxford, 1869-78) ; Hook. Lim of IktArMithop*
of Canlarbvru (London, 1880) ; Habdt, DeMcriptit Catalofpu (Lon-
don, 1862) ; Btubbs in Did. Chriuian Biog. ; Hdnt in aid. NtU.
Bieg.; Ebut, Uaber dit Adt&MlpoMie dtr Ane^iteuH—n, intb—im-
dtr* dit ^nigmala 4** Talwine u. Butbin* in Bw. goeha, Om.
WitmKh. (Eterlio, 1877) ; Habn. Dit £dtA«aIdidU«r Ttotow «.
BttMtbiu* in Foneh. dttdseh. OmcH. ^rlin, 1887) ; Sbasl^ Attglo-
Saxon Bithopt, Kingt and /fobUa (OunbndgB, 1899).

Edwin Bubton.

Taubatt, Diocbsb op (db TAtTBAxA), in Brasil,
South America, established on 29 A|)ril, 1908, as a
suffragan of Sfto Paulo. The present incumbent and
first bishop, the Right Rev. Kpaminondas Nufiee de
Avila e Silva (b. 4 July. 1860; consecrated 8 Sept.,
19d9) altered upon his duties on 21 Nov., 1900. In
the town of TaubatS, Hiere are, beudes the cathedral,
which is one of the finest in Brazil, the churches of
Sant' AoDA, Nossa Senhora do Pilar, and Santa Clara
(built in 1644), tmd the chapels of the San Josd school
of Santa Isabel Hospital, and of the Mendicant Asy-
lum. The Catholic educational institutions in Tau-
jat^ are: the Seminario Menor, under the Capuchin
fathers; the Collegio de Nossa senhora do Bom Ccm-
settio, and the San Joe6 School, both under the Sisters
of St. Joseph; the Collegio Immaculado Coracao de
Maria, and the Collegio de Santa Veronica, admin-
btered by the Tlurd Order of St. Francis. The re-
li^ous orders in the diocese are: Capuchins; fVan-
onoans; and Sisters of St. Joseph. There are seven
ndigious associations or brotherhoods. The o£BciaL
organ td the diocese is "O Labaro", which was
founded by Mgr. NuAes de Avila.
F«r blblioinwhjr Mt Bbaiil.

JuUAN Mobbho-Lacallb.

Tauler, John, German Dtnnimcan, one of the
greatest mystioa and preadiera of the Mid(Ue Ages, b,
at Straaburg about 1300; d. at the same place, 16
Jane, 1361. He was the son of a prosperous eitisen of
that dty. Apparently while still a youth he entered
the Dominican Order at Strasbiu^, because aooording
to his own confession the aaostio life of the order at-
tracted him. It is poa^le that while taking the ous-
XIV—W

tomary cdKht-years* oourse of study at the monasteij
he heara ^kt^rt preach. When a student at the uni-
▼enity of the order at Cologne, he became more closely
acquamted with Eokhart. In the same way he prob-
ably came to know Henry Suso at Cologne. Whether
he also studied at Paris is uncertain; more probably
he returned from Cologne to Strasburg. Prom about
1339 to 1347 or 1348 he lived at Basle where he and
Heniy of NArdKwcen wen the centre of the lai^ so-
ciety called the Friends ot God of Basle; these were
persons who favoured the mystical life and who gave
Uiemselves this name from St. John, xv, 15. Tauler
then returned to Strasburg where he laboured as a
in«acher. Christina Ebner praises his fiery tongue
that kindled the entire world; Rulman Merswin chose
him as confessor. Later be lived for some time at
Cologne. During the last period of his life he was
again at Stoad>unE.

The "MeisterbucAi" of the "FViend of God of the
Upland" gives an account of a master of the Scri^
tures who attracted great attention in 1346 by lua
preaching. One daj^ a layman accused the master of
seemingly seeking his own honour rather than that of
God, saying also that probably he had not himself
borne the burdens he had laid upon others. Without
making any stipulations the master allowed himself
to be guided by the layman and learned from him to
foi^et the world and himself, to turn all his thoughts
upon Qod and to lead a life of the Spirit. For two
years he lived in seclusion. When after this he
preached again for the first time the effect was so great
that forty of his hearers went into convulsions and
twelve could hardly be revived. After the master had
lived and laboured for nine years more he fell danger-
ous^ ill, and calling for the Uyman gave him a written
account of his conversion. To this account the lay-
man added five sermons of the master that he had
copied. It was customary at an earlier date to re-
gard Tauler as this master, and the "Meisterbuch"
was from the year 1498 included in the editions <tf
Taulor's sermons. In more recent times Preger has
lUso supported this opinion. But in the treatise
"Taulers Bekefarung" Denifle has produced strong
proofs against attributing to Tauler the rOIe of this
master; this view is now generally maintained. The
story told by the later Strasburg chronicler. Speckle
(d. 1589) is a tissue of falsehoods; it relates that Tau-
ler op{M>8ed the pope and the interdict that the pope
had laid upon Strasburg in the stru^le between uie
papacy and the Emperor Louis the Bavarian.

TaiUer's writiius nave not yet been subjected to a
thorou^ oriticaT investigation. Much that is at-
tributed to him is doubtful, much not gmuine. He
certainly did not write the book of the '^achahmung
des armen Lebens Christi" or "Von der geist-
lichen Armut". The "Exercitia super vita et pas-
sione Jesu Christi" and the spiritual songs attributed
to him are also spurious. At the most he only wrote
asnudlpart of the "Medulla animse" or of "In-
stitDti<Hiee diviiue ". Only the sermons, therefore, re-
main as the actual wcvks oS Tauler. The first edition
appeared in 1498 at Leipz^ and inehideB 84 somons;
the second editkm (Basle, 1521-22) added ^ more
some of whiohf however, even in the opinion of the editCM*
of the edition, were not Tauler's; in the third edi-
tion (Cologne, 1543) 25 new sermons were added, part
of which are also spurious. The (Cologne edition was
ti-anslated into or rather paraphrased in, Latin b^
Laurentius Surius (Cologne, 1548). This Latin edi-
tion was the copy used lot trandatioiu into various
foreign languages and far both Catholic and Protes-
tant retranslations into G«inan. The modem editions
(PVankfort, 1826, 1864, 1872; Beriin, 1841) are based
on the old German editions. Lately, Ferdinand Vet-
ter has prepared an edition (Berlin, 1910) based on
the EngeSwrs manuscript ^e only one made at
Oologoe the oldest one mat may perhaps repre-

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sent the oolleotion revised by Tauler himself) , also on
the Freiburg maousoript, and on copies of the three
manuseripts burned at Strasbuqt in 1870. Hub edi-
tion contains 81 sermons. The sermons are among the

finest monuments of the German language, of German
fervour of belief, and of profound Bpiritual feeling.
The language is quiet and measured, yet warm, am-
mated, and full of imagery. Tauler is not so specula-
tive as his teacher Eckhart, but he is clearer, more
practical, and more adapted to the common people;
with ail this he united Suso's fervour. The expression
used by Christina Ebner, that he bad set the whole
world aflame by his fiery tongue, does not mean that
be was a preadio' of fiery, entrancing eloquence, but a
pnacher who warmed and inflameathe hearts of his
hearers by the quiet flame of the pure love that burned
in his own breast.

The centre of Tauler*s mysticism is the doctrine of
the trisio etaenUa Dei^ the blessed contemplation or
knowledge of the Divme nature. He takes this doc-
trine from Thomas Aquinas, but goes further than the
latter in believing that the Divine Knowledge is attain-
able in this world also by aperfect man, and should be
sought by every means. God dwells within each hu-
man being. In order, however, that the transcendent
God may appear in man as aseoond subject, the human,
sinful activities must cease. Aid is given in this effort
by the light of grace which raises nature far ^x)ve it-
self. The way to God is through love; God replies to
its highest devistopmoit by His presence. Tauler gives
advice of the moat varied character for attaining that
height of religiou in which the Divine enters into the
human subjct^. Something needs to be said as re-
gards Tauler's position towards the Church. Luther
praised him gr^tly and Protestants have always had
a very high opinion of him, and have included him
among the reformers before the Reformation".
However, it is now conceded by Protestants that be
was "in reality entirely mediseval md not Protes-
tant". He was in fact a dutiful son the Church and
never thought of withdrawing his allegiance. He ex-
presses his opinion very plainly in his sermon on St.
Matthew. He set his faee against all heresy, rapect^y
that of the Brethren of the Free Spirit, what at-
tracted Luther was probably not Tauler's doctrine
itself, but only here and there some subordinate
thought. Perhaps it pleased him that the word indul-
gence appears only once in Tauler's sermons, or it
aroused nis sympauiy that Tauler laid less stress upon
works, or again he was attracted by the tremendous
earnestness of this seeker after God.

Qrinr-EcHABD, SaiptorM ordinii pradicatorum, I (Paris,
1719), 077-9; ScRlovr, Johamw TavUr mn StroMbwa (Ham-
burg, 1S41) : Pbbqbb, GmeKd^dmOtehen Mu*tikim MituSaUer, III
(LetpiiSf 1893), 1-241; Dmna. Da* Buck nm dtr otuUichm
Armtd [Munioh, 1877); Imit, IWtn B»k«hrvf»g (StrasburK.
1879); Bintn, DU MvHk nHOtn (teipiic, 1011).

Klbmbns LOfixbb.

Taunton, Ethblrbd, writer, b. at Ru^el^, Staf-
fordshire, England, 17 Oct., 1857; d. m Ix}ndon,
9 May, 1907. He was educated at Downside, and
form^ a desire both then and later in life to enter the
lEtenedictine Order, but his weak health was an in-
superable obstacle to the realization of hia wishes.
He succeeded in entering the Institute of St. Andrew,
founded by the well-known oonv^, Rev. George
Bampfield, at Barnet; but aoain his health prevented
him from remaining. Kimuly, he joined the congre-
gation of the Oblates founded by Cardinal Mannmg
at Bayswater, and in 1883 he was ordained priest.
Three years later he left the Oblates. and went on the
mission at Stoke Newin^n in North London. Here
he built a new church, whioh was <^>ened in 1888; but
shortly afterwards he received senous injury bv the
accidental fall of some scaffolding, wbjoh brought on
partial paralysiB, and permanoit^ ino^iaeitatea him •
from active W(nk. He oontuiued, however, to be
busy with his pen. He was a man of wide reading,

and wrote on a large number of subjects. For a whSe
he lived at BrugeiL where he founded and edited "St.
Luke's Magasine'': but it had only a brief existence,
and haviiw partial^ recovered his health, he returned
to En^and and devoted himself to Uterature. His
two chief works on the Jesuits and Benedictines, re-
spectively, were to have been followed by a similar one
on the EngUsh secular clergy, had he lived. TVimigh
he always professed to aim at setting forth truth un-
adorned and regardless of consequences, his partisan
tone and apparent prejudice gave offence to many.
Those who knew hiio be^, howevw, testified to ma
singleness of purpose and genuine piety. He was also
an authority on Church music s^ litumy. His
death took j^lace somewhat suddenly, 'in Lmidon,
from heart fadure. at the age of fifty.

Publications: "Histoiy of Church Music" (Lon-
don, 1817); "Lead Kindly Light" (London, 1893);
"English Black Monks of St. Benedict" (London,
1898); "History of the Jesuits in England" (London,
1901); "Thomas Wolsey" (London, 1901): "Little
Office B.V.M." (London, 1903); "The Law of the
Church" (London, 1906); numerous articles in
"Downside Review", "St. Luke's Magaaine", "Irish
Ecclesiastical Record", etc. He dso biuislated
Bacuez, "The Divine Office" (1886): and Bourda-
bue, "the Lord's Prayer" (1894).

Did. Nat. Biog.. SupplMmU 1900-1910. a. v.; obi'tauy notioM
in Tahht, DawnntU Bnimg, etc

Bbbnabd Wabd.

Tave{nfia, Santino. See Kbibhnaqab, Diocsbx or.

Tarwnar, John, composer, b. in the County of
Norfolk, England, about 1475; d. at Boston, England,
1535 or 1536. He was organist of Boston Parish
Church from 1500 to 1525, when he was appointed
master of the choristers at Cardinal College, Oxford,
by Cardinal Wolsey. His fame as oiguiist and
choirmaster was fully equalled, if not eclipsed, by his
powers as a comptner of masses and motets. He
continued at Oxford till 1533, and.tiien retired to
Boston. Cin the strength of a statement of Foxe, in
his so-called "Book of Martyrs", Taverns has been
branded as a heretic, but it is more than probable
that Foxe confounaed the composer with John
Tavemer^a correspondent of Cromwell, or else with
Richard Tavemer, a CJanon of Wolsey's CoD^,
Chcfopd, who revised Matthew's Bible. He wrote
nothing for the.English Service, but he has bequeathed
ei{^t masses, as well as fragments of others, and
Latin Magninoats, that stamp him as a oompoeer of
thefirstnuik. His beautiful four-part "In nomine"
has been altered to fit two English anthems, "O give
thanks" and "In trouble and adversity", in Day's
"Mommg and Evening Frayer" (1565). He con-
tributed three songs to Wynlmi de Worde's English
song book, printed in 153i9; but by far the greater
part of his work is sacred. His "Gaude Maria
Vii^", for three voices, and his "Mater Christi",
for five voices, are good examples of his style, but he
is best known by his "Western Wynde'' mass.
Althouc^ obsessed by the conventions of the easly
sixteento c«itu^, Tavemer showed some good
pioneer work, which was afterwards successfully
developed by Shepherd, Byrd, Tallis, and Whyte.
He must not be confounded with a later John Tavcr-
ner, who was appointed prof esaor ot musie at Gresham

College in 1610. ^ , ^■

Grovc'b Did. of Muiic and Mvieiatu, V (atm ed., LotMon,
]mu-10)! WALJcm, A HiaUry "f Mmie in Bngtand (Otton.
1907); Gbattan-Fiood. HoIm oh Bni^ith ChMnh Comptmn

W. H. Gbattah-Flood.

Taviitook Abbsy, on the Tav^ Rivelr in Dem-
shire, Endand, founded itjc Benedictine monks m 961
by Earl Ordgar of Devon, and completed by his son
Ordulf in 98f, in whi^ year the charter of confirma-
tion was granted by Kijog Ethebed. It was endowed

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with lands in Devtm, Dorset, and Cornwall, and

became one of the richest monasteries in the wiast of
England- The church, dedicated to Our Lady and St.
Rumon (one of the early Irish saints in Cornwall), was
burned by the Danes in 997, but magnificently rmuilt
under livingus, the seoona abbot. He and his suo-
ceasor Aldred both became IubImipb al WaroBsta', and
the latter is said to have orowiwa William the Con-
quetor. The thirtynsizth i^bot, John Dynynton, was
granted leave in 1458 to use the mitre and other
pontificalia; and the thirty-ninth, Richard Banham,
was made a lord of Parliament by Henry VIII in
1513. Twenty-five years later the last abbot, John
Peryn, with twenty monks, surrendered the monas-
tery to the king, receiving a pensiou ^ a hundred
pounds. The abbey revenues at the dissolution were
estimated at £902. The mtmastio buUdings, with
the borough of Tavistock, were granted to John Lord
Russell, wnose descendant, the Duke of Bedford, still
owns them. Nothing is left of the monastery exoept
the refectory, two gateways, and a porch; the Bplendid
abbey church has entirely diaappeared.

DuoDAUt, Mtmast. ArvJic., II (Lottdbn. 1817), 489-608; Wnxo,
Him. a/ ttf Mitnd Partiammlam Abbiet (London, 1718). 170-
170; Tannu, Ifotiiia Mmieutiea (Ounbridjie, 1787), DntmMre,
iHw; Bkat, TAe Bordtn of Ihi TVimor and (Afl Tavy, I (LoodoD,
1879), 1, 356-440, II. 8. 416. 423; Ouvzs. Hutorie CoOoetuma rw
btina to MonaoUriea Dmon (Exeter. 1820); QuQtm, Hmn/
VI Hand Oo SngUMh Uonatmrn. I (London, 1888), 29,898.

D. O. Hmrmt-BLAiB.

Ttorlnm, k titular see in Galatia Prima, suCFra^an
of Ancyra. Tavium, or Tavia, was the chief city
of the Galatian tribe of Troomi, and owing to its
IKwition on Uie high roads of commerce Mts an im-
portant trading post. There are still extant some of
the coins of Marcus Aurelius and Elagabalus. In
the temple at Tavium there was a colowal statue of
Jupiter m bronze, greatly venerated by the Galatians.
Tlicre was some doubt about the exact site of the
oit^, but it is to-day generally believed to be the
ruins situated close to the village of Nefes Keui,
inhabited during the winter by nomadic Turkish
tribes, Wing in a very fertile ^lain east of Halys in the
caza of Songourlou and the vilayet of Angora. These
ruins were partly used in building the neighbouring
Tillage of Yuzgad. We find there the remains of a
tbet^^ and possibly^ of a temple of Jupiter; these
have a number of inscriptions, mostIy_ Byzantine.
In the "Notitite Episcopatuum" thissee is mentioned
up to the thirteenth century as the first suffragan of
Ajicyra. We have the names of five bi^iops:
Dicasius, present at the Councils of Neocssarea
and Nice: Julian, at the Robber Synod of Ephceus
(449), and at the Council of Chalcedon (451), and a
signer of the letter from the Galatian bishops to
tiie Emperor Leo (45S); Anastasius, present at the
Council of Constantinople (553); Grarory at the
CouncU in TniHo (602); Philaretus at Constantino-
ple (869).

Lk Qoicrr, Orient CMtl., I, 473; Sum, Diet. Or*sk and Ro-
man Qiog., s. v.; Tsxibb, Aria minmn. 497; Pbbbot, Exploration

Sola Minor, 343; Mfliun, aotw to Aolmtf. ad. Dioot, I, 8S8.

8. FAnuDiu.

Taza Innocentfaoa. a Decree issued by Innocent
XI, 1 Oct., 1678, regulating the fees that may be
demanded or accepted by episcopal chancery offices
for various acta, instruments, or writings. Accord-
ing to this Decree bishops or their officials are not
a^wed to accept anytmnff though freely offered
(1) for ordinations or anything connected tnerewith,
such as dimissorial letters, etc.; (2) for institution
to benefices; (3) for matrimonial dispensations. In
this last case, however, alms to be apphed to pious uses
may be demanded. A moderate charge, fixed by
Innocent, may be exacted by the chancellor for ex*
peditin^ necessary documents^ except those granting
permisBion to say Mass, admmister the saoramoits.

preach, etc The Taxa Innooentiana is silent in r»>
gard to contentious nutters, e. g. the charge for
copies of the aets of eedesiastuial trials. Some
maintained that Innocent's legislation was [vo>
mulgated for Italy only, but it evidmoed the mind
<A the Church, and at I^st in substance was of uni-
venal i^iplioatioii. The Saered Congregation o£ the
Ooniuil on 10 June, 1896, modified the presoriptions
of Innocmt, decreeu^ that while taxes or fees may
be imposed according to justice and prudence in
matten pertfuning to benefices and sacraments, es-
pecially matrimony, yet the sacraments themselves
must be conferred without charge and pious customs
connected therewith observed In other matters not
directly affecting the administration of the sacra-
mo^ e. g. dispensatioDB from the banns, it is de-
creed that: (1) laudable customs must be Observed
and allowances made for various circumstances of
time, place, and persons: (2) the poor are not to be
taxed; (3) in any case tne amount demanded must
be moderate, so that persons may not be deterred
thereby from receiving the sacraments; (4) as regards
matrimony the exaction is to be remitted, if otherwise
there would be daiiger of concubinage; (5) in regard
to benefices the tax must be in proportion to the
fruits or income (tf the benefice in question; (6) all
such fees are to be determined not by individual
bishops but in Fwovinoial council, or at least in a qiedal
meeting (tf the ordinaries of the province for this
purpose. The approval the Bofy See is required
for the fees determined upon. Rome's sanction is
given tentatively for five years to Italy, for ten years
to oth« countries.
Fkbuhw, a. r. Tom; Ldcdi, Da wtoitoL m. KinAtHfli, doe. XX,

ni.144. Andbbw B. Mbxban.

TWtSter (Tayster), John de, sometimes er-
roneously called Taxter or Taxston, was a thirteenth-
century chronicler, of whose life nothinf^ is known
except that he was professed as a Benedictme at Bury
St. Edmund's 20 Nov., 1244. It is probable that he
died in or about 1265, when bis ohromde ceases. His
work, which in the earlier part ia compiled from
Florence of Worcester, William of Malmesbury, and
Ralph de Dioeto, bc^ns with the creation of. the
world. The value of the chronicle arises from
Taxster's acooimt of his own times; and his descrip-
tion of contemporary events was subeequenthr used
hy Everisden, Oxenedes, and Bartholomew Cotton.
'This part of his woi^ has accordingly attracted more
attention, and his chronicle for the p«iod 1258-1263
has been printed by Luard in his edition of C3otton
(Rolls Series). Taxster's chronicle as a whole has
never been printed, and exists only in two MSS., one
in the British Museum (Cott., Julius, A. 1.), the other
in the College of Arms (Arundelian MS., 6). A
faulty MS. for the years 1173-1266 was printed in
1849 for the English Historical Society, and passages
rdating to (Seraian affairs have been included oy
Pertz in "Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script.", XXVIIL

LmasHAHN In Pnn, Mon, Oam. HiaL: Sairt., XXVIII
hJUM, ia R. 3., loA. dt. {LoBdoa, 1800); Hawt. DaaeripHao CSofs •
It^uTlII (LoKkm. 1S71): Toot in DieLlfaL Biog.^

Edwin Bubton.

T^lor, Fkamobb Mabgabit (Mothbb M.
Magdalbn Tatlob), Superior General, and foundress
of the Poor Servants of the Mother of God, b. 20
Jan., 1832; d. in London, 9 June, 1900. Her father
was a Protestant clergyman, the viear of a Lincoln-
shire parish where her early years were spent in works
of charity among the poor. She was a very clever
woman, full of energy, with a wide sympathetio
nature and a remar^t>ly retentive numoiv. In
1854 her patriotism moved her to join Miss Night-
ingE^e's staff of nurses, and to. go with them to the
Crimean War. This threw her into .contact wiUi
Catlwlio priests, Sisters of Meroy* and soldiers, and

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n aiuii

opowd her eyes to the truth of the Gatholio religion.
After instruction she was reedved into tJie Churoh
by Father Woollett, S J. On her return to England
she first worked amnig the poor at London, and made
the aoquainfamoe ci lady Oeowjaaa FulHrton, with
wbxm oo-operati(m she laid toe foundation of her
institute. In addition to this, and to tmening various
refufces, oonvoits, schools, eto., she did a great deal
of ht^iuy work. She wrote a good many stories
and always empk>yed her pen for the promotion of
the CaUioho religion. For some time she edited
"The Lamp", andhelped to start both "The Month",
and "The Measenffer of the Saored Heart", to which,
as to other Catiiolic papas and perioduals of the di^r,
she contributed. Sb» had iinUbed from Father
DiKQam, S.J., a great derotioii to the Sacred Heart,
and was very active in sfneadin^ this devotion ana
the ApoBtleship tA Prayer, especially in Irdand. In
1802 her health gave way, and the rest of hex life
was suffering, bOTne with exemplary putience. She
died in a home she had founded for penitents in Soho
Square, London. Her wwks are "Memoir of Fathw
Dignam, SJ."; "Rebeats nven 1^ Father Diraiam,
S.J."; ''Conferenoes by Tatber Dignam, SJ.";
"The Innra- life of iMy Georgiana Fullerton";
"Tybome wid Who Went Thither"; "Convent
Stories";"LoBt, and Other Tales": "I>ame Dolores";
"Life of Father Curtis, 8.J."; "ReligioaB Oiders":
"Holywell and Its Pilmms"; "The Stoneleigha at
Stoneleigh''; "Irish Homes and Irish Hearts";
"Eastern Hostntals and English Nurses."

S%< Muantgt tiftlu acuni Meart (April, 1901); Oillow, BML
DUL Bug. CtOk., a. T. Tat/lor, France* Maodaien.

Fbancbsca M. Steele.

Ta^or, Hugh, Venerable, English marbr, b. at
Durham: hanged, drawn, and quartered at York, 25
(not 26) November, 1585. He arrived at Reims on 2
May, 1582, and having been ordained priest was sent
thence on the mission on 27 March^585 . He was the
first to suffer under the Statute 27 Elii. o. 2. lately
passed. On 26 November, Mannaduke Bowes, a
married gentleman, was hanged tor having harboured
him. Bowes ia described by Challoner as of Angram
Grange near Appleton in Cleveland, but is not men-
tioned in the will of Christopher Bowee of Angram
Grange, proved on 30 Sept., 1568, nor in the 1612
pedigree. The sole evidence against him was that of a
former tutor to his children, an apostate Catholic.
Having been previously imprisoned at York with his
wife, he was under bond to appear at the Assises
which b^aa on 23 November at Yoik, and on his ar-
rival found that Taylor was about to be arraigned.
Bowes, though always a Catholic at heart, hadout-
wardly conformed to the Established Church. "Be-
fore his death he was made a member of the Catho-
lic Churoh the which he boldly confessed with great
alacrity of mind".

MoBBis, TrvubU* of our Catholic Forefathert (London, 1672-7)t
I, 244i III, paaifm; Challonbb, Mutitmary Frieita. I (Edin-
burgh, 1877), no. 29; Knox, Dowiv I>iariM (Londoa, 1878>i p***
aim,- FoarxK, Vuilation of Torkthvc in 18l» (1876), 497.

John B. Wainbwright.

Tebaldeo, Antoni^ Italian poet, b. at Ferrara, in
1463; d. in 1537. His family name (Tebaldi) he
changed to Tebaldeo, in consonance with the inaotice
of the Humanists, who sought to Latiniie the form of
their amwllation as much as possible. After swing
as tutor to Isabdla d'Este and secretary to Luorezia
BOTgia, he became an habitu^ of the court of Leo X at
Rome, enjoying the favour of that scholarly pope and
the companionship of man^ of the erudite men and
artists then in the Impoial City. He lost all his
means in the sack of Rome (1527)j and spent the re-
mainder of his life in very narrow circumstances. He
wrote vene in both Latin and Italian. His Italian
verse is remarkable rather for vices ci diction awi
i^4e than for any poetical vzoellenoe. With his arti-

ficiai manner, his iJnise <A metaphor, and his studied
imagray. he was a fortfunno- of those extravagant ver-
sifiers who, in the seventeenth century, developed tiie
movement called Marinism or SeeaUiamo. To Te-
baldeo has been ascribed a redaction of Poliziano's
play, "Orfeo", which aims to make that piece accord
better with the prine^rites of classic compo^titm. He
figured among uw wnters of the time who engaged in
the discussion concerning the nature of Utenuy
Italian. (See his verse in the edition of Vraice, 1^0,
"Di M. Antonio Tebaldeo ferraresel'opered'uncffe".)

D' Axcoka, Dd uemtiimo neJia poena eortogiaw del «ee. X Fin
ffuovaAntoteoia (1679) iCak, Undeoenniod^titadiBemboCTm-
in, 1885), 234:LvtlO, tpreceUoridi IiabeUad'Btte (Anoona, 1^7).

J. D. M. FoBD

Te Deuzn, Thb, an abbreviated title commonly
^ven both to the original Latin text and the tranalar-
tions of a hymn in rhythmical prose, of which the open-
ing words, Te Deum boudamw, formed its earliest known
title (namely in the Rule of St. Ca»ariuB for monkS|
written probably when he was Abbot of L^rina, before
A. D. 502). This longer title is used in the "Rules for
Virgins" composed by St. Csesarius while Archbishop
of Aries, and by his second successor in the same see.
St. Aurelian, uso in the Rule of St. Benedict; ana
generally in earlier literature. The hynm is aho
semetimee styled "Hjrmnue Ambrosianus", the "Am-
brosian Hj'mn"; and in the Roman Breviary it is still
entitled, at the end of Matins for Sunday, "Hymnua
88. Ambrosii et Augustini". It is interesting to note
that the title has been changed to "Hymnus Ambrooi-
anus" in the "Psalterium" of the new Roman Breviary
of Pius X. This Psalterium has been printed (1912),
but became obligatorv only from 1 Jan., 1913. The Te
Deum is found in the first part of the "iWterium
C" Ordinarium", etc.) The tradition that it was spon-
taneously composed and sung alternately by these
saints on the night of St. Augustine s baptism
(a. d. 387) can be traced back to the end of the ei^th
century, and is r^erred to in the middle of the nmth
century by Hincmar of Reims ivl a nuyoribua no$txi»
auditdmus) in his second work,"De pnedestinatione"
(P. L., CXXV, 290), and in an elaborated form in a
Milanese chronicle attributed to Datius, Bishop of
Milan (d. about 552), but really dating only from the
eleventh century ^thus Mabillon, Muratori, Merati,
etc.). This tradition is now generally rejected by
scholars.

(a) It should naturally have hdd, from earliest
times, a prominent place in Milan; but of the etuiier
manuscripts of the Te Deum whidi reiet to the tra-
dition in their titles, none has any connexion with
Milan, while the "Milan Cathedral Breviary" text
(eleventh centiuy) has no title whatever, (b) The
tradition ascribing the authorship to the two saints is
not unique. Another tradition is represented by the
remark of Abbo ot Fleary (a. d. 985) m his "Quss-
tiones i^nunmaticalee" (P. L., CXXXIX, 532, (19)
ooncermng the erroneous substitution ot "suscepisti"
for "suse^iturus" in the verse "Tu ad lU>erandum
susoepturuB hominem", etc^ in what he styles "Dei
palinodia quam composuit Hilarius Pictavieosis epis-
copua". It may be added that an ei^th- or ninth-
century MS. of the hymn, now at Munich, r^ers it to
St. Hilary, (c) But neither to Hilary nor to Am*
brose may the hymn be prudently ascribed, because
although Dodi composed hymns, the Te Deum is in
rl^hmical prose, and not in the claseioal metres of
the hymos known to have been written by them.
While, from Uie ninth century down to the present
di^, there is no century and no country of Weatem
Europe that has not given its witness to the tradi-
tional ascription, the earliest MS., the "Bangw
Antiphonaiy" (seventh cent.) ^vee as title meray
"Ymnum in die donmuca", while other earipr MSS.
make no reference to the authorship, either giving no
titkw or oontonting themselves with suob general miea

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M "Landmtio Dei" (MS. of eigbth oent.)> "Lwu aa-
gdica" (twelfth cent.), "Umt angelomm" (twelfth
cent.), Hymnus matutlnalia" . . ."Hynmus die
dominioo", "Hymnum domini<ale", eto. Other
M88. ascribe the hymn Tahously to St. Nioetua,
Vieetus (obviously a 8hp of the pen for Nioetus),
Nioetius, Nioetes, Neceta (all of these being thought
identical with Nioeta or Nicetai^ Bishop <rf Reme-
■iaiia, q- v.), to St. Hilarius. St. Abundius, St. Siae-
butUB, St. Ajmbrose, or St. Augustine, (d) llie im-
portanoe of the occasion to which the legend assims
the ocHupositioD of the hynm (the baptism of St.
Augustine) and the ocmiparatiTely late appearanoe of
the ascription to the two saints are additional argu-
menta a^inst the tradition. Menti Uiinks the legend
may have been baaed on the words of a spurious aer*
mon, given as no. 92 in an edition of the works of St.
Ambrose (Paris, 1S49), "De Aus;ustini Baptiamo":
"In quo una vobiscum cum divino mstinctu Hymnum
cantavimiia de Christi fide". It may be added that
the Maurists omitted the Te Deum from their edition
of St. Ambrose: that Batiftof ("Hist, du Br^T. ro-
main", Paris, 1893, p. 98; authorised and ooirected
tr., London, 1898, p. 110) writea: "No one blinks now
of &ttributmg this omto either to St. Amt»<ofle or to
St. Auguatine"; that Father Burtm, in hia "Life of
St. Aunistine, ... An Historical Study" (Dublin, 3rd
ed., 1897) does not even mention the l«cend about the
dual authorship and the baptism of St. Augustine;
and finally that Portali6 (see Augubtinb of Hippo)
remarks: "The tradition maintaining that the Te
Deum was sung on that occasion by the bisliop and
the neopl^te alternately is groimdless".

The other names mentioned above not being fap
Toored by scholars, the question of autiiordiip re-
mained open. In 1894 Dom Morin put forward
Nioetaa of R^esiana for the honour of authorship.
His suQ^estion has been adopted by Zahn, Katt«i-
buBCh, Kirsch (in Germany)^ Ft«re, Bum (in Eng-
land), while the Anglican Bishop of Salisbury con-
siders Morin's conjecture "very plausible"; and in
France, by Batiffol. The reasons for thia view are:

(1) Ten AfSS. (the earliest of the tenth oeatury),
mostly of Iriah ori^, name Nicetaa (witii variant
apdlings and identificationa, however); and Ireland,
remote from the continent of Europe, oould easily
keep until the tenth century a tradition of the fifth.

(2) The probable date of composition of the hymn
oorreeponds with that of the literary activity of
Nicetaa. (3) St. Paulinus of Nola praises (Carmina,
xvii, xxvii) the poetic and hymnodal gifts of hia
friend NIcetas. (4) Gennadiua apeelcB oi the neat
and umi>Ie style of his proee, and Caaaiodorua oom-
mends his conciseness. These critical ^preciations
are thou^t applicable to the style of the Te Deum,
whi(^ depends for its effect mostly on the nobility of
the theme and the simplicity and directneea of the
expression. (5) The authorsnip of the treatises "De
psalmodis bono" and "De vigiliis servorum Dei"
was formerly ascribed to Nicetas of Trier, but is now
attr3)uted witii greatest probability to Nicetas of
Remeuana. Their "intranal evidence . . . proves
that Nicetas felt the need of such a hymn as the Te
Deum, and, so to speak, lived in the same sphere of
religious thou^t" (Bum, cii), while parallel passages
from his writmgs (givai by Bum, ciii-civ), although
offering no direct quotation, exhibit similarity of
tiiou^t and diction.

Hie authorship of St. Nicetas is questioned by
siHne scholars (Cagin, P. Wagner, AgBeasSj Eoeatlin,
Blume). Among the passages eited to indicate a
much earlier oriran perhaps Uie most notable one ia
that from the "De m<ntahtate" (xxvi) of St. Cyprian
of Carthage, written during the plague in 262: "Illic
apostolonim gloriosus chorus; illic prophetarum ex-
sultan tium numerus; iUio martyrum mnumerabilk
pc^uhis ob oertaminis et paamnis gloriam eormii^

0 n osoM

tus; triunqdumtes vii^nes, qua ooncupiseaitiaiii tar-
nis et corporis oontinjentuB robore sub^mmt; r^
munerati miserio(Hdes . . ." , There ia an obvious
similarity between this and 'the veraes of the Te
Deum: Te f^orioeus i^KMtolorum chorus; te prophet-
arum laudabdia Dumcorus: te martyrum oandidatus
laudat exercitus {voms 7-9] . . . ^Gtema fao cum
Sanctis tuis ^^ia munwari [verse 21] Ftt-hiqis the
"remunerati" of St. Cywian and the "munwari" <rf
the oldest texts of the Te Deum are a mere coinci-
dence; but the rest of the similar passages cannot be
an accident. Whidi was the earuer — toe Te Deum.
or the text of St. Cyprian? It is contended that,
however well known and highly esteemed the works
of the saint, there is Uttle m uiis particular passage
to strike the fanc;^ a hymn-writer, while it would be
a very natural thing tor a prose writw to borrow some
expresaioQB from auch a widely-eung hymn as the Te
Deum may have been. Moreover, if the hymn was
borrowed from St. Cyprian, why did it not include
the "viiginee" instead of stopping with "martyrum "T
Additional argument for a very early origin of at
least the first ten veraee of the hymn is found in com-
parisons b^ween these and the texts and melody of
the Frrfacea, in ihn structure of the Gloria in excwis,
in the d^hmie and mdodic character of the Te
Deum, in the Greek translations.

This arcluDological argument cannot be stated in-
telligibly in a few words, out acHue of its bases may be
mentioned: (a) If the Te Deum were composed in the
latter years of the fourth century, it would be a unique
exception to the hymnol<^ of that time, which was
all fashioned in the regular atrophic and metric man-
ner intro^iced and pt^KilariMd by St. Ambrose,
(b) From the point of view of mdody, the hymn has
three divisions: verses 1-13, 14-20, 21 to the end.
The first melody (1-13) is apparently older than the
others, (c) From the point of view of rhythm, there
are also three divisions: verses 14-21 exhibit p^ect
conformity with the laws of the " cursus ", or rhythmic
closes, which date from the fourth century, verses
1-10, nowevw, have onty five (4, 6 and S-10) verses
closed with the rhythmical oinua, and these five are
supposed to be the result o( accident; veraea 22 to the
end belong to a wholly different categcny, beii^ taken
mostly from the Psalms (xxvii, 9; cxhv, 2;cxxii, 3;
xxxii, 22; xxx. 2). It ia argued that, judged by mel-
ody and rhythm, the first ten verses form a complete
hymn (veraee 11-13 havingbeen added subsequently
as a doxobgy) to God the Father, while vwaes 14r-21
form a hymn (added in the fourth centuiy) to Christ.
As noted above, the first tan vases offer (w. 7-9) the
paralMism with the wcwds of St. Cypriai^ and are,
for the various reasons outlined, sumKMod to ante-
date ^e year 252. Speculation ascribes their author-
ship to Pope St. Anicetus (d. about a. d. 168).

Three textual points may be noted here. "Uni-
Kenitum" in v. 12 is conaidn«d the original reading
("unicum" having supplanted it perhaps through the
influence ot the Apostles' Creed, in which "unigeni-
tum"wasrare). InT.21neaTlyallMSS.read"muae-
rari" (ifioria munermi) instead ot the present "nu-
moari" (tn gloria numercai) which Bhime has found
in a twelfth-oentury MS., and which perhf^ie was
suggested by the words in the Canon of the Mass:
" in eleotorum tuorum jubeas grege numerari
Verse 16, "Tu ad liberandum susoepturus hominem",
etc., offers much opportunity for critical discussion.
Most of the old MSS. favour "susoepisti" (with
" libenmdum", foDowed sometimes by " muudum " —
Tu ad ItbenHMiuin mwtdunt nueepUU homlnm) : but
"8Uscepturus",oonteQdedforbyADboof Fleuxy,Hino-
mar, and othem, and quoted in a letter of Cypnan e(
Toulon (about 530), was probably the original word.
The verse does not lend itself readily to translation.
A fifteenthHiaitury translation runs: "When thou
shouldest take vpoa Thee iot the deliver-

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anoe of men, thou horydest not the Vindn'B womb".
With siinUar accuracy a Sarum *' Primer of 1601 has:
"Thou (when thou ahouldest take upou our na-
ture to delyver man) dydeet not abhoire a vii^ynee
wombe". The last "Primer" of Heniy VIII (1646)
was probably the first to introduce the ambigiuwa
rendering: "When thou tookest upoD thee to odiTer
man". The (Baltimore) "Manual of PnqretB" is not
more Accurate: "Thou having taken upon Thee to
deliT^ man, didst not abhor the Virgm's womb".
The "Roman Miasid Adapted to the Use of the
• Laity" (New York, 1001) is laboriously accurate:
"ThoUj when about to take upon Thee man to de-
liver hun, didat not fear the Vindn's womb". The
" Miasal for the Use of the Laity " (London, new ed.
1903, cmdv) gives a new version in rhyme:
"Thou, to redeem lost man from hell's dark doom,
Didst not abhor the lowly Viigin's womb".

This is not far removed from Diyden's version:
"Thou, who to save the world's impending doom,
Voucbaaf'dst to dwell within a Virgin's womb".

The general rubrics (titulus XXXI) of the Roman
Brevianr direct the recitation of the Te Deum at the
end of Matins: (a) on all feasts throughout the year,
whether of nine or of three tesBons, and througnout
their octaves. It is said on the octave day of the
feast of the Holy Innocents, but not on the feast it-
self unless this should fall on Sunday; (b) on all Sun-
days from Easter (inclusively) to Advent (exclusively)
and from Christmas (inclusively) to Septuagesima
(exclusively); (c) on all ferial days during Eastertide
(namely from Low Sunday to Ascension Da^) except
Rogation Mond^. For the sake of greator mqiliat-
ness, the rubrics add that it is not said on the Sun-
days of Advent, or from Septuagesima to Palm
Sunday indusiv^, or on ferial days outside of Easter-
tide. It is said unmediatel^ after the last lesson,
and therefore replaces the third or ninth responsory,
as the case may be; but on days when it is not said,
its place is occupied by the responsory. The Te
Dpum is followecl immediately by Lauds except on
Christmas Day (when it is followed the prayer,
and this by Mass). In general, the Te Deum may
be said to follow the same rubric as the Gloria in
excelais at Mass.

In addition to its use in the Divine Office, the
Te Deum is occasionally sung in thank^ving to God
for some special blessing (e. g. the election of a pope,
the consecration of a bishop, the canonisation of a
saint, the profession of a reiigioiu, the publication
of a treaty of peace, a rwal coronatkm, etc.), and then
usuudfy alter Mass or Divine Office, or as a 8«>arate
religiouB ceremony. When sung tnus immediately
before or after Mass, the celebrant, who intones the
hymn, may wear the vestments appropriate in
colour to the day, unless these should happen to be
black. Otherwise, while the rubrics prescribe no
special colour, violet is forbidden in processiona of
thanksgiving (pro gratiarum aeUone), green is in-
appropriate for such solemn occasions, red (thou^
permissible) would not suggest itself, unless some
such feast as Pentecost, for «cample, should call for it.
White, therefore, or gold, which is considered its equiv-
alent, IS thus left as the most suitable colour. The
choir and congregation sing the hymn standing, even
when the Blessed Sacrament is exposed, but kneel dur-
ing the verse "Te ergo quosumus . . ." At the esid the
versicles "Benedicamus Patrem" etc. are added, fol-
ktwed by the single mayer "Deuscujusmiserioordiie".

There is practically but one plain-chant melody for
the hymn, varying greatly, nowever, in different
MSB. The official and typical melody is now given
in the Vatican Gradual (1908) in the Appoidix (pro
graiiarwn aetiema) in two forms, the tontu aolemnU
(in which every verse begins with preparatory or
intoning notes) and jvxta morm nmanuin (in whteh

0 TE DlinK

the verse b^;in8 w atanpto). Pothier notes a strong
affinity between ike melodies of the Te Deum
laudamua, te dominum oonfitemur and those of
the Preface, Per omnia . . . Sursum. oorda. He also .
points out (Melodies gr^goriennes, 239) a psalmodic
turn in the melody o( the Te Deum, strengthoied by
the introduction of a distinct antiphon-^wm at tlie
words ".£tenia fae", etc., the antipbonal mdody
being thrice repeated. While the chant melody has
been frequently used as a canto fermo ior polyphonic
Masses, the po^honio settings are few compiffed with
many hymns of less prominence. Palestnna, Jacob
Haendl, and Felice Anerio have thus treated the old
melody. Italian composers of the seventeenth cen-
turv made settings for several choirs with cff^n and
woheBtra. Cherubini's nuuiuscript aetUng is kwt.
Berlioz ccmsidered the finale of his own settiiw (for
two choirs, orchestra, and organ) "undoubtednr his
finest work". Sometimes the ^temate verses on^^ are
set to music, so that another choir or the oongregation
may sing the other verses in plain-chant (as m the
Miserere, q. v.). The Latin text ha^ been translated
into English and has received many settings in that
form. Handel's "Utrecht" and "Dettingen" Te
Deums are famoub. One interestmg feature of the
lattw is that it borrows inspiration for ttsi of its num-
bers from a Te Deum composed by the Minorite
Francesco Urio, an able MUanese composer of the
seventeenth-eighteenth century. Perhaps the most
satisfactory of the recent settings of the Te Deum for
use in Church is that of Edgar Tinel, written to cele-
brate the seventy-fifth anniversary of Belgian inde-
pendence (1830-1906). It is composed for six-voiced
mixed choir, orchestra, and oi^^.

There are about twenty-fire metrical trandationa
into English, including the sonorous vo^n of Dry-
den^ "Thee, Sovereign God, our grateful accents
praise", and that of the Rev. Clarence A. Walworth,
commonly used in American CathoUc hymnals,
"Holj; God, we praise Thy Name", but written be-
fore his conversion, as it appeared with date of 1863
in the "Evangelical Hymnal". There are also six
yo^ns into English baised on Luther's free rendering
into German. There are many German versions, of
which the " Grosser Gott, wir loben dich " is commonly
used in Catholic churches. Probably the most re-
cent Catholic translation is that found in the new edi-
tion (London, 1903) of Provost Husenbeth's "Missal
for the Use of the Laity", "We praise thee, God: we
glorify thee, Lord."

JnuAM, DieL of HymnUon (Znd ed., London. 1907), a. v.,
1119-34, 1647-8, 17Cn, 0xt«kaiv« and axeellent BHiole compria-
ing ooQtributiona from JoRH Sardu fl. e. Jobk Worm worth,
Anglican Blah op of SallBbury) on the hlatory and text* of the
hymn. BmaacK on the pUin'«onc awlody, Jouam on the tran&-
lationa with InbliogniMuoal icfumoM: Katus, BriMlgt cur
Oetch. und BrUibvno dtr oUttUn KiraiMhinnitm (Psdmorn,
1881), 436-6a

MoatN, IfotudiUM racAmAM aur TavUw ttu "Tt Dtum" in
Rtmtt htntdictint ^ab.. 1894), was the fint to aaoriba the author-
ahip to Nicetfts. Tbn ftacrjptfon waa adopted by Bubn, Nietta of
Rtmeiiana, Hit Life and Work* (London, 1905), mantiooina (In-
trdduotion, xovii, footnote) other adhereata of thia view, amonc
them the Anglican Biahop of Saliabury. Bmuf giTca a bibli-
ogr^by. Reviewing Bitbn's work. Moun deolaraa fn the
Baut/pta ortfforiana (May-Juae, 1905) that the hymn can atmoat
certainly be attributed to Nioetaa. A much earlier orisin ia
•ought by Caoin, L'Bueholopia latine ttvdit« daru la traditum da
fM/ormwea «t dt tei formuiairf. T* Dtum ou lUati»f (Bcdeamea,
1906), which waa reviewed unfavourably by Mouw, La 'T»
Dntm' tvpe anonume de I'anapAtwa huint mthittonoM in tha A«a.
btnidielxnv (1907). 180-223, and defended by AoAEsax, QwKicelaM
dt Rtmttianan'eit paaTatUtwr du "Tt Deum" in. tiit Rttut d*»
teieneea tcelee. (Lille, Feb., Apr., June, 1910), who niiphidina th*
negative argument, oonaidering the ailenoe of antiquity aa per-
bm>B equal to a formal denial of Nioetaa'a authorahlp. Bmm,
Urtprung dee ambronaniaehen Loboeaangea in Stimman aua MariO'
Loach (1911), noa. 8-10, arguea for an origin earlier than a. d.
252. For the firat (i. e. Tnnitaiian) part of the hma Nolam,
iS<. Ambroat and St. ^tvuafina tka Avthora of tha "Tt Deum" in
The Tablet (London, 22 Oct.. 1910), 644-S, should be read ia
connexion with Mbeati in hia notca on OAVAMTua. Thttavrua
tac TiL, II (Venice, 1769), 109-112. A briefer aUtement of the
question at faaue (i. e. the traditional aacription to the two sainta)
la that of Danicl, TAcaaiir. i^pimalaa., II O^ipdg, 1844). S7»-«^
who acMM with Maun la njeottna ihs aaovqitum.

Digitized by Google

TBOAKWITHA

pMid BTos (op. eit., 3S3) aa inutatioii «f tb« T* Deum (.m-
oriMd to Bt. Bo d» venture) eoutnieted into « Muiaa «uitiole:
"Ta Mktnin Dei Uudamiu. te omnu tam v«oQr»tur, Rterni
pMris apoDBam", et«., and renurka that, ao far ma ha kn«w, it had
never been uaed la any public •wrioe ot the Church. wdBse-
woBTH (op. ciL) refers to tbia aa a *' trKTeatnof " of the Te
Deum, and expreaaea hia jpatifieation that the imitation had
never been in public uae. He ie answered by Shipley, A Diti. oj
Bymnolomi in Bedea. Rm«v (June, 189S, 4fil-2), who refera to
Lboo (Secretary of the " Henry Brad^iaw Liturgieal Text S<^
oiety"). Some Imitation* of Te Dntm, abowins that ia the Mid*
die Ages there waa " no such dislike as now prevails, to retouch m
masterpiece", that "every popular hymn bad a hundred imita-
ti<na'\ etc. Dbbvib, AmUmHa hymn., XXXI. 312-i, alTM •
"Te Deum" Maiianum (from « fourteenth eenUny MS.) io
thirty ataniaa of the tyj>e: Te deam digoe laudibua et d<NninBiB
fatemur. Te in terris virgin em (etemara Teneramur, Te fem-
inatneximiamomneB laude famur". Monx, LatmniatAt Hymnm
if MiitdaU., II (Freiburg, 1854), 229-31, girea intereatisg notes
on aome Msxian imitatiooa, and remarka that the imita ton tried,
with more or leas auooeaa, to av«d any oooaaion for g imaundw'
Btanding of their meaning when adapting the Te Deum to the
praiae <rf the Blesaed Virgm.

For the liturgical beginnings of the Te Deum. aee the Jinlat of
Sra. B«ifflDiCT<P.L., UCVI. 436),C«8*ni(JB (P.L., LXVII. 1102),
andAcSEUAN (P.L.,LXVIII,396); seealao BLUMsfor the Rules,
Der Cvriut S. Benvdieii Nunini, etc. (Leipstg, 1008), 33, 44, 48.
50, 55, 57, 86; and for very significant esfly parapbrBSQ of To
Deum, "Chriati, csli Domine", 92, — text, llS-9; Batitfou HitU
«/ Iha Roman Brnian/, tr. Batut (London, 1898), 109-10;
Baci>ot, Rowtan Brenary (London, 1909), 107. 110, 113. For
variant^ aee Burn, op. cit., 83-91 (the ordinary, the Irish, and
the "Milan" texts are given in oolumna; also the Qreek tezW.
OiT, L'imodia ambrotiana in Raitttma ffreQoriana (1907),
491-6, eomparea, with musical iltustrationa, the Ambroeian ana
the Oregonan melody of the hymn; Sinqenberoer, Guide to
Calholie Church Mune (St. Fraaeta. Wisconsin, 1905), 1S6-7,
mentions fifty-three titurgioall^ correct aettings for mind voioea
and twenty-three for equal voioee, with grade, composer, virieea,
etc. noted; see also Chwch ISutic (June, 1906, 433-6) for reviewa
of settings by Pomten, MiTTERBn, Tineu Of Timel'b aetting
Boimir writes: "Of all the aettinga of the Te Deum that are
known to me tliat can be used for liturgical purposea I do not
heaitate to declare Tinel'b the fineat and grandeat , and revieWa
it at length. KtrsTRCK, Dot Te Deum aU Formproblem fOr die
mu»ibil%tehe Kompotilion in Oregoritu-Blott (1911), noa. 1-4;
BBUDgRB. Dot Te Dwn in Mtnm UttraritAn Benekmgmt ia
Litaw. AwufacAoti (1 Jnne, 1611).

H. T. Henbt.

Tftgakwltlia (Tekaewttha, Takwita), Cath-
BRiNi:, known as the "Lily of the Mohawks", and
the "Genevieve of New France", an Indian vii^fin
of the Mohawk tribe, b. according to some authori-
ties at the Turtle Castle of Ossemenon, accord-
ing to others at the village of Gandaouge, in
1660; d. at Caughnawaga, Canada, 17 April, 1680.
Her mother was a Christian Algonquin who
had been captured by the Iroquois and saved from a
captive's fate by the father of Tegakwitha, to whom
she also bore a son. When T^^witha was about
four years old, her parents and brother died of
small-pox, and the child was adopted by her aunts
and an uncle who had become chief of the Turtle
clan. Althou^ small-pox had marked her face
and seriouslv unpaired her eyesight and her manner
was roBerved and drinking, her aunta b^gan whan she
was as yet very young to form marriage projects
for her, from which, as she grew older, she shrank
with ^reat aversion. In 1667 the Jesuit missionaries
Frdmm, Bruyas, and Pierron, accompanying the
Mohawk deputies who had been to Quebec to con-
clude peace with the French, spent three days in the
lodge of Tegakwitha's uncle. From them she received
her first knowledge of Christianity, but althotu^ she
forthwith eagerly accepted it in her heart sne did
not at that time ask to be baptized. Some time later
the Turtle clan moved to the north bank of the Mo-
hawk River, the "castle" being built above what is
now the town of Fonda. Here in the nudst of scenes
of carnage, debauchery, and idolatrous frenzy Tegak-
witha lived a life of remarkable virtue, at heart
not only a Christian but a Christian virgin, for
she firmly and often, wiUi great risk to lieiBelf,
resisted all efforts to induce her to marry.
When she was eighteen, Father Jacques de Lam-
berville arrived to take charge of the mission
which included the Turtle clan, and from him, at
her earnest request, T^akwitha received baptism.

1 tKOKHMSn

Thencdorth she practised her rehjgion unflinehin^
in the face of almost unbearable opposition, tiU
finally her uncle's lodge ceased to be a place of pro-
tection to her and she was assistul by some Christian
Indians to escape to Caughnawaga on the St.
Lawrence. Here she lived in the cabm of Anastasia
Tegonhatsihonga, a Christian squaw, her extraordi-
nary sanctity impressing not only her o¥m people j>ut
the French and Uie missionaries. Her mortifications
were extreme, and Chauchti^ says thai she had
attained the most perfect union with God in prayer.
Upon her death devotion to her began inunc^iatdy
to be manifested by her people. Many pi^;rima
visit her grave in Caughnawaga where a mopument
to her memory was erected by the Rev. Clarence
Walworth in 1884; and the Councils of Baltimore
and Quebec have petitioned for her canonization.

Walworth, Life and Tivui of Katerei Tekakmiha (Buffalo,
1691); BcRTur, Vie de Catherine Ttkakwitha, vOrnt iroqtmte

{Quebec, 1894); CAiii>BEU, Pioneer PrieeU of Nhih Amoriea,
(Nbw Vock, 1908). Blanche M. Kbllt.

Tegenuoo, called Tegrinseo in 817, T^ernsee in

754, a celebrated Benedictine abbey ot Bavaria that
was of much importance for the civilization of
early Middle Agt^s. It was situated on the state
road to the Tyrol by Lake T^em in a south-south-
easterly direction from Munich. According to the
latest Germanistic researches the word Tegem sig-
nified in Old Bitdi German "large", eonsequenwr
the name meant 'laige lake". It was not the Agilol-
finger family, as is erroneously supposed, but Counts
Atmlbert and Otkar (Ottokar) of Wamgau and
TMcmsee who founded in 746 (not 719) a Benedictine
abbey on Lake Tegem near the little Church of Our
Saviour that was already in existence; this abbey was
consecrated and occupied in 754. Counts Adalbert
and Otkar belonged to the family of the Huoai, one
of the five old nmng families who had come into the
country with the Bavarians. The story oi the colo-
nizing of the monastery with monks by St. Othmar
of St. Gall is legendary and is based on chronicles of
a later era. On account of the disorders caused by
the incursions of the Magyars at the beginning of the
tenth century the founding of Te^emsee itself and
the first decaldes of its history are hidden in deep ob-
scurity. On the other hand, it is a perfectly well
established fact that the founders of the abbey ob-
tained the relics of St. Quirinus, a Roman martyr,
from Pope St. Paul I (757-67), not from Pope Zach-
arias (741-52), and that these relics were translated
from Rome to Tegemsee in the second half of the eighth
century and were placed in the Church of Our Saviour,
the first church of Tegemsee. The first abbot was
Adalbert who is mentioned in a charter of 804 as
having died recently. As early as the year 770 Abbot
Adalbert took part in the Synod of Dingolfing, and
just before the close of the eighth century (before 798)
Adalbert and his "representative" Zacho were present
at a synod at St. Emmeram in Ratisbon. At this
synod they were obliged to promise to restore thirteen
baptisteries that were in the possession of Tegemsee
but which had been claimed by Bishop Atto of
Freising. This demand was aj<esult of the efforts of
the episcopate of Bavaria of that era to limit as much
as possible the parochial labours of the monasteries.
The decision, however, was not executed but was ad-
justed by a settlement made at Tegemsee on 16 June,
804, on the occasion of the dedication of the Church
of St. Peter at Tegemsee and the translation to it <rf
the relics of St. Quirinus from the Basilica of St.
Saviour (cf. "Historia Frising.", 12, 92).

The abbey soon attuned to great distinction and
importance, as is evident from a capitulary of the Em-
peror Louis the Pious of Aachen that was issued in the
year 817. This capitulary called upon the monastery
of "T^srinaeo" (Tegemsee) among others to furnish
military eontin^ts (M.G.L.L.I. sept, 11360, 20).

Digitized by VjOOglC

472

Jn the eariy part of the tenth century the moDAstery
ctf Tegonsee fell completely into decay on account
of the disastrous defeat of the Bavarians by the Mag-
yars in 907, whereby nearly all the rdigious founda-
tions of Bavaria were entirely destroyed. Li^ymen
with thdr wives, dogs, and hemes settled in tiw mon-
Mtery of T^ernsee and finally a fire destroyed the
buildings and with them the books and church vest*
m<ibt8. When the monasteiy was restored by Em-
peror Otto II and Duke Otto of Bavaria in 979 all
knowledge of its original foundation had du^peared
at Tegemsee. . In order to restore and nnt.infj»n ^ja-
cipUne the Emperor Otto called tiie monk Hartwich
(EI79-982) of St. Maximinus at Trier to be Abbot of
Tegemsee. The same charter that contains this ap-
pointmentof 10June,979(M.G. D.D.II, 1, 219. 19^,
also contains a grant from the emperor of the nght of
free election of the abbot, as well as freedom from
taxes and the imperial protection^ by whidi the abbey
was withdrawn from tne suzerainty of the rulers lu
Bavaria. Consequently the abbey became prosper-
ous once more. Conaiderable information as to t^e
e£FortB Ua reform of this abbot is given by a mite in
the manuscript of the CSospds, written in undal duv*
acters that bdonged to Tc^;emsee and is now at
Munich (Chn. 19101). The note says: "Monastic
reform was b^un in this monastery by the reverend
monk Hartwicn of St. Maximinus on 6 May of the
year 978. In the year 982 this same Hartwich re-
ceived staff and benefice from Emperor Otto IZ and
was consecrated by the very venerable Bishop Abrar*
ham [of G6n, Bidurp iA Freiung]. The mcmks made
tiieir prctfesdon". Abbot Hartwich had an excdlent
successor (982-1001) in the Benedictine monk Goe-
bert of St. Emmeram, who bad received his religious
education at Augsburg. Gozbert introduced the
study of the classics at T^emsee, ^ipccially Statins,
PersiuB, the letters of Horace and Cicero, and Boe-
thius; tne works of these men were read and copied.

Particularly distinguished among the monks during
the administration S tiiis abbot was the poet and
proee writer Froumund (d. 20 October. 1012J, who in
a manuscript still preserved at Munich (CIm. 19412)
made a collection of letters and poems of his own and
others. He also copied at Cologne the treatise of
Boethius "On the Consolation of Philosophy" and
brought the copy to Tegemsee. It was this Frou-
mund who brought about the intellectual and literary
connexion between his abbey and the monasteries
and churches of St. Emmeram at Ratisbon, Feucht-
wangen, Augsburg, and Wflnburg. It was at this
era also that the glass works were established at
T^emsee to make stained-glass windows for Bishop
Gottschalk of Freising. The opinion that glass-
staining was invented at Tegemsee is erroneous, for
before this in the ninth century stained-^lass windows
can be proved to have existed at St. Gall and in
Westphalia. This prosperous period under the im-
mediate successors of Gozbert, namely St. Gotthard
(1001-1002), Eberhard I (d. 4 March, 1004), and
Beringer (1004-1012), did not last long. As soon
after tnis as the year 1031 T^emsee was reformed, at
the command of the Emperor Henry III, by the monks
of Niederaltaich froifl which place monks, who were
accompanied by Abbot Ellinger, were sent to occupy
the Abbey of T^emsee. Abbot ElUnger, however,
met with opposition at Tegernsee and was obliged to
return to his origin^ monastery, from whence he did
not venture to come back to T^emsee until 1056,
dying there in the same year. He was the abbot who
began the "Urbar", or book of donations at Tegem-
see, and who did so much at T^emsee to improve
and perfect technical skill. In 1015 a colony of
monks went from T^emsee to settle in the mon-
astery of Sts. Ulrich and Afra at Aug^urg. The
prestige of Tegemsee was still maiataiaed in the
(wdfth century and oontinued up to the middle of

the tiiirteenth eeotury. In the imperial doeiiment«
of the twdfUi century the names ci tiie abbots of
Tegemsee are a!tea found signed as witnesses, as they
were princes of the empire.

During the rule of Abbot Bertold I (1206-1217)
the great minnesinger Walther von der V(^weide
stayed at the abb^. Most luobably the Utenry
importanoe ot Tegemsee had led him to tie his steed
at the monastery gate and to claim its hospitality.
However, it is evident from Waltber's songs that ue
singer of the Vogelweide, who rejoiced in Uie win^
cup, was not greatly ddi^ted 1^ the receptkm at
Tegemsee, for he sang:

People often told me of Tegemse^

How glorious was that bouse:

So I went to it more tlian a mile frnn the road.

I am a queer fellow,

I eannot even understand nnrsdf

And why I think so much of {uous folks.

1 am not grumbling at it, for may God bless ua both,

I took the water:

But hencrforUi

I shall keep away from the monks' table.

Hie lines mean that according to the custom of the
time Walther expected a good bumpa- of wine after
the meal, but to his great astonishment only water
was brought for the washing of the hands. This
riiort poem of Walthw von der Vogelweide, however,
is not, as some have sought to prove, to be taken as a
justification of the Abb^ of Tegemsee in a lawsuit
that was then being carried on over a vin^ard.

In the thirteentii and fourteenth centuries the ab-
bey suffered greatly from Uie wars carried on by the
prmcee of Southern Germany, as well as by the prodi-
gality ot sevo^l of its abbots. In the reign of the Em-
peror Louis, Tegemsee lost its immediacy and became
subject to Bavaria. At the time of the visitatimis in
1426 the Conventual, Caspar Ayndorfter, who was
the second founder of Tegemsee and a close &iend of
the reforming Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa, was made
abbot (1426-1460) by papal authority. He oom-
pletely reformed Tegemsee and thus made the abbey
a centre of the reform movement of that era. Ayn-
dorffer was willing to accept as monks men who were
not noble, as well as members of aristocratic families,
consequently monastic discipline was maintained imtil
the aboey was suppressed. The monk Ulrich StOckl
(in Latin Trunciuus) was the l(^ate of the Ben^ic-
tine abbevs of the Diocese of Freising to the Council
of Basle (Turing the years 1432-1437; he wrote a valu-
able account of the council. As ihe researches of
Guide Maria Dreves show, Stockl was also a good
writer oi rhyming poetry. The last and sixty-uiird
Abbot of Tegemsee was the excellent Gregory II
Rottenkolber (from 1787), who encouraged learning
and sent the young clerics to the Universities of Sals-
bturg and Ingolstadt. He also made a collection of
coins and engravings at Tegemsee. 1 he abbey stUl
continued to exist, notwithstanding many changes o(
fortune, until 1803, in which year it was seculariwd on
17 March. This scaled its fate, and the "Prlmas
Bavaris", as the Abbot of Tegernsee was cidled on
account of his primacy over all other Bavarian pr^
ates, resigned. The monastery became the property
of the State: the abbey lands situated in AuFtria were
confiscated by Austria; and the monastic buildings
were bought by Freiherr von Drechsel for 3000 florins.
In 1805 Abbnt Rottenkolber and twenty monks were
able to purchase for 5000 florins the monastery build-
ing for a house where they could lead a common life.
In 1810 the abbot died there. In 1817 the former
monastery became the property of King Maximilian 1,
who also Doug' t the builcUi^ owned by the Benedic-
tines. The k'<'<~ bad the place altered into a royal
summer rosi ' m-.-. At present it brlones to the fam-
fiy of the lately deceasea Duke Charles Theodore who

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Tl OUTBHTEM OAUSm

478

TBUiO

^tabUahed in 1884 at Tegenwee an ophthalinie in-
finnary for the poor. Tbe splendid library, that con-
tained about 60,000 volumes, 6600 incunabuls, and
more than 2000 manusoripts, was incorporated in part
in the National Library at Munich.

The inielleotual importance of the Abbeys of Teg-
emsee was less in tbe sphere of history than m the do-
mains of literature and art. As is learned from a
monk of TMEernaee of the fifteenth ooituiy, the abbey
owned six T^erusee ohronides that agreed in sense
but varied in the way the events were related. Only
four ot them are known, and these are largely inter-
woven with l^endary additions. They are: the
"Translatio des hi. Qumnus" (Petf,"Anecdota," III,
3), that is erroneously ascribed to Froumund; the
poetic presentation of the same subject by Meteltus
called tbe "Quirinalia"; and the two "Passiones S.
Quirini". of wiidob tiie shorter is the more ancient.
Espedalhr important was the pure^ litnwy work
done at T^enisee. Mention should be made of the
"Ruodli^", the earliest poetic romance, which was
written in rhymine hexametres, not bv Froumund,
but by Bcnne BenedUctine monk about the year 1030.

T^emsee abo took a very important part in the
development of art, especiaUy, as has already been
said, in the making of stained glass. Glass works
were established and, by order of Count Arnold Wei-
sen-Klammbach, the churches were adorned with
stained-glass windows instead of the old ctoth hang-
ings with which the window openings had former^
been covered. In 1083 Abbot GosbCTt established a
bell foundiy which, after fVeising, was the oldest in
Bavaria. He secured the first bell-founder from BVei-
sins, a cleric named Adahich, who, at tiie instigation
of Abbot Gozbert, cast the bell of St. Quirinus, for
which both the mould and tbe metal had been ready
for three years. The glass-painter and monk, Wain-
her, who was also the goldsmith of Tegemsee, made
the double doors of the cathedral of Mains that were
cast in 1014. Werinher, who was also nicknamed
Wenxel (Pets, "Anecd.", VI), was a skilful sculptor
(flfi^cumu anaglypfia). In particular he under^
stood how to mrnament tlie covers of books with let-
tering and enamel. Tegonsee was also a noted mo-
nastic school in the medieval period. About 1067 the
eeld>rated monk Otloh of St. Emineram expressed his
thanks for the knowledge he had f^ned at the abbey
("in loco illo, quo talia didici, id est in Ccenobio
Tegemsee"; cf. MabiUon, "Analecta", 1723, 119).
It was also Tegemsee that under the rule of Abbot
QuirinuB (156fr-94) established a printin^^iTess in
1573. The imwwtance of printing was probably
ree(«nised at the very first on account of the art ot
wood-KUEraving wblcn had been practised for a long
time at Tegemsee, ai^ of which very beautiful proof-
impressions of the years 1472 and 1477 are still ex-
tant. The press at Tegemsee issued chiefly religious
and poptilar woiks, and also scholarly and liturgical
books of great typographical beauty. The archl-
tecUiral remains stUl existing at T^esnsee are tbe
former monastery church of the fiftemth MntorTf
which, however, was so altered by rdniilding at the
elose of tiie seventeenth century that it can only be
reconsbucted by uialysis. Over the door of the
church is a marble relief dating from 1457, represent-
ing the founders of the church. Mention should also
be made of the Church of St. Quirinus erected on the
spot where, according to l^end, a spring bubbled up
when the coffin of St. Quirinus rested there during the
transbtion to the monastery church. Tbe buikiii^
was erected by Abbot AjmdoifFer in 1450 to replace a
wooden shunin.

BOWCSM, GarmoiUa. mow (Leipaig, 187in, 8S2; DU Kuiut-
drnknOUr dam KltKi^n^**** Baym won XI. hxi SmU tfu X Vllt.
JtArK, I (Munich, 1001}. 1496 uq.; Fccbb. GwAfeU* d*t
KUtttn Tioinum (Municn, 1B76); Legmda 8. Quirini martyrat
tUmm, tt. ta* &t88. nfomd to aa cnidM to tha wibjeet ia P<nT-
unTmiwUn J7<itor<nmMari(B«T|{n 1890), ISMjMAna,

18S0-84), 283 aqq.i Obuuiaiek. attehiehU TtQtnMMjTnUxUL
1888), goea to 1429: Outbblet, Hittw.-ateonph. WOrUrbuA
dn bniUehen MUlA^t (Ootba. 1881-83), 677; Pnc. 7Am.
antaUa. mmm.. Ill (Vianna. 1721), 478-094; RAWifoaa.
tduint/m tur Baytriaehtn a—eMieliU (Ketoptan. IBW. i67-41;
SiQHABT, QMchieht* dtr biid»ndm KSnatt fat KOnttniA Soyana
(Munich, 1802); Wattbkbaob. DtuUeklatid* Ot$eh%ekttutam ia*
MOtihU^, I (7di«cl.. BnUn. 1«0«.

Ulbiob SaHHID.

Te Owtitentem Gaudiia. See Roukt, Tiob.—

Brmarjf Hymna of the Botary.

Tftfiuium. See Diano, Diochb tnr.

Tehuuitmo, Diocssn of (Tbhuantspbcbmbis),
in the RepubUc of Mexico, suffragan of Oaxaca. Its
area covers the southern part of the States of Oaxaca
and Vera Cms, through uie Isthmus of Tehuantepeo.
Its population ia abmit 202,000; the residenoe of
the bi8b(^, the eity of Tehuantepeo, has 10,000
inhabitants.

Burgoa relates the following, which he deciphned
from ancient Zapotecan pictures: A short time before
the Spanish set foot on Mexican soil the subjects <k
the King of Tdiuantepeo begged him to make a sao-
rifioe to their gods, and in particular to Guiscipo-
coch£. Th^ the king did and then said: "The great
God announces that the time has come when he sh^
be driven from this earth because his enemies shall
soon arrive from the regions of the ruong Sun; these
men will be white, and none of the Kings of these re-
gions shall be able to remst their strongth or their
arms. Thnr will subject us to misery ana shall bring
in their wmk men who wiU be our miests and to
whom those of us who shall remain wul be forced to
disclose om* sins on braded knees".

On 24 April, 1522, Fra^ Bartolom^ de Olmedo with
Pedro de Alvarado amved at Tehuantepeo. The
monarch, Cosiiopii, a relative of the Emperor Monte-
zuma, received them with open arms. He embraced
tbe embolic Faith, and a few years later erected at his
npeiue in his wnX dty the oonvent oi 8, Domiiwo.
Toe f^ancisoan Eathen, as weUas the famous Domini-
can Fny Bartolom6 de las Cases, Bishop of Chiapas,
[Hreaohed the Gospel in Tehuantepeo. The first
miests to settle there were Fray Gr^rio Beteta and
Fray Bernardo de Albuquerque. A few years later an
attempt was made by the deeoendants of the King
Cosijopii to return to paganism, but this plot when
discovered was quickly suppressed (see Mexioo).
When the See of Oaxaca was created in 1635, all we
territory on whidi the city of Tehuamtroeo is situated
belonged td it and remained so until 1801 when Leo
XIII made of it a separate see, suffragan of Oaxaca or
Antequera. There are 5 parochial schools with about
600 pupils, 4 Protestant colleges with 70 pupils, and
3 Protcsttuit churches. In the capital, Tenuantepec,
there are 14 churches, among which that of Santo Do-
mingo is noted for its phenomenal size and splendid
construction. Goatsacoaleos (to-day known as Pu-
erto Mexioo) is known ioc tbe traditimi that from tiua
^t the celebrated Quetsalcoatl sailed for his native

GiLLOw, Ajmnttm hiaUrioM (Mexioo, 1889); DmnMacB, Giuta
(rancrat diieriptita d* In rapufthea JVaaeww (Maxteo. USD).

Camiixus Cbitkixl

Teilo (Euitd), Saint, "Archbishop" of Llandaff,
b. at Eccluis Gunniau, near Tenby, Pembrokeshire;
d. at Llandilo Vawr, Carmarthensmre, pob^ly in or
b^ore660.anoldman,butU88herput8nisdeathat604.
Sir John Rhys thinks that his true name was Eliau <v
Einiau : in Latin it usually appears as TeUarus, in Bre-
ton as Teliau, and in French as T^to. He was cousin to
St. David and bom of a good family settled at TeoaUy,
near Tenby. His father, whose name was probably
Usyllt, mav possibly be identified with St. usell, the
pateon of tne parish church of Saundersfoot. His sis-
ter Anaumed, or Anauvfd, married King Budio of

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nUOLOOT 4

Xnumoa, and became the mother o( St. OudMeus,
Teilo's sucoesBor. The earlieet extant biographiee of
the saint are late and uncritical. Educated under
St. D^frig or Dubric (a. v.), at Hcntland, Here-
fordafairfc and under St. Paul the Old or Fujuimia at
Wfaitland, Carmarthenshire, he subsequently ruled
the monastic school at Llandaff, named after hmi Ban-
gor Ddlo. The story of his visit to Palestine with
SS. David and Padam (or Patemus) about 518, and
their consecration there as bishops by John IIL Pa-
triarch of Jenisalem, is not now generally credited;
but it seems that about that date, when St. Dubric
withdrew to Bardsey, St. Teilo succeeded him at
Llandaff. In 647 the "ytSkm j^ague" began to rav-
age Wales, and shortly aitenrairds St. TtSk> with many
of his flock crossed to Amxnioa, where th^ were hos-
pitably entertained by his friend St. Sampson, Abbot
and Bishop of Dot. After seven years and seven months
Teilo returned to Wales, ana is said to have been
elected to the archiepiscopate vacant by the death of
St. David, and to have transferred it from Menevia
(q. v.) to Llandaff (q. v.) ; but the more general mod-
em opinion seems to be that in Wales wt that epodi
the episcopate was not yet diocesan.

The story of the three bodies of the saint, whidk
were discovered the day i^ter his death, was prob-
ably invented to account for the fact that the churches
at Llandaff, Llandilo Vawr, and Penally, all claimed
*c possess his body. Doubtless at his death bis relics
were widely distnbuted. To-day they are venerated
at Landeleau (Finist^), Plc^nnao (Finistk«}, and
Saint T61o (Cfttes-du-Nord). Five pariab churdiea
in Brittany are dedicated to him (Landeleau, Leuhan,
Montertelot, Pl^liac, and Saint T&o) as well as a
chapel between Ploeonnao and Locronan. The mod-
em Catholic church at Tenby bears the names of
"Holyrood and St. Teilo". The dedication of twelve
churches in the present Anglican Diocese of St. Dar-
vid's, and of six in that of Lhmdaff, show they owe their
origin to this zeal. Borlase argues his connexion with
six dedications in Cornwall and Devon. It is stated
that be was formally canonized, but no date is given.
He is not infrequently represented in Br^n churches
as riding on a stag. His festival is, or was, kept in
Wales and at Saint Tdlo on 9 February; at Dol, as a
double, on 29 November; and in other t^aoes in Brit-
tany on 25 November.

Aela SS.. V (Puia, ISftl). 303i Li Qfum.SainUdtlaBribiaju,
krmorique (Quunper, 1901), 331, 610: Lu>ti> in Oia. Nat. Biog..
i. v.; QAifMACE in Did. Chritl. Btoa. (London, 1911). ■. v.;
GciBiN, Le» Pettie BoOanditUs.Xlll (Paris. 1882), 683; Ashou>
F08TKB, ChwA DedieaHont. II (London, 189B), 301; Bakno-
Gonu>, Liiea nf the SainU, II (London, 1887), 238: STjUITon,
MeiwIoOV ofBnoUmd and Walu (London, 1887), 60; Evanr, Li-
ber Lanoaemau (London, 1893); Bosi.asb, Aa« of the SainU

Sruto. 1893). 134; Loth, in AnttaU* dt Bntaan*, iX X; Rsbb,
■UlT&tjnti (London, 18S6), 253.

JoHK B. Waxnkwbiobt.

TdeoIoS7 (from Greek WXm, end, and Mvot, soi-
ence) is seldom used aooording to its etymological
meaning to denote the branch of philosophy which
deals with ends or final causes. It means the doc-
trine that there is design, purpose, or finality in the
world, that effects are in some manner intentional, and
that no complete account of the universe is possible
without reference to final causes (for the notion of
final cause, see Cause). With mechanism (q. v.)
tdeology admita the detmninism <A phyuoal emdent
causes. It also admowledges that the object of sci-
mtific resMndi is to discover the laws of phenomena,
md that any fact is scientifically explained when ade-
quate causes are assigned to it, and the conditions of
its occurrence are known. But against meobauism,
teleology claims that this determinism, these laws, and
the mode of activity of efficient causes reveal the cx-
istenee of a directive principle and of finality in the
works of nature. Henoe the question is not whether
there are efficient at final oausee, whethw, for instance,
man sees because he has eyes or has eyes in order to

4 TILBOLOOT

see. Final causes and efficient causes are not mutu-
ally exclusive. It must be admitted that any result
in nature is to be ascribed to an unbroken chain of
active causes, and the function of the final cauae is not
to supply UQT missing link but to oqilain how the
activity of emdent causes is directed toward useful re-
sults. Nor can the teleologist be asked to indicate
the end of every activity any more than tibe mechanist
can be required to indicate the efficient cause of every
phenomenon. Finally the problem does not refer to
conscious and intelligent finality such as is manifested
in human purposive actions, for it is obvious that in
many of his actions man is guided by the idea of a pre-
conceived plan which he endeavours to realise. Hu-
man works are for smnething ; the house is built to live
in; the clock is made to keep time; the machine is con-
structed to perform some work; the statue is carved
to realize some ideal; etc. Are we justified in speak-
ing of the works of nature in the same way? When we
speak of ends and purposes in nature dowenotattrib-
ute to it that whi«i is distinctly human? Do we not
carry too far the process of personification and anal-
ogy, and tha%by incur the reproach of anthrc^M-
morphism? According to mechanists, becausewefore-
see reeults we falsely conclude that nature strives to
realize them. Ends exist in the mind which studies
nature, not in nature itself. To admit ^ds is men-
tally to reverse the natural process, to look upon the
effect as a cause, and from it to ascend the causal series
re^^ssivdy.

I. It is important at first to make a distinction be-
tween extrinsic and intrinsic finality. The former
consists in realizing an eiul which is outside of the bo<
ing that realizes it, and thus in contributing to the
utUity and welfare of other beings. In this way the
mineral ia utilized by the plant, and the plant by the
animal. Or again the beat of the sun is a condition of
growth and development. From this extrinsic finality
result the subordination of various beings, and the or>
der and harmony of the universe. But while extrin-
sic finality seems obvious in several instances many of
its details escape us, and it is easy to make a wrong
use of it by attxibuting false or childish ends to every
being and event, and by taking a narrow anthropooen-
tric view of finality. This abuse of final causes called
for the vigorous protests of Bacon ("De Dictate et
Augments Scicntiarum,"III,iv),Descartes('Trincipia
Phflosophia", 1,28; III, 2, 3; "Meditationes", HI, IV),
Spinoza (Ethica, I, prop. 36, app.). The exclusive
consideration of extrinsic ends contributed probs^ly
more than any other cause to the discredit into which
teleology fell at the time of the Renaissance. Yet, as
Voltaire rightly remarks, it is clear that if the nose was
not made to wear spectacles, it was made for the sense
of smell (Dictionnaire philoaophique, s. v. Causes fi-
nales). Here Voltaire appeals to the principle of in-
trinsic finality which, according to Aristotle and St.
Thomas, Is primary, while extrinsic fimdity is derived
and secondary.

Intrinsic finality consists in the fact that every
being has within itself a natural tendency whereby
its activity is directed towards the perfection of its
own nature. "As the influx of the efficient cause con-
sists in its own action, so the influx of the final cause
consists in its being sought after and desired" (St.
Thomas, "De veritate'\ Q. xxii, a. 2). But this
desire or appetitus (see AppBrrrE) is not necessarily
oonscious. St. Thomas does not hesitate to speak of
"natural appetite", "natural inclination", and even
"intention of nature", to mean that every being has
within itself a directive principle of activity. The
final cause is a good which satisfies a tendency spring-
ing immediatoly from the nature (q. v.) of every being.
"By the form which gives it its qi^ufic perfection,
everythii^ in nature has an inclination to its own opa»-
tiona and to its own end, which it reaches tiirough these
operations. Just as evprjrthing is. such also are its

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TILBPATH7 4

gpentiona and its tendency to whst is suitable to
ffself" (St. Thomas, "Contra Gentiles", IV, m}.
AooMdingly, God does not direct creatures to thor
ends from outside, but through their own nature.
This teleological view does not suppose that every
efficient cause in the world is directed immediately
by an intdligence, but by its own natural tendency.
The Divine plan of creation is carried out by the
various beings themselves acting in wmSonaiiy with
their nature. Whoi, howevw, this finality is called
immanent, this extveesion must not be understood
in a pantheistic sense, as if the intelligence which the
world manifests were to be identified with the world
itself, but in the sense that the immediate inineiple
of fiiulity is immanent in every beins-

II. Thus understood the iHrinoiple of teleology
seons almost obvious. Activity is essential to every
bdu, and the same substanee, placed in the same
onimtions, always acts in the same way. Its effect,
therefore, does not happen by chance, for chance
cannot account for fixity and stability. Within the
substance itself must be found a prineit}le of deter-
mination. Now what is a determination but an
adaptation and an orientation toward an end? The
fact that the world is governed by laws, far from
giving any support to the mechanistic conception, is
rather ^poeed to it. A law is not a cause, but the
eiqiresnon of the constant Taaxmer in which causes
inoduee their effects. To si^ that there are laws is
simidy to state the determinism of nature, and it is
precisely to this determinism that St. Thomas
appeals to establish teleology. "Every active cause
acts for an end, otherwise from its activity one effect
would not result rather than another, except by
chance" (SummaTheol, I, Q.xliv,a. 4). Andacain:
"It is necessary that evei? active cause should act
for an end. For in a series of causes, if the first be
removed, the others also are r^oved [i. e., fail to
noduce their effects]. But the final cause is the
first of all causes. The reason is that matter does not
receive a form [i. e., does not change] except through
the influence of an aictive cause. For nothing of itself
passesfrom polentia to actus [see Actus bt PoTBMnAl,
and the active cause does not act except in conse-
quence of the intention of an end. OthOTrise, if the
active cause were not detmnined to produce some
particular effect, it would not produce this rather
than some other. In order to produce a determined
effect, it must, therefore, be determined to something
in particular which serves as an end. As in ration^
beii^ this determination takes place through the
rational appetite or wilL so in other beuus it takes
plaoe throu^ a natural inclination which is called
natural appetite" (Summa Tbeol., I-II. Q. i, a. 2).

Efficient causes are not indifferent, and their effects
are not fortuitous. As a matter of fact, from the
many individual activities of the various beings of the
world order and harmony result in the universe.
And when different forces converge toward a har-
monious result, their convergence cannot be explained
except by admitting that tbey tead to realise a ^an.
Life is essentially teleologicaf. Thoe is a ocMwdina-
tion of all the organs, the functions of every one
depending on those of the others, and tending to the
welfare of the whole oi^anism. Little by little the
primitive cell develops according to the general type
of the species and evolves into the complete organism.
To Aristotle's statement that "nature adapts the
organ to the function, and not the fimction to the
OTgan" (De partib., animal., IV, xii. 694b, 13),
IjUcretiuB reined; "Nothing in the body is made m
order that we may use it. What happens to exist
is the cause of its use" (De nat. rerum, IV^ 833; cf.
822-56), — an objection which had been presented
more forcibly by Aristotle himself (Phys., II, viii,
198b). The function, it is true, is the result of the
organ; the eye socfl because it is an ^e, and, in

5 TIUPATBT

general, eray fODotion is an effect of aotiTO on—.
But what is not explained meehaoism is the oon-
vwgence of many different causes toward a given
result. If organs are so many mechanirais, it remains
to be indicated how these mechanisms were organized.
If appeal ia made to evolution, it must be remembered
that evolution is not a cause, but a mode of develop-
mmt, and that organic evolution rather accentuates
the need of final causes, la the in(aganio wwld,
the oonstanoy of the laws of nature and the remUting
order of the world manifest the existence in every
being of a principle of direction and orientation.

The fifnAftmAnf.i^j defect of mechanism consists in
giving exclusive att^tion to the analysing of every
event into its causes, and in forgetting to look for the
reason of their synthesis. If we take a clock to pieces,
we discover in it nothing but springs, wheels, pivots,
leven eto. When we have explained the mechanism
which ultimately causes the revolutions of the hands
on the d^, shall we say that the clock was not made
to keep time? The intelligrace that designed it is
not in the clock itself which now obeys its own laws.
Yet in reality we have an adaptation of means to an
end. Thus tne unconscious finality in the world leads
to the conclusion that there must be an intelligent
cause of the world. The whole preceding doctrine
is well summed up in the following passage from St.
Thomas (Summa Theol., I, Q. ciu, a., ad Sum):
"The natural necessity inho^t in things that are
determined to one effect is impressed on them by the
Divine power which directs tnem to their end, just
aa the necessity which directs the arrow to the target
is impressed on it by the archer, and does not come
from the arrow itself. There is this difference, how-
ever, that what creatures receive from Ciod is their
nature, whereas the direction imparted by man to
natural tilings beyond what is natural to them is a
kind of violoice. Hence, as the forced necessity of
the arrow shows the direction intended by the archer,
so the natural determinism of creatures is a sign of
the government at Divine Pn>vidcnce".

P/mfM.Ti*^'*'^ /"H'lftfienlaU -d-: I' act* ft de la pudgiinct (7th Ml,,
PlffUr IIIW); TUNT, Th(ir"n HT.H5.!l.,ri, HiW^i ; tlrTaEBUrf. Aliaf-
wefiM U^jAlftiii (MDnatiT. n'Mi'^ [\it.v, IHr rnrtr'ui niWA« JVdhis-
mu» (Padi-rborii, ISBS); J*vet, A.j o^ii^cj. }tiujU* (Pwia. 1883J.
tT. liy Affuxtk CEdiaburg,!!, Lsv'lj ; M}:hcieh, Mitaohytiq^ ff^
nirale (I^^iuvbln, 19051 ; ri:tH:ii. I njUlutli'Mi vhilotovniit naftmub
(.Freiburg. 1S80); StiEJ.T-P»ti'nnoM%rE s.su RifuCT, profrJiuM
lira rriuAra JfiuIsA (.PKris, IIMK^K ut. Vokuea. ' 'iii^n rjfieieni* li

QiiJi^(BdW.(Ne4rY£irk. 1BD1).B. v.: E:i»ijEn, WiTifrbutA dtr fki-

Ttf«pfttll7 far, and ra^, to experience),

a term introduced by F. W. H. Myers in 1882 to
denote "the ability tn one mind to impress or to be
impressed by anouier mind otherwise than through
the recognised channels of sense" (Gimiey, "Phan-
tasms of the Living", I, 6); or: "tlK communication
of impressions of any kind from one mind to another.
ind^>endently of the reccsnised channels of sense*
(Myers, "Human Personauty", I, xxi).

I. Tbe term telepathy is sometimes used, in oim-
f ormity wiUi its derivation, to mean tlie direct com-
munication between minds at a great distance. Such
terms aa thought-transfa^ee, mind-reading, or
mental suggestion would then apply to the direct
communication between minds in the same room or
at a small distance. Genotdly, however, at least in
English, telepathy connotes only the exclusion of
the recognised channels of sensation, irfe^>ective of
the distance. It sutqmsefl that, in some cases, the
usual mgns by which ideas are manifested — speech,
writing, gestures, muscular contraction, facial erorea-
sion, etc. — may be dispensed with, and that minds are
able to communicate, if not directly and immediately,
a( any rate through some medium which is distinct
from the ordinary medium of sense-percepticm. Thus
understood, telepathy includes two classes of faotB.

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476

A. Hw fint dan oonmta of intentional commtmi-
ioations, when a person (the agent) by the concen-
tration of his mind on some object makee an effort
to transfer an idea to another person (the percipimt)
who may or may not be aware of the attempt, and
who may or may not make an effort to reoeivf the
conuntiliicati<A. The eimerimoits, made sometimes
on mwmal. more generaUy and more successfully on
hypnotized subjects, include the transference of
tastes, sounds, visual images, pain etc.; the guessing
of numbers, cards, colours, magiams etc., thought
of by the agent | the execution or inhibition oi move-
meots in compliance with the lint's will; the pro-
duction or cessation of the h>i}notic condition at a
command mentally given; and other similar trana-
fcrwoes <tf thou^t. In a few successful instances
the aumt has been able to produce apparitions of
himself or even of a third person to tab perdpient
in another room or house. In these expariiaents the
main difficulty is to make sure that tne percipient
in no way usee his senses^ which are in a state of
bypersesthesia- or extraordmary acuteness, and that
the correct guesses cannot be accounted for by similar
habits, BUfKestions, and associations in both the
a^t and the percipient. Exhibitions of ao-caUed
mmd^eading are generally explainable either by clever
collusion, or by muscle-reading when there is contact
between the agent and the percipient, or by the
interpretation of sensory indications consciously or
uneonsciouslv given.

B. The other class of facta oonsuts of spontaneous
communications in which, as far as we can know,
the Hgeai has no intention of manifesting himself to
the percipient. Herein are included especially the
intimatkm of the dangn, illness, dutress, or deat^
of some person, gmerafiy a friend or relative, and the
apparition of the phantasm of such a person, especially
at the time of his death. The d^ree of precision
and exactness of these monitions varies indefinitely.
Sometimes they consist in a merely physical occur-
rence coincident with the death, such as noise, the
fall of some object, of a picture, etc. Sometimes
ill'defined and mexplicable feelings of restlessness
and imeasiness are en>erienced, or the sudden idea
of what is happening flashes across the mind. Some-
times finally, either m the waking state or in dreams,
apparitions are seen, and even entire scenes witnessed
in all their details. The main difficulty in these
cases is to determine whether they present mere
coincidences due to subjective factors, such as habit,
association, memory, expectation etc., or a real
causality.

II. Two problems are to be solved rmrdii^ telep-
athy: A. Is the existence of telepathy as a fact
demonstrated? B. If it is, what is its enilanation?

A. Is the fact of telepathy eetablishoa? In the
past thirty or fortv years, this subject has been
studied critically. A large number <A facts have been
collected, eqMoially by the Society for Fsytducal
Research, founded in 1S82, and have been published
in "Phantasms of the Living", the "Proceedii^" of
the society, and many other works. In France, the
" Annales dee Sciences P^hiquee" also record
numerous cases. At present the literature on the
subject is very extensive. After considering the
cumulative evidence for the existence of telepathy,
there cannot fail to remain in the mind at least a
ffinoal impresncm that dunce does not account for
uie numbw of coineidenoes, whktb is far greater than
oould be ocpeeted according to chance^nnbability.
In the "Census of HalhioinationB", after dUe allow-
ance for possible causes of error, whereas ordinary
chance comeidence would give 1 :19,000 as the propor*
tion of the coincidences of apparitions with the fact
of death, the actual proportion is 1 :43, or 440 times
B^ter than would be expected. In experiments,
toe {HN^MrUon of successful attempts varies greatly,

yst, in ganeral, it is far above that which chanoe-
coincidenoe would lead us to expect. Nevertheless,
the fact of telepathy is not yet accepted universidl^
as strictly demonstrated. There are so many diffi-
culties to meet, so many causes of error to avoid,
and so many obstacles to overcome, Uiat results
obtained so far an nfit lodged upon by all as sufficient
to give a sdentific certitude of the faot.

6. Various theories have been proposed to account
for the fact of telepathy. Some, appealing to a
tematural causality, have supposed the intervention
of good or evil spuits. But the principle admitted
by ail scientists, philosophers, and theologians is
that a fact must be looked upon as natural until the
contrary is proved. The present impossibility of
(giving a scientific explanati<Hi is no prod that there
IS no scientific explanation. The uiMxplained is not
to be identified with the unacpiainable, and the
stranpe and extraordinary nature of a fact is not a
justification for attributing it to powers above nature.
Another attempt, namely the spiritistic hypothesis,
cannot be discussed here (see SPiBinsM). Attempts
at a scientific explanation rest either on a psychologi-
cal basis {Myers, Sir Oliver Lodge) or on a physical
and physiological basis ^ir W. (>ookes, Floumoy,
Odwrowus). Among pqrchological att^pts is the
supposition d the existence'of a sub-conscious mind
or subliminal self endowed with all the powers required
to account for all the facts. While tne considerable
influence d the subconscious or the subliminal
cannot be denied, the theory in its generality has the
grave defect of beiag the fact itself expressed in other
terms, and oi having for its only proof the fact itself
which it seeks to explain. Oth^ simply iweal to
supernormal faculties that are purely psydiological.
Among physiological and physical attempts are the
suppositions d some neurotic fluid, brain vibrations,
or a special form of energy transmitted from brain to
brain through some uiHcnown medium. AH these
attempts are unsatisfactory, and, according to all,
the problem is still unsohred. Furthw experiments
are needed, both to establish the fact itself beyond
all doubt, and chi^l;^ to determine its psydidogioal
and physical conditions. Until this is dcme, any
theory is prematnre.

Okambt, L'oeaiitimu hitr et atffounf &ut (MontpeUier, 1907),
tr. TuBBur, The Mandt bevond Sdenct (New York, 1910);
QtTBNST, Mtebs, PonyaRC, Phanitumt of the Liting (London,
1^6); Mtbbs, Human Pvrmmalit» and ila Stirvival of Bodiljf
Dmm (London and Now York, 1903); QtrTBSBUcr, Der Kampf
uM dU SmU (Maini, 1903) ; Mabon, TeUpatku and tht Subtimiruil
8Af (New York, 1899); Maxwbll, Lft Phttumhut ptuchiauea
(Paxia, 1903); tr. Furoa, Mttapayekuial Phenomena (Nsw Yoric
aad London, 1009) ; Msbcibr, Pimholagia (Lonvain, 1903);
OcaoKOwics, La nimitim mmtaU (Puis, 1SS9), tr. Ftimbuld
(New York, I89I) rPonuORE, ApvarOimu and Tfumeht-Trant-
formce (London and N«w York, 18M); Tbohas, TKovcKt-Trana-
farmce (New York, 190S): Amon., Pr^Mentitntnti • uUpatie, a
aoriM of ortiolw io dnaa eatteUea (189B, 1900); ^nnalM dea
tciwcst pagehiouea, paMim: Pmmibtgt of the Seeietgfor PtycAfoat
Rtaaarth, paMin, copeoialisr Baport m Cmmm if /faiftictMc
tiont, X (1894). 3ft-422: StDOwiOK In Baldwin, Diet. «/ Phiio*.
and PtyduL (Ntnr Tors, 1903)i ». v. TttapaiAu. and PtvehiaU

C. A. DUBBAT.

T«1«M, DiocffiU) OF (Telbsinenbis). — Telese, a
small town in the Province of Benevento, Southern
Ital;^, is situated in the valley of the Galore, wdl known
for its hot sulphur springs. The ruins of the ancient
Telesia, the Tedis of the Oscan coins, are to be seen yet
on Monte Acerro. Thecity was captured by Hannibal
in 207 B. c: 8di»o founded a colony thne. Having
f lUlen into aea^ it was rdniDt in the ninth oentnnr.
Its first bishop mentioned is Agnellus (487) j in the
tenth century it was subject to the AroU>iidiop of
Benevento. In 1612 Bishop Gian Francesco Leoni
(1508) transferred the episcopal residence to Cerreto
Sumita. In 1818 the see was united to that of Pied-
imonte d'AJife, but was re-cfltablisbed in 1852. Among
its bishops we may note: Alberico Giacquinto (1540),
renowned for his jewidng and pi^; Angek> Massar-

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elli (1667), seoretary of the CounoU of Trent, of
which be wrote the acts and a diary; Vinoenio Lupoli
(17^), a distiomuahed jurisoonsult. The diooeae
contains 24 parahes with 60,600 inhabitants, 40
secular and 10 r^^ular priests, 2 convents ot men Bxni 6
niumeriea, and a Bchool tor young ciris.

CAmuHRi, Lt Mam dflUUa, XI3C; Pacblu, Mtmorie •««-
rf(A«<«mMB (177ft).

U. Beniqni.

Teleilo, Bernardino, Italian hummist and phil-
osopher, b. of a noble family at Cosensa, near Ni4>le8,
1508; d. there, 1588. He studied successively at
Milan, Rome, and Padua. In Southern Italy the re-
v(dt agi^Dist Aristotdeanism had already b^un. At

Padua Telesio first
came to be recognized
as a leader of the anti-
Aristoteleans. After
residing several years
in Rome, where he en-
joyed the patronage of
Paul IV, Telesio re-
turned to Naples, and
later founded an acad-
emy at Cosen«a. His
principal work is enti-
tled "De rerum
natura juxta propria
principia", the first
part 09 Trtueh was pub-
lished in Rome, 1565,
and the second in
Naples, 1687. He was
a radical opponent
both of the method
and of the content of
Aristotdean philoso-
phy. He consklered
that the scholastic fol-
lowers of Aristotle re-
lied too much on reason and too little on the senses.
The "reasoners", he believed, were over-confident
of their power to reach the secrets of nature by
fnrllonstic methods. With conscious humility,
uier^ore, he determined to trust to his senses
alone, and, bwinning "in die dust", he strove
to reach the hU^est pmnaele of natural truth. This
exclusion of reason from the task and Uie eons^
quent exaltation of sense above every other faculty of
the mind resulted naturally in the sensistie doctrine
that all knowledge is feeling {setmis) or sensation, and
in the materialistic doctnne that the soul itself is
material. In the content of his philosophy he op-
posed the Aristotelian doctrine of matter and form,
substituting for it the doctiine that everything is
composed fA matter and fcoree, the two princbal
f wees being heat and cold. Heat is ooitralised in the
sun, and c^d in the earth. As the Platonist Patrisxi
pointed out, there is «a inherent contradiction in
Telesio'a syirtem. For, if we are to rely on the senses
and not on reason, since the senses do not reveal the
existence of matter except as modified by forces, the
central doctrinal principle is in contradiction with the
most important methodol<^cal tenet. This point
was brought out in the discussions between the advo-
cates of Aristotle and the followers <rf Tekeio in the
sixteenth century. Among the meet ardent disciples
of Telesio were Campanella and Giordano Bruno.

FiosBNTDio, BamortHiw TtlMM, Stndi ImrM, «ta. (3 toIi.,
Floranc«, 1873): Hdmnio, HUt. of iM. PbiL,tt. Mmnm, I
(Londoo, 1900), 92 aqg.; WmitBLBAND, Hit. ^ FktL, tr. Tom
(Nfflrgroric, 1901), 36$ Kiq.

WnxiAU TuBim.

TdeiphoruB. Saint, Popk (about 126-136). He
was ^ seventh Roman bishop in succession from the
ApotUes, and, acoording to tiie testimony of St. Iie-
UBM (Aor- hareHB. III^ iii. 3). suffend a i^orious

From Freher's ThMlnim Vii^
onun ClATonim, Nuremberg 1638.

martyrdom. Eusebius (Hist, eccl.^ IV, vii, xiv) places
the banning of his pontificate in ma twelfth year

of Ha^ian's reign (128-129), his death in the first
year of the reign of Antoninus Pius (138-139) . These
statements, however, should be compared with Light-
foot,: "The Apostolic Fathen''. I (London. 1899), 201
•q., section on "Eariy Roman Successions'', and Har-
naek, "Qesohichte <Mr altchristl. Lit«aratiu-", pt. II,
"I>ieGhronok>gie", I (Leipsig, 1379), 70 sq. In the
f^«gmait of the Utter of Irraueus of Lyons to Pope
Victor oonoeming the celebration of Easter (Euseb.,
"Hut. eccl.,"V,xxiv),Tek8pborusi8mentioneda8one
of the Roman bishope who always celebrated Easter
on Sunday, without, however, abandoning church fel-
lowship with those ocmimunities that did not follow
this custom. None of the statements in the "Liber

Eontificalis" and other authorities of a later date as to
tuivical and other decisions of this pope are genuine.
In the Roman Martyrology his feast is ^ven under
5 Januaiy; the Greek Cnurch celebrate it on 22
February.

DDCBBnrB, Libtr pohMImIm. I fPwu, 1886}, 129 sq.; 3kwri,
Rmtta nm. iwn/., I (2na ad.), S; IiAiram, QetiAiiAU atr r«M-
iiehm Kirtht, I (Bum, 1881). 109-104.

J. P. KntSCH.

TelMI^orui of Connsft (Thbophobus, Thbo-
LOPHORUs), a name assumed by one of the pseudo-
prophets during the time of the Great Schism. He
gave out that he was bom at Cosenaa and Uved as a
nmnit near the nte of the ancient Thebes. His
book of predictions on the schism was the most
popular 01 the numerous prophetic treatises that were
spread broadcast by the many self-constituted
prophets of that period. More than twenty manu-
scripts of it ve still extant, and it first appeared in
jnint with various interpolations: "Liber de ma^nis
tribulationibus in proximo futuris, etc." (Venice,
1516). The woric was originally compiled about 1386
from the writings of Joachim of Flora, John of
Roquetaillande, the "Otn'illic Prophecy", and other
apocalyptic treatises whose authors are mentioned
m the dedicatory prelace addressed to Antoniotto
Adomo, the Doge oi Venice. Its chief prophecies are:
the schism will end in 1393 at Perugia, where the
antipope and his ft^towera will be punidied; a shwt
poiod of peace will follow, whereupon the Emperor
EVederick III with three antipopes will inaugurate a
cruel persecution of the clei^, who will be deprived
of all their temporalities; King Charles of France will
be iminuoned, but miraculously liberated; the
"Angelic Pastor" will ascend the papal throne; under
his pontificate the clergy will voluntarily renounce
their t^pond possessions and a general council will
legislate that the inoome of the el^y is limited to
what is neoeesary for a deoent livelihood; the "An-
gelic Pastor" will take from the German electors
the right to elect 1^ onperor, he will crown the
French King Charles emperor, and restore the Church
to its original poverty and service of God; finally,
the pope and the onperor will undertake a crusade,
regam the Holy Land, and bring the Jews, Greekb,
and infidels back to Christ. A refutation of these
prophecies, written by the German theolo^an Henry
of Langengtein, is pnnted in Fes, "Hiesaunis Aneo-
dotomm Noviss," I, II (Aumburg, 1721-9), 507-64.

235 Ml.; Pastob, Ouch, dar PtjuU., tr. Amtbobus. I (London,

MiCHABL OtT.

T«U d-Amama *M>l«ti( Thi, are a.collection of
some 850 clay ti^lets found m 1887 amid the ruins of
the aneient E^syptian oitv of Akbetaton Onodem
Tdl el-Amania)about midway between Men^iiB
and Hi^jes. 300 of them are now in Berlin, ta in
tlie E^ish Museum, 50 in C^, 22 in Oxf<Mrd; only
a fenr are private {Hoperty. TiMy are written in the
Babykiaian lancuace and ounojEonn dymQlan and

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TELMKSSVS

date from the fifteenth OMitury b. c. Th^ oonrist

mostly of letters and State reoorda sent to Kings
Ameohotep III and Amenhotep IV of E^^t, by
rulers of WestOTi Asia (Babylonia, As^ria, Mittam)
and provincial governors of Amumi (Northern
Syria) and Canaan (Palestine) . All iJieae documents
throw considerable light on the oondititnu of Western
Asia from about 1500 to 1300 B. c. ; they contain most
precious information concerning the history, geo^
raphy, rel^^on, and language of Uieraedecessors and
contemporaries of the Hebrem in Palestine, and, in
many cases, illustrat« and oonfirm wluA we already
know from the Old Testament.

The bestworkontheTellel-AinftrajiUb)et«(tniucripUoti,aei^
ataa translation. gloaa»ry, and ootM) ia that of KmiDnoN, DU
Bl Amtama Ta/eln in Hinrichi' VordemnatUche BMiolMt, II
(Lcipsic. 1907-9). The Beriin and Cairo Ublct«were edited by

von Bl Amama (I8S9-
90), and those in the British Muaeum by BnoLO, The Tell el-
Amama Tablets in th* B. Af. (I^ndon. 1892). For all tablet*
knoVD in 1896 see also: Wincklbe, Die Thontofeln ton TtH-ei-
Amama (tranBcription, OermaJi tranriatioD, and doMary):
ScBBADEB, KeaintfArifttiehe BibliolJiek (Berlin, 1896); Englwh
translation by Mbtcalt (Berlin and New York, 1890); Coxdeb,
The TeO'Amama TabteU (2ad ed., London, 1894); N'leBtrini. The
TeU-d-Amama Period; Rdaiuma of Enpt and fFmrtem Asia in the
JSlh emhirv B. C. aecordirm to the fell-el- A marna bMett {The
Andml Sa*(\. (London, 1901) ; Fundrbk Pstbik, TM et-Amarrui
(London, 1894); Idem, Syria and Bm/pt from the Tell el-Amama
Letter* (London, 1898); Idbu. A Hial. of Ancient Bnpt. II (4th
e:l., London, 1904); Jkrbuias, Dae AlU Teelament im lAchU des
AUen OrietiU. (Leipiig. 1906) : Web Die LUeratw der Babu-
tomer u. A—t/rer (Leipiig, 1907} ; Dbokhe, Lea Paye Bibiiquee au
Umpt tCtl Awama in Hnae Bibliqiu (1906-0).

A. A. VABCHAUnS.

Tttles, Gabriel, Spanish pnest and poet, better
known by his pseudonym of Tirso de Molina, b. at
Madrid, o. 1S71; d. at Soria, Arag^n, 21 March, 1648.
Little is known of his early years except that he
studied at AlcaU de Henares. The exact date of his
codination to the priesthood is not known, but the
earliest notice of him in that connexion is in 1610 when
he is mentioned by Andres de Claramonte y Corroy in
his "Letanla Moral", as Padre Pray Gabriel T^llez of
the Order of Nuestra Senora de la Meroed. He ap-
pears to have devoted the last years of his life to we
affairs of his order and occupied respcHisible offices in
it. In 1619 he was superior <tf a convent at IWjiUo
in Estremadura; in 1^, and for several years follow-
ing, he lived in the monastery of the ordw in Madrid;
and in 1645 he became prior of the monastery at Soria
where he died three years later. It has been stated
that he adopted his nom de jdume on account of his
Holy ordera, but this theory is apparently disproved
hy the fact that both names i^ypeared on the same
title-page.

Tine's first printed vf^ume, "LosCigaiTakadeTo-
ledo,"appearedinMadridinl624andBaroek>na, 1631.
The Euune is taken from dgarral, a Toledian word
meaning a country house. The work is patterned
after Boccaccio's ' Decameron" and is a collection of
tales and poems and three comedies, supposed to be
recited and played 1^ a company of ladies and
gentlemen who meet at a HgarrtU for the purpose of
diversion. A second cdlection. o^tled " Ddeitai
fV>rovechando, " appeared in Maorid in 1635, and con-
tains essays, auloa McramentolM, and three relifdiouB
tales. As a dramatic writer, Tirso was very prolific.
He is credited with having written four hundred plays,
but only about eighty are now available. Durii^ his
life his comedies were published in five parts, the first
in Seville, 1627, the third in Tortosa, 1634, the second
and fotirth in Madrid, 1635, and the last in Madrid,
1636. These contain fifty-4une pUqtb. The pUw
which has given Tinw hu fame is his "BurUdor de
Sevilla y Convidado de Piedra", in which he created
the character of Don Juan, afterward immortalised by
Mosart in his opera of that name and by Lord Byron
in his poem. Hs is at his best in bis comedies and his
secular tumwIm. He excels in wit, originality <A dia-
logue, and ingnuitty oS ploti.

MicBEL Lb Teluer
Engraving by De<iuevauviller after a
painting by Charles Cbaropagne

DsOcBOA. TeaoroM T»Ura BMpaAolCP»ru. 1838): HABncM-
BcacBK, Teairo Beeoaido de Fr. GabHa TtlUt C&Udrid, 1839-42) ;
Mvftox Ma, m Uatn del Mantro Tina de MoHna (Valladolid.
1889): Blanca db un Rios. Tirto de Molina (Madrid, 1900).

Ventura Fuentbs,

Tellier, Michel Le, b. 19 April, 1603; d. at Paris,
30 Oct., 1685. He was commissioned by Carding Maa-
arin to organise the royal army, and having he^ied to
aiq>ea8e the troubles <» the Fronde, be l^t to his son
Louvois in 1666 his duties as secretary of war. AStee
h i s appointment
as chancellor by
Louis XIV in 1677
he had a decisive
share in the revo-
cation of the Edict
of Nantes, which
he signed, 2 Oct.,
16S5, a few days
before his death.
Before expiring he
sang the canticle
of Simeon "Nunc
dimittis". He
shared IjouisXlV's
illusion that there
were almoHt no
Protestants left in
France, and that
the act suppressing
the liberty of Prot-
estant worship
was no more thtm
the public rendi-
tion of an accom-
plished fact, the
disappearance of Protestantism. His eldest son,
Micnel Le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois (b. at
Paris, 18 Jan., 1641; d. 16 July, 1691), noted
for the remarkable expedition with which he or-
ganized the armies for the wars of Louis XIV, was
partly renmnsible for this faUe idea, for be led the
ung to bdieve that the dragonades, militaiy ezpedi-
tkm which Louvois sent into Protestant vilugee, had
finally overcome all resistance. The youngest son of
Michel Le Tellier was Charles-Maurice Le Tellier.
Michel's fimeral oration was delivered by Bossuet and
Fishier.

Ammi. UieM Le TetUer et rorvaniaaHon de Fannie wtonar-
ehgjm^gWi, 1906);HoiiaBer, Hitl. de Loutme (4 vols., Paris.

Geosoes Gotad.

Tfllnuwus, titular see in Lycia, suffragan of Myra.
Tehnessus (or incorrectly Telmissis) was a flourishing
city west of Lyoia, on a bay of the same name (also
called Gkmcue sinus). It was famed for its school of
diviners, consulted among others by Ooesus, prior to
declaring war against Cyrus, and by Alexander,
when he came to the town after the si^e of HaUcar-
nassus. It must not be confounded with a city of the
same name in Caria. Telmessus was also called
AnastasiopoUs in honour of the empoxm at that nune.
Its ruins are located at Makri (1500 inh^itants, half
of them Greek), the capital of a caza in the vilayet of
Smyrna, and situated upon a rather important
hanraur. The acropolis is still in existence sur-
rounded by walls erected by the Knights of Rhodes
and the Genoese. The ruins include the rranains
of a theatre and a curious tomb cut in the rock.
Makxi derives its name from the Maora of the aneienta
— the Isla Longa of the medieval Italians, which lay
at the entrance to the gulf. Le Quien (Oriens Christ.,
I, 971) mentions two bishops of Telmessus: Hilary
(370) and Zenodotus, at the Council of Chaloedon
(451). The latter is called " Bishop of the Metropolis
of Telmeesau and the Isle of Macra". The"Notitin
spisH^Mitunm" mntkms Tdmessua among the mC~

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fragaos of Myra imtil the tenth oeotaiy, when it is
no KiDger called Maera; in 1316 mention is made of
the See of "Macra and LybyBtum". Lybysium or
Levissi is about four milee south-weet of Makri, and
has 3000 inhabitants, nearly all Greeks.

Smith. Did. o/ Greek ami Aoinan Qwgr. s. v.; Tmca, AtU
mwuv* (Paris, 1B62). 607^70; CciMR. La Turmtu d'AtU
(Puis, 1S91-4), 333, III. 67e aeq.: Tokakchek, Zur hutaritdfn
TOpoarajihM ton Kleiwuun im SttlUlaUer (VtMiiu, IS&l), 44,

S. FinuiifeB.

Te Ludi Ante Texxninum, the hymn at Compline
in the Ron;ian Breviary. Ilie authordiip of St.
Ambrose, for which Pimont contends, is not admitted
by the Benedictine editors or by Biraghi (see Am-
BBosLAN Htmnoqrapht). The hymn is found in
a hymnary in Irish 8Crii)t (described by Btume in his
"Cursus"/etc.) of the eighth or early ninth oentury;
bat the classical prosody of its two stansaa {wHta m
the third line of the origmal text is the only exception)
miggfista a much earlier origin. In this hymnary.it is
assigned, together with the hymn "Chnste qui hix
ee et dies", to Compline. An earlier arrangement
(as shown by the Rule of St. Csesarius of Axles, c.
fi02) coupled with the "Christe qiu lux" the hynm
"Christe precaraur adnue", and assigned both to the
"twelfth nour" of the day for alternate recitation
throughout the year. The later introduction of the
*'Te lucis" suggests a later origin, although in its
simple dignity the hymn is not unwort^ of the muse
of St. Ambrose. The two hymns "Te lucis" and
"Christe qui lux" did not maintain everywhere the
eame relative position; the latter was used in winter,
the form^ in summer and on festivals; while many
cathedrals uid monasteries replaced the "Te lucis '
by the "Christe qui hix" from the first Sunday of
Lent to Passion Sunday or Holy Thursday— a cua-
tom followed by the Dominicans. The old Breviary
of the Carthusians used the "Christe qui lux''
throu^^out the year. The Roman Breviary assigns
the "Te lucis" daily ttuou^hout the year, except
from Holy Thursday (Te Lucis Ante Terminum, p. 2)
to the Friday titer Kajst&r. inclusively. Meratt, in
his notes tm Qavantus's llieaaurus. says that it has
always held, without variation, this place in the
Roman Clnn«h. As tt is sung daily, the Vatican
Antiphonary (now pasang through the press) gives
it many plam^ng settings for the varieties of season
and rite (e. g. the nine melodieB, pp. 117-121, 131,
174. 356, 36q).

MusNs Ajn> Jdluit in DietioiUTj/ of Hywtnatom (Sod ed.,
London, 1007). 1135, 1710. To iu list of traiul. add BAoaKAWB,
Brvriary Hi/miu and Miamii Semtmen (London, a. d.). no. 30;
DoNAROX, Barly Chrittian Hjrnnt (New York, 190S). 41;
HiNBT, Hymn* of the IMdt Hours in BceUMUical RnUw (S«pt.t
1890), 2(M-09i Kent in Siuplet, Annv Saneiut, mrt II, 88;
PiHOMT, Lm wnnt* du brMairt romain, I (Paiia, 1874). 124-30,
defends (128-9) the siinple dlreotneM of the lanjpiay of the eeo*
ond atuua. Hvtntu Aneimt and Modem (hislonoat edition,
London, 1900), no. 34, gives Latin test and tr., harmonisad plain-
aong and a modem settinc credited to the Kalholitehe OeitUiehe
Omangbueh (Andanueh, 1008), no. 183; Danibi, ThetaurM*
SmMoloffjpw, I, 63; Bunta, Dtr Cmus S. Beneditti Nwrini,
- - ■ ■ -.88.75.

•to. (Laipais. 1908), 88. 88. '

H. T. Henry.

TttnUkamlxkff, Vicariatb Aprarouc or, suffragan
of Ottawa, Canada, is bounded on the north by
Hudson Bay and the Great Whale Rivo-; on the
south by the height of land, or waterdied, except in
the Temiskaming district, where the southern boun-
dary is 47° N. latj_ an the east by 72° W. long. ; and on
the west by 91" W. long. It waa erected on 22 Sept.,
1908, by dividing the Diocese of Pembroke. Father
de Bellefeuille. S.S., and Father Dupuy, of MontreaJ,
first preached the Gospel here in 1836. Annual
visitB were made to t^e Indians of the district, mis-
sions being held at Mba Hudson Bay Company's
trading posts. The Oblates of Mary Immaculate
were given charge in 1843. Father Laverlochdre
was the first of these zealous missionaries. They
cstabUsbed a reaidenoe at Fort Temiduming in

1853, but removed to Ville Marie in 1886. Lum-
bering succeeded the fur trade and was followed by
agriculture, the fertile shores of Lake Temiskaming
rapidlv attracting settlers. Railway construction
with the discovery of silver and gold (190^), advanced
the Ontario section. The Catholic population of the
vicariate is about 20,000, including some 5000 Indians.
Haileybury, Ontario, is the residence of the first
vicar Apostolic, the Right Rev. Elie-Anicet Latulipe.
There are 17 parishes, 20 missions, and many stations,
served hy 21 secular iniests, 4 Missionanes <tf the
Sacred Hesrt (who have a college also), and 0 Oblates
of Mary Immaculate. The Marist Brothers, the
SisteffS of the Assumption (novitiate at Haileybury).
the Grey Nuns of the Cross, the Sisters of the Sacred
Heart, the Sisters of Providence, and the Sisters of
the Holy Family conduct four boarding-convents,
two hospitals, and one industrial school and refuge
for Indians, besides several parochial schools. The
Rt. Rev. Eli»-Anieet Latuhpe, D.D., was bom at
St. Anicet, Province of Qu^iec, 3 Ai^., 1859. Or-
dained on 30 May, 1885, he was successively curate at
St. Henri, Montreal, chaplain at the convents of the
Good Shepherd, Montreal, and St. Anne's, Lachine,
rector of Pembroke Cathedral, and pastor of Hailey-
bury. He was named Bishop of Catenna and firat
Vicat^Apostolic of Temiskaming on 1 Oct., 1908, and
consecrated on 30 Nov., 1908.

John R. O'Gorhan.

T«mnui, a titular see in Asia, a suffragan of Ephe-
sus. Temnus was a little town of .£olia, near the
River Hermus, which is shown on its coins. Situated
on an elevation it commanded the torritories ttf Cyme,
Phocsa, and Smyrna. Under Augustus it was al-
ready on the declme; under Tibmus it was des^oyed
by an earthquake; and in iha time of PUnv it was no
longer inhabited. It was however rebuilt, and be-
came one of the suffragans of Ephesus. Le Quien
(Oriens Christ., I, 707), mentions three bishops: Eus-
tathius, who lived in 451: Theophilus, present at the
Council of Nice ^787) ; Igoatius, at (Jonstantinople
(869). This see u not mentiuied in the "Notitin
Episoopatuum". Ramsay (Asia Minor, 108) thought
the Diocese of Temnus identical with that of Arch-
angelus, which from the tenth to the thirteenth centuiy
the "Notitia Episcopatuum" assigns to Smyrna. In
1413 the Turks seized the fortress of Aicnangelus,
which they called Kaiadjik, i. e., small rock; this fort-
ress was situated on the plains of Mnnomenus, now
known as Menemen. Doubtless, Temnus and Mene-
nwn are the same. The latter is now the ch^ t^aoe
in the vilmt of ftnymajWith 9000 inhabitaau, of
whom 2000 are Greeks, 500 Armenians, the remainder
Mussulmans. However. Texier (Asie Mineure, 227)
identifies Temnus with tne village of Guid Hissar, to
the north of M^umen.

Sifm, DieL Qrtdt and Roman Oeog., a. v.

S. PiiiuDfts.

Tempel, Wilhblh (Ernest Lbbbrbcht), German
astronomer, b. 4 December; 1821, at (Nieder-) Cun-
nersdorf near Ldbau, Saxony; d. 16 March, 1889,
in Arcetri near Florwce. Having lost his motJia
in early infancy, he was placed under a school-
master from his ninth to his fourteentJi year, and
employed as sexton, beadle, gardener, and col-
lector of fees on occasionB of New Year, of baptisms,
and marriiwes. He then learned the art ot litho-
graphy, and about his twentieth year^ went to Copen-
hagen with letters of recommendation to a distant
rdative Lehroann, the father of the Danish states-
men and journalist, Orla Lehmann. During a three-
years' stay he was a welcome and frequent guest with
a number of artists and academicians. The sculptor
Reinhold carved his bust, and the painter BOnaen
drew his portrait. Hb German poems to friends and
boiefactMB duw a oomi^ete masters^ his native

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Quu ill Wiuitui Ti i^pj-.i,
By Raiobokl la the Obaervatory,
Copenhacen

Umsue. He became enthusiastio over the literature
ajxa national songs of the Danes, and translated
selections into German, e. f., "King R6jx6'a
Daughter". These three years in Denmark were,
as he used to say, his academio career. With a de-
sire to knowpeoples and countries from experience,
he went to Christiaoia, but soon turned his path to
the land of the fine arts. About 1860 he settled in
Venice as lithographer. The Palace of the Dokb
seems to hare attracted his artistic tastes, for he
became intimately acquainted with the family of the
Poorter Qambiii» mion dan^ter Marianna he married,

embracing at the
same time the
Catholic faith.
His wife testified
that Tempet had
never been satis-
fied with his fctf-
mer religira and
purposely chose a
Catholic com-
panion in life. The
marri^ proved
very h^py, al-
though not blessed
with children.
Contact with cul-
tured people in
Venice awakened
in him a tant« for
astronomjy. From
his earnmgB he
bou^t a 4-inch
(Steinheil) comet-
seeker, and in 1H59
made two dis-
coveries, one of a comet (designated [). on
2 April, and another of the Merope-Nebula in the
Pleiades, on 19 October. The new talent for dis-
coveries matured in him the plan of embracing the
astronomical career. In his enthusiasm he moved
to Paris, but found that lack of scientific training
precluded entrance to the Impo'ial Observatory.
Greatly disappointed by Leverrier, tiie director,
he moved wiui his wife to Marseilles in 1860, where
he was accepted by Benjamin Valz as assistant
astronomer.

Tempel began his careo* in Marseilles with the
discoveries of a comet (1860 IV) on 22 October, and
of two minor planets on 4 and 8 March, 1861, all
with his own 4-inch comet-seeker, on the torace of
the observatory. The position however lasted only
half a year, owing partly, it would eeem, to con-
tinued strained relations with Leverrier. He then
settled down once more as lithographer without,
however, giving rest to his comet-seeker. From
window or garden he discovered, during ten years, no
less than thirteen comets and four minor planets,
more than half of them new. From Marseilles tus
began publishing his observations in the "Astro-
nomiscne Nachnchten". In France he missed cordial
and intellectual intercourse, and a literary attempt
of his in "Lee Mondee'*, in May, 1863, on the
question of the variability of nebuue, was severely
criticisedbyLeverrier. Inthesameyear (1863)hepaid
a two-months' visit to his native country, spending
most of the time at tiie observatcKy or Leipsig.
Just two years before, in 1861, a Hwmer astron-
omer of Leipsig, d'Arrest, bad built a new ob-
servatory at Copnihagai. UnftMiiunately for Tempel^
d' Arrest was the veiy one who criticised his piibU-
cation on the Merope-N^ula as exaggerated, al-
though the controversy ended in justifymg Tempel's
assertion, that nebulae must be observed with low
magnifying powers. Tempel's effort, in 1870. to gfit
a positmn ijoflpr H' Xrvixt fniitlnm

In Janua^3^ 1871, the Provisional Government
ordered the Germans out of Marseilles. In spito
of his experiences in France, Tempel sympathize
with the unfortunate country during the war. Ar-
rived at Milan he found in Schiiq>areUi the man who
appreciated his talents. Though he had no academic
degrees, he was offered a positim in the Brera
Observatory, Two of T^pel s comets had attracted
SohiapareUi's attention: that of 1866 (I) which
furnished to him the proof of connexion with the
Novnnber stream of meteors, and that (rf 1867 (II)
which proved to revolve entirely between the wbita
of Mars and Jupiter and to run almost parallel with
the latter planet in 1869, so as to furnish a type
Hpecimen of planetary perturbation. Comet "1809
UI" is called Tempers "third periodio oomet",
but its periodicity was not reoog^nised until 1880.
Four new comets were discovered m Milan. Comet
"1873 II", called Tempel's "second periodic", is
remarkable for the ^ortness of its perioa, being little
over five years, and second onl^ to Encke's comet.
Tempel's publication in the Milan "Ephemeris" for
1872 shows that he reduced his own observations.
His mind was sufficiently mathematical to acquire
the use <rf logaritiuns and tx^Eonometry and to oraw
dliptioal orbits. Number V irf the Brera Publican
tions contains masterly litbc^aphic plates of a lunar
eclipse (1 June, 1863), of the Merope-Nebula, of
Jupiter's satellites and a series of Ct^ia's Comet.
A more perfect map of the Pleiades appeared in
" Monthly Notices" (XL, 1880) . Contact with Schia-
parelli brought honours to Tempel. The Vienna
Academy rewarded him four times for the discovery
<tf conets, the two of 1869 discovered in Marseillee,
and the two at 1871. Once in 1872, in the absence
of the director, he received the Emperor of Brasil at
the observatory, acted as cicerone, and presented some
of his drawings. The year i^ter, he rec«ved, through
the Brazilian Consul, the diploma of "Kii^t Uma
Iinperial Braiilian Order of Roses".

When, in 1873, the Arcetri C^lMorvatory lost its
director Donati, by death, Schii4>arelli proposed
Tempel as successor. The severe winters of Milan
and the prospect of an independoit position made it
easy for Tempel to aeoeptj although Ute unfiidshed
state of the buildings and instruments, the title and
scanty salary of assistant astronomer, the lack <tf
fibrary and asnstants, were frau^t with disappoint-
ments. After four years' work m Milan (1871-74)
Tempel moved to his last station, i^ch he was to
hold for fourteen years. He found. the observatory
atuated in an earthly paradise. It was designed and
commenced in 1869 by Donati, under the iMiversity
Florence, but interrupted in 1872 by Donati s
sickness. For two years it bad been left in this state.
The rain poured in on all sides and a wall of the
meridian room had to be supported. A description
oi the observatoty is given by Tempel in the "Astr.
Naehr.", CII (18^). The predecessor of Donati.
Amid, had oopstructed two object-glasses, one «
0.4 inches and one of 11 inches, large axes in those
times, but their mountings were impeifeot and in-
complete. The former had a wooden stand and
oould only be used on the terrace; pointing to ob-
jects c4 over 40° altitude was foimd dangerous. The
moimting of the .largest instrument was parallactic,
but without divided circles, .without clock-woric,
without damp and slow motion. The observing
chair was a ladder that ^d not reach to stars wttl^
20° <rf the horison. Both instruments had <m^ one
eye^ece. The books present contained no star
catalogues, and were lying on the floor. Money was
still owing on the building, and no resources for the
future open. The h^itation was so d^ective that
Tmo^ nad to live in a ndghbouring villa until bis

On «sannn*tinn tho ohivntH{IasM» orcnad a littla

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d^ective in colour coirection but excellent in defi-
nition: hence ksB adapted for planets, but perfectly
suitable for comets, asteroida, and nebuls, the very
programme of Tempel. Nebuke, however, became
now bis main field. In Arcetri be picked up only one
more comet, "1877 V". The work witii the large
equatorial proved very Blow and laborious. To find and
to identify the stars, the observer had to descend from
the ladder, use the comet^^eeker on the terrace and
make triuigulations on the small charts at hand,
all without electric ligbt. And yet, after four yean
work, Tempel presented to the Eoya] Academy of the
I^eei a collection of drawings of the more interesting
nebu^, which secured him tie rojral prize oven every
mx years for the best aatronomical work in Italy.
The Academy even offered to publish the drawings,
but the proofs of the UthoKraphs did not satisfy tne
author. The designs are the more v^uable as they
eont^ many sta^, measured with a double lin^
micrometOT. Temp^ discovered maiqr new n^nili^
observed a number that had been neglected since
Henchd's time, wrote a mass of careful notes that
are not yet published, occasionally correcting errors.
Extracts of his observations are found in the "Astr.
Nachr." (vols. 93-113). Drawings of the Orion
nebula were published in the "Astr. Nacfar.", vol.
LVIII (1862), and in the Memoirs of the R. Bohemian
Society of 1885 (reviewed in the VierteliahraBchrift,
XXII). Tempel was dected fwdgn aasodate of
the Royal Astronomical Sodety <A fadand in 1881.
together with Gyld^, Ilckeiing^ Tietjen, and
Tiaserand (Monthty Notices, XLI. 377). In 1886
he was honoured wit^ a letter from King Humbert,
handed to him by the Adjutant General, in reoogni-
tlon oS his astronomical drawings. In the iutercoiurse
with scientific mai, the lack of academic truning be-
trayed itself occadonally, and Tempel himself re-
mitted all his life t^t he had not learnt Latin.
DiffumvenesB of style and unmtical assertioos pro-
voked contradiction. A controversy with Dreyer,
the astronomer of Birr Castle, about the reality of
qnral fonns in many of Lord Rosse's drawings of
nebuhe, may be found in "The Observatoir" (vols.
I-II, 1878). Ilie existence of a faint nebula drawn
by Tempel (near H. I 55 Pefsm) was^denied by
Eeeter (Astroph. J. XI, 1900).

Tempel's intercourse mih old friends in Copeo*
hagen remained oordial to his rauL He reedved them

friends recommended by them, hke brothers, and
always resetted that his means did not allow him
to reviat Copoihagen. His lettos to than breathe a
deeply reliipous spirit. He glories in bis honesty
from childhood, regrets oomphuning about injuries
reodved, speaks of ti»9 blessmgs m Providence, of
friendship D^nd death, ^vee thanks and praises
to God, promises prayers to ftiends and benefactors,
and looks confidently towards eternity. Expres-
sions like these made his Protestant friend say in the
"Da{^ladet": "During the many years' aojoumin
Italy his mind, ^ch was subject to deraesdons,
bad found peace by entering the Catholic Church".
The same friend assured the writer of thisartide
that, on a vidt to Aroetri, he had found Tempel very
happy in his religious convictions. Bia dearest
conqMoy was an oldpriest ^rtkovldted him^^uhwl^.
A Franciscan from the Convent iA Quaxaoehi was tus
confessor, and the Carthusians of the Certosa were
his friends. Towards the end of 1886 Tempel was
attadced by a liver complaint and, in the beginning
of 1887, by partial paralyds. Unable to observe,
he put his notes in order for publication. During his
illness he received the sacraments repeatedly. The
parish priest (d 8. Leonardo (now Canon Emilio
rfoniiati) testifies titat Tanpd was a thoroughly
eonvinoed CHthoHo and died a saintly death, having
fais mind dear to ib» last. Tempd was harafy dxty-
years old. Ha is buried near the tMab erf

Donati, in the cemetery of S. Felice a Elma, a suburb
cS Fknienoe. He left ndther ddrtis nor proper^, and
his widow was provided for by what is called in Italy
a "spacdo di salt e tabacdii , this again, as it seoniL
through Schif^iarell^. More than 186- drawings m
nebulffi and stars, with numerous notes, are now the
property of the univeredty and deposited in the Tri-
bune of Galileo (via Romana). A fist of them is in
the "Astron. Naohr.". CU (1882), and in th« "Bo*
hemian Memoirs" (1835).

DtvUdiM (C<»eDluaBn.4ApriI. 1880); MonAljiNoiief Ji.A.S^
L (1890), 179; Schiaparblu. Attron. Naehr.. CXXl (1890), 95:
ABvm. PtMieatmU. too. XXVU {Aniatri. 1009), 103; lou,
fiiiMs M Attmuntia, III (Turin, 190S). Priv»to letton from
CopenhacBD, Annagfa. and ilorenoe.

J. G. Haqbn.

Tsmpennoe (Lat. (empsfiore, to zomgle in due pro-
portions: to qualify) is here oonsiderea as one of the
four cardinal virtues. It may be defined as the ri^i^
eoQS habit which makes a man govern his natural ap-
petite for pleasures of the senses in acc<ntlance with
the norm prescribed by reason. In one sense tempex^
ance may be regarded as a characteristic of all the
moral virtues; the moderation it enjoins is essential to
each of th«n. It is also aoeording to St. Thomas
(I-II, Q. cxli, a. 2) a q>ecid virtne. Thus, it is the
virtue which bridles concupiscence or which controls
the yearning for pleasures and delights which most
powerfully attract the human heart, "niese fall
mainly into three classes : some are associated with the
preservation of Uie human individual; others with the
perpetuation of the race, and others atiU with the
well-being and oomfort of human life. Under this a»* '
peet temperance has for subordinate virtues, absU-
nenoe, chastity, and modesty. Abstinence prescribea
the restr^t to be employed in partaking of food and
drink. Obvioudy the measure of this self-restraint
is not constant and invariable. It is difiFerent for dif-
ferent persons as well as for different ends in view.
The diet of an anchorite would not do for a farm bt-
bonrer. Abetinenoe is (HMosed to iha vtoes of ghit-
tony and drunkenneoa. llie disorder of these is that
food and drink are made use of in such wise as to dam-
age instead (4 benefit the bodily health. Hence Mut-
tony and drunk ennesB are said to be intiindcally
wrong. That does not mean, however, that they are -
always grievous sins. Gluttony is seldom such;
drunkenness is so when it is complete, that is when it
destroys the use of reason for the time being. Cha**
ti^ as a part of temperance r^ulates tb» sensual sat-
isMctions connected with the propagation <rf the hu"
man spedee. The oontraiy vice ifklust. As thete
pleasures aiH>eal with q>eGial vehemence to human
nature, it is the function of chastity to interpose the
norm of reason. Thus it will decide that tbey are alto-,
gether to be refrained from in obedience to a higher - '
vocation or at any rate only availed of with reference
to the purposes of marriage. Chastity is not fi^utti-
ciim; much less is it insendbility. It is the cattying
out m the mandate erf temperance in a particular de-
partment where such a steadying power is acutely
needed.

The Virtue of modesty^, as ranged under temperance, '
has as its task the holding in reaeond>le loaan c£ the
lees violent human pasdons. It brii^ into sorioe
humility to set in oraer a man's intoior. By trans-
fudttg ms estimatea with truth, and increadng hfe self •■
knowtechse it guards him against the radical malice of
pride. It is averse to pusit&nimity, the product of low
views and a mean-spirited wilL In the government
of the exterior of a man modesty aims to make it con-
form to the demands of decency and deoorousnesB
{honesUu). In this way his whole outward tenor (tf
conduct and method of life fall under its sway. Such
things as his attire, manner of lQ)eed^ habitual beat^
ing, style of living, have to be made to scniare with ita
injnnotkRis. To be sure th^ cannot always be
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have a good deal to say in the case, but in turn will
have its propriety determined by modesty. Other
virtues are enumerated by St. Thomas as subordi-
nated to tempmnoe inasmuch as they imply modera-
tion in the manaewnwit ot some passion. It ou^t
to be note(L however^ that in ito primary and ^eneraUy
undentood soise temperance is ooncemed with what
is diffioult for a man, not in so far as he u a ratiottal
being precise^y, but rather in so far as he is an animal.
The hardest duties for flesh and blood are self-restraint
in the use of food and drink and of the venere^pleao-
ures that go with the propa^tion of the race. That ia
i^y abstmenoe and chastity may be reckoned the
diw and wdinaiy phases of this virtue. All that has
been said reoaves additional f on» if we sui^Mse that
the self-ooDtrol commanded by temperance is meas-
ured not only by the rule of reason but by the re-
vealed law of God as well. It is called a cardinal virtue
because the moderation required for every ri^t*
«ous habit has in the practice of temperance aspeoially
trying arena. The satisfactions upon which it im-
poses a check are at once supremely natural and neo-
essaiy in the present ordo- <tf human exiitenee. It
is, not, however, the greatest oi moral virtues. That
nmk is held bv i»uaenee; thai come justice, forti-
tude, and finalqr tenqMranoe.

BloUaT, MUea and NatmU Law (London, IMS): a'Aino
BAUL ^WMwIa tluohaim maralk (Rome, 19080: Riokast, Tk4
jfcrB ftodbwig at. nomat (Locidon. 188^; Sr. Tkhus.

JOSBFH F. DniAMT.

TwnpaTMW KoTCnMikta.—EcrROTB.— Reasons
for a temperance movemeDt exist to a greatw or less
dqp«e in all the countries of Europe, although the
land and amount of alcoholic drinks consumed vary
^eatty in the different lands. In former Bays the

Ct^ amount of drunkenness was to be found in
na and Sweden, while now the latter country is
the most temperate of all. On the other band, condi-
titms at present are very bad in France and Belgium,
larn;]^ because these are almost the only lands where
abonuie ia habitually drunk. Unfortunately^ it is
Just in these countries that there are but few signs of
an energetic temperance movement, for in them wine
and beer are still called "hygienic drinks". A strong
m)positi<m to the use of alooholic liquors exists in
Qnnt Britain, in the Scandinavian kingdom^ and,
for the last ten years, in the Netiio'lands and Qer-
many. It is cmly of late that the souUion countries
ci Ewope have begun to take part in the temper-
aaoe movement, and of these Italy is the most active. '

A. ContuMptiom qf AleoAoI.— Statistics as to the
otHisamptaon ol intcndeating liquora should be used
with great caution, especiaUy when different coun-
tries are compared, llie amount of alcohol in vazi*
ouB liquors, and even in the same liquw in different
oountnes, varies greatly. The most reliable inter-
national statistics concerning alodwlio beverages are
probably those repeatedly issued since 1S97 by the
Briti^ BcHtid of Trade. These statistics were taken
by the Imperial Bureau of Statistics at Berlin in 1906
as tlfe basis for .the excellent papers on the alcohol
question that appeared in the "Reicbsarbeitsblatt".
According to than, the average amount of alcohol in
distiUed hquors may be taken as fiO per omt; in wine
in G«nuany and Switsorland. 10 per cent; in wine in
Itahr, France, Belgium, and Holland, 12 per cent:
in Cneat Britain, 15 par cent; the average amount oi
bIocAkA in beer may be taken as 4 per cent (in Great
Britain, 6 per cent). The alcohohc beverages most
generally used are distilled spirits, beer, and wine.
The dnnking of absinthe, since its prohibition by
popular vote in Switieiiand in 1906, is limited to
Fntnce and Belgiiun, wheie the prohibition is to a
huge degree evaded. DisUlled apmta is the principal
alcMolic beverage in tiw foUowing countries: Suasia,
n^ere it ia 93 pa sent o( all the alodiolic beveragn

oonsumed; the three Scandinavian countries, 65-69
per cent; Austria-Hungary, 59 per cent. The laigeat
proportion of beer is drunk in Great Britain (78 per
cent ot all alcoholic beverages consumed) and Bel-
gium (64 per omt). Wine is the alcoholic beverage
most used in the following countries: Switzerkuid,
68 pa- cent of all alcoholic beverages; France, 75 per
cent: Italy, 95 per cent. In Germany, b»des a
small consumption of wine, an almost equal amount
of beer and spirits is used (beer, 49 per cent; spirits,
44 jjer cent). The figures are, of course, quite differ-
ent if the question is as to the amount of hqiior actu-
ally drunk. The amount depends in the first place
on whethtt moderate drinking is the daily habit in a
country, or whether alet^olie beverages are drunk
only occasionalhr, even though immoderately; and,
secondly, whether beverages containii^ a largs
amount of alcohol are most used, or the consumption
is of weaker ones, but in larger quantities. This is
the reason wh^ the beer-drinking countries rank first
when the inquiry is how much alcoholic drink is con-
sumed per capita of population, while, on the other
lumd, the lanos whm Ijie largest amounts of vine and
brandy are consumed take the lead if the question is
as to the amount of alcohol consumed. In the former
respect, Belgium stands first with a conaumption of
nearly 54.22 gallons per capita of population, ^.52
gallona being beer; then come Great Britam and
Switzerland, each about 33.01 gallona per capita:
Germany, 30.66 gallons; Italy and France, each 2S.36
to 30.66 gallons: Denmark, 25.94 gallons. In the
otiier countries toe consumption is less than 25 gal-
lons per capita, e. g. Ncvway, 4 gallons; Holland and
Russia, each about 2.35 gidlons. On the ot^er hand,
the countries where the largest quantity of alcc^ol is
drunk are: France, 4 gallons per cM)ita, and ItaJy,
3.7 gallons. The countries showing the lowest figures
are: Holland, .94 gallon; Riissia, .61 gallon; Norway,
.51 gallon. Germany and Austria are in the middle
with about 2.24 gallons. If, finidly, the individual
beverages are considered, the laivest consumption d
distilled st>iritB ia in Denmark, 3.3 gallons per capita,
and Austria-Hungary, 2.39 gallona: the largeat eon-
sumption of beer la in Bavana and Belgium, where it
is more than SO gallons pa capita; the consumption of
wine is largest m Italy, 27.59 ^ons, and France,
36.55 gallons. The absolute figures are as foUows:
Germany, 58,962,028.3 (allonB of distilled spirits,
1,757,075,471.69 gallona c^beer, 87,264,150.94 gaUona
of wine, for which nearly £150,000,000 ($714,500,000)
is paid annuiUly, a sum near^ three times aa latf[e aa
the cost of the (jerman army and navy. The annual
expenditure in Austria for alcoholic bevwagea is about
£104,166,000 ($500,000,000).

B. Deedopment of the Temperance Movement. —
Two main petioda are to be distinguished. The
Snb, which bMan about 1830, was fairly general,
but anbstantiaify affected raily the Britidi Ides and
the Germanic cotmtries. The second began in 1850
in Great Britain; after a decade it extended to Scan-
dinavia, and after thirty years to Ciermany. It was,
however, only at the close of the century that it
attained its great importance, by gradually obtaining
a footing in all civilized countries. In both poioda
the inunediate stimulus came from the United States
of North Amoica. The eluef distinotion between the
eariier and later movements is gmerally expressed
thus: that the former laid tite emphasis on t^per-
ance, the latter on total abstinence. But this hardly
reaches ihe root of the matter. Apart from the fact
that even in the earlier period teetotal societies existed
in England (from 1832), refraining from ^irituoua
beverages was at that time practically equivalent to
total fUDstinence, as oUier mUudcating orinks woe
^moat unknown, or at least their injurious quaUtiea
were much underrated. Beer waa Uken strcMidy
recommended (even in pi^ular aon^ aa a "moat »

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fieioufl drink"; ihm the brewing industry was encour-
aged. It was thought that pcustmous substances
existed only in distilled spirits, oonsequently nothing
was said of cmnbating alcohol, but alvavi distaUed
quritfl, and Uiis throuf^ abstinaioe. The eadier
movement is better charaotettied by calling it the
oa of naive enthusiasm, suppcuied especiaUy by
relig^us ideas. Drunkenness was regarded chiefly
aa a vice to be overcome by strong religiDua aeaiU-
ments. Clergymen were the principal iMdws of the
movement, and the pledge was its hi^ieet attainment.

T^e new movement is more diB(»sBi(»ute ; its funda-
mental ideas ate largely h^jenio and sociaL The
nature of alo^Kdio beverages has been mme Uko^
oi^^ inveetigated and the dan|{er halntoal mod-
erate drinking, which merely avoids intoxication, has
been recogniied. Intemperance is no longer genn^
ally regarded aa a matter of individual morality, but
as a menace to the public health (because of its etfeots
on the offapring) and as a dan|ger to national welfare
(inamnuch as it promotes criminality and immoralityi
while lessening mental and econranic productivity),
llie preeent movement is promoted by pfaysidana,
■ookMogiBts, and govemmoit officials; its final aim is
rather to do away with the drinking of alcirfu^ either
by national i>rohibition or by local <9tion. Still, of
late, the religious side of the movement has shown re-
newed vigour, e^>ecially in rescue work for drunkards;
and strong religious organizatiims have sprung up,
eqwdalty amon^ the CaAholics <U Germany and Hol-
knd. It is entiray in kequng with tlie social charac-
ter of the movement that tlw effort is i^iade to in-
fluence children and young people also (as in the
"Bands of Hope") and that evm the schools are
called on to co-operate by means of special instruction.

The first traces of an organised temperance move-
ment in Europe are found in the union fonned at
VAxjfi, Sweden, in 1819, b^r a number of PQpil> &t a
Qrmnadum under the guidance of Per Wieeelgrai
(1800-77), who afterwards became famous as the
tathw of the Swedish temperance agitation. The
members of the union pledged themselves to abstain
horn all harmful spintuous beverages. However,
impulses from Amoica ("American Temperance
Society", 1826) first led to the foundation of regular
aoeietiee — almost immediately in Ireland (New Roes,
1829; by 1830, 60 societies); Sootkmd (Greenock,
1^; the "Soottidi Temperance Society", a oeatxtX
organization, fotmded in l831,60on had SIX) branches) ;
England (Bradford, 1830: by the end of 1830, 30
local societies; the "British and Foreign Temperance
Society", 1831) ; Sweden (Stockhohn, 1830; the "Swed-
ish Temperance Society", a cental oiganisation,
founded m 1837, had 100,000 members by 1845).
The movement apread most n^iidly in Ireland, where
bom 1834Fatber Mathew (q. v.), probably the greatest
preadier of temperance ch all timee, laboured with
extraordinary success; by 1844 he had secured nearly
5.500,000 adherents. In Dublin alone 180,000 todk
the pledge from him; later he went to England, gain-
ing 60,000 in London, then to Scotland and America.
In 1858 the "Irish Tempeoranoe League", now the
most important abstinence <H|^zation in Ireland,
was founded. As in Sweden, the first mov^ent in
Norway wad Germany was also an independent csib,
but it did not attain in ^ther country mnoh impor-
tance until it came into contact with the American
and Engli^ movements. In Norway, Kjell Andresen
established throusfaout the country numerous sooie-
tiea which, in 1845, he united into a central organi-
xation, "Den norake verening modbraendevinsdrik-
ken", an aseociation that received at once nwudder-
able financial aid from the State.

The campaign was opened in Germany about 1800
hy a number m medical treatiaeSf especially those of
Hufeliud (Die Branntweiiivergiftuiu[), and also the
flimilar addnssed by King FMaridTWilliam HI of

S3 mCPKRAMCI

Frussiatothe Protestant consistories ui^ing them Ut
exhort; the people to abstain from spirite. Tlie firat
societies were estabhahed at Hamburg in 1830 and at
Dresden in 1832, through English innuenee. Aboufe
1883 Flrederick William III asked the American
Government for information concerning the temper-
ance mov^ent. In answer to this request Robert
Baird, author of the epoch-making "History of the
Temperance Societies in the United States", was sent
to Europe in 1835. At Berlin Baird gave the French
yereioQ of his work to the kiog, who had it translated
immediately into Geranan, and 30,000 oopies distrib-
uted . The movement was now carried <m with great
seal, mainly by thedifferent Churches. Thechi^wcHrk-
ers among the C^holios weae: Father Seling (1792-
1860) in the Diocese ot Osoabrttck: the Amiprieflt
Fitsek and Father SchaSranek in Silesia; the mia*
sione? Hillebraqdt in Westphalia; Father Ketterer
and other Jesuits in Ermland; much influence was
also exerted by the writings of the popular author
Alb an Stds. Father Matbew'e work was taken aa
the model of the movement, but an effort was made
to secure greater permanence by forming temperance
ooD&atarmties; these atiU exist in the east of Geimany.
The wori: ma carried on among Protestants by Fastw
Bdttcher of Hanover (also active as a writer) and by
Fruherr von Seld, who oovered much territory
lecturing on temperance. The result of these labours
was that when the first temperance congress was held
(Hamburg, 1843) there were already over 450 tem-
perance societies in Northern Gennany, and 17(Ki
whm the second congress was held (Berlin, 1845).
At the same date the total number of abstainers in
Germany was stated to be l,6dO,(XX). of whom over
500,000 were in Upper Silesia. This was the cul-
minating point * of the movement, which r^»dly
declined after the Revolution of 184S. Besides the
countries alread^^ mentioned, the early movement
attained prominence oikly in HoUand and Denmark,
although the American influence was felt in otb^
oountnee also. In 1842 the "Nederlandsche Vereen-
^iog tot abschaffing van steiken drank" was formed
at Leyden; its membership rose to over 20,000 and
then declined. Baird spent 1840 in Denmark; 40
societies were quickly formed there, and, in 1845,
were united into a national association wiUi its own
newqMper, the "Folkevennen". In Denmark also
the connict between the temperance and total absU-
nence advocates ended the entire movement.

With the exception of England, where the High
Church Anglicans founded (1862) the "Church of Eng-
land Temperance Society", which quickly attained
great success, Uttle prooress was made in Eun^e from
1860 to 1870. Pastor Battcher, it is true, succeeded
in organizing another continental congress at Han-
over, m 1863, but the interest in tonperance had died
out. Nearly twenty years afterwards begins the lata
movonent, which m most countries was distinct^
influenced by tiie "Order of (3ood Templars", and in
Switzerland and adjacent countries ^Iso by the society
of the "Blue Cross", founded by Pastor Rochat at
Geneva in 1877 as a society for the rescue of drunkards.
In 1868 the "Independent Order of (3ood Templars"
extended fnan America to England, where, at firsL
mtemaldiasensionflocoasioned an acute crisis. AbcHu
ten years later the ord» was established in Scandi-
navia (Norway, 1877; Sweden, 1879; Denmark, 1880).
In these countries it proved more sucoeeeful than any-
where else, particul^ly in Sweden, wher^ owing to
the exertions of ()scar£klundandEdvard Wavrinsky,
its membership in 1887 was over 60,0(X>. It must be
acknowledged that here also internal disoorda had to
be overonne. In 1883 the order entered (jermany,
wpearing first at Haderslebai in the Danish-speaking
distriet, and in 1887 the first (Smaan lodge was es-
tablished at FlenabuEg. The main etrength of the
crder is stilt in SchleswigjBfolBtw'n aiMi-Hainhuig,^ Id

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TIM»fitAKOS

TtUPEftAMCK

the iame year (1887) the first lodge was establkbed
in Switnerland. It is only within the last ten years
that grand lodges have been established in Hculand
and Austria.

Organisations of the different social classes and
business men have become of great importance in
the new movement. The first of tbeee sodetiee
was the "British Medical Temperance Association",
formed by the English physicians in 1876. Spadal
OT^nizations for clergymen, teachers, railway men,
aim worianen have been established, md are sttivmg
with inoreasii^ suocess to torn international asaod*-
tions. Unfintunately, the Soda! Donocrats have in
many instances used the movement as a means for
carrying on their own agitation, and in this way
have gamed the ffjTnpathy of many who would other-
wise hold aloof from them. This Btatement, how-
ever, has little application to Germany. Women
take an increasingly great part in the work of tem-
perance. The 'Roman's Oiristian Temporance
tJnion", established in the United States in 1873,
became a world-wide association in 1888, and then
affiliated many national associations (some very
small) in Europe. Owin^ to these energetic labours
the number of total abstamers has incr^uied greatly in
most countries; in some they form from 6 to 12 -per
cent of the entire population, as: United Kingdom,
about5,000,000(in<auding3,200,000cbildren);Sweden,
S00,00(); Norway, 240,000 (including 65,000 childKn) ;
Denmark, 170,000; Germany, over 220,000 (indud-
ing 85,000 children); Switsertand, 76,000 (induding
26,000 duldren); Finland and Holland, each 30,000;
and Iceland, 5000. The total number in Europe
may be safely estimated at over 6,500,000.

C. Present Status of the Teavperanct Movement.
— ^Under this head will be considA^: the inter-
national oi^^anizations^ which, with one exception, are
total abstinence societies; the laner associations of the
individual countries; the Catholic movement, which
is of chi^ interest here; finally, the most important
ooDgressea, in which in a certain maimer the associa-
ticHis show their concentrated strength and the suo-
oesB ot the movement,

(1) International Organusations. — ^The lan^ or»
B»nixation is still that of the "Ind^>endent (Jrder of
Good Templars", which has 18 grandlodgesinEuiope;
of these 6 are in Great Britain, 2 in Germany, 1 each in
Ireland, Scotland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Hol-
land, Belgium, Switzerland, Koumamaj and Hungary.
There are also some district lodges in France and
Russia. The total number of lodges on the Continent
is 4661 with 257,638 members, and 1855 lodges for the
young with 123,634 members. In Great Britain
there are 2266 lodges with 92,725 members and 1380
lodges for the young with 100,220 members. A
strong competitor of this order in Switzerland is the
"Neutral Independent Order of Good Templars", es-
tablished in 1906 by Professor Forel, because he con-
sidered the large order laid too much stress on religious
dements. The Swiss grand lodge of the new order
contains 3500 adults and 3200 young members; the
German, 2100 members. A lai^ number of the
Dutdi, Be^ian, FVendi, and Hungarian lodges have
also joined the Neutral Order. On account of the
law in Austria r^arding associations a national asso-
ciation with ten local branches has been formed under
the special title "Nwhalia". The organization next
inBiEeisthe"BlueC>06s" (headquarters at Geneva),
which contains about 1550 branches and 60,000 mem-
bers, including a large number of reformed drunkards
(0000 in Germany). Divided as to the different
countries the ntunb^ of societies is as follows; Switzer^
land, 468: Germany, 661; Denmark, 364 (the oi^ni-
sation is here called "Det blaa Kors"); France, 65;
there are also several scattered societies in Belgimn,
Russia, and Hungary. AffiUated to the *^Bhte
Ctobb'' is an aeeociation for youth oaDed the "Band

of Hope for German Switserland" (i)eutecft-«cAiM^
miKho Ho^trngAwnd). A society small in member^
ship but impiwtant on account of the circulation oT its
publications is. the "International Anti-Aloc^olic
Association" ^/rU. Aliudu^,gegnerbund) with national
organizations m Germany and Switzerland. Affili-
ated with this since 1007 is the "International Bureau
for Combating Alcoholism" {ItU. Bureau sur Bekdmp'
fung dea AlkohoUtmua), Lausanne, conducted by II^.
Hercod, which possesses a large bureau of information.

Notwithstanding their inteniational oiiganisaUonB,
two asBodatioBs, the " Indep^ent Order of Recha-
bites" and the "Blue Ribbon", are essentially English
sodeties. The " Rechabites" form a life insurance so-
ciety with 300,000 members, and have a few branches
in Germany and Denmu-k; the "Blue Ribbon" has
about 1,000,0(X), of whom less than a tenth are in Den-
mark, Norway, and Sweden. The international or-
ganization of women, the "Woman's Christian Tem-
perance Union", is stnmgest in Englidi-speaking
countries. Among its numerous branches on the
Continent, those of Germany and Snditz^land are
prominent for their activity, espedally in the estab-
lishing of temperance eating-houses. Of all the inter-
national associations of different social classes the
"International Sodety of Physicians" is, owing to
the view now taken of the alcohol question, the most
important. This society indudes the Gemum-speak-
ing countries, Scandinavia, Russia, and Belgium. The
"Intematioiial Railway Anti-Alooht^c Association"
(founded in 1904 by de Terra) hsa branches in Ger>
many, Austria, Switzerland, and Denmark. The
"International Association against the Abuse of
Spirituous Beverages", founded in 1905, indudes
about 30 organizations in Germany, England, Hol-
land, Belgium, France, and Russia. These are tem-
perance sod^es, and promote equally total abstinence
and temperance. The association aims at establish-
ing an international bureau against alcohol.

(2) National Associations. — Most important oi
those in Germany is the "Association Against the
Abuse of Spirituous Beverages" {Verein geqen Mit^
brauch geist. Getr&nke) ; this was established in 1883
and has 37,000 membors who take no personal pledge.
The sodet;^ carries on its wmk by periodicals, pamj^
lets (of which over a millicm were circulated in lOw),
charts, exhibitions etc. Among the total abstinence
societies are: the "German F^eration of the Blue
Cross Societies of the Evangelical Church" {Devtsehe
Btmd evan^itch-kirehiicher BUiukrewsvereine), with
8500 m^bers; several societies that have separated
from the "Independmt Order of Good Templars" ; and
abstinence societies for various classes of sodety, as
workmen, school-children, teachers, post-office offi-
dals, lawyers, philoli^ists etc. ; thesodeties for lawyers
and philologists are confined to German territory.
In deface of their common interest nearly all the
German total abstinence sodeties have joined the
"General German Union for Combating Alcoholism"
(AUgemeiner deuiacher Zentraiband lur Bekdmpfwig
dea Alkofudiemut) ot Hamburg, which has a arge
bureau of siformation, a section for testing bevotiges
free &omalc(rfiol, a biveau ioi lectures, etc. G«r>
many has altog^or sixty large anti-alcdii^c or-
ganizations.

The movement against alcohol is weak in Austria,
probably because the Government puts great difficul-
ties in the wa^ of international organizations. The
large associations, about thirty m numb^, have
nearly all sprunj^ up within the last few years. The
temperance societies (Oeet. Verein gegen Trwiksucht
and similar provincial societies in Vorarlbeing, the
German Tyrol, and Moravia) have attained omsidei^
able importance. The leading abstinence society is
undoubtedly the Polish "Eleuterya", with 5300
members in 20 branches. The "Cmtral Union of
Aiutzian Anti-Akoholio Sooieties" f^enfralMriund

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nonntunn 4

M. AVcoholgmtiervereine"), in Vienna, serves as %
common beadquartm for most of wese societies.
Besides the " Neutral Independent Order of Good
Templars", Hungary posseases a fairly imptnlant ab-
stinence association for woricmen (1100 members)
and a central organization. The main organisations
in Switzerland are intemational. Compared wiih
these the national socieUes are not very important, ex-
cepting the "Catlu^ Abstinence Lemie" (see beunr).
Amon« the national assodatkMU aU OuA call for
memtion are: the "Allianoe Abstinence Union" of
Lausanne; the temperance societies, the "Society of
St. Gall against the Abuse of Spirituous Liquors"
(St. GaUiacherverein gegen dm MUtibrmich geittiger
Qetrdnke), with 14,000 members, and the "Patriotic
League of Switzerland against Alcoholism" {higue
patnotique stmae corUre Vaicoolisme). The total ab-
stainers have complete control; the active participa-
tioD of pupils in schools and diildrm is e^wcialty
worthy of mention. The "Swiss Abstinence Secretary
ate" at Lausanne is the headquarters for the society.
In Holland there is still considerable rivalry between
the total abstinence and the temperance advocates.
The o^anizations of the latter are lai^, particularly
the "People's Union" (Volksbond), mjich has over
20,000 members. Most <A the societies are connected
with the different Churches: the Protestant ones, five
in number, have since 1907 been united in the
"People's Union of the Christian Anti-Alcoholio So<
oieties of Holland" iNitderlOndiat^ YoSainmd der
ehrisilichen AntUJkokolvereine^.

Hitherto the associations m Belginm and France
have been almost exclusively temperance societies;
in both countries temperance societies for school-
children play an important part. The "French
National League against Alcoholism" {lAgue not.
fransaiae eontre Vakooliame) has nearly 100,000 mem-
bers in 1730 branchea, of which many are for children.
Belgium has also a similar "Patriotic League" and
120,000 children in more than 5000 temperance so-
cieties oi^anized during the last thirty years through
the efforts of school inspector Robyn. Only ^e
be^nnings of a temperance movement are to be found
in Italy. In 1907 various local organisations united
in the "Italian Anti-Alcohol Federation" (Federa-
zione AnHaleooliata luUiana) , which allows daily half a
litre (about a pint) of wine at meal-times. The mem-
bers of the federation are mainly Social Democrats.
Still less ot^nization is there in Spain, where the first
associations are just beginning to oe formed. Portu-
gal is without organization. Total abstinence pre-
vails in the Scandinavian kinndoms, Iceland, and
Inland, although home-brewed beer appears to be
still frequently permitted. The Norwegian society
" Det Norske Totalafholdsselskab" has 135,000 mem-
bers. In Sweden, besides the veiy strong "Inde-
pendent Order of Good Templars , there are the
Social-Democratic " Verdandiorden" and man^ total
abstinence societies for different classes, as physicians,
students, teachers, preachers, soldiera, merchants,
nurses etc,, as well as a society for giving instruction
in abstinence. A central abstinence bureau exists in
both countries. The largest abstinence society in
Etenmark is the "Danmarks Afholdsforening" (about
60,000 members). Many total abstainers also be-
long to the "Good Templars" and the "Blue Cross".

(3) Catholic Tempoance Organizations. — Just as
Catholics shared in the earli^ movement sixty or
sevent;^ years ago they have also of late years taken
an active part in ttte battle af^dnst alcohol. At first
the entirety Catholic countries, excepting Belgium,
had not a very large share in the movement. Gener-
ally speaking, Gennany, Switzerland, Holland, and
England have been the utief champions of the cause.
About 1885 the CathoHo movement began in Bel-
Bum. Under the leadership o£ Abb^ Lemmens
|h«re DOW ^jBvt* « fedenttionoopsiitini o| wfi larga

5 mfPIEAllGI

associations wiUi about 600 local branehei and

60,000-60,000 members, who, as a body, r^>re0ent
temperance, not total abstinence. The most impor-
tant of these assodations are the "Sint-Jansgeooot-
Bchap" in the Province of Limburg (which has a
division for voung people founded and conducted by
Canon Senden), the ^'Onthoudorabond van Wes^
Flanderen", and the "Soci^tS beige de Temp&ranoe".
The main oncanisati<m in Gamany is ihe AlBancp
cS tiie Cross" (KreuOiandnU), a sodefy of Catholic
al»tainers, with headquarters at Hddhausea near
Werden. This (Hrganisati<m was establidied in 1899
by Father Neumann as a temperance society; in
1904 a separate section for total abstainers was
formed, and since 1909 the entire organization has
been a total abstinence society, with sections far
women (Frauenimnd), for young people (Johanne*'
bvnd), and iar children iSekvUeng^nmd). Alto-
geth» the association has a membership of 12,000
adults and 60,000 children. Unfortunately, the
children's socie^ has divided, about half of its
membm joining the "Cathohc Temperance Society"
(Kath. Massigheitabund), established in 1905 (head-
quarters at Trier). Recently the relations of this
uitter society to the "Alliance of the Cross" have
constantly grown more strained, and it has even estab-
lished a total abstinmce branch (KnuAund) of its
own. Excellent work is done by the Cath<dics of
Switzerland, where the former Bidiop of St-Gall,
Augustine E^er (183^1904), laboured as an apos>
tie of temperance. Good feeling exists there be-
tween the different tendencies of the movement,
although total abstinence is the most conspicuous.
The "Swiss Catholic Abstinence League" (ScftwewCT*-
iacke kath. AbstinenienHga), founded in 1895 with
headquarters at St-Gall, has 90 branches and nearty .
4000 members, three^ourths of whom are Germans. -
Affiliated with this society is the "Young Peo-
ple's Union of Qennan Switzerland" {DeiOach^
Schweizerischer Jugendbwid) which baa over- 60
branches with 10,500 members; a simihu* tmion
{R£veil) for French Switzerland has 22 branches
and 1200 members. Nearly all the members (tf the
society previously mentioned^, "St. Galler Beziiics-
vereins gegen Missbrauch geistiger Getrfinke", are
Catholics. In Holland Dr. Ariens and Dr. Banning
established in 1895 the "Kruis verbonden" which has
over 30,000 members; both this and the specif
associations for women {MariavereenigiiigeTi), which
have about 30,000 members, adm^ temperance
and total abstinence advocates. Instead of chil-
droi's societies, associations have been fwmed of
parents who promise not to give thdr children
(minors) any alc<^lic bevwage; these are called
the "St. Anna vereeraigii^ai" (membership 25,000). .
These societies are arranged according to dioceses
and since 1907 their central oiganization has been the
"Sobrietas" with headquarters at Maastridht. Since
1901 Austria also has bad its "Catholic Alliance of
the Cross" and "Schutzraigelbimd"; so far, however,
the membership has not r«tched 1000. Hungary has
a Catholic tonperanee society with lO^OOO members.
The French Catholica have the "White Croas"
society (Croix blanche). Some b^nnings c4 inter-
national organizations should, finally, be motioned:
the "Abstinence Society for Priests" (650 members)
in Germany, Austria-Hungary, Switzerland, and
Holland; the "Catholic Academic Abstinence Union"
with about 100 members in Germany, Austria, and
Switzerland. The "IntonaUonal Catholic AsBod^
tion", opposed to moderate drinking cMf spirituous
liqucns, is, so far, d little importance. Mention
should also be made of a branch of the Order of Bene-
dictines founded by Father Hager, the members of
which are both total abstainers and vegetarians; the
mother-house is at Innsbruck.
(4) Copgrcsgto.— The great international oongpqpw

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486

against alcoholism meet regularly every two yeara;the
aeesioaa, excepting that hcud in 1909 in London, haTe
always been oeld on the Continent. Aoooidmff to
offidal statisiics thirteen congreseee have been ndd
(1912). Theconareashasmet twice atllwHunK^aiid
once at eadi of the fblkwiDg cities: Para^ raiiMehi,
Antwerp, ChriBtiania, Stockholm, Bremen, Vienna,
Budi^eBt^ZllrichrBaale, London. At first the advocates
of temperance exercised moat influence ; in 1887atZ Qrich
wd in 1003 at Bremen sharp disputes arose between
this party and the total abstainere, who now control
^e meetings of the ooneresses. Since 1899 the Holy
See has been repeated^ represented. Full reports
of the aesaaona of the congreassB are published. For
about ten yean a Oennan total abstinoioe owgreBa
has beat held on an average every two years, the
seventh meeting being at Augsburg in 1910; similar
congresses have been neld for Scandinavia and Fin-
land for the same lenrth of time at the same intervals.
The eighth Swiss abstinence congress was held at
Lausanne in 1910; at its sessions local option was
urged. In other countries the holding of national
oonferencee began at still later dates: the first Aus-
trian congress against deohol was held at Vienna in
1908: the first Russian at St. Petersburg in 1910; the
first Italian at Milan in 1910; the first French total
abstinence congress at Grenoble in 1910. A French
congress of the opponents of the use of alcohol (held
in 1003) was not of much importance. The Catholics
oi Holland and Belgium have so far had two nationiU
oongresses. Among the special congresses held by the
members of a sii^Ie organisation, those of the "Good
Templars" are notewtwth^. In some countries, par-
ticubrhr Germany and Switzerland, there are societies
whidi hold educational courses of a scioitifio charao-
. ter for the study of alcoholism.

(5) Successes of the Temperance Movement. — ^The
main success is the increased understanding, every-
where apparent, of its claims. Civil rulers repeatedly
emphasise in their public utterances the great impor-
tenee of strict temperance, while churchmen of nigh
rank are dther total abstainers or else warm friends
of the movement, in whose interest they have issued
many pastoral letters. As regards legislative action
the advance of the movement is slower. Complete
prohibition exists in Iceland. In Finland it has
Seen reneatcsdly demanded from the provincial
diet, and a similar danand has been made cmce m
Sweden. As in these two countries the number t)i
deputies who are total abstainers grows continually
kurger (in Sweden they form one-half of the house),
Ute Govemmrate cannot pennanently withstand the
pressure. In Sweden the ministry in 1911 appointed
a special commission to take the preparatory st^.
Fronibition of spirits for the country districts in gen-
eral exists in Sweden, Norway, and Finland, and a
local option law ict the cities, which is to a great
extent enforced. An energetic struggle is now being
carried on in Holland, Switzerland, and Germany for a
local option law. In criminal jurisprudence the Pol-
lard s^tem is slowly winning adherents; of late two
small German states have adopted it, and it is else-
where in use. Russia and Switserland have intro-
duced a government monopoly of spirits, but this
has not been of any particular use to the temperance
movement, except that in Switseriand one-tenth ct
the profits (alcohol Utile) must be aiqilied to
the work against alcoholism. Many countries
voluntarily givo such aid, as: Sweden, about 200,000
kron«i ($54,000) in 1910-1911; Norway about
17,000 kronen ($4590); Holland, 20,000 florins
($8000), etc. A number of coimtries have intro-
duced special instruction in temperance into the
primary schools, notably Belgiiun, Sweden (where
tinre is a special course for male and fonale teachers),
Ncnwa^ uid France. Eqieeially great has been the
«0eot « the tax^Mnoce movement on the reform of

taverns. The celebrated Gothenburg system is
largely used in Scandinavia and Finland. In this
system the tavons are entrusted bv the Government
or commune to special societies (SamUtg), who <m]^
reeeiTe a limited gain wbiie the prwts go to the State
ot oonunune for public purposes. In mredeii these
veoStm have amounted in twnty years to 83,000,000
kronen (^410,000). The tevem is carried on by a
Kovonment official appointed for the purpose. The
"Independent Order « Good Templars" opposes the
syetem because it gives the communes too great an in-
terest in the sale w alcolu^. The "German Society
for the Reform of Taverns" {Deutache Verein fUr Ga^
ihauanfom) emplovs the following method : the inn or
tavern established dv the commune or by a-society is
^ven a manager with a fixed salary, who has in addi-
tion a oommiBsion on the sale id food and non-alco-
holic beverages. It is always provided that strong
alaAolic liquors are never to be in stock. There are
many temperance taverns in Switzerland and Swedm,
and some in Gomany, Hungary, and Holland.
Reference should, laatly^, be made to the very satis-
factory ukcreaae of provision for the cure <^ drunkards.
In Germany there are- over 40 institutions (six Cath-
olic) where treatmoit is ^ven, besides numerous
homes for drunkards beloi^ng to cities and societies.
Several cities have appmnted ofiicial nurses to take
care of drunkards; about half of the patients become
permanent abstainers. In Switzerland there are about
ten such institutions, one being Catholic. These two
countries are far in advance of the others in tiie effort
to cure drunkenness.

Th« bibUumpI^ of th« t«mperaiic« qoestion Is enonnous.
Nearly 15,000 pubucAtioiLB in Europe Kod the United States an
liated Dy Abdbbbaldbh, Bibliooraphie dtr geaamim wiumteha/U.
lAUratur abtr Alkokol u. AUcoluilimm (1904). The ourrent liter-
ature of the subject is g^vea by the bibli<»]-Rnhical iournal BUU-
Ut /Or dis Ossomten 5o2iatoin«n«cW«n (BerUD), sjkI by the two
internationai tcmperanoe periodicals (ssa below). The most
important systematic, work ia.probablf, Hxlenids, Dm ilLboltal-
JTaQt, which has ezoelleat biblioKraphies of all eotin tries. Th*
original work was tnuulat«d from finnish into Qerman In 1908.
The best historioal work is Bebohxn, NykXtrhmtr^Attia t&rld-
AiKoTM (1900), well illustrated, also issued in a much altei«d
German tranmttion by Kbaot (1907). The most important
statistical wotfc is that ianied^ the fintisfa Board of Trade mem-
tioned at the begiiuuna of this aitiele, in ctamezlon with which
Bee HoFFB, Die Taiaadun flbsr dm AliiAei. Year-boidu ecn-
cemins the movement in variona oountries are published fay
WAHimfs, too- Oemutny and Ai»tri»7HnDc>iT; Hncon, for
Bwitwirlaiirt; NnusM, tor Deniaaik; Ducxkbt. for Norway; eto.

Numerous periodkala an pubHahed: in Qermany, ow 70; in
Z)enmaA and Sweden, aboat 26; etc The moat onportant of
these journals are: ttOtmoL Monattehrifl rur BtftSmpAnw ^
Trinktittm (Buh):Di» AlhActfrm (BerUn). issued in Qeraun.
French, and Eneliidi; MaangkMMiatter (Berlin); Uimer (Stoek-
hfim): D» Wemoiiter (Amsterdam); A/keUMadtt (CbrisUMuiO;
L'oMtMies (LuuMane); FolinaiMa (Copenbaien}; Lt bim
toeial (BniMua): Lm otuiolsf amtialeoeh^m (Paris). CathoBe
periodiealsare: TUfa^»«iuwtand2>sr if«rp*ii,forGermany: Fatts-
tooU wd La Ugtu de la Croix, for Swltwrland: KnutfArtr, far
Amtik; SobrMM and Da Drmkbaitrtidin«t tat HoHud. See
•Ik tar nwvnnent in Belvum: MAunaa ahd Lmmm, Lm
SoeUlia da tamptmua (Bruasela, 1900): Waslbt. ffd VcOtaaabilt:
Basuu, La lutts onMtricveKmie sn BatgUnu (Brusels, 1001);
Ymiiamsca. Mamulaotial (Canrain, 19M); iaVnaoa: Ttiam,
JTimumI da lamp^mea; Bbmmmt, L'aleoatiamat BaanLunr,
L'olcpoBsms at Isi moyaaa ia ta eonthaUra; Savot, Lat trtaera da la
aaint* ofrtftnenc^ln Switeeilaod: Fonni., ta hoiaam dam noa
mmura; Btmoa, Dia AOoMAoffs; Eookb, oumerons wri tines, in*
eluding AIMud, AHUMiamia u. AbstmsM,- AlMutt «. vSUs-
tnohl, etc.; in the northnn lands: Erklund, Drvekanakapen (Stoek-
faolm, 1890): Pumsaow, £n ahidia afiur OeMorgamaiamat;
HALTnmnr, Dat nerafa TakOa/hoUaaaUciA; JBaaamoii, i/kaUt'
aagaaa Ualoria i» Dmmua^

WiLBBUI TjIW.

Qrut Bbitain and iBBLAim. — In Great BriUiOi
and Ireland the State regulates the liquor traffic by
imposing duties on the manufacture and importation
d spirituous drink and by confining its sale to those
who pay for the pnvil^e and fulfil other conditions
as to place, time etc. Those who drink, therefore,
must pay more for their hquor than its intrinaia
vahie and must observe certain leni limits in the
dreunutanoes of their drinking. Thus tie State
WRH tlie one Mt «t iwunt^inrng pubUo ovder uA

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TKHPESAMCK 41

firomoting aocial welfare and also at nusing revenue
rom the quaai-nuxiopoly it creates. TheBt two
purposes are not always in harmony, which exphUns
to some extent why State interference from the be-
sinning to thia day has often failed of success. A
full history of liquor le^Iation and its results would
occupy volumes; here there is space only for a brief
summary of the chief Acta affecting the British Islee
as a whole.

It is significant that up to the Reformation there
occurs no civil l^slation against drunkenness,
althou^ it was jvevalent enough tn Catholic times.
1^ crop of laws against intemperance began to
spring up in the reign of Edward VI, but they can
no more be attributed to the hidier morality of the
new religion than can that monarch'sgrammar schools
to his zeal for education, or Queen Elizabeth's work-
houses to her compassion for the poor. All these

Ehenom^a point to the passing away of an influence
itherto found suffidesit to promote social welfare
by moral means. Laws concerning liquOT were,
indeed, enacted from early times, but their main
object was to prevent fraud on the part of the sellers.
Scotch l^islation, for instance, was busy in the reign
of David I (1124-53) regulating the brewing and sell-
ing of ale. In England, in 1200, prices were fixed by
law for the different sorts of wine, and we find many
subsequent enactments tending to encourage the
wine trade with the English possessions in France.
With the overthrow of the ancient Church and the
destruction of her restraining influence, the spread
of intemperance became very marked, as is attested
by contemporary writers, and the State b^an to
interfere in the interests of public welfare. An
English Act was passed in 1495, empowering justices
of the peace to suppress at discretion "common ale-
houses , as centres of disorder. The licensing svstem
was introduced in 1551, by an Act which maae l^e
consent of die justices necessary for the establisb-
ment of ale-houses. The Irish Parliament in 1556
prohibited the manufacture of. aqua rite except by
certain specified classes. At the beginning of the
seventeenth century laws were passed in England
to prevent inns from becoming public-houses in the
modern sense. In 1634 the licensing system was
extended to Ireland. The close of this century
brou^t a new element into the question. Hitherto
only fermented liquors were commonly drunk in
England, for, owing to high duties, the price of
imported spirits put them beyond the reach of the
people, but in 1^9 the Government of the Revolu-
tion, out of hostility to France, prohibited the impor-
tation of foreign spirits and removed the restrictions
on home maniuacture, with alarming results to public
morality. In spite of the retail trade being put under
the hcensing system in 1700, by 1724 the passion for •
gin-drinking had spread "with the rapidi^ and vio-
fence of an epidemic" (Lecky, "English History", I,
iii), and in vain was the famous "Gm Act" paj^ed in
1736, making the licence practically prohibitive.
Illicit distilling and smugxlmg spread^ enormously,
and high licences had to oe repealed in 1742. Al-
though ^dually the State resumed control, still
" the fatu passion for drink was at once and irrevo-
cably pluited in the nation" (Lecky, op. cit.). From
1751 dates a series of laws dealing more stringently
with the conduct of the drink traffic, and in 1755 the
licensing system was introduced into Scotland.

An attempt was made in 1828, as the result of a
Parliamentary inquiry into illicit spirit-dealing, to
simplify and consoliclate the various licensing laws
for England and Scotland, and, in 1833, for Ireland,
and these acts form the basis of the existing law. But
experimental legislation still continued. In order to
cure the nation of spirit-drinkinK, to encoiurage a
BriUah industry, and to break up the system
ftf 'tied houses'', six AxA vaa passed in. 1830 caving

$7 TUCPERANCK

practically free trade in beer. A fortnight after the
Act was passed, Sydney Smith wrote: "The New
Beer Bill has begun its operations. Everybody is
drunk. Those who are not singing are sprawung.
The Sovereign People is in a beastly state." The
Act failed miserab(^ of its purpose. In less than
three months 24,000 licenses were taken out. The
number of "tied nouaes" was not ultimately lessened
and the consumption of spirits steadily rose. In
I860 the beerhouses were again brou^t under the
UcensiDK system. Another well-meant but un-
sucoesBnil effort to alter popular taste was the estab-
lishment (1860-1) of "off^' grocers' licences, by which
measure Gladstone hoped to wean the people from
beer-drinking in pubbc-houses to the use of li^t
wines and apirits at home. Much intermediate and
Bubaequent legialation was concerned with the condi-
tions of holdme licences, particularly with the hours
of closing. The "Forbes-Mackenzie" Act of 1853
dosed the public-houses (d Scotland on SundayiL
except to trnvellers, and the measure was extended
to Ireland (except five chief towns) in 1878, and to
Wales in 1S81, with very noticeable results in the
decrease of drunkenness. In England the hours of
Sunday opening have been restricted to seven. In
1873 a licensing Act prohibited the sale of apirits to
children under sixteen, required the confirmation
the County Bench for new ucences, and derived that
Bendi of the power of granting licences in opposition
to local refusal. Other measures for the protection
of children were passed, culminating in tne Act d
1909 which forbids children under fourteen access to
public bars. For the last forty years under the
influence of State regulations the number of licensed
houses has steadily decreased. Shadwell shows that
the number of "on" licenses per 10,000 peraons in
England and Wales was forty-nine m 1871, thirty-
one in 1001, twaity-«ix in 1900. In Scotland there
were 17,713 pubUo^ouses in 1829: in 1900 with
more than double the population were were 6845
only or 14.03 per 10,000. The decrease in numbers
has obtained m Ireland also, but a greater decrease
in population has counteracted the relative diminu-
tion. With a smaller population than Scotland
there are in Ireland more than three times as many
licenaed houses— in 1909, 22,591 in all. The Act of
1901 has tended to accelerate the decrease of lieoioefl
hy admitting the principle of comprasation and
giving licence holders for the first time a legal claim
to renewal unless forfeited by misconduct. In the
eyes of those who desire to suppress altogether traffic
in drink for private gain this is considered a step
backwards, a view which is strengthened by the
notable increase of "clubs" since the passing of the
Act. Finally, one marked effect of the Finance Act
of 1910, so far as it concerns the Temperance Move-
ment, was to reduce the consumption of spirits by
ten milUons of gallons; against this must be set an
increased comumption of fermented liquora and pre-
sumably of illicitly distiUed apirits. In the history
of State activities for the promotion of temperance
must be included the action of the various education
departments in making temperance teaching an
integral part of the elementary code. A temperance
syllabus was made compulsory by the Irish Com-
missioners in 1906. The English department issued
ita syllabus for England and Wales in 1909^ and a
similar syllabus was drawn up for Scotland m 1910.
If future generations of the populace indulge in
drunkenness, it will not be through ignorance of its
evil effects on the human frame and the body politic.

This brief sketch of the history of legislation for
the control of the liquor traffic is enough to indicate
the nature of the problem. The State interferes to
secure such observance of temperance as is necessary
for social well-being. But reasonable liberty to do
what in iteelf in not unlawful ia ahQ-at,part of apdal

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488

well-beinK. Were all its citizens sufficiently seU-
controUed the State would have no claim to interfere,
but in ita own intereata it haa to supply byextemai
presBMre defects of personal character. The diffi-
culty, then, is 80 to Icipslate that the weak may be
protected without the freedom of the temp^te being
unduly infringed. The most obvious thing to do
was to lessen temptation by lessening the number of
licensed houses. But this policy involve evils of
its own. The giving of licences creates a quasi-
monopoloy, and monopolies legally secured have a
tendency to breed fraud of every sort. The drink-
seller tends to become a publican in the old sense.
He pays a heavy sum in excise and licence for the

Erivilege of trading in liquor, and he must recoup
imself from the purchaser. Hence, on the one hana,
the evils of smuggling or illicit production, and, on
the other, of adulterated liquor, of inducements to
drink to excess, of "tied houses" in the hands of
producers. The heavy taxation, induced both by
considerations of revenue and of Bocial welfare,
crushes out free competition and brings the trade
into a few hands, and uius within the state is begotten
a powerful trust, the interests of which are purely
financial and not necessarily in harmony with those
of the commonwealth. It legation opposed to
those interests has not behind it, as a permanent
force, the moral sense of the larger and saner part of
the community, it becomes inoperative and defeats
itself. Hence true reform in the matter of the drink
traffic depends ultimately on rightly educated public
f^inion.

UntO the end of the eighteenth century the medical
profession did little .to dispel the ancient tradition
about the health-giving qualities of strong drink,
to which the name given to the distilled essence
of fermented liquors, aqua vitce, and the word "spirit"
itself remain as witnesses. And in default of the
Church, persecuted and gagged by the civil law, there
was none amongst the sects to preach temperance as
a principle of ascetics. Isolated physicians like Dr.
George Cheyne (1671-1743) had pointed out the
dangers of spirit-drinking; Dr. Trotter of Edinburgh
and Dr. Rush of Philadelphia both published papers
to the same effect in 1788. But it was in the tlmted
States that the first combined efforts were made to
educate public opinion in this matter. In tracing
the history of these voluntai^ associations which
aimed at temperance reform primarily bv persuading
the individual, it will be convenient to deal with the
non-Catholic bodies separately; historically they
were the fijat in the field, and, arising in communities
predominantly non-Catholic, they are naturally
much more muneroua. As will be pointed out,
though alike in aim, they sometimes diner in method
from Catholic organizations. We cannot pretend
to nve more than a few salient features of ao enduring
and widespread a movement.

Influenced by the formation at Boston in IS26 of
the Society for the Promotion of Temperance Dr.
John Edgar, of Belfast, a Presbyterian, founded on the
same lines the Ulster Temperance Society in 1829,
and the Rev. G. W, Kerr, a Quaker, a similar society
at New Ross. Later in the same year the Glasgow
and West of Scotland Society was started by John
Dunlop. The . next year an Kngliah society wai
formed by Henry Forbes in Bradford. All these and
many others which sprang up Uiroughout the British
Isles originated in the desire to suppress the spirit-
drinking which had become so prevalent, and hence
their pledges allowed the moderate use of fermented
liquors. It was not until 1832 that at Preston under
the advocacy of Joseph Livesay total abstainers
first appeared, and the word "teetotal", applied to
abstinence, came into fseneral use. The new i>ledge
caused .a sort of scbdsm m many of the earlier societifs,
but gradually, aa the iUo^icality of taking alcc^l ua

one form and renouncing its use in another became
apparent, teetotalism prevailed almost everywhere.
Yet the phenomenon observable to-day, that less
spirit consumption means more consumption of beer,
was evident even then. Another cause of disension
amongst non-CatJiolic refrainers sprang from erro-
neous views about the moral character of strong
drink itself. In their hatred of its ^use, many
extremists declaimed against its use as something
intrinsically evil and thus were betrayed into irra-
tional attitudes which injured their cause. If alcohol
is evil in aCj no one is justified in offering it to others,
or in licensing its sale oy others. The publican must
be claaaed with Ijie pandar: the State must put down
the drink tra£Bc by force. In addition to thrae
violent views, men who based their religion on the
Bible woe hard put to it to explain the toleration and
even implicit conjnendation of the use of wine to
be found in ita pages, and a vast controversy arose
over the question whether the "wine" of Scripture
was fermented or not. Undoubtedly, these disputes,
and the adoption in many cases of a standpoint op-
posed to common sense, have done much to prevent
the cause of real temperance from progressing, as
it might have done, outside the Church, its
practical identification with false reli^ous beliefs
haa operated to create distrust of the movement
amongst many Catholics. But, notwithstandiog tjiia
ethical confusion amongst the sects, the social and
physical benefits of temperance are so marked that
its advocacy has had a constant and growing influence
upon public opinion. By 1842 the chief societies in
Ejigland were, the National Temperance Society,
the British and Foreign Society for the Suppression
of Intemperance, and the British Temperance Aaw-
ciation: the Scottish Temperance League was founded
in 1844, and in Ireland all the Protestant bodies had
drawn new vigour from the great campaign of Father
Mathew.

But the mid-century ended in universal ^litical
and social disturbance, and the original impulw
towards temperance lost for a time much of its vital-
ity. Later, m more settled conditions, the campaign
against strong drink took on a more scientific char-
acter. It aimed, by the organization of women
and children, by teacning temperance in the schools,
and by setting forth the physical effects of excessive
induhraice, at creating sum a wei^t of cqiinion as
to influence the l^islature. Hie juvenile sodetiea,
called "Bands of Hope"^, so marked a feature to-d^
of Protestant propaganda, were started in 1847.
Inspired by the Prohibition Law of Maine (1851)
the United Kingdom Alliance^ which had for express
object "the total and immediate legislative suppres-
sion of the traffic in intoxicating liquors as beverages "
,and which is still the most active oi modem organi-
zations, came into beii^ in Manchester in 1863.
We need not trace m greater detail the development
during the next half -century of these various societies
in the British Isles, a devdopmoit which, as far as
numbers are concerned, is of imposing extent. A
recent Presbyterian movement, inaugurated in 1909
in the north erf Ireland by the Rev. R. J. Patterson
and caUed " Catch- My-Pal ", mav be mentioned as
having met with .much success both there and in
England. As for other societies, the Alliance Hand-
bode (and as regards Ireland and Scotland its enu-
meration is by no means exhaustive} reckons 18 tem-
perance bodies which are legislative and general,
17 which are sectional (Army, Navy, etc.), 22 identi-
fied with different "Churches", 14 whidi are sects
or orders of themselves, 10 confined to women, 8
juvenile societies, 62 county and 176 town societies —
in all 327. These various associations, of course,
produce a large amount of Temperance literature,
whether in book form or as newspapers and tracto.
Hus vigorous potemic, as is natural, lias called foth

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4dd

^'imHaj mBMUi'HH dT defence on the part of the trade.
The Alliance Annual entuneratea 10 main aasociations
of those engaged in the drink traffic and estimates
the local societies throughout the United Kingdom at
about 700. On the grounds that their trade is a
lawful one and, under proper craiditioiiB (which th^
profees their readiness to (Amkts), eren necesBary
for social well-bdng, the sellers of dnnk are justified
in resisting attacks which deny the soundness of
those grounds. No Catholic temperance eocietv
will base its opptraition to the drink traffic on sucn
unsound foundations.

As an organization existing to teach and make
feasible man's duty of self-control, the Catholic
Church is the first and the greatest of temperance
societke. She teachsa, and has ahrays taught, that
all are bmrnd under am not to mi|uae strong drink
themselves or co-operate in the abuse of it by others
— and this, whatever means they employ, is the lilti-
mate end of all temp^miee associations. With the
social evil of drunkenness (before she was robbed of
her due influence and before the common use of
spirits intensified the evil), the Church had been able
in great measure to cope hy her ordinary discipline —
her preachisg of self-denial, her admmistration <A
the oEwnunent of Penance, her institution of peniten-
tial seasons, and her canonical legislation. AH
these moral influences were swept away at the Ref-
ormation and nothing effective set in their place.
Hence the excesses of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries are largely attributable to the destruction
of Catholicism as a social force. Even after Emanci-
pation in 1829, the effects of the Penal Laws still
continued, apd it is not till 1838 that we find mention
in Qreat Britain of a purely CaUiolic temperance
asBodation. It is true that in 1819 there was fomided
at Skibbereen in Kerry a temperance oivanization
presumably Catholic, out it seems to have been
rather of the nature of a benefit society with a tem-
perance resolution amongst its rules. At Chelsea,
in 1838, the Rev. T. Si^ started a Catholic Total
jU}stinence Society, and in 1840 we find mention of
a Soutii London Catholic Temperance Association
which was addressed by Danidf O'Conneil. Mor^
over in the same ^ear a Metropolitan Catholie
Association was instituted throu^ the exertions
of Mr. John Giles, a Quaker. But these little local
efforts were thrown completely into the «hade by
the gigantic work accomplished (at the providential
instigation of anoUier Quaker, William Martin)
by the greatest temperance apostle the world has
ever seen, Fathw Theobald Mfttbew. Ai a re-
sult of his advooat^ m ttie years 1838 to 184S it is
computed that Ireland, with a peculation oi over
eight million, counted fram three to four miflon total
abstains, and the annual consumption of spirits,
which from 1835 to 1839 averaged 11,595,530 gallons,
sank in 1842 to 5,290,660 gallons, llie want of
permanence that marked this great movement was
no doubt mainly due to the eatastrophe of the famine,
but also in no sUgl^t degree to the taet that It won
afsant support amopgst th^ upper and middle claaseg
wnd eyep from \h% elmy themselves. Its insfUR^
iion, hEiwevor, is alive and powing in strength tcnday,
not only in the land of its ori^, But Iq Great Britain
as well. For Great Britaii) m 1843 came under the
iqwU of 'FathM' Mathew'v yeal and eloquence, and
Buuay Catholie aasooiatioiia were formed la the towns
^ visited iq flnghmd and Scottw^d as paf<s of tb«
pafoehial organization.

Aftfr the general reaetlon that preceded and f<^
laved the year of Revolution (1848) there Is record
further OathoKc effort. St, Patrick's Total Ab-
atiuenee Society, founded In Dundalk in 1860, stiH
^unsliei. Id 1858 a Catholtc Temperance Hall
VM opened in Spltalflelds by the Rev. Dr. Spratt
of OwUn, oAo «t FMhw Mathew's moat wakraa

ooi^utors; in 1858, we are told, a new Roman Catha*
lie Total Abstinence Society was founded in London,
where also in 1863 there is recorded a meeting of the
Roman Catholic Teetotal Union. But not until '
1866, when Archbishop Manning began to take practi-
cal interest in the temperance question, was anything
attempted on a larger scale. The United Kingdom
Alliance of Manchester and the late Mgr. Nu^nt of
Liverpool put facts and figures before him with the
result that both in Liverpool and in London in 1873
a Catholic orgahisation was formed called the League
of the Cross which, under those zealous leaders. ac~
complished a vast deal for temperance in Great
Britain. Branches of this oi^anization were set
up in many parishes abroad as well as in England and
Scotland, and under the eyes of its founders it became
a great social force. In 1869 Dr. Delany Cwk
promoted a temperance revival in his diocese, and
the bishops, by their joint pastoral in 1875, gave a
^reat stimulus to the movement. In that year was
instituted in Dublin the Confraternity of the Satred
Thirst of Jesus and in Salford the Diocesan Crusade
hy Bishop, afterwards Cardinal, Vaughan, The
Cjiwade, or Catholic Association for the Suppression
of Drunkamees, inaugurated b^ Dr. Richardson of
London, and various lesser associations date from the
same period. Another remarkable revival in Catho-
lic advocacy of total abstinence in the British Isles
began towards the end of last century. Father
James Nugent did wonderful work in Liverpool
for the cause. As a temperance reformer. Father
F. C. Hays, a nephew of Father Nugent, has won
a like renown. In 1896 he founded hia Catholic
Temperance Crusade, which aiinstoiffev«it,ratherthan
reclaim from, intemperance^ and includes members
who are total abstainers, children over t^ who take
the resolution till the a^ of twenty-one years, and
associates who lead a strictly temperate life. There
is no central governing body, but the crusade readily
co-operates with all other tempierance endeavoure,
aiming at establishing some sort of organization in
every parish and, by means of lectures and literature,
at spreading a healthy publio opinion on the matter.
The promoter o( the crusade has travelled and work^
eictensivety in its interests, and the influence of hu
«eal is fdt in the whole Engliah-speaking world.
The League of the Cross, imdeir the care of Canon.
Mumane, one of Cardinal Manning's earliest and
most energetic lieutenants, is renewing its youth in
England and Scotland.

A Father Mathew Union, the membership of which
is confined to the cler^, was founded in London in
1908. But it is in Ireland, where poverty and de-
population make the rsvagra of strong drink most
apparent) that the most, strenufmiii efforta are being
made to combat it. In 1S9S tLi-n? EintnrJ in
Dublin by Father Jami^s CullfiiH S..I., tlir Pifnifir
Total Abstinenoe League oI the Sacred Heart which
numbers to-day 180,000 in^Tobers and 172 ccntraa.
Particularly noticeable is the larse. aoceeuon lo ita
ranks of the younger claegy. & tuAs Che first Xem-
peranee association to insffona tV^D-years' probation
as a teet of purpose and a muuiUitee af stability; it
was enriched by Pius X WvHi many indulgencea in
1905. In that year, mfprfciver, flu' Irish Hii^rarchy
called upon the Capuc'iin-. On' n iiiiiou-'H lirethren
of Father Mathew, to tak<? uti iigttiri hie woik- Thk
thev have done with much of bis success. Recently
unaer their stimiilating zeal one-fourth of the whole
population Limerick took the pledge. Still more'
recent is the formation by the bishops of the western
province of St. Patricks of the West, an

oi^anization planned to cover the whole of Comuught
with a netwerk of temperance societies and to stamp
out drenkenness by the most carefully devised
methods. Other less heroic devices, like the Anti-
TlMtinc Iiocuet aim at counteracting one oS the

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most frequent Bourcee of demoralization. Such

S'^rous and sustained efforts have had a marked
ect in Ireland. Arrests for drunkenness, which
were 98,401 in 1809, have fallen each year to 68,748
in 1006, and the expenditure on drink, tbou^ still
appallingly large (£13,310,460), considenng die needs
and poverty of the country, is now more than a
million leas than it was ten years aap. And though
the "Drink Bill" of the United Kingdom, which
was £170,490,817 in 1902, has now decreased to
£155,162,485^ owing to some extent to the growth of
a more enlightened public opinion, there is yet
abundant need of temperance propaganda before
the population of the British Isles Wna as a whole
to avoid occesaive drinkinff, as a vice that is both
degrading to the individuai and v^ injurious to the
State.

OpDieml workt: Wi-k'ji.let *nei JffiiNaijNi Trmperanre and Social
Froffream />f the CfrUurff (Lunriflni : Da wbjtjs' ami Bmrw,

Tfmpttanct PrMm iKii .^V,..-iVJ Tt.'f,rt.t> *Nt-K V^iTk. JflOilj;
SBaDwRLL, brink, Ttmpf"3'\ - ';>i'f !--i>i:i-f!t:"t [NfV York. ItX)^) ;
Fltuhom, Lierntiihs An-. S*' '■'•-i'.i<'^. Thr Ruyul Cfunm-iKtiun im.
lA^mr tiitxniinff Lau-A ( ISiti'.- nlii ; 7iic Alli-inri- Ynr Hri'rh flfUVi;
JlHHuI j^purf (TJjir'y-,V'rf..iu/i .j/ !l,t /n.i/.- . 1 ■ .. ..-i.-ji , t. •\-t if.f
fVtMnrim v/ /n[">r|.'rTaFijr' (I'.'l'.l — J ; Xfi /Jm .;t.. S<..-.iJ

tofiirm. Cutl)t>ljr WorkjiL HniWltTT, Tf\i I'i'ru'i'ir of Dn-jA
4U7>B}; Ma\'mn<{, ifur Kniimul I'trr (IH&6J; Cpllin, Thr
HoiMr ^t-tit-pfratict CaUei.\tm \\%\Vi\ MoiiATe, Earlu Chur^ti
Lmiitattm in IrtUndiPvnctm^ tif* of ConltnM Vo'^ina. II

Ik tbb tTNTTBD Statu and Canada. — United
8tate$. — The first temperance wcffk in the United
States was due to a reaction against intemperance,
which threatened to make the Americans a nation of
drunkards. Hie culminating period of intemperance
was the seventy-five years between 1750 and 1826.
Nearly everyone drank intoxicating liquor. It was
the family beverage. It was the prevailing mark of
hospital!^. It was regarded as a disoourtesyi even
an msult, to refuse it. At all functions, publio and
private, social and commercial, sacred and solemn,
mtoxicating beverages were used. Not only was
liquor r^arded as mdispensable on such occasions,
but the erroneous belief prevailed that no hard work
could be accomplished without the stimulating glass.
Labourers and mechanics were provided wit£ their
quota of liquor, twice a day, at tne sound of the town
bell, that sununoned them regularly at eleven and
fbnr o'eloeic The farmer stipulated wiHi his he^
when he Ured them for harvesting that thmr were to
reoelre a certam amount of "spirits", which was
Bsnerally whisky or New England rum. Strong
Bquw was supposed to nukke strong men. This
supposition was not questioned until the fatal effects
of (uinking lu^its ffere evident in the multitude who
went down to drunkards' graves. Intemperance
was wideq>read, increasing day by day, till it reached
its climax at uw dose m the RertuutioiiBry War.
Congress furnished the Colonial trot^ witli liquor
to strengthen them in the hardships of war. The
soldiers returned to their h<mie8 and added to the
wave of drunkenness that rose high and spread far
and wide. It was commonly stated at the end of
the Revolution that the United States consumed
more liquor per eajnta than any other nation. It
was generally admitted that no man could be found
who had not been drunk on some occaaon. The out-
come of this universal intemperance was a reaction
in favour of temperance.

The first pronounced effort at reform was inaugu-
rated by Dr. Benjamin Rush of Philadelphia, a mem-
ber of the Continental Congress in 1776, and one of
the signers of the Declaration of Independence. In
1785 he issued a pamphlet entitled "Inquiry into the
effects of ardent spirits on the human body and
mind", which was widely read in America and
England. No OKanixed movement resulted from
Dot it affected public opinioD strongly and laid

the foundatiui of subsequent teznpmuioe woric.
The reform imuigurated by Dr. Rush did not advo-
cate total abstinence; the public was not prepared
for an^ su<^ remedial measure. . The first Btep to-
ward It was the ^mlitioD of the ooatom of affording
liqu(s> to anpltqrees. Then motterstion m ^ use
of distilled Hquon was encouraged: this developed
into abstinenoe frcun this class of liquors, and the
moderate use of wine, beer, and cider. Finally
aft«- a half-century of effort in r^ulating the use of
liquor, it was demonstrated that the plan of modera-
tion had proved a failure, and that the only practical
remedy was total abstinence.

The first temperance maniiation was formed by
two hundred farmers in Gtdifield, Connecticut, in
1789. The membsrs merely pleiuKed themselves
not to give liquqr to thor farm hands. Thb action
met wiUi bitter oppomtion from the workmen, who
persecuted the members of the new society and
neaped every indignity upon them. Such was the
prejudice in favour oi strong drink that this very
moderate temperance movement was considered
drastic and revolutionanr. Tlie first society

Sledged abstainers was formed in April, 190S, at
loreau, Saratoga County, New York. FOTty-eeven
members pledged themselvee to abstain from dis-
tilled q>iritB and wine except in case of sickness or at
public dinners, under penalty of a fine of twenty-^ve
cents, and fifty cents for actual intoxication. Other
societies were established which prohibited not tiie
use but the intemperate use of intoxicating liquors.
One of these societies was oi^anised in a tavern, at
ihe bar <^ which the officers treated the others.
Members were fined twenty-five and fifty cents for
drunkenness, and a by-law of one society required
members who had become drunk to treat aU the otJier
members.

The vice of drunkenness cidled for a more adequate
eB<M than the mere advocacy of moderation. On
13 Fdsruary, 1826, "The Amoriean Tompmnoe
Society" was established at Boston. This opened a
new era, and paved the way to total abstinence.
The new society advocated total abstinence, but,
frcMn oomdderationB of prudence, it was not enforced.
The purpose of the society was to mould public
sentiment and to reform the habits and customs of the
oommunity. Gradually men began to see that dnink-
ennesB was to be ocnnbatted by attaddng the drmk-
habit. Ten years later, in 1836, the seeond national
temperance convention held at Saratoga declared for
total abstinenoe from distilled and fermented Uquors.
Dr. Dorchester in his "Liquor Problem in All Ages",
commenting on the work of this period, says: "In-
the year 1835 more than eight tboussnd societies
had been formed, with more than one million five
hunted thousand members, every state except one
being ornnised. More than four thousand diatit
leries had been stopped, and eight thousand mer-
chants had ceased to sell ardent faints. More than
twelve hundred vessels in which it is not used sail
from our ports." The year 1840 gave birth to the
Washingtonian Temperance Society, a total abstinence
organisation, which b^an at Baltim<»e with six
members, and grew to six hundred thousand. In
time, twfr-thuxls of this large society fell away. Other
societies lo^ members and men who regarded teetotal-
ion as tJbe sovereign remedy of intemperance turned
their attention from the drinker and the drunkard to
the dealer in liguw, whose livelihood depended on
the drinker, and inaugurated another phase of temper-
ance reform, which evoitually took the shape of
prohibition. Neal Dow of Maine became the leader
of the new agitation, and after peredstent and un-
wearying effort succeeded in 1851 in securing the
passage irf an absolute pnrfiSritory law commcHdy
knoira as the "Maine Law". In subsequent yean
imAibititn of the liquor tnffio beeame a kw in MinuB-

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sota, Rhode iBland, MaBsaohuaetts. VenoMit* Midii-
an, Connecticat, New York, New Hunpshire,
Delaware, Nebraaka, Indiana, Iowa, South I>akota,
Blinoia, Alaska, Nwth Da^>t& Oklahoma, Alabama,
Georgia, Kansas, MunsBipiu, North CaroUna, Tennes-
see. In time the law was repealed in all except the
eight latter and Maine (1 Jan., 1911).

Among the early prominent advocates of temper-
anoe reform who deserve eepeoial mention are Bev.
Lyman Beecher and Dr. Nathaniel Hewitt of Con-
necticut, Edmvd C. Delevan, Dr. Clark, and Genit
Sbiith of New York, Rev. Thomas P. Hunt of Fram-
nlvaiua, Bishop Charles P. MoUravie of Ohio,
Jam B. Gou^, R^. Justin Edwards of Massachu-
setts, and Abnuiam Lincoln of Illinois. Before the
Civil War the principal oraanisations that advocated
temperance were the Washingtonian Movement,
1840, Rechabites, 1841, Sons of Temperanoe, IS42,
Cadets of Temperance, Templars of Honour and
Tempownoe, 1845, Qood Templars, 1851. The first
national tanperanoe ccmvention was held at Hiiladel-
phia in Ma7t 1833. Twenty-one states were repre-
•snted, with four himdred delegates. By vote of
Congress and approval of President Jackson the sale
of apirita to the Indiana was prohibited in 1834.
On 5 Nov., 1832, General Lewis Cass, secretary of
war, issued an order pn^ubiting the introduction of.
liquors in any garrison, fort, or camp in the United
States. Hie secretary of the navy offeved a nKuugr
•ubeUtute tat the grog ration.

An era in temperance wco'k was inaugurated in
the United States on 2 July, 1849, which marked the
advent of Father Theobald Mathew, the Irish apostle
of temperance. He was received at New York with
tremendous enthuriaam. Mayor Woodhull and the
city coundl gave him a pubhc reception. At Wash-
ington he was entertained by President Taylor, and
was admitted to a seat within the bar of the Senate
and on the floor ci the House, a distinction granted
only once previously to a foreigner — General Lafay-
ette. On thia occasion, Henry Clay said: "It is
but a merited tribute of respect to a man who has
achieved a great aocial revohition — a revolution in
which no bicwd has been shed, a revolution which has
krvolved no desolation, whiiai has caused no bitter
tears of widows and orphans to flow, a revolution
irtiich has been achieved without yUAaoM, and a
neater one, perhaps, than has evca' been aoocun^iBhed
by any boiefactor of mankind." Fath^ Mathew
spent two years and a half in the United States
and, though in feeble health, travelled 37,000 miles,
visiting 25 states, administering the pledge in over
800 of the principal cities and towns to more than
500,000 persons.

Several Catholic total abstinence societies were
oraanised during Fathw Mathew's visit, but thear
influence was exerted only in the restricted sphere
in irtiieh thfry originated. No bond united them till

1871, when the societies of Connecticut formed a
state union, out of which a national union grew, at
a convention held at Baltimore on 22 Februiuy,

1872. One hundred and seventy-seven societies,
comprising 26,481 membera, represented Connecticut
Rhode Island, New Ych^, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Maz^and, Georgia, nUnois, Ohic^ Minnesota, and the
District of Cohunbia. A oonstitutioii was adopted,
■D address was issued to the Catholics of America,
and the union was named "The Catholic Total Absti-
nence Union of America". In the address to the
Catholic body, the aim of the convention was ^pro*
claimed in these terms: "Our motto is moral suasion.
With proliibit<n7 laws, restrictive hcense systems,
and Social lefpsjati<Mi we have nothing whatever to
do. There is blended with our proposed plan oi
wganixation the attractive feature of mutual rdief .
Tmie Temperanoe and Benevoloice go hand in hand."
Blonl suarion was favoured by anne, legislative

action by others, and a combination of both by a
third olaas. It was finally determined to work on
Uie lines of moral suasion as the belief prevailed tiiat
neither prohibitory nor restrictive laws availed un-
less iui^>OTted by public opinicai. The mind of the
convention concerning the suppression and reetrio*
tion tA the liquor traffic was expressed in the follow-
ing resolution: "Resolved. That this convention,
thou|fh not deeming it ezpeoient to take part in any

Etlitioal or iegialative action, in reference to 'Fiff
bit«y liouw Laws', reconiisee, however, the
great good that would accrue Crom the suppreasiMi
of public drinking places, and from such legislation
as would restrain the manufacture of intoxicating
Uquora within bounds consistent with public morality,
and will gladly hail such legislation whenever the
proper authorities may ^rant it." The convention
advocated the organization of subcvdinate unions
of the different states or dioceses in affiliation with
the national union. State unions were establi^ied
in AU^Muna, California, Connecticut, IlUnois, Indi-
ailia, Louisiana, Missouri, New Jowy, Ohio, Peniuyl-
vania, Wisconsin, also in Canada. Diocesan unions
were formed in Albany, Baltimore, Boston, Brook-
lyn, Buffalo, Dubuque, Duluth, Erie, Louisville,
New York, Philad^bia, Pittosurg, Provideooe,
Savannah, Scraoton, Springfield, St. Paul, Syracuse,
Wheeling, Wilmin^n, and Winona.

Annual conventions of the national union were
held in different cities of the East and Middle West.
Archbishops, bishops, and a host of prieets attended
the conventionB, took active interest in the work of
the Unicxi, and propagated its principles in - their
respective dioceses. The Apostolic deleeat^ the
Most Rev. Diomede Falconio, attended the forty-
first convention at Scranton. Pennsylvania, in August,
1911, and gave unmistakable evidence of his interest
in the work, in bis address to the dele^tes, and in
an eloouent discourse at the public meeting, of whidi
the following is an extract: "Ladies and gentlemen,
you here find in your proscnoe a great body of men
who_, with manly courage and the true Christian
Bpint, have bound themselves together for the great
cause of temperance. Follow their example, for
the cause of temperance means the cause of Chri»'
tian perfection and the cause of suffering humanity.
Siould you, however, not find it convenient to j<Mn
thdr ranks, at least help their cause by your prayers
and your constant co-operati(»i. Gentlemen oi the
Total Abstinence Union, we admire your spirit of
setf-abn^ation in professing the great virtue of
total abstinence, and we appreciate your efforts in
encoura^ng it both by words and example. Your
associations are of paramount importance for the
qiiritual and temporal welfare of our pe<^e, and are,
ei»iBsquent^, a£ great service to letlgion and to
society."

At the convention of the national union held at
Indianapolis, 28 August, 1878, a memorial was for-
warded to Pope Leo XIII, who in reply addressed a
papal Brief to the members of the umon, of which
the following is an extract: "EspedaUy pleasing to
us is that noble determination of yours to opposs
and uproot the baneful vice of drunkenness, and keep
far man yourselves and those united with you aU
incentive to it, for, in the words of the wise man,
'It goeth in t>le«aantly but in the end it will bite like
a snake, ana will spread abroad poison like a Basi-
lisk'." A paml mid was addr^sed by Pope Piuf
X to the Rt. Kev. J. Francis Regia Canevin, presi-
dent of the national union, on 10 July, 1906. The
pontiff commended the work of the union in these
terms: "Following the example of our predecessors,
and enieeially the latest among them, to whom then
■semea to be no neater enen^ of the teaehings and
wmnm^nHa of Chnst than tiie abuse of Strong drinL
we hearty appnm Hat vnak ciAbe umo^i and

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ooogmtulate all in this commendable assemblage,
because thc^ are our associates and he^wn inpei^
andii^ men to practise one of the prmc^)al Cnri^
tian virtues — ^temperanoe."

The union is composed of tuen'Sr women's, and
iuT^iile societies, and the Priests' Total Abstinence
liMgue, and numbers in all over 90,000 members.

The wranen's societies were admitted in 1878 as
honorary manbeT& and in 1880 u active membm;
in 1888 womoi clel^tes were fint received, the
women's societies havmg previously been represented
by men; three years later Miss S. A. Moore of Philft-
d^hia was elected third vice-preeident.

The union issues a monthly publication "The
C. T. A. U. Advocate". In 1011 the union was
retHreeented for the first time at the (Thirteenth)
International Congress against alc<^l, held at The
Hague, Holland. It has also jcHned the Cathohe
International Society i«ainst AloobotiBm founded in
1907 by Father Neumann of MQndt, Prussia.

In 1873 "The Women's Crusade" started in
HiUsboro, Ohio. The membofl appealed directly to
the saloon-keeper to desist from liquor traffic, visiting
all the saloons in the towns in whiui they were organ-
ised. The movement spread from Ohio, through the
North Coitral States, to Iowa, Missouri, Kansns,
Calif(Hiiia, Oregon, •and eastward to the Atlantic
coast. In Ohio the saloons in two hundred and
fifty towns wne closed bv the crusade. Hie result
of this TDavmaeai was tne organization of a total
abstinence society called the Women's Christian
Temperance Union, which was established at Cleve-
land on 18 Nov., 1874, at a national convention of
one hundred and thirty-five delegates from about a
dozen states. In 1880 six d^Mtrtments were msti*
tuted — oi^Einization, preventive, educational, evan-
gel^ic, social, and legal. At the head of each depart-
ment was a superintendent. Undo* each department
were subniepfutmentB, in charge of Huperintendentu,
the total number of d^artments and superintendents
being thirty-eight. Juvenile societies were formed
in the various local unions, and through the efforts
of the union scientific temperance instruction was
introduced in the schools. In 1910, 22,000,000 diil-
dren received instnietirai on Uie baneful effects at
alcohol. In 1883 the union was orvmnised in every
state and territory of the United States, and was
introduced into Canada. The World's Women's
Christian Tempmmce Union, which has societies
in many countriee, was a fuller development of the
Women's Christian Temperance Union. For nearly
twoity years the destinies of the W. C. T. U. were
guided by a gifted woman of high character, who had
resigned her pontion as dean ctf the Woman s CoUege
and Profefisor of .Esthetics in the Northwestern
University to devote all her energies to the cause of
temperance — Miss Frances E. Wulard.

Canada. — In the beginning of the nineteenth oen-
tuiy^ the sale of intoxicatmg liguor was scarcely
res&icted by law in Canada and its use was almost
universal. iDtemperance developed and n>read to
tuch an extent that a reaction set in, and called forth
active opposition. A meeting was held at Brodc-
ville, Ontario, in the autunm of 1828, and the first
plediged Temperance Society in Canacu was formed.
It was not a total abstinence society. Moderatim
was inouloKted in this and many other societies es-
tablished throu^iout the country until 1839, when
the total abstinence pledge succeeded the old modera-
tion pledge, as was the case in the United States.
Moderation had proved a failure, and total absti*
nence was adopt^ as the best remedy against the
drink evil. Immediately a noticeable progress was
made against interaipenuice. Soeietaes ware cmn-
Ind as '*<^Mn temperance sodeties", witfi no htsaa of
.vmoa till 1847, when the Sons of Temperance es-
tablisbed a l»randi in Canada. An exeouttve cooncfl

S vetoed local Bodeties and systematised thdr wo^
t aid to thorough organisation was afforded in
1858 by the Ind^>endent Order of Good Templars,
whose pledge lasted for life, and who admitted women
to memberahip. In 1874 the Women's Christian
Temperance Union instituted a union in Canada,
and by systematic work gave a strong impulse to
temperance reform. The Canada Temperaace Union
came into existence in 1869, and, after various modi-
fieatiMis in name and metiiods, was replatxd in 1877
by the Dominion Alliance for the "Total Suppression
of Uw Liquw Traffic The AlUance worked with
vigour fn securing legislation for tiae restriction of
tw liquor traffic, and was actively engaged in the
enforcement of excise laws, throughout most of the
provinces of Canada. Since 1850, nearly every
Canadian Parliunent has been called upon to enaot
l^Eislation pn^ibitiveorrestrictive of the liquor traffic.
Rmeated petitions made to Parliftment for total
mxMubition, urged the auietmait of the Canada
Temperance Act of 1878, commonly called the
"Scott Act", authorizing counties and cities to pro-
htt>it the retail sale of liquor. The popular vote was
overwhelming in favour prohibition, but disputes
as to its constitutionaUtv and oontrovoBy concern-
ing the responsibility of enforcement by federal or
{Hovincial authwitieB rendered it in<H>erative.

The Church <rf England Temperance Society^
established in a wi^ in every province, was for a time
active in tbe temperance reform movement. In
lattv yean the success of the Protestant societies
has been in the way of local option or "banish tJu
bar" campaign. In the rural districts of Ctataxto
tioB work is popular, and has been effective. "Ilie
Catholic Church grappled with the drink evil, from
the earlieat days of the colony of New France. Fw
many years h^ adhnents have been most active in
propagating temperance princii^ throujgh the League
oi the Cross, the Catholic Total Abstmence Union,
and other societies scattered throu^out Canada,
^ce 1900 the Diocese of Peterboroufdi has takea
the lead in temperance work. In uie episcopal
city there is a society of 1200 men. Arenbi^op
Brucheai of Montreal has taken active interest in
the work, and has developed a strong total abetineooe
sentiment.

Kniqbtb or Fathek Mathew,— The Knights of
Father Mathew, a total abstinence and semi-milita^
body, was instituted at St. Louis, Mo., on 26 April^
1872. A life-insurance feature was adopted on IS
July, 1881, having been authorized by a charter
empowmng the society to include life insurance
among its aims and objects, and to form brandies
of the order, called "councils", throu^out the State
of Missouri. As the work and benefits of the society
became known, invitations to establish councils
beyond Missouri were received. At present (1911)
it nas councils in Missouri, Illinois, Iowa, and Kan-
sas. There are two classes of membership: active
and honorary. To be eligible to active membership,
it is necessary to be a practical O^tbolic. to pass a
physicai examination, and to be not leas than sixteen
DOT nuffe than seventy yeara of ago. Fbr honorary
membnship, it Is suffident to be a practical Catholic.
The Society has been active in promoting temperance
and frugahty, and has expended over eight hundred
thousand dollars in benefits for the families of its
deceased members. Councils of the order are p^
mitted to organize branches of Catholic womm, to
be designated as "Lculies' Auxiliaries of the Knights
of Father Mathew," and to be governed by laws in
hannony with the laws of the paroit organization.
Tbo Ladies' Auxiliaries have been instrammtal in
upbuilding the male organization, in totnnoting tem-
perance am<mg boys and girls, and have been active
m charitable work among the poor. The Kni|^ta
of Fathw MaUiew and the Ladies'^^A^iziliarieBi of

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the Knidita of Father Mathew were affiliated with
the Catholic Total Abstinence Union of America in
1895, and have been among its most energetic mem-
bers in advancii^ the work of the national union.

On* HMHdred Yean <tf Tmperanet (New Yoric, 1886) ; Blaib,
The Temp. Uovemenl (Boaton, 188S); BTa\jura. Temp, in all
Naiiant (Naw York, 1893): Roumtbbb and Srbrvbu^ Temp.
PrMem and Social Reform (Naw York. 1899) : Fmhlamdt, A
Centurv oU Drink Reform (Cinoiiiiuti, 1SD4}; OxBse, HitL of
Colk. ToL AbrtinMM I^fcn of ^mrwi (FUbdalphU, 1907).

WAi;rBB J. Shanut.

Twaplanf Kniohts, Thb. — The Kni^ts Templars
irae the earheet founders of the military orders^^d
are the type on which the others are modelled. They
are marked in history (1) by their humble b^tnning,
(2) by their marvellous growth, and (3) by their tragic
end.

(1) Immediately after the deliverance of Jerusalem,
the Crusaders, oonBidging their vow fulfilled,
turned in a body to their homee. The defence of this
precarious conquest, surrounded as it was by Moham-
medan neighbours, remained. In 1118, auring the
reign of Baldwin II, Hugues de Payens, a knight of
Champagne, and ei^t companions bound themselves
by a perpetual vow, taken in the presence of the
Patriwch of Jerusalem, to defend the Christian king-
dom. Baldwin accepted then: services and assigned
them a p(»iion of his palac& adjoining the twqile
(tf the eity: henoe thdr title ''panvreB ebevaliers du
temple" (roor Knights of the Temple). Poor indeed
thoy were, bdi^ r^uced to living on alms, and, so*
long as they were only nine, they were hardly prepared
to render important services, unless it were as escorts
to the pilgrims on their way from Jerusalem to the
banks of the Jordan, then frequented as a place of
devotion. The Templars had as yet neither distinc-
tive habit nor rule. Huguee de Piqrens journeyed to
the West to seek the approbation of the Church and
to obtain recruits. At the Council of Troves (1128),
at which he assisted and at which St. Bernard was
the leading spirit, the Knights Templars adopted
the Rule of St. Benedict, as recently rwormed by the
Cistercians. They acc^ted not only the three per-
petual vows, besides the crusader's vow, but also the
austere rules concerning the chapel, the refectory, and
the dormit(»y. They also adopted the white habit
of the CSstereians, adding to it a red cross. Notwith-
standing the austerity of the monastic rule, recruits
&>eked to the new order, which thenceforth comprised
four ranks of brethren: the knights, equipped like
the heavy cavaby of the Middle Ages; the serjeant*,
who formed the hght cavalry; and two ranks of non-
fighting men : the farmers, entrusted with the ad-
Qunistration of temporals; and the chaplainsj who
^<me were vested with sacerdotal orders, to minister
to the spiritual needs of the order.

(2) The order owed its rapid growth in popularity
to the fact that it combined the two great passions of
the Middle Ages, religious fervour and martial
prowess. Even before the Templars had proved their
worth, the ecclesiastical and lay authorities heaped on
them favours of every kind, aiHiitual and temporal.
The popes took them under their imme(^te protec-
tion, exempting them from all other jurisdictioD,
episcopal or secular. Their property was assimilated
to the church estates and exempted from all taxation,
even from th^ ecclesiastical tithes, while then- churches
and cemeteries could not be placed under interdict.
This soon brought about conflicts with the cleivy
of the Holy Land, inasmuch as the increase of the
landed property of the order led, owing to its exemp-
tion from tithes, to the diminution of the revenue of
the churches, and the interdicts, at that time used
and abused by the episcopate, became to a certun
extent inoperative wherever the order had churches
and chapels in which Divine worship was regularly
held. AB early as 1156 the clergy of the Holy Land
tried to restrain the onibitant privU^es of the

military orders, but in Rome eveiy objection
set aside, the result being a growing antipathy on
the part of the secular clei^ against these oraers.
The temporal benefits which the order received from
all the sovereigns of Europe were no less important.
The Templars had commanderies in every state.
In France they formed no less than eleven bailiwicks,
subdivided into more than forty-two commanderies;
in Palestine it was for the most part with sword in
hand that the Templtuv extended tbeirpcHBeseione
at the expense of the Mohammedans. Their castles
are still famous owing to the remarkable ruins whidi
remain: Saf^, built in 1140; Karak of the dee^
(1143); and, most important of all. Castle Pilgrim,
built in 1217 to command a strategic defile on the
sea-coast.

In these castles, which were both monasteries and
cavalry barracks, the life of the Templars was full cS.
contrasts. A oontemporair describee the Templars as
"in turn lions of war and Iambs at the hearth; rough
knights on the battlefield, pious monks in the chapel;
formidable to the enemies of Christ, gentleness itself
towards His friends" (Jacques de Vitry). Having
renounced all the pleasures of life, they faced death
with a proud indiiference; they were the first to
attack^ the last to retreat, always docile to the voice
of their leadeTj the discipline of the monk bdng
added to the discipline of the soldier. As an anny
they were never very numerous. A contemporary
tells us that tiiere were 400 knights in Jerusalem at the
aenith of theur prosperity; he does not give the
number of Serjeants, who were more numerous. But
it was a picked body of men who, by their noble
example, inspirited the remainder of the Christian
forces. They were thus the terror of the Moham-
medans. Wrae the^ d^eated, it was upon tb«n that
tiie victor vented ma fury, tbe more so as tbey were
forbidden to offer a ransom. When taken priscmeav,
they scornfully refused the freedom offered them on
condition of apostasy. At the siege of SafM (1264),
at which ninety Templars met death, eighty othen
were taken prisoners, and, refusing to deny Chr^,
died martyrs to the Faith. This fidelity cost them
dear. It has been computed that in less than two
centuries almost 20,000 Templars, knights and
Serjeants, perished in war.

These frequent hecatombs rendered it difficult for
the order to increase in numbers, and also brought
about a decadence of the true crusading spirit. As
the order was compelled to make immediate use of
the recruits, the article of the original rule in Latin
which required a probationary period fdl into
desuetude. Even excommunicated men, who, as waa
the case with many crusaders, wished to eroiate
their sins, were admitted. All that was reguii red of a
new member was a blind obedience, as imperative
in the soldier as in the monk. He had to declare
himself forever "serf et esclave de la maison" C^^enoh
text of the rule). To prove his sincerity, he was
subjected to a secret test concerning the nature of
which nothiiu; has ever been discovered, although
gave rise to the most extraordinary accusations. The
great wealth of the order may also have contributed
to a certain laxity in morals, but the most serious
charge against it was its insupportable pride and love
of power. At the apogee of its proepenty, it was said
to possess 9000 estates. With its accumulated
revenues it had amassed great wealth, which was
deposited in its temples at Puis and London. Numer-
ous princes and private mdividuals had banked there
tiieir personal property, because of the uprightness
and Bohd credit of such bankers. In Paris the royal
treasure was kept in the Temple. Quite independent,
except from the distant authority of the pope, ana
possessing power equal to that of the leadii^ tem-
poral sovereigns, the order soon assumed the right
to direct the weak and irresohite roremmeot of thf ■

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TMffPf.ilW TIMPTAIW

Kingdom of Jerusalem, a feudal kingdom tranamis- the reoeptions always took place in a diapter, uid

aible through women and exposed to all the disad- the chapters, owing to the delicate and erave ques-

vantages of minorities, r^encies, and domeetic tions discussed, were, and neceesarity had to be,

disoord. However, the Templars were soon opposed held in secret. An mdiscretion in the matter of

by the Order of Hospitallers, which had in its turn secrecy entailed exclusion from the order. The

become military, and was at first the imitator and secrecy of these initiations, however, had two grave

later the rival of the Tenqilara. This ill-timed inter- disadvantwes. As these receptions could tijce place

foence of the orders in the government of Jenisajem wherever t£ere was a oonunandoy, they were euried

onl^ multiplied the intestine d^sensions, and this at on without publicity and were free from all surveillance

a time when the formidable pow^ of Saladin threat- or control mim the higher authorities, the tests h&ng

ened the very existence of the Latin Kinjgdom. While eutrusted to the discretion of subalterns w^o were

the TempliUTB sacrificed themselves with their cus- often rough and uncultivated. Under such condi-

tomary bravery in this final struggle, they were, nev- tions, it is not to be wondered at that abuses crept in.

ertbeless, partfy reeponsible for the downfall of One need only recall what took place almost daily at

Jerusalem. the time in the brotherhoods of artisans, the initiation

To put an end to this baneful rivalry between the of a new member being too often made the occasion
militaiy orders, there was a very simple remedy at for a parody more or leas sacril^ous of baptism or of
hand, namely their amalgamation. This was officially the Mass. The second disadvantage of this secrecy
proposed by St. Louis at the Council of Lyons (1274). was, that it gave an opportunity to the enemies of the
It was proposed anew in 1293 by Pope Nicholas IV, Templars, and they were numerous, to infer from this
who called a general oonmiltation on this point of the mystery eveir conceivable mahcious supposition and
Christian states. This idea is canvassed by all the base on it the most monstrous imputations. The
publicists of that time, who demand either a fusion Templars were accused of spitting upon the Cross,
d the existing orders or the creation of a third order of denying Christ, of pennittmg sodomy, of woiship-
to supplant them. Never in fact had the question mng an idol, all in the most impenetrable secrecy,
of the crusaders been more ei^rly taken up than Budi were the Middle Ages, when prejudice was so
after theur failure. As the grandson of St. Louis, vdiem^t that, to destroy an adversary, men did not
I^ilip the Fair could not remain indifferent to these recoil from inv«iting the moat criminal charges. It
proposals for a crusade. As the most powerful prince will suffice to recall the similar, but even more
of his time, the direction of the movement belonged ' ridiculous than ignominious accusations brought
to him. To assume this direction, all he demanded against Pope Boniface VIII by the same Philip the
was the necessary supplies^ of men uid especially of Fair. Most of the accused declared themselves guilty
money. Such is the genesis of his campaign for the of these secret crimes after being subjected to such
suppression of the Templars. It has been attributed ferocious torture that many of them succumbed,
wholly to his well-known cupidity. Even on tlus Some made similar confessions without the use of
supposition he needed a pretext, for he could not, torture, it is true, but through fear of it; the threat
without sacrilege, lay hands on possessions that had been sufficient. Such was the case with the graiui
formed part of the ecclesiastical domain. To justify master himself, Jacques de Molay, who acknowtedged
such a course the sanction of the Church was neces- later that he had lied to save his life. Carried on
sary, and this the king could obtain only by maintain- without the authorization of the pope, who had the
ing the sacred purpose for whieh thepossessions were military orders under his immediate jurisdiction, this
destined. Admittuw that he was sufficiently powerful invest^tion was radically corrupt both as to its in-
to encroach upon tne property of the Templars in tent and as to its j>rooedure. Not only did Clement V
France, he still needed the concurrence of the Church enter an energetic protest, but he annulled the entire
to secure control of their possessions in the other trial and suspended the powers of the bishops and their
countries of Christendom. Such was the purpose of inquisitors. However, the offence had been admitted
the wily negotiations of this self-willed and cunning and remained the irrevocable basis of the entire
sovereign, and of his still more treacherous counsel- subsequent proceedings. Philip the Fair took
lors, with Clement V, a French pope of weak character advantage of the discovery to have bestowed upon
and eaaity deceived. The rumour that there had himself by the Univetsity of Paris the title of Cham-
been a preanangement between the king and tiie pion and Defender of the Futb, and also to sUr up
pope has been finally di^sed of. A doubtful revela- public opinion at the States General of Tours against
tion, which allowed Philip to make the prosecution we heinous crimes of the Templars. Moreover, he
of the Templars as heretics a question of orthodoxy, succeeded in having the confessions of the accused
afforded him the opportunity which he desired to confinned in presence of the pope by seventy-two
invoke the action of the Holy See. Templars, who had been specially chosen and coached

(3) In the trial of the Templars two phases must beforehand. In view of tnis investigation at Poitiers

be distinguished: the royal commission and the papal (June, 1308), the pope, until then sceptical, at last

commission. Philip the Fan- made a pretiminaiy became oonomied and opened a new commission,

inquiiT, and, on the strength of so-called revelations the procedure of which ne himself directed. He

of a few imworthy and dep-aded members, secret reserved the cause of the order to the papal com-

OTders were sent throughout France to arrest all the mission, leaving individuals to be tried by the

Templars on the same day (13 October, 1307), and diocesan conmMssions to whom he restored their

to submit them to a most rigorous examination. The powers.

king did this, it was made to appear, at the request The second phase of the process was the papal

of the ecclesiastical inquisitors, but in reality without inquiry, which was not restricted to France, but

their co-operation. In this inquiry torture, the use of extended to all the Christian countries of Europe,

which was authorized by the cruel procedure of the and even to the Orient. In most of the othn countries

in the case of crimes committed without witnesses, — Portugal, Spain, Germany, Cyprus — the Templars

was pitUessly employed. Owing to the lack of evi- were found innocent; in Italy, except in a few dis-

dence, the accused could be convicted only through tricts, the decision was the same. But in France the

their own confession and, to extort this confession, episcopal inquisitions, resuming their activities, took

the use of torture was considered necessary and the facts as establisned at the trial, and confined

legitimate. There was one feature in the organization themselves to reconciling the repentant guilty mem-

of the order which gave rise to suspicion, namely bers, imposing various canonical penanres extending

the secrecy with which the rites of initiation were even to perpetual imprisonment. Only those who

conducted. The secrecy is e^^lained by the fact that persisted in hereqr wen to b« turned over to the

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TBHFIJI

seoular arm, Imt, by a rigid interpretation of this
provision, tbose who had withdrawn their former
confessions were considered relapsed fawetios: thus
fifty-four Templan who had recanted after having
oouflBsed wen oondemned as rdapaed and publicly
hmmd oti 12 May, 1310. Subsequently all the other
TempIaiB, who had been exanuned at the trial, wiUi
very few exceptions declared themselves guilty. At
the same time the papal oommtssion, appointed to
examine the cause ot the order, had entered upon its
duties and gathered together the documents which
were to be submitted to the pope, and to the general
oouncil called to decide as to the final fate of the
order. The culpability Of sin^e penon& which was
looked upon as established, did not involve the guilt
oif the oraer. Although the defenoe of the order was
poorly conducted, it could not be proved that the
order as a body professed any heretical doctrine, or
that a secret rule, distinct from the official rule, was
practised. Consequently, at the General Council
of Vienne in Dauphin^ on 16 October, 1311, the
muority were favourable to the maintenance of the
order. The pope, irresolute and haraased, finaOy
adopted a middle course: he decreed the dissolution,
not the oondMnnation of the order, and not by p&m
sentence, but by an Apoetolio Decree (Bull of 22
March, 1312). The order having been auppreased,
the pope himself was to decide as to the fate of its
members and the disposal of its possessions. As to
the property, it was turned over to the rival Order of
^qntallOTs to be apidiad to its originiU use, name^
the d^ence of the Holy Flaoes. £a Portu^ how-
ever, Mid in Aragon the possessions were vested in
two new oiders, tne Order of Christ in Portugal and
the Order of Montesa in Aragon. As to the members,
the Templars reo^ized guiltiess were allowed either
to join another miUtary order or to return to the
secular state. In the latter case, a pension for hfe,
chained to the possessions of the order, was granted
tbem. On the other hand, the Templars who bad
pleaded guilty b^ore thetr bishops were to be treated
''acoordmg to the rigours of justice, tempered by a
generous mercy".

The pope reserved to his own judgment the cause
of the grand master and his three first dignitaries.
They had confessed their guilt; it remained to
reconcile them with the Church, aft^ they had
testified to their repentance with the customary
aolemmty. To give this solmnity more publicity,
a platform was erected in front of the Notre-Dame
for the reading of the sentence. But at the supreme
moment iiie grand master recovered his courage and
proclaimed the innocence of the Templars and the
falsity of his own alleged confessions. To atone for
this deplorable moment of weakness, he declared him-
self r^y to sacrifice his life. He knew the fate that
awaited him. Immediately after this unexpeoted
eouv-de-thi&trc he was arrested as a relapeed heretic
witn another di^itary who ohose to share his fate,
and by order of Philip they were burned at the stake
before the gates of the palace. This brave death
deeply impressed the people, and, as it happened
that the pope and the king died shortly afterwards,
the legeud spread that the grand master in the midst
of the flames had summoned them both to appear in
tiie course of tiie year before the tribunal of God.
Such was the tragic end of the Templars. If we con-
sider that the Order of the HospitaQers finally inher-
ited, although not without dimculties, the property
of the Templars and received many of its membars,
we may say that the result of the trial was prac-
tical(r equivalent to the loi^-proposed amalgamation
«f the two rival orders. For the Knights (first of
Rhodes, afterwards of Malta) took up and carried
on elsewhere the wwk of the Knights of the Temple.

Thia formidable trial, the greatest ever brought to
iigbfc wfaetlw we consider the large number of aeeusad,

the difficulty of discovering the truth from a mass of
suspicious and ooDtradictory evidence, or the many
Junsdietions in activity simultaneously in all parts
oS CSuistendom fnHU Great Britain to Cyprus, is
not yet ended. It is still paasioDatdy discussed by
historians who have divided into two camps, for and
against the order. To mention only the principal
ones, the following find. the order guilty: Dupuy
(1654), Hammer (1820), Wilcke (1826), Michelet
(1841), Loiseleur (1872), Pruts (1888), and Rastoul
(1905); the following find it innocent: Father Le-
ieune (1789), Raynouard (1813), Havemann (1846),
Ladvocat (1880), Schottmuller (1887), Gmelin (1893),
Lea (1888), Fincke (1908). Without taking any side
in this discuasiim, which is not yet exhausted, we
may observe that the latest documents brought to
light, particularly those which Fincke has recently
extracted from the archives of the Kingdom of Aragon,
te[r more and mare ^^t^ongly in favour of the order.

In chmnQlagif'&l -jr^lcr, tbo moet important works are: Dupcia,
IJmiI. dv It^rt mth'laii-i- -Jti templiert (Paris, ISM); Lvtusu,
ftivl. ailviue el apobi^fiVjua d< Tord^ tUa Templien <2 vtda.,
Puifi. ITSO): WiLTKi:, Cuith. d«* Tempttordmt (3 vola., 2nd ed.,
HhJIf, ]8Wi; Prttz, Sniaidetlutm find Unitrfang dtt Temp^
ardm* fBerlio. ISSS); Gwb^um, Sehuld oder Un»efnM tUt TVmpe^
/jrdna (^uttjcait, 1993)- TtVCKM, PapMum uttd UrUtrgama dm
Ttmi/dof^fu {2 volt.. MODAler, 1807). Doouments: La rlOa dtt

"pWg^'^^iffi^WjJ^ftww d» Jtuqaet da Motav (Pini,

Chabus Mobllor.

Temple. — The Latin form, tem^um, from which
the IjjwgMrf* tanpU is derived, wigmally signified an
uncovered area marked off by boundaries; especially a
space marked off by Uie augurs to be excepted from all
profane uses. Among the Romans the precincts of a
temple were always quadrangular in ground plan;
hence the so-called temple o( Vesta, one of the most
famous sanctuaries of Rome, being circular in plan,
was not strictly a temple, but only an csdea sacra, or
sacred building. When the augurs had determined
the boundaries of a temple-encloBure, the boundary
lines oould not lawf uify be interrupted except at one
point, which was to aorve as an entrance. To mark
these boundaries no walls were needed; a formula
spoken by the augur was sufficient, and from thia coe-
mony, came the phrase effari locum, literally, *' to pro-
claim a place", hence, to define and dedicate.

It is certain that the Indo-Germanic peoples or^-
inally had no buildings for the worship of their go£,
but worahipped the gods upon mountains, as Herodo-
tuB expready aajv of tiie Peraians, or believed the supers
natural bemga were present m D-oves and trees.
Consequently among the ancient Germans the con-
ception of a grove was identified with that of a temple.
Among the Greeks, also, the worship of trees seems to
be indicated by the woixl for temple, -ah, which, ac-
cording to some authorities, signified originally "tree"
or "tree-tnmk". It is certam that the Greeks be-
lieved that at Dodona they heard the voice of the
gods foretelling the future from the rustling of the
sacred oaks. In the Homeric age, the temple as a
space set apart and containing an altar, which was
perhaps shaded by a group of trees, was more com-
monlv found than the temple built by man. If actual
temples are mentioned in Homer, as at Troy and the
fabulous city of the Phsadans, the dreumatance ia
probably attributable to Oriental influence. Hie
pagan Germans were never able to bring themselves
to give up their original worship of the gods in groves
to any sudi extent as tiie Greeks ana Romans did
under the influence of the East. Still the German
peoples were hardly entirely without temples, any
more than the Scandinavians, although these temples
could only have been of wood. The br^nnines of
atone temples among the Germans probatily go back
to the firat Chiiatian centuries and ve attributable
to the influence of their ndghbours, the Gauls.
^ When new templaa were built innteiaAta already eoOf

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secrated to the divinity were preferably choeen. It
was also customary to select the higheet tspot in a city,
the acropolis, as the general preference at that time
was for high, open spaces. Further the kind of
divinity had also influence on the dioice of the root:
thus 2f6us preferred the heists, Mars the marked
{daces, Hercules the gymnasium, others, the fortUied
castle, the gates of the city, Uie plain. If the temple
could not be erected on an open space dedicated to the
divinity^ it was customary to surround the temple by
an enclosed precinct, whereby it was separated from
all that was profane. Still other buildmgs were fre-
quently inooe this akdonne, as the houses of tin
priests, OT tlie stalls Ua the sacrificial animals. Ves-
sels containing water were placed at the entrance;
from these, those entnii^ sprinkled themselves in
order to be purified from all guilt, as nothing impure
was permitted to ent^ the predncts.

As a rule a Greek temple faced the east. The point
towajrds which a Roman temple faced varied, accord-
ii^ to the theory of H. Nissen, who investigated a
lai^ number of these tanpke in reiq>ect to this
matter. He claimed tJiat the position of the front
depended upon the altitude of the sun on the feast
day of the respective md. Nissen started fnun the
assmnption that the Greeks and Romans r^;arded
the ^ods as the manifestation of the world-pervading
spirit, and as such subordinated them to the original
symbol of the world-spirit, the sun. Consequently,
according to hia theorv, the temples were so placed
that on uie day settled by the calendar as the birth-
day and feast day of the god the rays of the rising
sun fell alongthe axis of the temple and thus also on
his statue. This theory Buffers, however, from the
fatal uncertainty as to the date the day of dedica-
tion fell on. Moreover, the instances in which of late
H has been possible to determine the formerly im-
known god occupying a temple of known position, so
as to test the correctness of this hypotheeis, have
Iffoved unfavourable to it [Nisseo, "Templum"
(Beriin, 1869) ]. At the same time, however, it
remains as a fact that the orientation of the temple
was universally customary, just as it was latw in we
case of the Christian church.

Among the Romans when the building of the tem-
ple was completed it was dedicated to the divinity by
the public authorities or by a person specially dele-

Sated for this ofiice, while the priests only pronoimced
tie formula without peraonally completmg the sacred
act. The dedication adhered permanent^ to the
BoQ which was released bv it from all other religious
obligations and was withdrawn from profane use.
The anniversary of the dedication was celebrated
annually by a sacrifice.

Among the equipments of the temple were a mas-
sive altar, sacrificial tables, movable hearths for fire,
sacrificial utensils, and other objects, which were
dedicated at the same time as the temple. Thev
formed a temple property that could not be sola.
However, in tmies of necessity, especially of war,
these treasures were as often melted down as were
the costly church utensils of the medieval era and of
later periods. The doorkeeper, who permitted visi-
tors to enter the temple at stated times, also guarded
the treasures.

The massive altar, mentioned above, did not stand
in the temple but before it. Either it was built upiHi
a high stone platform, and thus united ardiitectuiiJly
with the^ temple, or it stood in front of the steps or in
the portico. There was, as a rule, only one sacrificial
table in the temple and only one altar m front of it.

The cella of the temple contained the most impor-
tant object, the statue of the divinityj which stood on
a pedestal against the rear wall opposite the entrance.
In the earliest period it was made of wood or clay,
Uter it was cast from bronze or made of marble.
Beddn Uie statue of the god to wham ihb tempto was

0 TUFLI

dedicated, statues of other gods were at times plaoed
in the temple, partly as ornaments, partly because d
their cumexion with the principal god.

Taking their use as the bsais of ouaBification three
kinds of temples may be distinguished: tuples for
woreliip, for use in connexion with the agones, or
festival games, and for the Mysteries. The temple
for wotship was small and its cella contained only
Uie statue of the god that was the object of venera-
tion: it sored religious uses exclusively. This tem-
ple frequently had connected with it uie temple for
the festival games which served for the solenm crown*
of the victor in the national comi>etitive contest^
as the place for keeping the ^patMus far the
festivals. The temples of the mysteries wears used hy
the initiated for the oel^ration of the secvet cults»
and differed from the others, so far as the scanty
remains permit a judgment, both in extent and form.
Such temples were to be f ouiulj for instance, at Heusia
and at Samothracia. As has just been said, the tern-
pte contamed on^ the statue of the god; it existed not
so much for men as for the gods. It was exclusively'
the house oi the god to whom it was dedicated. Still
the god was pleMed when at Hie national feasts men
appmred m bis sanctuary with prayers and incense^
and thus these days became reUgious as well as nar
tional festivals.

Again, because the objects placed in the temple
were more secure^ it served aa a treasury both for the
State and for pnrate persons. From 438 b. c. tha
public treasure of Athens was kept in tlw Parthenon.
Natural^ the temple also contained the votive offer-
ings presented to tke gods, as statues, lamps, wreaths^
rings, and bracelets. A list of these objects was
annually compiled^ and cmoe in four years it was
ei^raved in marble; some fra^ents of such marbles
are still in existence. Sometimes, too, the temple
contained the mint.

Besides material things men also found security
and protection in the teinwe aaatDst threataiii^ dan-
ger. Every temple was an mvXov, that is, it vrtm
mviolable, and none ventured to drive a malefactor
away from the altar unless such a one wished to draw
down the wrath of the- gods upon himself. All tem-
ples did not grant the same protection: only certain
temples had the privily of unconditional security.
Still there were ways of making the ririit of asylum
ineffective, as was shown in the case a the Spartan
Pausanias. During the reign ol Tiberius the great
number of asylums in Asis Minor was a subject c£
complaint.

As to the form and manner of oonstruction of the
temple, we must in the first place not imagine that
the Greeks and Romans at all times built for their
gods those munificent structures that even to-day-
all men of taste admire. The earliest sanctuarieS'
of the gods were cave-temples, if ^ttoes and crypts
deserve this name at alL Even in a later age the^
worship of Mithras was preferably oekbrated in
grottoes. Related to the natural cave-temples are
the artificial rock-temples, of which magnificent
examples are still to be found in India. A third
form, found especially in Assyria, Mexico, and Peru,
Dsay be called tower, or pyramidal temples, because
the actual sanctuary is placed on a taruncated
pyramid. The fourth, finally, is the classical form
of tihe Greeks and Romans, it is a development of
the megaron, or ruler's house, of primitive times,
which consisted only of a large hall with a portico.
This portico was formed by the projecting side-walls
of the hall and was ornamented in front with two
columns.

Having thus briefiy considered the subject as a
whole, we will now examine somewhat more closdy
the kinds of temple used by various dviliied nations.
This is all the mi»e necessary in order to guard against
idoitifyuag the temple of Uie Gredkawitb that ofpthar
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and

TEHFUE 4

peoples. The discussioD, however, must be brief, be-
cause temples, both pa^an and (^bristian, have always
been the ti^hest achievementB of architecture aod
have tiierefore been treated iuadentdly in other
articles. The oldest architectural remains are Ummb
of Egypt. The main point of interest here is the
structure of the great temples oS the eighteenth to the
twentieth dynasties (about 1630-1160 b. c). Of
special importance are the ruins of tanples at Thebes
or the present Tillages of Luxor and Kamak. The
Egjptian temple is not an organic structure complete
in Itself; instead of unity tb^ are the following dis-
tinct parts: dromoa, enclosing wall, wim, peri^le,
hypostyle, and sekos. The temple <» the E^tians
thnefore consisted of a lai^ complex of buildmgs and
the temple precincts, the whole surroxmded by a
massive wall, and reached by a broad avenue (dromoa)
bordered by figures of sphinxes and rams. Between
the temples of Luxor and Kamak this avenue for pi'o-
cessions was nearly a mile and a quarter in length and
more than 76 feet wide. In the enclosing wall, which
at Karnak was about 32 feet wide, there were o^svexal
gif^tic gateways called pylons, flanked by towca^like
Buddings. These led into the sacred precincts,
within which was a lake. On certain days tne statue
of the god was rowed round this lake in a golden bark.
A second pylon led into ihe peristole, or protikos, a
quadrangular open space contaimng covered halls
with colimins; a third pylon led into the hypostyle, or
lai^ cov»^ colonnade. The hypostyle was called
"t& haH of manifestaticm", and only "the enlight*
ened" were pennitted to enter it, the ]awer classes (rf
the population might come <mly as far as the peristyle.
On the farther side of the hypostyle there were still
other large halls which led ultimately to the actual
sanctuary, or aekoe, in which the divinity was rep-
resented by a statue or some eymbol; only the king or
his representative, the high priest, oould ent^ the
sekoe. Beyond this sanctuary were other large halls
and chambers for keeping the apparatus for the fe»-
tivate. A peculiarity of this extended series of sacred
buildings is that the greater the distance horn the
entrance the narrower and lower the structure, so that
the sekda is only a small dark chamber.

The huge size and rich equipment of Egyptian tem-
ples is explained by the fact that they were monu-
ments of the piety of the ruler, royal houses of
prayer; consequently the king alone had the right to
enter uie sanctuary. For this reason the paintings
and reliefs on a sunken background (coelana^yphie),
with whicii the temple walls were richly ornamented,
presented in the most varied forms the homage and
worship paid to the ruler. The ruler also showed the
depth of his piety by the magnificent festivals which
were connected with the temple.

The ardiitecture of the temple was in hannony
wilh the obscure, iayst«rious, and sensual rdi^ns
eonceptions of the E^ypUans. The temple was an
inorganic conglomeration of structures fitted the one
into Uie other, that only arouse our astonishment by
their size and magnificence. It is hardly necessary to
say that no rigid system prevailed in the plan of either
the Egyptian temples or those to be mentioned fur^
ther on, and that there were small temples as well as

^^"^e Chaldean temples differed eeeentially from
those of the Egyptians; if in the latter the <duef
extent was horizontal, in the f<amer it was vertical.
The lai^ temples of the Chaldeans were oonstructed
so aa to form a series of terraces or steps or something
like a pile of rectangular prisms, decreasing in size
from the base up. According to Herodotus, the tem-
ple of Bel at Babylon, built in a series of terraces,
measured at the base two stadia (1214 ieet) each way.
On this broad base the towei^like structure rose m
seven stories which were topped by the actual sanctu-
ary. The upper stories wen reached by means of an
XIV.— 32

17 miPUE

exterior stairway or by an inclined roadway. Half-
way up the ascent was a chamber wh^^ those who
were mounting could sit down and rest. This pecul-
iar tana of ardiiteature was certainly influenced by
astrology whitdi had so uithoritative a position in the
ChaldfBo- Assyrian reli^on. The temples raised on
terraces were constructed in three, or five, or more
stories, according to the importance of the divinity.
Besides these there must certainly have been smaller
houses of one story for the gods, though of this no
positive proof has yet been discovered. Temples
raised on terraces have also been found in Mexico and
Peru, as, for instance, at Tehuaean and Santiago
QuatUBca.

The Indian tonples are prindpally grottoes or
caves. They are generally constructed in one or two
forms: either hewn out of the rock and remaining
connected with the main mass, or, cut away from the
surrounding mass of rock so as to stand alone. To
the first class belong largely the Buddhist temples
iehaUya), while the latter form is preferred by the
Brahmins. The more developed ground-plan of the
Buddhist ehail^ resembles in seme points the plan of
the early Christian bieilica. It is a guadrangulsr
space, its length much greater thui its ^dtl^ and has
a kind of apse opposite the entrance. The inner
space is divided into several naves by pillars which
follow the line of the apse. In the apse is the dagoba,
a circular mound like a grave, terminating at the top
in a hemisphere with a tt or te« (stone in the form of an
altar). The dagoba u used to holi relics <A Buddha,
and the entbe tumuhis is covered by a large umbrella.
Noted oave-temples are to be found at Ktu*li in the
Cbatt mountains (second century b. c), at Agunta,
and at Pandu-Lena. The detached temple consists
sometimes of several buildings and halls connected by
stairs and bridges. These miildings have been cut
oui of the parent rock so as to stand in a court sur^
rounded by columned cloisters. Such a temple is the
wonderful structure of Kailaa (Seat of the Blessed)
at Ellor& a work of the ninth century. Sometimes
the tem^e is of small dimensions, as that at Mahavel-
liopore on the Coromandcl (^oast, which is hewn out of
a detached rock: the ground-^lan is a quadrangle, aiul
it rises in several stones tike a pyraxcad built in several
terraces.

The typical Greek temple stood alone on a broad
foundation platform, built on all sides in terraoes,
which was called the crejridoma. The temple con-
sisted, generally, first, of the naos, or cetla, which was a
rectangular enclosed space for holding the statue of
the god; second, of the pronaoa, a portico or vestibule
in front of the cella with which it was connected by a
door, while to the front it had rows of columns with
open spaces between; third, the poaticum, a portico
behind the cella and correspcmding to the prmaoa.
large buildings contained two further structures, die
opiathodomoa, a chamber between the ceUa and the
oatieum, and fifth, the peristyle, a covered walk with
a system of columns surrounding the temple and
open on the outer side. These two last-mentioned
parts of the temple were probably added in the
seventh century b. c.

The name of the Greek temple varied with its
ground^hm. The simplest form was called the
temple with onto {tempfum in antia), ante signifying
pilasters which form the terminations of walls, u
the two side-walls of the eelia extend a little beyond
the transverse wall, and these ends of the side-walb
are finished with anta, then these give the name to
the entire structure. Two columns generally stand
in the space between the two arUce. The sense
Qjonmetry led to the same construction at the rear
without there being any change in the name. If tint
portico were formed merely by a row of columns
without the aid of walls it was called a fnost^ tem-
ple; if the same construction were abo-plaoed atitbe

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406

zear of the building it was aaiphq)roetyIe. The
actual creation of the Greek mind was peristyle,
in which entire temple was sunounded by a row oi
oolnmns whidi caniea the projecting beams ct tbe
roof. A second, nmer, row of columns was genenJb^
arranged at the front and back of the boildiDg. It
the columns were replaced by ^gaged columns on
the walls of the cella, the temple was a peeudo-per^)-
teral temple. A temple was called a dipteroa if it
were surrounded by a double colonnade, and paeudo-
dipteros when the inner row of columns was not used.
A circle of columns with a Tooi over than, but with-
out a cella, formed a monopteral tempk. A third
method of designating or distinguishing the temples
is by the number of columns in front, thus templea are
<!alled tetrastyle, bexastyle, octastyle, that is having
five, six, or eight columns.

Up to the seventh century b. c. the method of
building was very simple: the walls of the cella were
made of unbumt briclE resting on a stone base, the
columns woe of wood, for migmBlly the Greek tonple
in its essential parts was not built <d stone. In the
buildings of better construction the w^ were orna-
mented with terrarcotta tiles, and tbe columns were
covered with precious metals. The earliest tmplea
were built in the Doric style j tJiis was followed from
the sixth century by the lomc style that came &om
Asia Minor, and later by the Connthian style. One
style, however, never entirely supplanted another.
If in the Doric tetnple the impression mode was that
of tnassiveDeBS, the Ionic temple conveved a aense <A
agreeable lightness and grace. Hie effect produced
by the Greek temple was not that of ^antic aisf^ as
in the Egyptian, or of colossal maa$ as in the Assyrian;
it arose Trom the harmonious relation between all its
members, by the spirituaJizing of the styles of archi-
tecture and the ornamentation, as well as by the care-
ful execution of all parts, even thoee least seen. Tbm
it became a model Tor all succeeding centuries, which
alwi^ return to it after th^ have tried for a time
new architectural designs o£ their own. The Romans
were the first to-adppt the plan of the Greek temple,
but they impressed their national character upon it
in several ways: the foundation platform was fre-
quently omitted or was replaced by a podium without
any steps except those leading to the entrance; the
front was emphasized by prolonging the portico and
increasing the number of columns. The finely bal-
anced harmony of the Greeks was sacrificed to osten-
tatious display of materia and the huge sise of the
structure. The round temple is peculiar to the
Romans, who greatly developed it. Among the tem-
ples of this style is one of the most important master-
pieces of Roman architecture, the Pantheon, as well
aa several small, graceful structures like that at TivoIL

However important a Greek or Roman temple may
be architecturally, still it is essentially nothing more
than a beautiful and stately private house, a dwdling-

filaoe of the divinity, not a house of prajjer and a plaoe
or the people to offer sacrifice. In this is made evi-
dent the marked difference between the temple and
the Christian church. From the beginning the Chris-
tian church was intended to hold all those who be-
lieved mi its intoior was divided into sanctuary and
nave for the clergy and the laity. It contained in
itself the fruitful seed which enabled it in the coiurse
of centuries to develop, even architecturally, far
beyond the classical temple. In the latter, excepting
in the prostyle tem^e, the front had hardly any dis-
tinctive characteristic, in the peripteral, amphi-
prostyle, and other temples the back and front were
alike. On the other band, the facades of many
Christian churches are wearks of the finest fini^ and
highest architectural vahie. Although the temple
contained several chambers within, yet this fact
eoEercised no actual influence on its external constnio-
tim, while in the Christian church, either ctf the Ro-

man eeque or of the Gothic style, the inner arrangement
is easily reccqpiized from the external construction.
It is a Btriking fact,' and one that is, perhajM, not to
be explained eatarely by the dislike <d the early
Christuuw for the places of heathen worship, that from
the hftginning tbe model chosen for the Christian
church was not the claseio temple, but the basilica,
which, as the court and place of exchange, was intended
to hoM la^ numbers of people.

BBDI, EuiNBCBailDT.

LrnmoT of the Tbuplb. — The three great national
festivals a[ the Jews—the Passover,' Pentecost, and
the Feast of Tabernacles — were the occasion of special
liturgical service of the temple (Ex., xxiii, 14, 17;
xxxiv, 23; Deut., xvi, 16). Other feasts oiuld be
celebrated by local observance. Not so these three
national feasts. All males were supposed to appear
at Jerusalem on these occasions: "in the place which
the Lord thy God shall choose, that his mune may
dwtH tiiere" (Deut., xvi, 6). It was during the Pass-
over while the lamm for the Fasch were dressed, that
the Levites in the Temple chanted the Hallel (Pss.
cxiiir-cxviii: Vulg., cxii-cxvii). These same Psalms
were repeated during the paschal meal,— the first two
after the second cup, the reipainder after the fourUicup.

The ordinary temple litiirgy is not clear to us.
Scant and ojiscure details are preserved in the Sacred
Text. The people gathered in the courts of the
Tem^de to receive instruction from the Proplwts and
to jom them in prayer (Is., i, 12-15). Tbe Deuter^
<uiomic custom was that the Torah should be read to
tbe people in the Temple at the Feast of the Tabor^
nacles (Deut., xxxi, 10-13). After the ExUe. Esdras
brought back this custom (II Esd., viii, 5-8). And
yet, not even the reading of Torah was the chief pur-
pose of the Temple; it was essentially a "house of
prayer for all nations" (Is.,lvi, 7); pi^er to Jahweh
was its chief purpose. It was in the Temple of Silo
that Anna prayed for a man child (I Kings, i, 11).
In the first Temple of Jerusalem, Solomon said his
inspirii^ prayer for Israel (III Kings, viii, 12-53).
Apart from the Psalms, set forms of prayer were rare.
In such set forms, the priest offered the first-fruits
and tithes before the altar the Temple (Deut.,
xicvi, fr-10); and the high-priest laid the sins of Israel
upon the head (tf the ecape-goat (Lev., xvi, 21). Dur-
ing the morning and the evening sacrifices, the Levi tee
san^ praises to the Lord and gave thanks (I Par.,
xxiu, 30). These praises would seem to have been
the Psalms, since the leader oi the Levites in the time
of Nehemias was a son of Asaph (11 Esd., xi, 17).
The titles of many of the Psalms give evidence
of their liturgical use in the temple or "the House of
Jahweh" that preceded the Tnnple. l^e Psakns
of Asaph and of the sons of Korah (see Psauis) at one
time made up a liturgical collection for temple service.
The sons of Asaph were among the temple levites
(I Par., xxv, 1). The sons of Korah were also a
leviticai family o£. temple singers (II Par., xx, 19).
In fact, there can be no doubt but the Psalms are
evidence of a gradual c^ekquneut of a liturgicid
hymnal for temple service.

Certain elements (tf qmago^ liturgy (see Stna-
ooQin:) probably have their origin in temple service.
The "Shema" (Deut., vi, 4-9), together with the
Ten CommandmCTts and several benedictions, were
recited by the priest at the morning sacrifice (Tamid,
v). Josephus (Ant, Jud., IV, vui, 13) dates this
synsgogal practice from the time of Moses.

Zbhkxb, Dit Chorgetangt im Buek* der PmiImmh (Frctburc,
1890): ZmHSa-WiUMAMii. DU Pniinen naeh dtm VrUxt fMQn-
■ter, 1906), Tbe latter work edits the text over much, and bu
oonaequently been put on the Index (1911).

Waltbr Drum.

Temide. Smmas or thb.— Hie Sisters of tbs
Tenq>le (whose full title is Sistsbs or rm Fnn»mo or

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TEMPLE 4

Jbsvs in thb Tbufle) are a pre-^l^ormation founda-
tion. They vera establiBhea in London for edaca-
tional purposee at the time of the Crusades 1^ a dean
whose name has not oome down to ub. They spread
widetjr in England in the following coituriee, but were
driven into exile at the Reformation. In 1860 Car-
dinal Wiseman, with the graierous help of the Ahh6
Roullin, re-eeta«lished them in the Archdiocese of
WestminBtcr, whence they moved to Clifton. But it
was not until a house was opened at Vmion, Nor-
mandy, that thqr began onoe more to flourial^ from
Venion they have opened six houses in fYanee
and Belgium, and now munbar 170 sisten. They
have a home for invalid priests at Clifton, and the
chief inak of the sisters now is nurung among aQ
clasaes society. They are known as the Blue Nuns
in England and France, from the blue habit they wear.

Da«H, DUeom pom U txnmanUnawe d«i Sowj Jiaut an
TtrntU (1910).

Franckca M. Stxelb.

Ttanida JeruHlam.— The word " temi^ " is de-
rived from the I^tin tern-plum, signifying an uncovered
place affording a view of the surrotmduig reoon; in a
narrower sense it signifies a place sacred to the
Divinity, a sanctuary. In the Bible the sanctuary
of Jerusalem bears the Hebrew name of BU YehOvAh
(house of Jehovah). Hie sacred edifice consisted of
two chief halls, one ctUled htkiU (the house or temple),
or q6dea (the Holy), and tiw other (that which. is
the orade), or gdde^ haggoddafum (the Holy of
Holies). The New Testament speaks of it as ohot,
"the house", vait, Latin eella, ' the most holy place
of the temple", and Up6p, "the whole of the sacred
enclosure"'. The Temple which Solomon erected to
the Lord about 066 b. c. was destroyed by Nabucho-
dtmosor in 586 B. c. After the return from captivity
Zorobabel raised it ^un from its ruins (537 b. o.)> but
in such modest conditions that the ancients who had
seen the forma- Temple wept. In the eighteenth year
of his reign, which corrMponds to 19 b. c, King
Herod destroyed the Temple of Zorobabel to replace
it by another which would equal, if not surpass in
q>lendour, that of Solomon.

Many writers admit three temples materiaU;^ dif-
ferent. Now as the Prophet Aggeus (Vulg-, li, 10)
says of that of Zon^ebd: "Great shall be the glory
of Uiis last house more than of the first", because ot
the conuDg oif the Messias (v, 8-0), they claim that
this prophecy was not fulfilled be<^UBe Christ never
entered the second Temple. Others assert that Zoro-
babel's woric was not completely destroyed but grad-
ually replaced by a larger and much richer temple
(Josephus, "Ant. Jud.," ed. Dindorf, XV. xi,2). and
tbey consequently admit only two materiufy diffoent
temples. The whole difficulty disappears if we choose
the Septuapnt in preference to the Vulgate. The
Prophet has already asked: "Who is left among you,
that saw this house m its first glory?" (ii, 4). Accord-
ing to the Septuagint he afterwsurds says: "The last
Klory of this house shall be greater than its first glory."
To the Prophet, therefore, there was but one Mid the
same house of Jehovah from Solomon to the time of
Messias, built always in the Sfune place and aoccnding
to the same plan, that of the Tabernacle. We mur
therefore admit three different temples, and this article
will describe; I. that of SolomcHi; Ii. that oi Zotc^
babel; in. that of Herod.

I. Tehpui of Solomon. History.- — Through a
motive of pride David had commanded the number-
ing of his people, in punishment of which God deci-
mated the Israelites oy a pestilence. One day the
Idiw saw near the threehing*floor of Oman (Areuna)
the Jebusite an angel about to strike the people of the
city, whereupon David humbled himseu before the
Lord, Who forgave him and stayed the plague. The
king hastened to purchase the pr(H>erty m Utn Jdjusite
f or mty sidea (tf siWv aiid bmn an altar CD die threeh-

)9 TEMPLE

ine-fioor, upon which he offered holocausts and peace-
offerings (II Kings, xxiv). This hill, wluch is the
Mount Moria (II Far., iii, I) of Genesis (xxii, 2), was
thenc^orth destined to be the site of the Temple of
Jehovah, for which David had already amassed great
treasures, but the building of which was reserved to
Solomon. As hitherto the Hebrews had not culti-
vated the arts, Solomon addressed himself to Hiram,
King of Tyre in Phcenicia, to obtain builders and skil-
ful workers in stone, brass, and the cedar and cypress
wood of Lebanon. After seven and a half years <^
toil the king was able to dedicate solemnly the Temple
of the true God. Near the sacred precincts he after-
wards built liu^ buildings, among which the Bible
makes special mention of the palace of the king, that
of the queen, Pharao'a daughter, the house of the f«^
eat, the porch of the throne, and that of pillars.

Site. — Mount Moria, which stretches from north to
south, is a long spur, or promontory, connected at the
north with Mount Bezetha and bounded on the east
and west by two deep valleys which are joined at their
southemextremity (seejEftcrsALEU, Vlll, 345d). Be-
tween its two steep decUvities the crest of the hill
afforded but narrow space for buildings, and to secure
an adequate site for the Temple, the courts, and royal
palaces a platform was formed by raising sustainmg
walls of carefully-hewn beautiful stonee measuring
eight or ten cubits (III Kings, v, 17; vii, &-10). Ao-
cording to Jewish tradition the Temple stood on the
highest point of Mount Moria, while the royal quar*
ters were built south of its 'enclosure and on a lower
level.

It Is generallv admitted that the "sacred rock" in
the centre (rf the Mosque of Omar (see Jerdsalbu,
VIII, 360 d) formed the foundation trf the aJtar of holo-
causts in the Temple of Jerusalem. On this hill, aiv
eording to an ancient tradition, Abraham made r^dy
to sacrifice his son Isaac; here, near the threshiiu*-
floor of Oman, the exterminating angel restored his
sword to its scabbard; and on this threshing-floor,
which according to custom was situated at the high-
est point, David erected an altar to the Lord. If this
prominent rock was constantly spared at the various
rebuildings of the platform it must have been be-
cause of its associations. Moreov^, it corresponds to
all the requirements of Exodus (xx, 24 sq.) for the
altar of holocausts. It is a limestone rock, unhewn
and irregular, fifty-^ight feet long, by forty-five wide,
and standing three or four feet above the ground.
Furthermore, in its upper almost level surface there is a
hole whereby it is believed the blood and the water of
the ablutkms flowed into the cavity beneath to be
carried off by a subterranean conduit to the valley at
Cedron. The Mtshna (Y<nna, II, i) asserts that
under ihe altar of holocausts ihien was a canal of this
kind. This point admitted, the "sacred rock" will
serve as a mark to discov^ the exact site of the house
of Jehovah, because the latter opened Ito the east op-
posite the altar of holocausts and consequently west
of the court of the priests which contained the altar.

Sources. — The chief sources of information concern-
ing the plan, constmction, and adornment of the Tem-
ple are, first III Kings, vi, vii; then the parajld
account in II Par., iii, iv, which tends to magnify the
dimensions immeasurably. The Prophet Ezechiel
described the Temple in the light of a heavenly vision,
and though his description is symbolic it agrees in its
essential features with that of the Book of Kings; to all
apfiearances be describes the Lord's house as he saw it
while he performed his priestly duties. The informa-
tion supplied by Josephus and the Middoth treatise <tf
the Mishna inspires less confidence; it seems based
rather on the Traiple of Herod Uian on that of Solo-
mon. Indeed we possess but a brief description of the
first Temple and the technical terms used by the Bible
are not always readily intelligible in modem times;
httioe thrae is peat diversity dr opinion aRuq;^ writerL

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who have attempted to recoiutnict the Tonple of Solo-
mon in its architectural details.

ArckilectvTe and MeasuTemerU. — Solomon repro-
duced in BoUd materials and double proportionfl the
Tabernacle which Mosee had built in the desert (Wis-
dom, ix, S), the entire plan ctf which is tfawefore out-
lined (Ex., xxvi, xxxvi). With r^^d to the st^le
adopted by the Pbcenician architects we know sim-
ply that at that period the architecture of all Semitic
peoples was very similar to that of the Egyptians. In
Enrpt there were two measures of l^igth; the smaller
ciwit formed of the breadth of six hands or twenty-
four fingeis and equal to 1 ft. b^i inches; the large or
royal cubH, which was a handbreadth (three in^ieB)
longer. The lesser cubit of six lumds. or twenty-four
fingtfs. existed in the eastern empire, but it was some-
wlut longer, being equal to 1 ft. 7} inches. The
large or royal cubit was likewise longer, being equal to
1 ft. 9t inches. Now judjpng from the excavations
made at Taanath and M^ddo in Palestine the royal
B^ylonian cubit, introduced by the long Qialdean
domination, was the one in use at that time (Ben-
singer, "Hebr.Arehftf^ogie", 190). It is probable that
only the small cubit was in use at the time of the
Bwyloniaii Captivity^ hence the sacred writer (II Par.
iii) 3) giTesthedimensions of the Temple by the "firet
measure", or ancient cubit, and Esechiel (xl, 5; xliii,
13) adds to each cubit a handbreadth (the ancient
pcUmus minor, one-sixth of the small cubit) in order to
obtain the length given in the Book of Kings. The
royal Babylonian cubit therefore was the mesura vetit-
nma ^Wsh., xUii, 13) used in the construction of the
Temiue of Solcanon.

The Holy Place; the Holy of Holic*.— The house of
God was cn rectangular shape, sixty cubits long from
east to weet by twenty cubits wide and thirty hi^
(III Kings, vi, 2; II Par., iii, 3). These were the m-
terior dimensions which did not include the thickness
<^ the watls_, as is shown by numerous texts. This
space was divided into two chambers unequal size.
The first, the hSkOl, or Holy Place (see plan, fig. I),was
taety cubits long by twenty wide. It was entered at
tlw eastnn »id oy a square gate (III Kings, vi, 33),
ten cubits in breadth (Ezech., xh, 2). The frame-
work was of wild-olive wood, furnished with two doors
of cypress wood. Each door was subdivided verti-
cally mto two leaves which folded by means of hinges
(III Kings, vi, 33, 34). On the other side of the com-
partment was a pentagonal-shaped gate (III Kings,
vi, 31) with an opeoing oi six cubits through a parti-
tion wall two cubits in uiickness fElzech.. xli, 3-4). It
opened into the diMr, or Holy ctf Holies (2), a chamber
measuring twenty cubits every way.

The two doors of wUd-oUve wood in the gate
opened towards the east and stood always open to
allow the passage of fresh air and the smoke of in-
cense to enter the interior, but a veil of byssus in vio-
let, purple, and scarlet, embroidered with cherubim,
sJways concealed the Holy of Holies (JI Par., iii, 14),
whidb was entered only by the higb-^rieet once a year.
On the doors of the two gates Solomon caused figures
of cherubim, palm-trees, and blossoming flowers to be
carved and overlaid with gold (III Kings, vi, 32, 35).
The walls of difAr and hSkOl were lined with boards of
cedar adorned with colocinths and flowers carved in
relief and profusely overlaid with gold. Within the
dJMr even the fir-wood floor was covered with plates
of fine gold and the front was closed with chains of the
same metal (lU Kings, vi, 15).

Secondary Chambers. — The whole building, includ-
ing th6 Holy of Holies which formed the'chidf part,
was thirty cubits high. Now as the interior ot the
dgbtr was only twenty cubits high there must have
been above it a space of ten cubits. The height of
the Holy Place is not indicated in the Bible, but there
is mention of "cenacleB**, or upper chambers (U Par.,
iii, 9); henoe the Htdy Piaee must have been ot th«

same height as the dObtr and like it have had above it a
chamber ten cubits high. The some text informs us
that these "upper chambers" were richly adorned
like those below and there is little doubt that the
Tabernacle was preserved in the large upper chamber
(III Kings, viii, 4; Par., v, 5), and in the lower one
relics and remembrances of the life in the desert. In
front of the kikSl was the vestibule or porch (3) lUdm,
Greek rpor^M, of the same length as toe Temple but
only ten cubits de^ (III Kings, vi, 3); it was a kind

Fio. 1. PuM or TBS Tmpu o» Solohom
1. The Holy PUee. 2. The Holy ot HoUw. S. The porak.
4. Bids ohunben. 6-6. Doonofw tkla ehBmben. 7. WiM-

fSrimaOa. 11. PillM of Booi.

trf stately tower, recalling the pylons of the Eg^^tiaa
temples and like them having a ^ge gateway without
doors. II Paralipomenon (in, 4) states that its height
was one hundred and twenty cubits. But a porch six
times hi^er than it was long would be so out of pro-

E m that many exegetes are inclined to reduce this
to sixty ciinite, the height of the porch of the
le of Zwobabd. ' Accrading to Esediiel the
woUs woe nz cubits thick.

Along the three other sides of the sanctuary rose a
building divided into three stories (III Kings, vi, 5-6),
each story having thirty chambers [Ezcdi., xli, 6;
Ant. Jud., VIII, lii, 2). (4) The house of Jehovah
was so sacred that the beams of cedar which sup-
ported the ceilings of the side chambers were not
sufferod to be fastened to the walls of the Temple:
henoe in the walls of the Holy Place and the Holy <»
Hdtes tha?e were three recesses in which rested the
ends of the joists. Thus the under chambers were
five cubits in breadth, those of the first floor six
cubits, and those of the second seven. Each story
was five cubits high. The entrance was by a door
(5) which opened to the south (III Kings, vi, 6-S);
Ezechiel (xli, II) mentions another (6) on the north,
which would be very natural. Ascent from one floor
to another was made by means of a winding-etoir (7),
and it n very probable that the upper chambers, or
oenocles, were reached by way of one of the stories of
the porch. In ^ese low-ceiled and narrow'cells were
preanred the archives, the public treasure, the ao-
cesBoriee of worship, and the sacred vestments (cf. Ill,
Kii^, viii, 4; II Par., v, 5). In this manner the
Holy Place and the Holy of Holies were complete^
surrounded by imposing structures.

fioofs and Windowe. — The Temple was covered with
a rocmng formed of beams and planks of cedar (III
Kings, vi. 9). Any broad surface which rests on a
framework mstead of on arches of ma^on-work is
unstable and cannot prevent the rain leaking throu^;
hence it is our opinion that the roofs of Solomon's
temple were slopmg, and the planks covered with
large sli^. Chi the other hand several writers con-
sider that they w«e flat. The upper story of tin
Holy of Hftlifiii the numeroua small ohambOT of the

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adjacent building, as also the pwch, were fumiabed
with windows haying fixed patmsa of wood, of vhieh
mention is made in the text (lU ICings, vi, 4). The
walls of the A^/tdf had similar openings at tiie nortiL and
soutik, at least in the lower portion; but tbe position
of these windows scarcely allowed the admuision
light into the large chamber, which, furthermore, was
lighted night and day by numerous lamps. The win-
dows were intended rather to permit the circulation of
fresh air and the escape of incense-smoke through the
ude chambers. The Holy of Holies seems to have
had no windows and was always enveloped in daA-
neas (HI Kings, viii, 12).

Bronze FtZtoTv.— It should be borne in mind that
the entire building was oonstruoted of the beautiful
red and white limestone of the country, which could
be polished like marble. We cannot believe that
such a sumptuous monument was built on the earth
without Any foundations. Moreovw Eiechiel tells
us (xli, Si thai it rested on a foundation mx eut»tB
high, which formed all about it a border five cubits
broad (8). The porch was reached by a stairway of
ten st^ [Ezech, xL 49, (9)}, which in ancient times
were always rather high. At the top of the stairway
on the foundation stood two pillars of molten brass
each eighteen cubits high ana twelve cubits in cir-
cumference (III Kings, vii, 15). The pillars were
hollow^ but the metal was four fingers in thickness
(Jer., Ui, 21). The capitals which surmounted them
were five culnts high, and their tops were fashioned
in the ^ape of lilies. They were nchly adorned with
network, garlands, pomegranates, foliage, etc., but
despite tne details furnished by the Bible (III Kings,
vii, 1&-19; H Par., iii, IS^l?), it is very difficult to
reconstruct them in their true form. The pillar
which stood at the ri^t of the porch door (10) was
called Jachin, "He will establish", and that on the
leftBooi, "in strength". There is no mention in the
text of base or pedestal, but some sort <rf a base would
not have been out of place. Despite theb squat
shape these magnificent pillars recall the obeUdEs
before the pylons of the Egyptian temples.

Fumiture. — In the A^fefli before the gate of the
dlMr stood the altar of incense, a rectangular square
cheat of cedar wood, each side measiu^g a cubit
wide and two cubits high. ' The wood was com-
pletely covered with plates of gold (III Kings, vi,
20, 22; vii 48: I Par., xviii, 18; 11 Par., iv, 19).
At the north side stood the table of gold on which the
loaves of proposition were set every Sabbath. Ill
Kings, vii, 48, speaks of only one golden table for
these sacred loaves, while I Par., xxviii, 16, and II
Par., iv, 19, mention sevwal, but the text has been
mutilated by the copjost , for elsewhere (II Par., xiii, 11,
and xxix, 18) there is likewise mention of only one.
The ten tables of II Par., iv, 8, were those which
held the candlesticks. On each ade of the south and
north courts stood five candlesticks of pure gold
adorned witii flowers which held gold oil-lamos, prob-
ably seven in number. The snuffers, bowls, knives,
mortars, cups, censers, and other vessels were likewise
all of pure gold (III Kings, vii, 48-50; II Par., iv,
8-9; 21-22). The Ark of the Covenant made by
Moses in the Desert, with its staves, stood in the
dS>b- (in Kings, viii, 6). It contained a golden vessel
holding manna, the rod of Aaron, and the two tables
of the Law (Heb., ix, 4). At the ends of the Ark with
wings outspread stood two cherubim ten cubits high
osrved from wild-olive wood and covered with goM.
The inner wings met above the mercy-eeat or cover of
the Ark and the outer win^ touched the walls (see
Abk).

C&wi of the Priests.— On tJie north, south, and west
mdea of the building was a court about twenty cubits
wide which extended in front of the house a distance
of one himdred cubits each w^ (Ezech., xl, 47). This
was the "inner court" (III Kings, vi, 36), called abo

)1 taMPtt

the "court of the |Hieets" (II Par., iv, 9), because
they atone ent«ed it, laymoi beii^ admitted only in
exceptional eircumstanees (ef. IV Kings, xii, 12; J^.,
XXXV, 1 so., wd xxxvi) (10). It was surroimded by a
wall of three rows of polished stones and one row of
4)eams of cedar (III Kings, vi^ 36), probably placed
ec^ewise in the form of a railing. The court was

Eaved with stone sl^ (II Par., vii. 3) and was entered
y three doorways on the north, south, and east
8ide» (Jer., xxxviii, 14; lii, 24; Eseeh., xl, 28, 32, 35),
the lastHuuned was oaUed the "king's gate'' (I Far.,
ix, 18). In this court opposite the porcn gate and at
a distance of twenty-two cubits stood the brasen
altar of holocausts (III Kings, viii, 64), which was
twenty cubits in lei^h and breadth and ten cubits
high (II Par., iv, 1). The ascent to it was made by an
incline facing the east. According to Esech., xlii,
13 sq., the altar consisted of a square base measiiring
twenty cubits on the sides and one cubit high, with a
trendi around the border: on the base stood a lai^
section eighteen cubits sidewa^rs and two high, above
which was a second section sixteen cubits ndeways
and four high. Lastly came the hard, "mountain of
Ood", measuring fourteen cubits on the sides and two
h^. The top of the altar consisted of the arUl,
"hearth of Qod", having at each comer a horn one
cnbit high, and of a seoticm one cubit high surmounted
by a crown.

* Betmen the TemiHe and the altar, but somewhat
towards the south, was the famous "sea of molten
brass", a vessel "roxmd all about", the h^ht of it
five cubits and the diameter ten cubits. The outer
brim which was a handbreadth (four fingers) in thick-
ness was adorned with colocynths. It contained 2000
hates (lU Kinra, vii, 23-26). (The capacity must
have been doubled by the couyiat, for a bate equals
361 litree: but the interior diameter of the vessel
instead of allowing a capacity of 72,800 litree allows
barely 36,000.) The brajien sea rested upon twelve
(oen, likewise of brass, which stood in tour groups
facing the four cardinal points. This magnificent
Tcsselwas used by the priests for washing their hands
and feet at the hours of sacrifice. Along each of the
right and left wings of the Temple were arraneed five
movable brasen vessels. On four wheels a ciioit and
a half in diameter stood a base four cubits in width
and length and three higfi; the ledges were decorated
with figures of oxen, lions, and cherubim. On this
vdiicle was fixed a cyHnaer a cubit and a half in
diameter and a cubit high, on which was placed a laver
four cubits in diameter and shaped like an elongated
dish. Four shoulders fastened at the four comers of
the base supported the laver (III Kings, vii, 27-39).
These movable lavers each having a capacity of forty
bates, were chiefly used for washing the fl&sb of the
victims. There has recently been discovered at Lar-
naca in Cyprus a Phoenician vessel in brass which
corresponds in the smallest details to that described
in the Bible (see Benzingo', op. dt., 218, 221).

Outer Court. — ^The inner court (III Kings, vi, 36),
also called the "upper court" (Jer., xxxvi, 10), implies
the existence of an outer and lower court, and the
court of the priests (II Par., iv, 49) supposes another
for laymoi. There is mention of still another in the
time of Josaphat (II Par., xx, 5), but we have very
little interesting information concerning these courts,
which must have been completed and adorned by the
successors of Solomon. It is stated, for instance, that
Joatham "biiilt the highest gate of the house of the
Lord" (IV Kings, xv, 35), which refers to a new gate,
I»obab^ north of a court. On the other hand Achaz
replaced the altar of holocausts by another, the model
01 which he had seen at Damascus. He also removed
the twelve brazen oxen imd the graven bases of the
ten movable lavers and changed the gate of the Sab-
bath and the outer entrance for the king (IV Kings,
xri, 10-18). Eceohias emptied the treasuty of the

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Temple and took away the plates of gold and silver
with which he himself bad covered the doors and the
UntelSt andgave them to purchase peace from Sen-
nacherib (IV Kings, xviii, 15-16) Manasses pro-
faned the Temi^ of Jehovah by the worship of idols
(EV KingR^ xn, 4). At last the monument of Solo-
mon, in ancient times
more celebrated for its
qilendour than its sise,
was reduced to ashes by
Nabuehodonosor in 686.

11. TslfPLB OF ZOBO-

BABSL.-~ln 537 Sassa-
basar, appointed Gov-
ernor of Jerusalem by
Cyrus, King of Persia,
and Zorobabel, a de-
9 uwMiOMMUMM scendant of King
t rr T 1 T r V rjyr..T j,,^^^^^ returned irom

SournoN m A-B or Vlux capciviiy wii.n a vast
number of Jews and
armed with authority to rebuild the Temple of
Jerusalem. In the seventh month after their return
the altar of holocausts of unhewn stones was set up
on the foundations of the formo' one. In the second
month of the second year they laid the first stone of
die new Temple. But the work was impeded and
even suspraided through the hostility and plots of
the Samaritans, and the Temple was not finished until
616 (1 Esd., iii, 6). The Temple of Zorobabel was
sixty cubits broad and the same in height (I Esd., vi,
3), Uiese being the interior dimensions. Josephus
tells us (Ant. Jud., XV, xi, 1) that this was really its
height, for Herod reminded the people that the hei^t
of the second Temple was sixty cubits lees tiban that
of the first, making the Temple of Solomon one hun-
dred and twenty cubits high, according to II Par., iii,
1. It is difficiut to say whether the breadth cS sixty
cubits ascribed by the decree of Cyi^ to the Temple
was in round number^ or whether the figures indi-
cate the smaller cubit then in use, but it matters little,
for if the breadth were really sixty royal cubits it would
mean only that the side chambers bad been enlarged
five cubits on each side. Hie Holy Place and the
Holy ot Holies in Zorobabel's Temple retained the
dimensiona they had in Soknuoo's, aui thcty remained
the same in the third Temt^

We know from Esdras (lii. 12) and from Aggeus
(ii, 3) tJbat the Temple of Zorobabel was much iniCTi(»'
to that of Solomon. The poverty of the new Temple
oCNQsisted chiefly in the scarcity of its furnishing. The
Ark of the Covenant bad not been recovered and the
was empty, but as it was the dwelling-place of
God on earth the entrance was once more screened
with a costly veil. In the Ho^ Plaoe stood a new
altar of incense and a table for the loaves of proposi-
tion, but there was only one seven-branch candle-
stick. Treasures once more accumulated, and the
entire furnishing was again in sold or covered with
plates of gold, including the wajQs. In 168 b. c. the
precious metals adornmg the Temple aroused the
covetousness of Antiochus Epiphanes, who "took
away the golden altar, and the candlestick o( light,
and all the vessels thereof, and the table <rf propoei*
tion, and the pouring vessels, and the vials, ana the
little mortars of gold, and the veil, and the crowns,
and the golden ornament that was before the temple,
and he broke them all in pieces" (1 Mach., i. 23).
Judas Machabeus hastened to provide the house of
God with new furnishings. The table of proposition
escaped Uie destructicm of the Temple by Titus and
with other sacred utensils figures in the conqueror's
triumphal procession st Rome (BM. Jud., Vll, y,
4-6). The inner oourt had the same circumference
as that in the first Temple (I Esd ., vi, 4) , and according
to HecatnuB, as quoted by Josephus, the altar of holc>>
OMistB had the same dimensions as that of Soiomon.

He Mishna (Middoth, III, vi,) mentions a movable
vessel on wheels. Joe^hus (Ant. Jud., XI, iv, 7)
relates that Zorobabel nad erected several pordwa
with vestibules within the inner precincts of tne tem-
ple and in 1 Mach., iv, 38, 67, there is moitHHi erf
chambers built in the inner court.

During the heroic wars of the Machabees with the
Syrians the Temple had to undergo man^ vicissitudes.
The walls with their lar^ towers built by Judas
Machabeus f<v the protection of the Temple (I Mach..
iv, 60) were destroyed by Antiochus Eupator (I
Mach.. vi, 62), but JonaUian and Simon soon rdbuut
ih&n (Ant. Jud., XIll, v, 11). In 63 b. c. Fwnpey,
after taking the city, laid siege to the Temple, in order
to break the last resistance of the Jews (Ant. Jud.,
XIV, iv, 4), and nine years later the procurator
CrassuB d^poiled it of its riches (Ant. Jud., XIV,
vii, 1). Finally Herod, made King of the Jews by
the Senate, was obliged to take the city by storm and
to besiege the fcHtress of the T^ple (Ant. Jud., XVI,
xvi, 2 sq.].

111. Tbuplb or Hbbod. Hilary. — Herod under-
took the restoration of the Temple in its original splen-
dour and traditional arrangements. The buildhigB
were demolished one after another according as the
materials for the new structures were avaiUble. A
host <ji priests became masons and carpenters and
themselves took charge of tearing down and rebuild-
ing the sanctuary, wnidi, task was accomplished in
ei^teen montlis. Nearty 10,000 woricmen were
employed on the other buildings. After d^t yean*
labour (10 b. c.) the new edifice was opened for ser-
vice. But thb monument, which in its vast pr(^x>r-
tion& and magnificence rivalled the most b^iutiful
buildinga of antiquity and far Mirpassed even that of
Solomon, was completed only in a. n. 62 or 64 (Cf.
Jtdm, ii, 20), at that time 18,000 workmen being stffl
raaployed (Ant. Jud., XX, ix, 7). For Herod dou-
bled tne artificial platform which held the Temple of
Zorobabel, enluvmg the sacred precincts to the
south and especiailv to tiie north wnere the galleries
reached as far as the rock of Baris and the Antonia
(Ant. Jud., XV, xi, 3; Bell. Jud., I, xxi, 1; V, v,
2). The Temple with its courts, galleries, and porches
occupied the whole of the present site of the haram
<rt ahar^, which measures 1070 feet on the nivtli,
1640 on the east, 920 on the south, and 1630 on
Uie west. The Temple of Herod consisted of two
courts, an inner and an outer one. The fonner
included all the buildit^^ of the Temple properly so
called and was divided into: (1) The Court of the
Priests, which contained the house of God and the
altar m holocaustn; (2) the Court of Israel; and (3)
the Court of the Women. All the ^ace between the
inner court and the outer wall o£ the platfwm was
called theCourt<rf the Gentiles, becausenon-Jews were
permitted to enter it. The following are the arrange-
ments of the Temple acoording to Josephus (Ant.
Jud., XV, xi; Bell. Jud., V, v), other sources
being indicated in the course of the descriptions.

Priests* Court and Hotuie of God.- — ^The Court of the
Priests formed a rectangle one hundred and eidity-
seven cubits from east to west and one hundredard
thirty-seven cubits from north to south [(Middoth, II,
6 (fig. 3)]. To the west stood the house (rf Jehovah
and to the eaflt the altar of holocausts. The sanctu-
ary was reached by a stairway of twelve steps (2),
which terminated in a majestic porch one hundred
cubits hiph and the same in breadth (3). A dow
without leaves twenty cubits wide and forty hi^
led into a ventibule eleven cubits wide. Acxxntling
to the Mishna this doorway was fianked by two square-
shaped i^illars each formed of ten cubes measuring
four cubits on the sides. On these two pillars rested
a sort of entablature formed <rf five oaken beams,
separated from each other by square stone!< set on a
Ime with the pillars. It was a re|»oduetion of the

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triumphal arohee then so common in the East. Upon

the immense trellis, or grille, stretched a gold^ vme,
of which the grapes, accoroing to Josephus, were of
the heifj^t of a man. He adds that it exteaded
twenty-five cubits from north to south and that its
top was seventy cubits from the ground. Tacitus
(Ann., V, v) also speaks of this vine. Above it

their ancient dimensicms m len^ and breadUi. but
their height was iooreaaed to siz^ cubits. A oonv

y y y -JK.

we>t Bd«B was a building divided into three Btoriee
each tw«ity cubits high. The ground floor and the
first floor each had thirteen chambers six cubits wide
(6) and dte top floor twelve. A doorway (7) opened
UHlliward from the vestibule on a windii^-stair three
oobits in diameter and located in the comer formed
by the wall of the house and the projection of the
porch. The two wiUls which formed the cage of the
•tairway mm five cubits thick. In the opposite eor-
ner to uie south was a similar cage intended to facili-
tate the outflow of water. The total width of the
house, including the side chambers, was fifty-four
eubits and near the porch seventy cubits, and its total
lesi||th, including the porch, was one hundred and six
ci^its, allowing six cubits thickness for the walls.
The base was ten eid>ita lugjex than the dimensioiiB
given above.

Twoity-two cubits east of the house stood the altar
<rf holocauetSr constructed of unhewn stone (8). The
rabbis speak of a three-tiered altar, ten cubits hi^
and thirty-two cubits along the sides of the base, and
twenty-four in the centre (Maimonides, "Beth
Haberaach", II, 16). The figures of Joeephus, fifty
cubits on the sides by fifteen nigh, are obviouuy in-
eorreot. North of the altar (9) four rows of rin|0
were fastraied in the ground and were used while slay-
ing the animals. Next came eight marble tables for
cutting up and washing the fle^ of the victims, and
hi^er i^ were eight piUars with hooks for suq>^ding

Tia. 3. Plut or tbi Tzuplk or Hbbod
O) Court of the priegta; (2) Stairway of the Templea; (3)
Poreh and vestibule; (4) The Holy PUce; (6) The Holy of Holies;
(e) Side obambetv; (7) Entrance to the windinc atairvav; (S)
Altar of holooausU: (9) Ahattoir: <10) Court ol larael; (11) Qal-
leryj (12) Beautiful CateidS) Sturway of fifteen et^; (14)
Court of the wome&; (U) SOypethnd room; J16) Qmtei (17) HaU;
tan Hal; (W) SUirwar oMi atopa; (30) Court at tbt gaotileik

ten oubits wide and twenty hi^ gave access to
the Holy Place. The door leaves were of carved
wood covered with leaves of gold, and the door was
further embellished with a magnificent curtain tit
Babylonian-dyed Ibaen. The richly-decorated cham-
ber contained the altar of perfumes before the en-
trance to the d^&tr, north of the table of proposition
and south of the seven-branch candlestick. It was
not so wdl lighted or aired as that of Solomon. The
priests alone entoped this coiut to offer incense every
night and mwrnn^j to trim the lamps, and change the
loaves of proposition on the Sabbath-day. It was
near the altar of mcense that the angel i^^peared to
Zach^ias (Luke, i, 11).

The entrance to the <WAt had no doors, but, as for-
merhr, was shielded by a costly curtain. According to
the Miahna (Yoma, V, i) no partition wall separated
the hik/ll from the the latter being formed by
two veils hung the distance tA a cubit from each other;
but Joeephus distinguished between the two chambers
yviipg ue dimensions of each. Furthermore he
^Maks only of one vc^ "at the entrance" of the d^&try
which must signify a doorway. Moreover, the ab-
•ence of a partition would have necessitated a curtain
sixty oubite long by twenty broad, which would never
have sealed hermetically the Holy of Holies. The
statement (d the nibbis on this pomt is open to sus-
picion. They could not have been ^raant that ac-
cording to the Gospel ^att., xxvii, 61 ; Mark, xv, 38:
I^e, xxui, 45), when Christ died on the cross the veil
of the temple was rent in two from top to bottom.
The d&iiT was «upty. Only the high-priest entered
it once a year. Above the (M&tr and the hSkSl was a
^iory forty cubits high, so the entire building was the
flame beipit as the pnoh. On the north, south, and

{>laoe thur hands on the head irf the victims. The
our mdes (rf the court wa« suiTounded by a parapet o(
stonee a foot and a half hi^.

Court of Israel. — Five steps led down fnm the
court <rf the priests to the court of Israel, which sur-
rounded the former on three sides (10). At the north
and south it was forty cubits wide and on the east
only eleven cubits. A gallery ten cubita wide (11),
supported by splendid marble columns, went round
this court, probably on the west side also, and afforded
a shelteT from the sun and rain. Men only were ad-
mitted here and only the king was permitted to be
seated.

East of this court oroosite the house of God (1^
rose a superb gateway, toe most beautiful of all, which
acoording to Jose^dius and the Mishna (Midaoth,_ I,
4) was the ^t of Nicanor, a wealthy Alexandrian
Jew. This was the Qipa tipala, the porta apedoaa
(Acts, iii, 2), where St. Peter healed the man crqjpled
ficom birth. It was fifty cuMts hi^ and {wty wide,
and its gates of CorinUuan brass, carved and eorerea
vith plates of gold and sflvor, were so heavy that
twtaity men were required to move it. Josephus adds
that among the signs premonitory of the deetruction
of the Temple this gate opened of itsdf at midni^^t
about the year 30 b. c. (Bell. Jud., VI, v, 3).

Court of the Women. — From the Gate ot Nicanor a
Bttnicirctuar stairway (13) of fifteen steps led down to
the women's court (14), surrounded by a gallery on the
north, east, and souui. Here the women were ad-
mitted and places were reserved for them on the north
and south, but the men also frequented this court and
usually croBsed it when they went to the Temple.
There were benches there, for it was permitted to sit
(cf. Mark, xii, 41), Along the sides probably near
the Gate of Nicanor, were thirteen boxes, an inscrip-
tUm indicating Uie roecial purpose of each: oil, wood,
priestly veebnmts, doves, etc. There CSirist saw the
rich mat and the pora widow deposit their offering
(Luke, xxi, 1). At the four comers were four hype-
thral chambers, forty cubits sauare(16). Acc(»rdmg
to the Talmud the north-west chamber was where the
unclean and lepers, who had been healed, bathed and
were declared clean by the priests. In the north-east
chamber the priests sorted the wood; in the south-

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TBirauL Si

west oil and wine were preserved in Tanlts: in the
soutbHBast those who had fulfilled the vow of NaBarites
ehaved their heads (cf. Num., vi, 13 sqq; Acta, xviii,
18). In theee chambers it waa also permitted to
wwdi, cook etc. According to Middoth, II, 6, tihen
wore alao in this court four chambers in whidi certain
women wen kxiged.

ijaiee and Clutmbera. — Throe sides of the inner
court were suirounded by buildings fiprty cubits
broad, separated by nine satee in the ahape of towoB
(16), four on the north and four on the south, tA which
only two opened into the women's court, with the
eastern gate. Iltese f^teways or rather sumptuous
pordMB wwe 40 cubits in hei^, breadth, and length.
A hofse bar divided the entrance into two baya each
ten cubitB broad and twenty hi^ with wooden leaves
covered with plates of gold and sUver. Hie veatibule
was thirty cubits square and its six arches were sup-
ported by two pillars twelve cubits in circumference.
At the Bides of the court of Imtel five steps led to the
gateway whose vestibule was likewise provided wi,th
ten steps or an incline. There are still three gates
within the haram e$h iherij, the Golden Gate, the
double gate, and the trq)le gate, constructed acoivd-
ing to the same plan. Between these gates was a
series chambers devoted to various uses (17).
West rA the second southern gate was the IWtkat goat,
hall of the Sanfaedrin (Middoth, II, B) , with a chamber,
for instruction of the people, and in the coturt of the
women was the yatbitfv>^Ktow, hall of the treasury (Ant.
Jud.,XIX, vi, 1). This vast edifice rested on a foun-
dation with a projection of ten eubita forming adeam-
bulatory (18), whidi was reached by a stairway of
twelve or fourteen steps. This was the M; it was
surrounded by a stone parapet called sMg and in
front of ^e nme gates stood pillars with inscriptions
in Greek and Latin notifying visitors that every non-
Jew was forbidden under pain tA death to approach
nearer the Temple. Some years ago one of the pillars
with a Gree^ mscription was found in the vicinity al
the Worn eali «AsKf.

Outer Court.— The remainder oi the vast platform
formed the outer court of the g«tiles. It was paved
with large dabs and surrounded on all sides by a
double (^eiy formed of two rows of columns twenty-
five cubits high. That overlooking the valley of
Cedron waa eaUed "Gate of Solomon" (cf. I Par., ix,
18). It waa certainly prior to Herod, and Joseuius
dates its origin from Solomon, hiniseu. He relates
that in A. D. 62 or 64 the 18,000 workmen atill em-
ployed on the adornment of the Temple began iQ lack
work and requested that they might demoUsb the
Gate of Solomon; but this, althou^ ancient, was so
beautiful and the cost of replacing it would have been
so great that King Agrippa II decided to preeerve H
and to emplOT the workmen in paving the citv streets
<Ant. Jud., XX, ix, 7). Whether it dates from the
kings of Juda or only from Zorobabel it Is auffiel^t
to afford an idea of uie magnifioenoe of the first two
temples of Jerusalem. At the comers of these gal*
leriea were i^ambers (pa»tophoria) for the giuuda.
From the aide towards the city the entranoe to the
sanctuarr was made through several gates of sur-
passing beauty, four on the west of the esplanade,
two on the south, one on the east, and one on the
north. On a lower terrace in the centre Herod erected
a royal basilica, a sumptuous building divided into
three naves by four rows of forty-one Goiintbian
edamDB. Each column waa more than five feet in
diameter. At the north of the esplanade be built
two vast courts surrounded by gates which extended
to the scarp of the rock of Bans. These courts com-
municated with the Antonia oi^ by two Btfi^ways
(cf. Acts, 3txi, 36).

Di TpgOE, UltmpU d» /faWm (Pub, 1864); Pawn 4*9

Afr Tmmrd Jmmimm; Rowwoir, BibHeal SnimAu fa Palm-

tint (Boatoo. 1841);

Babnabas Mbistbbmann.

Temporal Powar. See Pops, The; Statbs or
TBS Chukoh.

Temptation (Lat. tentare, to try or test) is here
taken to be an incitement to sin whether by persuasion
or by the o£Fer of some good or pleasure. It may be
merely external, as was the case of Christ's encounter
in the desert afW the forty days' fast; or it may be
internal as wdl, inasmuch as were is a real assault
upon a person's will power. It arises sometimes from
the pn^>enaity to evil inherent in us as a result of orig-
inal sin. Sometimes it is direct^ cha^eable to the
intervention of the Devil, who can fumi^ the imaa-
nation with its sinful subject-matt^ and stir up the
lower powers of the soul. Not infrequently ooth
oaiBes are at work. Temptation is not in itself sin.
No matter bow vivid the unholy image may be, no
matter how strong the inclination to tran^ress the
law, no matter how vehement the sensation of unlaw-
ful satisfaction, as long as there is no consent of the
wilL there is no sin. The very essence of sin in any
grade is that it should be a debberate act of the hu-
man wiU, Attack is uot synonymous with surrendw.
This, while obvious enou^, is important eq>eci^ly for
those who are trying to serve God sedulously and yet
find themselves b^t on all sides by temptations.
They are apt to take the fierceness and repetition of
the onset as proof that they have fallen. A wise

Siiritu^ guide will point out the error of this con-
usion and thus administer comfort and courage to
these harassed souls.

Temptations are to be oranbated 1^ (Jie avoidance,
where possible, of the occanons that give rise to them,
by recourse to praver, and by fostering within one-
self a spirit of humble distrust of one's own powers and
of imbounded^ confidence in God. The resistance
which a Christian is bound to offer need not always be
direct. Sometimes, particularly when there is ques-
tion of reiterated evil interior su^estions, it may be
useful to employ an indirect metEod, that is, to sim-
ply wnore them and quietly divot we attention into
anotoer channel. Temptations as such can never be
intended by God. They are permitted by Him to
give us an opportunity of practising virtue and self-
mastery and acquiring merit. The fact of t(;mpt&-
tion, no matter how large it looms in a person's me, is
not an indication that such an one is under the ban.
Indeed those whom God calls to special heights of
sanctity are just those who may expect to have to
wrestle bravely with temptations more nummus and
fearsQme than fall to the lot of the average mortal.

tBHMXtJHL, Thtoiagia moralit (Freiburg, 1887) : MOn, Ckriat'
Uth4 Auetifi (Padwbarn. 1907); Hbnbb, SU rernicAtuvM (Fni.
^urg, }6S4); pCABtMam, Dvidarium ateetieum.

Jqsbph F. Dbunt.

Temptal^ion ot Cfttrist.— In the Catholic transit
tlon of Holy Writ, the word "tepiptation" is used
various senses, the principal of whiclj are t^e follow-
ing! (I) the act of testing or trying (Deut., iv, 34:
Tob., if, 12; Luke, xxii, 28; etc.) ; (2) enticement to evil
(Mfttt., JDpH, 41; I Cor., x, 13; etc.); (3) the sUte of
beini tempted (Matt., vi, 13; Luke iv, 13; etc.):
(4) that which tempts or entices to evil (Jt^ea, 1, isj
nPet.,if,0; ^.); (Q) the name of a place (E^.,xvii,7j
Deut., vi, IB; ete.), Taken in an unfavourable aetoee
as denoting entice^nent to evil, temptation cannot be
referred directly to God or to Christ, so that when we
^ead in Oen., xxii, 1. for instance, "Gpd tempted
Abrflhftpa'', and in Jonn, vi, 6, "Hoc autem dicebat
tentans mw', literally : ''This He [Jesus] said tempting
him (Philip)", the eimf^^ons mtist be taken ifi ibl
sense of testing, tt^g. Acfiorclipg to St. ^ameQ
(i, 12 sqq.), the natural source fH man's temptatioiu

eoneupiscence, or that pronraiesB to evil whidi u}
As result of the fall of Adun,, and whi^h xemtunii ^

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monr

hamac nature after baptismal regenemtion, and even
thotuii the soul ia in the state of sanctifying ^raoe
<cf. Rom., Tiii, 1). Concupisoenoe becomes amful
only when freely yielded to; when resisted with God's
help, it is an occasion of merit. Together with in-
ward concupiscence, and outward cxeaturee, which
may be the occasion of sin (I John iL 15 sqq.), the
chief cause of temptation ia Satan, "the tempter"
(Matt., iv, 3), heat on man's eternal ruin (Eim., Tt,
10 sciq.). In the lord's Prayer, the clause ''Lead us
not mto temptation" is an humble and trusting pe-
tition for God's help to enable us to overcome tempta-
tion when Hia Fatherly Providence allows us to ex-
perience the allurements evil. Prayer and watch-
fulness are the chief weapons against temptation
(Mark, xiv, 38; etc.). God does not allow man to be
tempted bf^ond his strength (I Cor., x, 13).

Like Adam, Christ, the second Adam, endured
temptation omy from without, inasmuch as His hu-
man nature was free from aU concupiscence; but un-
like Adam, He withstood the assaulto of the Tempter
on all points, thereby affording His mystical mem-
bers a perfect model of resistance to their q>iritual
enemy, and a permanent source of victorious he^
(Heb., iv, 15-16). In our first three Gospels (Matt.,
IT, 1-11; Mark, i, 12-13; Luke, iv, 1-13)^ ttte nar^
Tatlve of Christ's temptation is placed in immediate
connexion with His baptism on the one hand, and
with the beginning of His public miniat^ on the
other. The reason of this is clear. The SyuopUsta
naturally regard the baptism of Christ as the external
designation of Jesus from above for His Messianic
work to be pursued under the guidance of the Holy
Spirit bestowed upon Him on this occasion; and they
no less naturally regard Christ's sojourn in the desert
where He was tempted, as His own immediate prepa-
ration for that ^reat work under the guidanoe of the
Bame Holy Spirit. As our first three Gospels agree
concerning the time to which the;y assifp the tempta-
tion of Christ, so they are at one m ascribing the same
general place to its occurrence vi«. "the desert",
whereby they no doubt mean the Wildonees of Ju-
dea, where Jesus wouki indeed be. as St. Mark saya:
"with beasts". From St. Mark (i, 13)-^with whom
compare St. Luke iv, 2 — we learn that Jesus Christ
was tempted during the forty days which He spent in
the desert (cf. St. Augustine, "Harmony of theEvan-

gelists", II, xvi), so that the three onsets given in
etail by St. Matthew and St. Luke are aj^parently
the three final assaults of Satan against Chnst. The
first of these assaults is directly connected in both St.
Matthew fmd St. Luke with the prolonged fast of
Jesus in the wilderness. The Tempter suggested to
Jesus that He should use His miraculous power to re-
lieve His hunger, by changing into bread the loaf-like
flints of the desert. The two other assaults are given
in a different order, St. Matthew adhering probably
to the order of time, and St. Luke to that of place.
The spot pointed out by tradition as the summit from
which Satan offered to Jesus dominion ova- all
earthly kingdoms is the "Quarantania"^ a limestone
peak on the road from Jen^alem to Jencbo. As re-

gards the Temple's pinnacle from which the Tempter
ade JesuB cast Himself down, it was not the top of
the House of Yahweh, but probably the roof of &la-
mon's portico from which, at a later date, St. James
was actually hurled to the pavement below (Euse-
bins, "Hist, eccl.", IV. xiii).

According to St. Luke (iv, 13), after having sub-
jected Christ to all kinds of temptations, — the Measi-
anic iniport of which ia undoubted, — Satan withdrew,
awaiting a favourable opportunity like that which fol-
lowed Christ's prolonged fast in the desert. The
later conflict thus alluded to is no other than that of
Christ's Passion (cf. Luke, xxii, 53; John, xiv, 30).
The ministry of angels to Jesus, in connexion with Hia
temptation, ia mentioned in Mark, i, 13< Sfttan'a

exact manner of appearance to Jesus is not stated by
the Evangelists. Despite the difficulties ui^ea,
ohiefiy by non-Catholic scholars, against the histori-
cal character of the three temptations of Jesus, as
recorded by St. Matthew and St. Luke, it ia [Main
that these sacred writers intended to describe an
actual and viable approach of Satan, to chronicle an
actual shifting of places, etc.( and that the traditional
ykm, which maintains the objective nature of Christ's
temptations, is the only one meeting all the require-
ments of the Gospel narrative.

(Catholie Authon ar» marked with an astenak). Life of
Chrtit: •Ciooi (KlaBenfurt. 1896-1905); • Didon <tr. New York.
1891); Edbmbshi (N«w York. 1884)i Fabkab (London, 1874);
«PoKMami (Rome, 1901): • FoFtitn (*r. New Ycrk, ISSlf;
a«uu« (New York, 1886) ; • 0 n m m .iUti^on. HoLTtUANw
ftr.London, 1904);Kkiii (tr I > i 1S70-83): '1-e Tivi.-:* ftr.
New York. 1900-08); NBA^"hll rr T^dcm. 1871); PHKr^KKnA
(Paria. 1884); Robinbon (L -i. l. ... i^f*); *SatJwo (Kreil.mrB.
187fi);*8BPPAND*HANEBEi. . t: -.n-r-ia. Weim (it.

Edinburgh, I883-i). For C . r

Mattbbw. OowblofSt.; Mahi;, (ioHkBi. or St : Litkk, Gmmi.
orSr. For tbi Ktnaiy aiiaJjpB'of the 6rniii.tii-iij rin/juDu ni
Chrirt's twnpUtfoa. ice N*v tatk Utrimt, Oci N " -. '

Fhancis E, 'iriiiir.

Taiudn, PiBHRE-GuiRiN DK, French statesman
and cardinid, b. at Grenobl^ 22 August, 1680; d. at
Lyons, 2 Mittrch, 1758. Alter studying with the
Oratorians at Gren-
oble he entered
the Sorbonne,
where he became
prior in 1702, and
obtained the doc-
torate in 1705. He
was then appointed
Vicar -General of
Sens and, in 1721,
accompanied Car-
dinal de Rohan to
Rome as his con-
clavist, to support
the candidacy of
Cardinal Conti
(Innocent XIII),
from whom he had
obtained a promise
to bestow tne pur-
ple on the un-
worthy fVenoh min-
ister Dubois. He remained at Rome as I^Vench
charge d'affaires until Benedict XIII, with whom
he was very influential, consecrated him Arch-
bishop of Embrun (26 June, 1724). With the
selfish motive of paving his way to higher ecclesi-
astical honours, he was overzealous in the persecu-
tion of the Jansenists, and, at the provincial synod
which he held at Embrun from 16 August to 28
September, 1727, he suspended Bishop Jean Soanen
of Senez, a prelate eighty years of age, who had
appealed against the Bull "Unigenitus". On 22
Februaiy, 1739, Tencin was created cardinal, of the
title of Sts. Nereus and Achilleus. He remained at
Rome as French ambassador until 1742, when he took
possession of the archiepiacopal See of Lyons, to
which he had succeeded on 19 November, 1740. King
Louis XV appointed him minister of state in Septem-
ber, 1742. After the death of the Prime Mmister
Fleury, to whom he owed much of his political ad-
vancement, his influence began to decrease. The
death of his profligate sister, Madame Tencin, on 4
Dec.j 1749, removed the greatest spur of his political
ambition, and in 1752 he retired to his See ot Lyons.

MAaaoy, Madame de TtTtein (Paris, 1900), passim; Cakdblu.
Memorit ttarieke de' eardinati delta tarda roma-na ekieea, Vllf
fSome, 1704), 296-8: M. R., Merfaoflrdiffa LA«neo*»chi<M» oiler
CaidinHU dtr rOm. hatkoL Kirch* die in dietem ietttlaM/eitdm^
Secuh dot ZtiOidu verbuim ftoben. III (Ratisbon, 1772}, 282-98.
For the comptoto Acta of ths Provinoial Synod of Embrun, aee
Makbi, CalMio amjdi—ima, oontiouad by MaBTiN and Pvnr,
XXXVII (Jhuk, 1006), «08, 88B. MiOBAEL OlT.

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TOIBBfta 5

Tsnebnft is the name given to the aerriee of Matins
and Lauds belonging to the last thtee days of Holy
Week. This service, as the "Cttremoniale episoopo-
rum" expressly directs, is to be anticipated ana it
should be sung shortly after Compline "about the
twenty-first hour", i. e. about three p. m. on the ere
of the d^ to whicn it belongs. "On the three days
before Easter", says Benedict XIV (Institut., 24},
**Lauds follow immediately on Matins, which in this
occasion terminate with the close of day, in order to
signify the setting of the Sun of Justice and the dark-
ness of the Jewish people who knew not our Lord and
condemned Him to the gibbet of the cross." Orig-
inally Matins on these days, like Matins at all other
seasons of the year, were sung shortly after midnight,
and eonsequently if the U^ts were extin^isbed the
darkness was complete. That this puttmg out <A
lights dates from the fifth century, so far at least as
regards the night Office, is highly^ probable. Both in
the first Ordo Romanus and in the Ordo of St. Amand
published by Duchesne a great point is made of the

Sadual extinction of the lights during the Friday
atina; though it would seem that in this earlieet
period the Matins and Lauds of the Thursday were
sung throughout with the church brightly iUuminatad
(ecoemo omni lumine decoretvr). On Fnday the can-
dles and lamps were gradually extinguished during
the three Noctums, whue on Saturday the churchy was
in darkness from bc^ning to end, save that a sii^e
candle was kept near the lectern to read by.

All this suggests, as Kutschker has remarked, that
the Office of Vkeae three days was treated as a sort of
funeral service, or dirge, oonunemorating the death of
Jesus Christ. It is natural also that, since Christ
by convention was re«arded as having lain three days
and three nights in the tomb, these obsequies should
have come in the end to be celebrated on each of the
three separate occasions with the same demonstra-
tions of mourning. There can be no reasonable
doubt that it was from the extinguishing of lights that
the service came to be known as Tenebne, though the
name itself seems to have arisen somewhat lata:. The
liturgist de Vert has suraested an utilitarian explana-
tion of the putting out of the candles one by one, con-
tendiM that the gradual approach of the dawn ren-
dered the same number of lights unnecessary, and that
the number was conse«uentl^ diminished as the ser-
vice drew to a close. This view seems sufficiently re-
futed by the fact that this method of gradual extinc-
tion is mentioned by the first Ordo Romanus on the
Friday only. On the SatunW we are explicitly told
that the lights were not lit. Moreover, as pointed out
under Holt Week (VII. 437), the tone of the whole
Office, which seems Woly to nave varied in any res-
pect from that now heard in our churches, is most
noticeably mournful — the lessons taken from the
Lamentations of Jeremias, the omission of the Gloria
Patri, of the Te Deum, and of blessings etc., all sug-
gest a service cognate to the Viulia Mortuonun, just
as the brilliant illumination of the Easter eve spoke of
triumph and of joy, so the darkness of the preceding
night^ services seems to have been designedly chosen
to mark the Church's desolation. In anv case it is to
be noticed that the Office of these three aays has been
treated by liturgical reformers throughout the ages
with scrupulous respect. The lessons from Jeremias
in the first Noctum, from the Commentaries of St.
Augustine upon the nalms in the seoond, and from
lAa Epistles of St. Paul in the third remain now as
when we first hear of them in the eighth century.

The Benedictine Order, who normally have their
own arrangement of psalms and noctums, differing
from the Roman, on these three days conform to the
ordinary Roman practice. Even the shifting of the
hour from midnignt to the previous afternoon, when
no real darkness can be secured, seems to have been
promptsd 1^ the desire to render tbeae sublime Offices

16 TIMKDOS

more accessible to clergy and laity. Already in the
thirteenth century it seems probable that at Rome
Tenebrse began at four or five o'clock on the Wednes-
day (see Ord. Rom., xiv, 82, and Ord. Rom., xv, 62).
Drapite the general uniformity of this service through-
out the Western Church, there was also a certain
divmity of usage in some details, more particularly
in the number of candles which stood in the Tenebrse
hearse, and in some accretions which, e^ectally in the
Sanim Use, marked the termination of the service.
With regard to the candles Durandus speaks of as
many as seventy-two being lued in some churches and
as few as nine or seven in others. In Engird the
Sarum Ordin^ prescribed twenty-four, ana this was
the general number in this country, variously ex-

§lained as symbolizing the twentv-four hours of the
ay, or the twelve Apostles with the twelve Firophets.
A twentv-fifth candle was allowed to remain hghted
and hidden, as is done at the present day, behind the
altar, when all the others had been graduaJly ex-
tinffuished. At present, the rubrics of the "Ceremo-
niaJe," etc., prescribe the use of fifteen candles. TTie
noise made at the end of Tenebne undoubtedly had ita
origin in the ngnal given b^ the master of ceremonies
for the return of the ministers to the sacristy. A
number of the earlier Ceremoniales and Ordines are
explicit on the point. But at a later date others lent
their aid in matdng this knocking. For example Pa-
tricius Piccolomini says: "The prayer being ended the
master of ceremonies b^ns to best with his hand
upon the altar step or upon some bench, and all to
some extent make a noise and clatt»". This was
afterwards symbolically interpreted to r^Hvsent the
oonvulmon oif nature which followed the death of
Jesus Christ.

Rdtschkmb, Dit h»3iem Otbrauche (Viennft, 1843); Catauiti,
Comment. emnmoniaU epCfeo|wrum, II (Rodw, 1744), 241—
fiO; MASTiNB, D* antiaiiH tedfin ritilnM. Ill fVenioe, 1788).
81^i Mtd IV, m-Mi Twaaasov, Lmt and Holy Widt (LodcIod.

Herbbbt Thubston.

TMWdOff a titular see, suffragan of Rhodes in the

Cyclades. The island, called m Turkish B(whas-
Adassi, has an area of 16 square miles and 6000 in-
habitants, of whom 3000 are Greek schismatics.
It is a casa of the sanjak of Lemnos in the vilayet
of Rhodes. It seems to have been called by various
names, such as Leucophrys, Calydna, Phoenice, and
Lymessus. The name Tenedos is derived from
Tenes, one of the heroes of the l^jan War. In this
connexion Homer and Virgil make frequent mention
of the iskmd, which must have been used bv the Gre^
as a station for their fleet. Captured by the Per-
sians, who used it as a naval station, it afto^ards be-
came the ally and tributary of Atnens, to which it
was faithful during the Peloponnesiaii War until the
peace of Antalcidas in 368 b. c. Subject to Alexander
and his successors^ though retaining its internal or-
ganisation, it fell mto the power of the Romans in
129 B. c. and was rav^ea by Verres. In 73 b. c.
Lucullus destroyed a part of the fleet of Mithridatee
there. Justinian built there large storehouses to
contain the grain broujdit from Alexandria (Pro-
copius^ "De adificiis", V, i). The Venetians cap-
tured it in 1377; Mohammed II wrested it from them
in the fifteenth century, but they recaptured it in
1056, though but for a short time. Canaris burned
the 'Tmrkish fleet there in 1822. Le Quiot (Or^ns
dirist., I, 947-SO) maitions the bishops: Diodonu,
at Sardica in 344; Anastasius, a partisan fxf Nes-
torius; Florentius in 451; Joseph in 1356. In Sqitem-
ber, 1369, Harmodius, Bishop of Boreia Potami'a, was
transferred to the metropolitan See of Tenedos
(Mtklosich and MtUler, "Acta patriarchatus Con-
Btantinopolitani", I, 511). At first a suffragtn of
Cyzicus and then of Mitylene, at least from the
toith century (Qebv. "Ungedrudcte . . . Teste dor

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Notitis episoopataum", 659; "Qeorgii Cyprii De-
scTiptiooroisroinani", SS), Tenedoa waa raised to the
nu)k of a metropolitan see shortly after the death of
Andronicus III in 1341 (Geliw, op. cit.^ 601; 608).
In 1342 it had already become such (Miklosicb and
MlUler. op. cit., 1, 2S0). In October, 1368, the metro-
politan See of Tenedo8 was given to the metropoli-
tan of I^theorium in Thrace (op. eit., I, SOI). In
a notitia " of the fifteenth century the see is no
longtt moitioDed.

umm. RnptMiea Tmtdiormm (Copenhafeo, 1735) ; Storm,
MHtL of Oridi and Koman Oma, v.; L&oiotz, lUt d» la Orie$,
(Pub, 1868), 33&-47; CO£Nbt, La TurvtU d-Ane, I, 400-97.

S. VailhA.

Tuierlffe, Diocbsb of (Tbnbiufbnsis), sufFragao
<rf SeviUe, fonnerbr called Ni-rarienais from Nivana,
the ancient name of the island (Pliny, VI, xxxii;
Filippo BCTgamo, XVI, "sup. chronic.''). Teneriffe,
K^ich is situated in the centre of the Canary Archi-

E^tago, is the principal, most fertile, and most popu-
us 01 the islands. It contains the famous Pico de
Ttsyde (Peak of Teneriffe), the ancient Mount At-
l&nte, nsing 12,200 feet high, a guiding point (or
sailors since the time of the Phoenician Hercules.
This diocese comprises the Islands of Teneriffe,
I^fana, G<miera, and Ferro (Hierro), is situated be-
tween 13° and i&* W. long., and has beloi^ed to
^ain since the time of its conquest, 1402-1496.
Teneriffe waa the last of the Canary Islands to sur-
render; more Spanish blood was shed in its conquest
than in the subjugation of the empires of the Incaa
and Montesumas. In the battle of Acentejo alone
OOO of Uie 1120 who composed the conqueri^ army
were lost. The aborigmes. of the Guanehe race, were,
however, quick to assimiliate the manners and the
customs of the conquerors, and if this island were the
last to surrender, it was soon the centre of the poHtical
and military organizations, although not of the eccle-
siastical, because of the unexpected translation of the
first see m the Canaries from Rubic6n on the Island of
Lanzarote to Las Palmas of the Gran Canaria.

The people, however, through their representatives
p^tioned the Cortes of Cadu (14 S^t., 1813) for
theb own ecclesiastical administration. It is inter-
eating to note that it was one of these representatives,
who, neii^ at Philadelphia in 1788, urged through the
Nuncio Vmcenti the establishment of the first Catho-
lic diocese in the United States of America (Diario de
laa Cortes de Cadiz sesion de 18 de Enero de 1813).
As a result of their petition an auxiliary bishop was
appointed in 1816, and the Diocese of Teneriffe was
erected m 1819 by the Bull of Pius VII dated 1 Feb-
ruary, 1818, the Church of Los Remedios at San Oris-
t^bal de la I^^pina being designated as the cathedral.
In 1823 the Nuncio Mastai Ferreti, during hisvovf^
to Chile, was impressed by the importance and the
necessity of this see, and on this account when later
as Pius IX he was obhged by the Concordat of 1851
with Spain to suppress it, he did so with r^^t, and ia
1876, when certain concessions and modifications of
this concordat were solicited, one of the conditions for
granting them was the restoration of this see. This
was granted, but, as the Bull of suppression had never
been issued, Rome was not obliged to take any steps
for the re-€8tab!ishment. In the ninety-two years of
its existence, besides the vicars capitular who have
administered the diocese during the time of vacancies,
the following bishops have governed the see: Fol-
gueras Si6n, first bishop, academician, author of
various works, includhtg a translation of Juvenal
(1825-48); Lluchand Urquinaona, bishops of Gran
Canaria, as administrators Apostolic (1825-48); In-
fante Macias, author of a volume of sermons (1877-
82): Cervera Cervera (1882-4); Torrijos G<Smez
(1888-94); and since 1894 the present bishop, Mgr.
NiooUs lUy Redondo, who was bom at Melgar de
Fflnumwatfil, Buigos, Spain, on 4 Jan., 1834, <h^-

dained in 1860, i^jpobted to this see on 21 May,
1894, and oonsecrated at Burgos, 9 Sept., 1894.

The diocese numbers 208,000 souls, and has a cathe-
dral, fifty-nine parishes, a seminary, 6 religious com-
munities of men: Missionaries of the Immaculate
Heart of Maiy, 1: Lasarists, 3; Christian Brothers, 2;
and 14 bouses of women: Dominicanesses,!; Fran-
etacaneeses, 1; Conceptionists, 1; Assumptionists,
1: Teaching Sisters of St. Dominic, 2; Servants of
Marjr, 8; Franciscan Hospitaller Sisters, 1; Sisteraof
Chanty, 3; Little Sisters of the Poor, 1. A Catholic
daily, "Gaceta de Tenerife", and the official bulletin,
"Butetfn oficial del obispado de Tenerife", are pub-
bshed in the diocese. Among the notable personages
who are natives of this island may be mentioned Uie
Ven. Joa6 Anchieta. apostle of Brasilj and Yen. Pedro
Bethancourtj found«> of the Bethlemites, a hospitaller
order of Latm America. It has also given two mar-
tyrs to the Church, Fray Luis de Aguirre, Augustin-
iao, in Quecija, Granada, and the Jesuit, Pedro Par-
nuio de Le6n, in Japan, three archbishops, and ten
bishops, six to America and four to Europe. Among
the notable buildings ma^ be mentioned the cathedral
:^uilt by the present bishop, the parochial churches
m La Conc^ion of Laguna, and those of Santa C!nu,
Orotava, and Realejo-bajo, Garachico and Icod on
the Island of Teneriffe, and Salvador on the Island of
Falma, all containing art works of merit. The pul-
pit of the cathedral, carved in marble, and that of
La Concet>ci<Sn, a wood carving, bear comparison with
those of toe churches of Brussels.

ViKSA T CuviJO, Natieiat tie la hiat., gen. de la* Itlat Canariaa
(Mwlrid. 1772-^), I, iii. 244, 284; II, ix, 208, 255; IV, xviii, 42S,
489; NtSn am la FkAi.. VU, SO; XI, 81; Millabss, Hut.

de Uu f«I(u CaTiariat (Lu Palmas, 1893); Th« Canarian. or Book
of the Cm«WMf and Cotnarrion of the Catuiridnt in vtar 140$,
Mtttin /mm BitkmeouH, e«mpoMd by Pierr* fiontMr, Honk,
«ml Jtmht Vtrtiir, Priut, tr. Mtd ed. with notaa. Major (Lon-
don, 1873).

JobA RodrIqubz Moure,

Tenlen, David, the luime of two eminent Flemish
landsc^K painters; the elder, b. at Antwerp in 1582;
d. th(a« in 1649; the younger, b. at Antwerp in 1610;
d. at Brussels in „ ^-^-—^^^^s-i-^^
1694. Of these *^ - js.^mri*^*

two men, the
younger was by
far the greater,
echpeing m skill
the work of his
father. Teniers
the elder was the
son of a mercer,
Julian Teniers, and
was brought up
and trained by his
elder brother. He
entered for a while
the school of Ru-
bens, later on vis-
ited Italy, and
studied under El-
sheimer in Rome.
He returned to his
own country in
1606 and spent
the re«t of his life David TBraia, m YotTwoai
at Antwerp, paint- Engi»Fed from a •etf-t>ortnh
ing landscape pictures, illustrations from rural sporte,
and some classical and historical scenes. His son,
David Teniers the younger, was one of four broth-
ers, David, Julian, theodore, and Abraham, wd
he in his turn had a son and a grandson named
David. Nothing whatever is known of the per-
sona who taught the younger Teniers; in all prob-
ability he was brou^t up in his father's studio,
althoudi it has been stated by some writers that
he waned luuln Rubens, or under Bnmwer. He

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oert&inly was on terms of intimate acquaintance with
Rubens, but we hear noUiing of this acquaintance
until 1637, when he married Anne> the daughter of
Braeghet, the pupil of Rubens, and the great painter
oame to tqe wedding. The ^1 was not yet seventeen;
she bore Teniers five children and died in 1656.
Six months later, Toiiers married Isabel, the daughter
of an eminent peiwn who wasaecnrtaiy to the Cwncal
of Brabant.

Teniers is said to have received a fortime with each
wife, and to have made a great deal of money from the
B^e of his pictures. It is certain that he nad ample
means, was able to purchase a ohAteau, to live in good
circumstances, and eventually to obtain admission to
the ranks of the nobility af ter ne had ceased to exercise
his profession for gain. The statement of his appeal
to oe received as a member of an old family and the
description of his coat of arms are still in existence. He
was patronized by the Governor of the Netherlands,
the Archduke William, and by his successor Don Juan
of Austria. Philip IV and Qvistina of Sweden were
also amongst the eminent persons yrbo gave him com-
nussions for pictures. He was a man of the greatest
industry, and his delightful little works, perhaps num-
b«ing nearly eight hundred in all, are to be found ^
over Europe. As a rule, they are scenes from peasant
life, painted in beautifid colour schemes and dex-
terously handled. They can be studied especially in
the ^aUeriee of Dresden, Glasgow, the National Gal-
leiy m London, the Louvre, the Prado, the Iimiaial
Gallery ' at Vienna, and the Hennitage at St. Peters-
burg. Of these galleries the Louvre hu the greatest
number, possessing nearly forty ecamples of the work
of this skilful painter. Akrae amonsBt the members
of his family, he appem to have beoi a practical
CaUiolie.

WAVTOa, Tk» Fkmiah Sehod of Paintirio (Braasels, 1877).

Gbobos Chables Williah&on.

TeniMUM.— The State of Tennessee lies between
36* and 36* 30' N. lat. and 81* 37' and 90" 28' W.
Its greatest length from east to west is 432
miles, and its ex-
treme width 100
miles; its total area
is 43,022 square
miles. It touches
eight states on its
borders, a greater
number than is
touched by the
boundaries of any
other state in the
Union except Mis-
aouji. It is un-
equalled in the
number and excel-
lence of its navijra-
ble rivers.. The
Mississippi River washes its western boundary' and
the placid Tennessee and beautiful Cumberlandi with
sources in other states, furnish cheap water transpor-
tation for the varied products of the soil and of^Uie
uunes.

I. Ph^cal CaARACTBBisncs.— The state has e^t
great natural divisions: the Appialachian chain of
mountains, called the Unakas, rises on its eastern
borders, the highest peaks of which attain an eleva-
tion of more than 6000 feet above the sea. Adjoin-
ing these mountains on the west and in between them
and the Cumberland table-land is the valley of east
Tennessee, a succession of ridges and minor valleys
running in almost unbroken lines from nra^-east to
south-west. Next in order comes the Cumberland
t^le-land, an elevated plateau, which rises 2000
feet above the sea. The soil of tins division is sandy,
thin and unproductive, and of but little agricultural

importance. Beneath it, however, are buried vast
treasures of ooal and iron, and its area is 5100 square
miles. Rising against the western edge of the Cum-
beriand table-land and extending to the Tennessee
River, with an average elevation of 1000 feet alxive
the sea, are the highlands or terrace lauds, diversi-
fied in places with rolling hills and wide valleys. The
soil in this divison ia of varying fertility and of great
agricultural importance and wealth. In the centre of
these highlands and surrounded by them is the great
central basin. The soil of tiiis loasin is highly pro-
ductive of all crops suitable to the altitude, and it haa
been well named "The Garden of Tennessee". Ite
area is 5450 square miles and it has an average de-
pression of 300 feet below the highlands. The next
natural division is the western vaUey, or the Valley of
the Tennessee. This is a comparatively narrow val-
ley with spurs from the highlands running in towards
it and sometimes down to the margin of the Tennessee
River. The soil is fertile, but marshy spots covwed
witii eypceea occur in places along tne river. The
average width of Uus valley is ten or twelve miles and
its length the breadth of the state. It has an area of
1200 square miles and an elevation of 350 feet above
the sea. The plateau or slope of west Tennessee is
the seventh natural division and peculiar in having
but few rooks, differing in this particular from all the
divisions above mentioned. It is a ^at plain, slop-
ing g;radually towards the Mississippi River and
varying widehria the character of its sou and scenery.
Furrowed witn rivsr valleys, this division extends for a
distance of 84 miles, when it abruptly terminates in
the greats Pj'^ bottoms qf the Mississippi. The
soil of this division is light and very fertile. The bot-
toms of the Misaissippi form the last natural division
of the state and constitute a low. fertile, alluvial plain
teeming with a luxurious vegetable life that is almost
tropicEu.

These eight natural divisions have been reduced to
three civil divisions: (1) east Tennessee comprises all
the territory from the North Carolina line to about
the centre of the Cumberland table-land; (2) middle
Tennessee extends from the dividing line on the Cum-
berland table-land to the Tennessee River; (3) west
Tennessee extends from the Tennessee River to the
Mississiwi River. The dimate is mild, rewltinc
from latitude and elevation interwoven and modified
by varieties of soil, position, exposure, and chains of
mountain ranges, bo that the characteristic climate ct
every state in the Union may be found in it. In the
spring and autumn the climate is unsurpassed. The
summer and winter seasons are short. The mean an-
nual temperature is about 57 in the valley of east
Tennessee, 58 in middle Tennessee, and 59 in west

II. HisTORT.— The first ei^edition of white men
into the country included within the limits of the
OTesent State of Tennessee was that of Fernando
De Soto in the year 1540. Accounts given of De
Soto's marches by his followers have led to the belief
that he entered Tennessee near its eastern boundary
and advanced across almost its entire width, reaching
the Mississippi River at a point now occupied by the
dly of Memphis. At the time of this expemtion
Tennessee was unoccupied except by the CnmKhee
Indians, who inhabited that part bordering on the
Tennessee River; the Choctaws, the upper Cumber-
land; Shawnees, the lower Cumberland; and the
Chickasaws used and claimed the territory between tha
Tennessee and Mi8sissi|)pi Rivers, now west Tennessee.
The rich section of middle Tennessee was then re-
garded by the Indians as common hunting-ground and
was not used by them for any other purpose. In 1673
Father Marquette and Joliet descended the Misuo-
sippi River and made maps of the country, especially
noting Chickasaw Bluffs, on which Memphis is now
dtuated. In IQSSi Xa Salle made his famous voyage

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down the Mississippi; claiming the territory for
France, and named it Louisiana. He stopped at
Chickasaw Bluffs and constructed a cabin and fort
which he named "P*rud 'homme", made a treaty
with the Indians, and establish^ trading- posts.
Other EVench trading-poets were soon thereafter
established among the Indians. Among these was
the post of M. Qiarleville, the French trader who
boilt the first store at Salt Lick on the Cimiberland,
where Nashville now stands. The English, in the
meantime, were colonizing the country from the
Atlantic seaboard westward, and in 1766 completed
their first structure in Tennessee, when the first Eng-
lish settlements were made within its limits.

In 1772 the Watauga settlement established a free
and independent Government with the first written
Ck>nBtitution adopted in America. This Government
continued until the beginning of the Revolution in
1775, preserving its independenoe of all other Govern-
ments, including that of North Carolina, its mother
colony, until the beginning of the conflict with Great
Britam, when the Watauga and Nollachucky settle-
ments of Tennessee formed themselves into the
Washington District. In 1776 these settlements
were annexed to the State of North Carolina and
became Washington Coun^. In 1779 a band of
■adventurous spirits from Watauga, led by James
Robertson, known as "The Father of Tennessee",
reached the present site of Nashville. The settle-
ment was then called Nashboro. Captain Demon-
brenm, a Fnaehman, had, howev^ established a poet
at the same place in 177o. In 1780 another bimd of
colonists reached NashviHe by way of the Cumber-
land and Tennessee Rivo^, and in the same vear a
public meeting or convention was held in Nashville,
which adopted articles of agreement for the common
defense and general welfare, the control of this Gov-
ernment being vested in a court or government of
notables, consisting of ten. This settlement was en-
gaged in almost constant warfare with the Indians.
In 1780 an anny of Tennessee colonists was organized
for service against the British. These colonists,
having been isolated from the colony of Nortii Caro-
lina by the moimtains, were up to this year so. con-
stantly engaged in resisting the attacks of the Indians,
it was impossible to render much, if any, assistance
directly gainst the British. However, after the
defeat of the Revolutionary army by Gener^ Clinton
in North Carolina, an army of Tennessee oolonists,
led by Colonel Isaac Shelby and Colonel John Sevier,
advanced into North Carolina and ^ter several
successful engagements with detachments of tJie
British army met and annihilated on King's Mountain
an armj^ of British veterans under command of the
distinguished British officer, Colonel Ferguson. The
skill and gallantry of the officers and the valour of
the men of Tennessee in this battle mark it as one of
the glorious events of the state's history.

In 1785 the territoiy including the State of Ten-
nessee was ceded by North Carolina to the United
States. Some dissatisfaction having arisen between
the colonists of Tennessee and the Government of
North Carolina, in August, 1784, a convention com-
piosed of delegates from several of the counties peti-
tioned Congress to accept the cession of North Caro-
lina and permit the inhabitants of the territory to
fonn a govraimient to be admitted into the Union aa
a state. In September oS the same year a convention
was held at Jonesboro, but adjourned without tdcins
any decisive action. Another convention was held
in the same place in November, 1785, and a mo-
visional Constitution was put into operation. The
new state was called "Frankland, the Land of the
Free". The name was soon after changed or recog-
nised as "Franklin", when or by whom cannot he
accurately determined. North Carolina oontinued
to legpslate and execute her lavs within the juriadio-

tion of Franklin, and a compromise was ineffectually
attempted. Pending these negotiations and the
operations of the contending Governments^ control of
the State of rVanklin was generally recognized, peace
was maintained among the colonists under the laws
of fVanklin, and a continuous Indian warfare carried
on. The cession of North Carolina was attempted by
Congress, 2AiHril, 1700, and the countrj^ was governed
as a territory for six years, during which the Indian
wars were constant and bloody. In 1813 news
reached Nashville of the outbreak of the Indians in
Alabama and several massacres by them of the whites,
particularly the settlement at Fort Mimms near
Mobile. A public meeting was held, resulting in a
request to General Andrew Jackson to take command
of an army of volunteers called by the Legi^ture
<rf the State Tennessee and enrolled in service
after a few days. Although Jackson was liien con-
valescing from wounds he had received in a fray with
the Bentons, within nine days he took command of
the volunteer army and proceeded against the In-
dians. After several encounters they were signally
defeated and their power utterly and permanenthr
broken at Bnotachopco and Tohopeka on 24 and 2/
January, 1813. It was the creation of tins army
under Jackson that gave Tennessee ^e name of
"The Volunteer State^'.

On 8 Jan^ 1815, Jackson with an army consisting
largely of Tennesseeans fought the battle of New
Orleans. The main attack of the British, who were
commanded by Sir Edward Packingham, one of the
ablest of Welungton's lieutenants and composed of
veterans seasoned by the Napoleonic wars, was de-
feated by the Tennessee riflemen under Generals
Carroll and Coffee. With the adoption of the Con-
stitution of 1834 Tennessee entered u^n a new epoch
in her history and then became an important factor
in national politics. Jackson was elected president
in 1828 and rejected in 1832. Jsjnes K. Polk was
elected ' presidmt in 1844. Tomesseeans figured
prominently hi the Mexican War of 1847, W.OOO
volunteers tendering their services upon the caU of
Governor Brown. On 9 Feb., 1861, an Section was
held upon the question of holding a convention to
determine whether or not Tennessee should secede
from the Union of States. The State refused to secede
by a vote of 24,794 favouring secession to 88,803 in
favour of the Union. After the proclamation of
President Lincoln on 16 April calling for 76,000
troops, a series of {nrodamations were issued dedaring
the ports of the seceded states in a state of blockade *
and all vessels acting under the seceded states guilty
of piracy. This announcement of the purpose of the
Federal Government to resort to coercion produced a
revolution of sentiment in Tennessee. The Legis-
lature, convened in extra session 25 April, passed an
ordinance of secession and submitted it to popular
vote in an election to be held 8 June, 1861. The
ordinance was ratified by a vote of 104,913 in its
favour to 47,238 against it.

Meantime an intense Union sentiment developed
extensivelv in east Tennessee. The leading states-
men of tnat section, Andrew Johnson, afterwards
President of the United States, Wm. G. Brownlow,
Thomas A. R. Nelson, and Horace Maynard, espoused
the cause of the Union. A convention was held on
17 June, 1861, at Greoiville, to consider the forma-
tion of a new state ccnnposea of east Tennessee and
such adjoining counUes of middle Tennessee as might
vote to be included. The new state was never formed,
but many east Tennesseeans joined the Federal army.
Many of the bloodiest battles of the Civil War were
fought within the borders of Tennessee: Fort Henry,
Fort Donelson, Shiloh, Murfreesboro or Stone's
River, Nashville, Franklin; the battle of Chicka-
mauga was fought lancdy on the Georgia border and
tor the poBsesBion of Tenneesee. On 16 F^i^^^} ^

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in coosequence of the fall of Fort Donelsoo, the L^ift*
Uture adjourned to Memphis. On 23 Fdb., 1862,
Gen. Grant issued an order suQ)endinj^ civil govern-
ment in Tenneesee and declaring martial law. Pi^si-
dent Linooln appointed Andrew Johnson, Brigadier-
General and Military Governor of Tennessee. In
1865 the Conatitution of the state was amended so as
to abolish slavery, and also to {vohlbit tiie Genial
Assembly from making laws recognizing the ri^t
of property in man. On 4 March, 1865, Governor
Johnson was inaugurated as Vioe-Freedaoit of the
United States, and on 5 April following, Wm. G.
Brownlow was inaugurated kovemor.

Following the return of the Confederate . soldiers
the Legislature passed a number.of enactments which
were strongly opposed by the conservative wing of
the Ui!Uon, which led to sentiments of animosity more
bitter than the feelings engendered by war. One of
these laws practically disfranchised all persons except
those who had always been unconditioiml Union men.
Tennessee was readmitted to the Union, 23 July.
1866, Andrew Johnson, then President of the United
States, signing the bill. Tennessee was the only one
of the seceding states to abolish slavery by its own
act. From the beginning of the slavery agitation
there was a strong abolition party in Tennessee. In
1820, "The Emancipator", the first ablation journal
in the United States, was published by Elihu Embry
at Jonesboro. The Ka Klux Klan was organized in
Pulaski, middle Tennessee, in the summer of 1866,
and was originally intended for tiie amusement of a
band of young men who had returned from the Con-
federate army. It afterwards spread throughout the
South, becoming a strongly partisan organiEation
operated for the protectHHi oS Confederate e^m-
pathizers against the evils and dangers of the period.
In 1869 the Confederate element r^ained control of
the.State, and on 10 June, 1870, another constitutional
convention was held. The Constitution there adopted
was ratified by the people, 26 March, 1871, and is
fliill in foroe.

III. Fopci^TiOM. — ^The population of - the state
under tiie federal census of 1900 vaa 2,020,616:
1,021,224 males and 999,302 females; of whom
2j002^0 were native bom: 1,010,793 males and
992,077 females. The coloured population, including
mulattoes, Chinese, and others not of the white race,
was 480,430: 238,522 males and 241,908 females.
In 1910 the population was 2,184,789, an increase of
8.lper cent.

' IV. Rbsoubcgs.— The resources oi Tennessee are
i^undant, rich, and varied. In the eastern and a
large part of the middle diviaoons minerals abound in
practically inexhaustible beds, iHincq>alIy ooal, irtm,
copper, I^d, and zinc. Oil ana natural gas is found
in some sections. There are over 200 varieties of
marble found in Tennessee. In middle Tennessee
grass and grain are abundant and the stock-breedii^
mterests in this section are famous. Here phosphate
rock in great volume and richness is found. In west
Tennessee fruits and g^ain are extensively produced.
The principal products of this section are cotton and
com. The timber interests of the state are large
and extensive, numerous forests in various sections
of the state (poplar, oak, gum, hickory, and other
varieties of timber) being untoudied. The chief
agricultural products are cotton, wheat, hay, corn,
forage, and tobacco. The value of these products,
according to the census of 1900, was $70,745,242.
Animal products such as dairy, jpoultry, ^gs. honey,
and wax amount to $35,421,198. The cmei manu-
factories are flour and grist mills, producing an-
nually, according to the census of 1900, products
valued at $21,798,929: lumber and timber, $18J27,-
784; tobacco, snuff, cigars, etc., $3,010,602. These
with other manufactures make an annual production
ndued at $106,144,566. The pnxluotknu of the

mmes were: coal, $5,399,721; phoei^iate rock,
$1,308,872; iron. $1,123,527; marble, $618,256;
limestone and dobmites, $482,033: all others,
$76073, aggregating $9,533,782.

V. Educahon. — With a scholastic population of 771,-
734, of which 587,088 are white and 184,646 colour^,
there are enrolled in the public schools of Tennessee,
411,910 white and 100,24S coloured pupils. There are
over 200 universities, collc^, and private training
schools in the state. Its umv^ities are among those
leading in the South, notab^: Vanderbilt Uniyenity,
University of Nashville, and Peabody Normal CoW
1^ at Nashville; University of the South at Sewanee:
University of Tennessee at Knoxville; Cumberland
University at Lebanon: Fisk, Roger Williams, and
Walden Universities and Meharry Medictd Coll^ at
Nashville, the last four being devoted to the higher
education of n^^oes. For Catholic edueatien, dio-
cese and population see Nashtilix, Diocese or.

VI. Rbliqion and Rbuoioos Rbodlationb. —
The present Constitution of the State of Tenneesee de-
clares that "all men have a natural and indefeasible
right to worship Almighty God according to the dic-
tates of their own conscience; that no man can of
ru;ht be compelled to attend, erect or support any
place of worship or maintain any minist^ against his
consent; that no human , authority can, in any case
whatever, control or inteif«« with the ri^ta of con-
science; and that no preference shall be given by law
to any religiouB estaolishment or mode of worship.
That no political or religious test, other than an oath
to support the Constitution of the United States and
of this state, shall ever be required as a qualification
to any office or public trust in this state " . Christmas
Day and Good Friday are l^;al holidays. Doing or
exercising on Sunday any of the common avocations
of life, acts of real necessity or charity excepted, is for-
bidden. The mere violation of this law is not in-
dictable, but a succession of such acts^ if done so
0[>enly as to attract public observation, is indictable
as a nuisance. It is forbidden by law to swear pro-
fanely or curse in the hearing of any justice of the
peace or to use profane or blasphemous language in,
public places; any person executing any pubuc duty,
convicted of profanely swearing or cursing, must for-
feit and pay one ooUar for each oath or curse.
There is no provision in law for the use of prayer in
the L^islature, but the rules of each branch usually
provide for the f^ipointment of a chaplain by the
respective speakers. There is no statute in Uiis state
modifying the rule at common law requiring a club-
man to disclose eommunieatioQS made in confeauons.
The question has not been dedded by its courts, but it
is probable that when the question is presented the
courts of the state will follow the rule generally
adopted by the courts of other states on this subject,
which is, that all communications in the nature of
confessions or f^plications for spiritual guidance,
made to a priest or clergyman as such, in confidence
and in the course of the discipline required by the
church of which the olergymaa is a member, are
privileged.

According to the census bulletin of 1906, the church
membership of all denominations was 697,570: total
Protestant bodies, 677,947; Baptists, Southern and
National conventions, 253,141; Free Baptists, 1,840;
Free Will Baptists, 3,093;.Duck River, etc. (Baptist
Church of Christ), 4 099; Primitive Baptists, 10,204;
coloured P'-imitive Baptists, 3,268; Conp%gational-
ists, 2,426; Disciples of Christ, 14,904; Churches of
Christ, 41,411 • Lutheran, United Synods in the South,
1,678; Methodist Episcopal 46,180; Methodist ProU
estant, 2,716: Methodist Episcopal Church South,
140,308; Afncan Methodists, 50.662; Presbyterian
Church in U. S. A., 6,786; Cumberland Presbyterians,
42,464; Presbyterian Church in U. S., 21,390; Colouied
Cumberland Freafayterians, 0,640; Prestgrteriso,

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Aasociated Reformed Synod of the South, ISOi; Prot-
estant Episcopal Church, 7874; United Brethren in
Christ, 2S75; other Protestant bodies, 12,484; Ro-
man CathoUc Church, 17,252; Jewish congregations
(heads of families), 919; all other bodies, 1452.

VII. Statb Laws. — A. Oaiha we to be adminis-
tered upon the New Testament in the usual form, kiss-
mg the book as seal of confirmation of the same.
T^ooe oonsdmtiouBfy scrupulous about taking Ite
book oath may beswcmi by calling on God to witness
the truth of the statements to be made. Persons
conscientiously scrupulous about taking an oath may
make solemn affirmation in the words required. Per-
sons may also be sworn according to the forms of their
own country or particular religious creed. ^

B. Marriage cannot be contracted with a lineal
aiu»stor or descendant, nor a lineal ancestor or de-
scendant of either parent, nor the child oi a grand-
parent, nor the lineal descendant of the husbimd or
wife as fJie case may be, nor the husband or wife of
tbe par^t or lineal descendant. The intomaniage
of white persons with negroes, mulattoes or peraons of
mixed blood descended from a negro to the third gen-
eration inclusive, or their living together as man and
wife in this state is prohibited and punishable by im-
prisonment in the penitentiary A second nxarriage
cannot be ocmtracted before a dissolutimi of the first,
Init the first shall be regarded as c^esolved for this
purpose if either party has been absent five yeara and
18 not known to the other party to be living. All reg-
ular ministers of the Gospel of every denomination,
and Jewish rabbis, having the care of souls, all jus-
tices the peace, judges, chanceUors, the governor,
speaker of the Seitste, and speaker of the House of
Aepresentativee may solemnize the rite of matri-
moi^. No formula need be obsoved for such sol-
emnisation, except that the parties shall respective
declare in the presence of the minister or officer, tiiat
thev accept each other as husband or wife.

C. Divorce. — ^The following are causes of divorce
frcnn the bonds of matrimony: impotence or incapac-
ity; 'second marriages in violation of previous mar-
riage still subsisting; adultery; wilful and malicious
dfiKTtion; absence of either party without reasonable
excuse for two years; conviction of crime which, by the
laws of the state, renders the party infamous; convic-
tion of any crime which, by the laws of the state, is
declared a felony and sentenced to confinement in the
penitentiary; if either party has attempted the life of
the other by poison or other means showing malice;
refusal on the part of the wife to remove with her hus-
band to this state, without reasonable excuse, and wil-
ftdly absenting herself from home for two years; that
woman was pregnant at time of marriage by another
person without Knowledge of her husband; habitual
drunkenness acquh^ after marriage. The following
are causes of divorce from bed and board and from
the bonds of matrimony at the discretion of the court:
if the husband is guilty of such cruel and inhuman
treatment or conduct towards his wife as renders it un-
safe and impropo* for her to oohabit with him and to
be nndex his domination and control; Uiat he has of'
fered such indignities to her person as to render her
ctmdition intolerable and thereby force her to with-
draw; that he has abandoned her or turned her out of
doors and refuses or neglects to provide for her. The
petitioner must reside within the state for two years
next preceding the filing of the petition. If upon
false rumour, apparently well founded, of the deatn of
one of the parties who has been absent two whole
years^ the other party nuuries again, the party
mainu^ single mav upon returning obtain a restont^
tion of conjugal rignta or a dissolution of the marria^.
This dissolution of a marria^ shall not in any wise
affect the legitimacy of the children of same.

D. ^iUs nu^ be verbal or written, but a verbal
win is valid rally so tar as relates to personal properlgr.

A nuneapative or Teriul will is a verbal deolaratitm
made by one in his last siclmees as to the disposition
of bis property after death, made with tbe intention
and purpose to dispoae of such property, and where
the estate exceeds (250 it must be imulemthe hearing
and presenoe of at least two disinterested persona.
Lands can be devised only by a written will attested
by two witnesses, the subscription of the witnesses be-
ing made in the testator's i^resence; or by hologr^hic
will, a ^aper written entirely by the testator, the
handwriting to be proved by at least three credible
witnesses, every part of such writing to be in the
testator's hand. Personalty may be mspoeed of by a
paper containing a disposition of property to take ef-
tect after death, although neither written nor signed
by the testator, if such paper can be shown to be the
WW of the testator and is compete in itself as to its
provisions. No particulw form is required.

£. Cemeterie$. — All managers and trustees of any
cemetery have full power to adopt and use all rules
and r^ulattons necessary for the good government,
order, and discipline of the cemetery imder their
charge and keeping, not in conflict with any law of the
state. They may appoint as many day and night
watchmen on their grounds as they deem e^iedient.
Such watchmen, and ^so all of their superintendents,
gardeners, agents, and getba^^aepen stationed on said
grounds, may take the oath required law oi con-
stables, exercise and possess all the powers tsi police
officers within said cemetery and within one hundred
yards of said cemetery grounds.

F. Pentiona. — The State has a pension system un-
der which pensions are allowed to disabled soldiers,
Federal and Confederate, that enlisted from the State
of Tennessee in Tennessee regiments or were citizens
of this state at the time of uieir enlistment in rai-
ments of other states. Th^ must be residents of
Tennessee, or former citizens of other states who en-
listed in some regiment and who have been citizens of
this state for one year. The character of the appli-
cants as soldi^ must have been free from dishonour,
and it must appear that they are not already entitled
to pension under tbe laws of the Federal Government
or' of any other state, and that they are not already in
possession of a competeney, the object of the law be-
mg to provide for the indolent and disabled. A pen-
sion is withheld from any pensioner who may habitu-
ally waste the state's bounty in dissipation or other
dishonourable manner. Pensions are also ^^ted to
widows whose husbands were killed or di^ while in
active service in the Civil War, and to the widows of
deceased soldiers who were marri«i to such soldiers
prior to the year 1S70, if such widows are of good
moral character and in indigent circumstances. The
number on the pension rolls for 1910 was 7899, of
which 5367 were veterans and 2530 widows. The an-
nual appropriation for this purpose is $475,000.

G. Sxcise. — By Acts of 1909 the sale of any intoxicat-
ing liquor, including wine, ale, and beer, within four
mues of any public or private schoolhouse where
school is kept, whether the school be then in seaaion or
not, is prohibited. At the same session an Act was
passed prohibiting the manufacture of such liquors in
the state. These measures virtually prohibit the sale
or manufacture of liquor anywhere in the state.

VIII. PniBONS. — 'The state penitentiary is at
Nashville. A branch prison is located at Brushy
Mountain, east Tennessee, where the State owns ex-
tensive ooai mines, in which a large number of pris-
OBtfs. are worked. The operation of these mines has
been very profitable to the State. At the main prison
are a numbw of manufaetories operated by lessees of
oonvict labour. There is also a large farm connected
with the penitentiary on which oonvict labour is em-
ployed. The affairs of the penitentiary are adminis-
tered by a commissiou of three, appointed by the

covenxw.

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IX. Chabitii!8. — ^A'. Amodatioiu. — ^Any aaKxwtion
of individuals for the support of public worship, to
build churches, and for the maintenance of alt miwion-
ary undertakingB may be incorporated. All property
belonging to any religious, charitable, scientific, liter*
ary, or educational institution is exempt from taxa-
tion, except such part thereof as is used m secular busi-
ness to compete with a like business which pays taxes
to ^e State. Where rrats and profits are usra exelu-
uvely for religiouB or charitable purposes, including
church parsonages not exceeding 95000 in value, ana
in cases where buildings are used partially for the pur-
poses named and other portions rented out or otoer-
wise used, the assessor shall, in making assessment,
apportion the same and assess that portion for taxa-
tion which is under this section taxable. All property
belonging to any of the above-named institutions and
not used for any purpose is not ratempt. AU clergy-
men are exempt from jury service.

B. Truste. — ^The general rule is that a trust for a
charitable purpose must be of such a tangible nature
that a court of equity can deal with it. It must be to
some p^wn, body, or association of persons having a
l^al existence ana with capacity to take and admm-
ister the trust for some definite and lawful purpose.
A devise or beauest made directly to a volunta^ or
unincorpon^ea association must fail for want «
pacity in the devisee to take it aa a gift for itSEdf ; but
if the gift be sufficiently definite and made to compe-
tent trustees for the ben^t of the unincorporated m-
stitution or association it will be good, that is, if the
will defines how such bequest is to be applied. The
distinction taken in England between superetitiotis
and charitable uses, being inconsistent with the prin-
ciples of religious freedom that obtain in this state, is
not recognized. Gifts for the good of the soul, or for
prayers for the soul of the testator, or for the dead
whether in or out of the chapel or church, or for the
maintenance of Catholic pnests are valid. A chari-
table use, where neither law nor public policy forbids,
may be applied to almost anything that tends to pro-
mote the well-being and well-doing of social man and
in favour of all reheions of whatever form and creed.

C. /na/ttu/tojw.— There are three hospitals for the
insane, one in each of civil divisions of the state:
at Bouvar, Nashville, 3nd KnoxviUe. A Confeder-
ate Soldiers' Home and a home for blind girls is main-
tained at Nashville; also a school for blind boys and
girls and an industrial school for boys and girls, both
white and coloured at the same place. A school for
the de^ and dumb is maintained at KnoxviUe.

Hatwood, Civil and Potilioal Hi^Uirv of Tmnetue (Knorrilla,
1823): Rambet, AnrtaU of TVniwtfM (PhiladelpbiA, I860)} Psa-
LAN, HitUry of Trnntuf (BoatoD KoA Nov York. 1880); Oak-

BKTT AND GOODPASTCBS, HiUory of TfMMHt (NubvUIS, 1908);

KiiXKBBEvr, Rtaoweet of TenoMtM (NaabvUIs, 1874); PADta,
Band Book of TtnnutM (NHhvUlfi, 1903).

Thos. J. Tna.

Tenney, William JBWirr, author, editor, b. at
Newport, Rhode Island. 1814; d. at Newark, New Jer-
sey, 20 Sept., 1883. Graduating from Yale in 1832
he studi^ medicine, but abandoned it for the law and,
on being admitted to the bar, opened an office in New
York. HetheDtriedjoumalismontheeditorialstaffof
the "Journal of Commerce," and contributed editori-
ally tothe "Evening Post", durmg 1841-43 and 1847-
48. In 1853 he entered the service of D. Appleton and
Co., publishers, as editor, and, in addition to a large
amount of literary and critical work, began for them,
in 1861, the compilation of the "Annual Cyclopaedia"
which he continued till his death. He indexed T. H.
Benton's "Abridgment of the Debates of Congress"
and added a sixteenth volume to the series (New York
1857-60). He edited the "Queens of England"
(1852): and wrote a "MDitaiy and Naval History of
the Rebellion in the U. S." (1865), and a "Grammati-
cal Anahrsts" (1866). During a long residence at
E3iaabetb.N. J., he held Berend local public offices io-

cluding that of eoDector of the port during President
Buchanan's administration. He became a convert to
the Catholic Faith and married, as his second wife,
Sarah, daughter of Orestes H. Brownson (q. v.).

Av^Hon't Cvelopadia nf Awuriean Biog. (New York, 1900)
■. v.:I.AMB. £mw. Ditt. ttfV,S. (BoMoD, 1003); Frtntan't Jour-
nal Qitm Yixki, files.

Thomas F. Medhan.

Twttygfa (Tbnttiu). seat of a titular suffragan see
of PtoUonaifl in Thebaid Secunda. The city was the
cqittal of the nome of that name, according to Am6-
lineau, the real name being Nikentori orNitentori,
^ch signifies willow wood or willow earth. Others
give the derivation from the goddess Hathor, or Aph-
rodite, who was specially worshiped there. The croc-
odile is recognized as the deity of the city and was also
venerated as such in the other E^vptian cities, which
caused many quarrels, notably with Ombos. Little is
known of Cbristfanity in that place, as only the names
of two ancient bishopd are given: Pachymius, com-
panion of Melece at the bt^nning of the fourth cen-
tury; and Serapion. or Aprion, contemporary wid
friend of the monk St. Pachomius, who had in his dio-
cese his celebrated convent of Tahennisi. It is to-day
Denderah, a town of 6000 inhabitants in the district
of Qeneh. The temple of Hathor is still to be seen,
built on the foundation of another, yet more ancient,
^ich was in existence during the reign of Cheops un-
der the fourth dynasty, and in whidi was found the
celebrated zodiac now in Paris^ there are also the
temples of Mammisi and of Isis, of ^e Roman or
Ptolemaic epoch.

L> QnBM, Orima tkrbl., 11, 007; Bvim, Did. of Or. and Rom.
(Fui^, 188S). 14fr-a. —

S. VAn.Hfi.

Ttnure, Ecclbsiastioal. — I. bi Uie feudal sys-
tem an ecclesiastical fief followed all the laws laid
down for temporal fiefs. The suzerain, e. g. bishop,
abbot, or other possessor, granted an estate in per-
petuity to a person, who thereby became his vassal.
As such, the nraotee at his enfeoffment did homage
to his overlora, took an oath of fealty, and made
offering of the prescribed money or other object, by
reason of which ne held his fief. These requirements
had to be repeated as often as thm was a diange
in the person of the suzerain or vassal. These fi^
were granted by churchmen to princes, barons,
knights, and others, who thereupon assumed the
obhgation of protecting the chxirch and domains of
the overlord. This system of feudal tenure was not
always restricted to lands, as church revenues and
tithes were often farmed out to secular persons as a
species of ecclesiaatical fief. Strictly speaking, how-
evet, a fief was usually defined as immovable prop-
erty whose usufruct perpetually conceded to another
under the obligation of fealty and personal
homage. A fief was not ecclesiastical simply because
its overlord was a churchman: it was requisite also
that the domain granted should be church property.
Lands, which belonged to the patrimony of an ec-
clesiastic, became a secular fief if he bestowed ^em
on a vassal.

All fiefs wwe personal and hereditary, and many of
the latter could be inherited by female descent.
Fiefs bestowed by the Church on vassals were called
active fiefs; when churchmen themselves undertook
obligations to a suzerain, the fiefe were called passive.
In the latter case, tetmwral princes gave certam lands
to the Church by enteoffing a bishop or abbot, and
the latter had then to do homage as pro-vassal and
undertake all the implied obligations. When these
included military service, the ecclesiastic was empow-
ered to fulfil this duty by a substitute. It was as
passive fiefs that many bishoprics, abbacies, and prel-
acies, as to their temporalities, were held of kin^ in
^ mediBTal period, and the power thereby aoquired

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bv BMular nmoes one ebeticnu to eodniaatiinl
dignitifiB led to the bittor strife over inveetiturea.
These passive fiefs were oonferred by the suserain
investing the newly-elected churchman with crosier
and ring at the time of his making homage, but the
employment of these symbols of spiritual power gradu-
ally paved the way to exorbitant claims on the part of
the secular overlords (see Investztdrbs, Confuctof).
Among papal fiefs were included not merely landed
estates, however vast, but also duchies, priuoipalittea,
and even kingdoms. When the pope enfeoffed a
prince, the latter did honaage to hun as to bis liege
lord, and acknowledged his vassalage by an anniul
tribute. Pius V (29 Mar., 1567) decreed that, in
future, fiefs belonging strictly to the Patrimony or St.
Peter should be incorporated with the Pontifical
States whenever the vassalage lapsed, and that no new
enfeoffment take place. John, Kiiu; of England, de-
clued that he held his realm as a fief from the pope
in 1213, and Jamee II, King of Aragon, accepted the
same relation for Sardinia and Corsica m 1295. The
most famous papal fief was the Kingdom of Naples
and Sicily, springing from investitures of 1059 and
1269. Modem conditions in Itah^ have made im-
possible any oontinuance of such feudal relations.

II. As to the tenure by which church lands are now
held by legal titles before the civil law, see Pbopsbit,
EocuBusncAL; and TauarxB Stotui.

III. For the perpetual tenure by iucumbente of
benefices and ecclesiastical digniti^ see Bensticii.

FxsBAKiS, BOliothtca CoTtoniea.^U (Rome, 1860), a. r.
FtuAtm; Mabckat, IiuAituticMa Cammita, II (Rome, 1767).

W. H. W. FAirtfiNQ.

Teos, titularsee,suffiraganofEphesusinAsia Minor.
A city of Caria, situated on a peninsula opposite Sa-
mos, it was an asylum for the Greeks, likewise for the
Min^ of Orchomenos; then came colonies from lonia^
Atheiu. and Bcsotia and gradually the pt^Milatiim be-
oame Grecian. This ve^ proBpaoufl oily was one <A
the first attacked by the Fenians; the inhabitante fled
into Thrace and founded Abdera, during the reign of
Cyrus. Those who remained in Teos aJlied them-
selves with the Athenians. Later they revolted, go-
ing over to the Spartan rule, but were afterwards
reconquered by the Athenians. The walls, recently
discovered, 3^ mika in drcumfereuee, date from this
time, as do also the greater part of the monuments
whioh made it one « the most beautiful oities of
Ionia. Teos was edebrated lot its wine and, there-
fore, for the wor^ip <rf Bacohua. Hare was b4»ii the
poet Anacreon. Blere too was the home (rf a hod^ of
bacchanalifui artists who furnished aettns for the
theatres of Asia and the Archipelago. It was the b^in-
ning of the ancient theatre. In order to further com-
m^'oe and the punuit the fine arts, Teos, aiUx hav-
ing saved the fleet of the Roman iwetor K^ulus from
^ntioidiuB, King of Syria, secured for its territmy in 193
B.C. from Romeandaratttt number of Grecian ntiee the
rig^t of perpetual asylum, this privilege being largely
due to the traaple of Bacchus. During the Christian
era sJmost nothiogis known oi this <nty. It figures in
all the "Notitiffi JEpiseopatuum" as a suffragan of
Epheeus, but in the fifteenth century no mention is
made of it. Teos is believed to have been destroyed
by an earthquake. Among ite biehope Le Quiea
n)riais dmstianus, I, 727) mentions: Maximus at the
CounoU <A Nioe; Genii&diua at Chalcedon, 461 ; flually
St. Sisinnius, who is said to have lived about the
deventik centuiy, and whose feast days are 2 Feb-
ruary aod 14 Julyr &t Torcelli near Venice. To-day
Teos is kno^ as Sighadjik, near Sivri-Hissar; it is a
nahi6 of the sanjak of Smyrna; its ruins have fur-
nished a great many inscriptions.

Smob, mat. of Or. OM Ham, Q»og., >. Y.'.T-Kxxmm, Ana Minmtn
(Pwia, 1882). 301-8: WutDuraroif, fxpIteaNon d«» interiptUmM
gnaratt tt lohnct. Ant Jfiruwrw, 2fr^; fiiiU«Mn d» eorrmpofidtmea
MMgiMi IV, M-«, 110^, 104-8SL BoBsnun, Dtnbuu 9W-

XIT.-83

CuAm, ha rmtnm fWiaiwi vrotmmMn fAnt (Pwto, 19(M).

8. VazlbA.

Tepie. Diocese of JTxpicenbis).— Diocese of the
Mexican Republic, suffn^an of the Archbishoprie of,
Guadalajara. Its area is that of the federal state oi
the same name, that is, 10,961 sq. m., besides a few
parishes situated in the western part of Jalisco. It
has a population of 171,837 inhabitants (Census of
1910). The principal city which is also the residence
of the bishop and the poUtical bead is Teplc, 3140
feet above sea level and has 16,805 inhabitants. All
this territory was discovered and devastated and the
natives cruelly treated bv the famous Nuno da Gua-
man in 1530. It is said that during the eonquestt
many plots and even attempts at insurrection were
made^ not only by the allied Indians but also by the
Spanish themselves. To check this evil, some were
hanged and others were put in prison; many were tw-
tured to obtain ctmfessiona as to the instigators of
these conq>iracie8, the object of which in most oases
was to return to Modoo. These cruelties caused sudi
despair among the Indiims who carried the supplies oi
the expedition that a preat many oommittea suotde
by hanging thems^ee m groups of ten. The Spanish
had already established themselves, and cities sudi as
Tepic, Compostda, S. Bias, Acaponetam, eto. had al-
read;y beoi foundeia whoi religious services were es-
tablished. These soon developed and thrived aftw
the foundation of the Bishonio of Guadalajara in
1548.

The mountainous rM;ion of the wonderful provinces
of Nayarit, inhabited by barbarous and ferocious
tribes of Indians, were still remaining refractory to
oiviUsation and Christianity. In 1&^ the Francis-
oan Fathers J. Caballero and Juan B. Ramires at-
tempted, but in vaiil, to penetrate tiiese mountains.
The venerable Father Ma^ ot the convent of Zaea-
tecas also tried to reach these re^^ns in 1711, but be
was forced to retreat without satisfaction. Nayarit,
which belonged to the Bishopric of Durango since its
creation in 1620, remained so imtil the Bishop of
Durango gave the mission of civilising this wild ooun-
try to Father Tomas de Solcha^, S.J., |»ofesscH> of
moral theology at the coU^ at Durango; he was su^
cessf ul in penetrating the country to the heart of the
mountains and there b^an to sow fruitful seeds in
1716. When the Marquis of Valero was Vieooy of
New Spain he received through the royal cediua of
Philip V an order to subdue the Indians of that texri-
tory and make them swear allc^ance to the Spanish
monarch; after many bloody battles and with many
difficulties and hardships, he succeeded, with the help
of his brave captuns m taking p(Msession of the fa-
mous Mesa del Tonatiy. At his xequest the Fatlur
Provincial of the Society of Jesus of New Spain aea%
several missionaries to convert the newl^-oou9uered
Indians. They soon established flourishing missions
which, when the Jesuits were expelled by the Decree
of Charles Ul, included the following missions: Santa
Rita, Santa Teresa, Iscatdn, Jesus Maria, SSma. Trin-
idad, Giuanamota, and Rosario. After the expulsion
of the Jesuits the parish priest of Bolafios on several
occasions visited the reductions. The liVandsoan
Fathere took charge of the missions untQ ih» year
1807, when the Fathers of the CoUe^ of Nuestra
Scfiora de Zacatecas returned and remamed untO the
mother-house at Zacatecaa was abolished.

hi 1891 Leo XIII created the Diocese of Te^ao
which became suffragan of the Archbishopric of Guad-
alajara; it was completed with several parishes situ*
ated in the present State of Jalisco. The bishopric
has' 1 semmary and 72 alunmi ; 23 Catholic sdiools and
6 Catholic ooll^^ mth about 3,000 alumm. The
presemt bishop is the Rt. Rev. Andrew Segurs, who
was consecrated, 16 Sept., 1906. There an S Fntet-
tant cbqrQbsa.

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Omau, Bill, dd Jfayant (Mttxioo, 1SS7); Datiu. Cmfteu-
Meion d» la HUl. d4 la Cowp- <i* Jfut *n Nwta Bipaita (Pmbla,
I88S): Mtxieo iiravit tU Im tiolfu, II, CBu(wlon«}.

Cawllub Cbiviixi.

Tftpl, a PremoDetrstenaiaa abbc7 in the western
mii ci Bofaemii^ included in ihe ArehdiocaM d
Prague; it was {bonded in 1193 hj the bkaaed
martyr Hromata, a Bohemian nobleman (d- 1217).
The first monka came from the Abbey of Strahov in
Pr^e. Tepl eecaped any damage in the Hussite
Wars, probably on account of the miUtarv spirit of its
Abbot, Radko of Riaenberg (1411-44), who was aided
by hia relatives. It suff^«a, however, all the more
during the era of the Reformation. Luther's doc-
trine soon found adherents among the subjects of
the abbey. In 1525 there was a rebellion agamst the
abbot and peace was not restored until the ring-
leaders of the revolt were executed. In the following
years a number of the monks left the order and mar-
ried. Monastic discipline was restored by Abbot
Johami Kurs (1555-59), who also eetablish«i a theo-
l<^ical school. But his suoceesor, Johami M^s-
kdttig (1559-85), had a struggle with insubordination
in the mmiasteiy. With the aid (tf the arohlnahop he
was able to improve the monastery and the school.
He brought back most of his subjects to the Catholic
Church oy compxilsion, after gentle treatment had
failed. Ine reform was continued by Mathias G5fal
(1585-96). Andreas Ebenbach (1598-1629) was a
eealoua reformer <^ the abbey and raised it to such a
heidit that it was called the "nursery of pastoral
wonc Parochial work and hi^er education are still
important features of the life of the abbey. The
bey has the pastoral care of twmt^-fotu- parishes that
are all in the western part of Bohemia, a section which ia
almost entirely German. A twenty-fifth parish isbeing
formed. The abbey has a theok^cal school of the
order with a two-years' course and three professors.
Since 1809 it has had charge of the German mmna«tim
at Piken where there are fourteen canons. It also owns
the celebrated cure of Marienbad. It supports hos-
pitab at T^ and Marienbad. The members of the
abbey include 84 priests, 13 clerics, and 2 novices.
The present monastery building was erected by Abbot
Rairound Wilfert II (I68&-1724); the library was
built by Abbot Gilbert Hehner (since 1900). The
Romanesque church, with additions in the style of the
transition to the Gothic, is one of the oldest churches
of Bohemia.

KABLnc, Hronata u. rhe PramoHttralentr-Abtm Tapt (2nd ed.,
PilMD. 1883); FtiUehrifl nun TOtMdArvm JubiUum tUr OrHn-
dtmQ du PramonttraietuenliflM Tnjf <TepL 1893): Oiumi.,
0—eh. u. BiaehMutiQ dtt SliftM iVpt (Pibeo, 1910); ZXk.
Otrnvtidtn JClMtfftaidk (Viuuuh 1911), M-M.

KuMBm LSnuB.

Teramo, Diocese of. in southern Italy. In the
past the city was injurea by earthquakes. It is situ-
ated at the confluence of the Tordino and the Vessola
in a very fertile district, and was formerly noted for its
manufacture of delf ; ore is found in the vicinity. The
cathedral is far from being uniform in style^ the facade
being like a fortress wall in which a Gothic gate had
been constructed; it contains, however, several works
of art. among them the tonm of Bishop Nicola Ar-
cioni (1317) . The Churches of S. Domenico and of S.
Francesco are also worth visiting. In ancient days it
was called Interamnia and was the seat of govern-
ment of the Prtecutii, a Samnite people; in 315 b. c. a
Roman colony, Interamnia Prsecutiana, was settled
there; from them is derived the name of the entire re-
gion, Abruzsi, a name already adopted in the sixth
century. Among the ruins of the Roman pcdod are
an amphitheatre, a theatre, mid an aqueduct. After
the Longobard invasion it became the residence of a
oo*taWo,_ depending on the Duke of Spoleto ; under the
Franks it was the seat of a count. In the beginning
of 1108 it was annexed by the Normans; in 1155 Count
iioretello r^jciled against King Roger and destroyed

4 Tuun

the city, soon rdt>uilt through the efforts of Bishop
Guide (I122)j for which he and bis successors were
granted the mveatiture of the principality. Prob-
ably at this time arose the custom <^ the bishops of
Teramo of pontificating armed and having anas also
on the altar. Hardly had the town risen again when
it began a series of quarrels with Ascoli, which more
than once threatened to become sanguinary. Teramo
resiBted till the end of 1270 durii^ the Angevin inva-
sion. A little later the bishops abandoned their ton-
ral sovereignty and a royal captain was installed,
the beginning of the fifteenth century the Melatino,
di Janui, and Acquaviva began to struggle for possce-
sion of the town. In 1416 it was sackedby Loraino, a
Frenchman, exasperated by being deprived of the title
of high constable of the longdom; during the pillage
the treasures of the cathedraL inciudiog a preoioua ^-
ver altar frontal, disappeared.

The city which at that time contained 70,000 inhabi-
tants began to decay. From 1438 till 1443 it belonged
to the principality which Francesco Sforza had formed
in the Marches. Alfonso made it the ca^Mtal of the
Abruzzi, and in 1459 Giosia Acquaviva was made Duke
of Teramo, against the will of the citizens. The fol-
lowing year it was taken by Piccinino for V.6n4 of
Ai^ou; m 1461 it was retakoi by Matteo di Capua.
In 1519 Andrea Acquaviva assumed anew the lord-
ship of Teramo and besieged the town; but he was
forced to rengn. About 600 a. d., according to St.
Gregoi^ the Great, the Abruzzian church havmg been
long without a bishop, the election of Opportunus was

grocured; henoe the origin of the see dates back to the
fth century at least, and the bishop's title was taken
not from the town but from the district. It may be
even more ancient. Amcmg its otho* prelates were:
St. Berardus (1115), deseeded from the family of
the Counts dei Maisi; Matteo de Balato (1251), cap-
tured during the inroad of the Asoolani and liberated
through the intervention of Innocent IV; Blessed An-
tonio Fatati (1450), counsellor of King Alfonso I;
Gian Ant. Cainpano (1463), a Utt^rateur and poet;
Giaoomo Silveri-Piccolomini (1553), distinguished at
the (Douncit of Trent-; Leonardo Caaaiani (1693), who
improved the state of the clNgy; Michele MildU
(1859), incarc^ted by the new government in 1861.
In 1818 the Diocese of Ortona, which is now only an
archipresbytnal church, was incorporated with the
See of Teramo. The latter is immediately subject to
the Holy See and contains 121 parishes, 220 secular
and 13 regular priests, 3 houses of reli|;ious and 1 of
monks, 2 institutes for boys and 4 for girls.

CAPFiLLvm, Lt chMM iCItalia, XXI;PAUiA,Saria tdetSaa'
Hea e eMU . . . ii Teramo CTmiao,

V. BXNIGHI.

Teroa.— The origin of Teree, like that of Sext and
None, to which it bears a close relationship, dates back
to Apostolic times. As has already been stated (see
Nonb) according to an ancient custom of the Romans
and Greeks, the day and the night reqieotively were
divided into four parts of about three hours each.
The second division of the day hours was that of
Teroe from nine o'clock until midd^. These divi-
sions of the d^ were also in vogue among the Jews
at the time of Qirist. In the New Testament we find
mention of the sixth hour in Matt., xx, 5: xxvii, 45;
Mark, xv, 33; John, xix, 14; of the nintn hf»ir, in
Matt., xxvii, 46; Mark, xv, 34; Acta, x, 3 and 30.
(See None.) The how of Teroe is mentioned in the
following passages: the householder hires labourers
at the third hour. Matt., xx, 3; Jeeus is crucified at the
third hour, Mark, xv, 25; this Uoiy Ghost descends
upon tiw Apoetles on the day of Pwteoost at the
third hour, Acts, ii, 15. Some of these texts prove
that these three houm were^ in prefermce to othexs,
chosen for prayer by the Christians, and probably also
by the Jews, from whom the Christians appear to have
borrowed the oustohi. We find frequent meatioiL ia

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515

TIBI8A

the Fathers of the Church and the eocktiaatieal
vriten <sl the third Mutury of Teree, Sext, and Ncme
as hours for daily prayets. For example, TertuUian,
Clement of Alexu^pria, and the Canons of Hippolytus
(see Clement, "Stromat.", VII» vii, in P. G., IX. 466-
458). Tertullian says expressly that weebould always

Eray, and that there is no i>reBci1bed time for prayer,
ut adds: "As regards the time, therediould be no lax
obe^ationof certain bows — I mean, of those oommon
hours which have long mariced the divisionB of the day,
the third, the sixth, and the ninth — and which we may
obeerve in Scripture to be more solemn than the rest"
(De Orat., XaJCIII, ixv, in P. L., I, 1191-1193).

Clement and Tertullian in these passages refer onfy
to private prayer at these three hours. The Cuions
of Hippolytus also speak oS these three hotirs as suit-
able for private prayer. HowevOT. on the days called
"days of station", that is to siqr Wedneeday and Fi>
day, which were set apart as especially consecrated to

ryer, and Sunday, these hours were recited in pub-
(Canon, xx, xxvi). St. Cyprian remarked that
these three hours had been observed in the Old Testa-
ment, and that Christians should also vbserve them
(De Oratione, XXXIV, in P. L., IV, 541). In the
fourth eentuiy the custom of praying at these houiB
became more frequent, and even obhgatoiy, at least
f<nr monks ^se ue texta (tf the Apoetolie Constitu-
tions>of St. E^hrem, of St. Basil, <tf the autiiW(tf"De
Virgmitate" quoted in Bfiumer-Biron, "Histoire du
bi^viaiiv'S 110, 121, 129, 186). Our texts say noth-
ing as to what were the elements of the pray» of
Terce, Sext, or None before the fourth century.
Doubtless, uke all prayers at that time, the^ were
composed of psalms, canticlea, hymns, and litaaies.
It is from the fourth century onwards that we can
nther a more |neeise idea as to the oompoeitifm of
the hour of Terce. In the fourth omtury, as we have
said, the custom of prayer at Terce spread, and tended
to become obligatory, at least for monks. There is no
mention in the "Peregrinatio ad Loca Sancta" of an
office of Terce on ordinary days. Some authors have
misunderstood the text here, but there is no mention
of a meeting at thb hour, except on Sunday^ and dur-
ing Lent (see Cabrol, "Etude sur la P^^pinatio Sil-
via", Paris, 1895, p. 46, 46). The hour of Teroe is
alsomentionedinSt.Jerome,"Ep.adLsBtam." inP.L.,
XXII. 875; "Ep. ad Eustoch. " in P. L.. XXII, 420;in
the Life of St. Melania the Younger, Analecta Bol-
landiana", VIU, 1889, p. 16; in Cassian, "De instit.
ccenob.", in P. L., LXIX, 112, 126, etc.

At this period it is composed of the same elements
as the hours of Sext and None; the distribution is the
same, and it is clear that the three ' ' little hours ' ' were
composed at the same time and that thnr have the
same origin. The paalnu oi Teroe are difformt from
those of the other two hours. There w^ abo cer-
tain varieties of composition. Thus, in certain coun-
tries, three ps^ms wer? assicued to Terce, six to Sext,
nine to None, in virtue of the symbolism.

The composition varies also in the various liturgies.
In the Greek Church Terce is composed of two parts,
each made up of psalms (two for the first, three for the
second), witn invitatory, troparia, and final prayer.
(See Neale and littledale, "Commentary on the
Ps^ms", I, p. 34.) In the Bmedietine Rite, Terce
comprises, on week days, the Gradual Psalms, 119,
120, and 121, with a capitulum, verse, Kyrie, Pater,
and prayer. On Sundays and Monda^^s the Gradual
Psalms are replaced by three octonaries (i. e. three
sections of ei^t verses each) of Psalm cxviii. In the
Mozarabic Rite, three octonaries of Ps. cxviii are also
recited, the composition otherwise differing very little.
Id the main, the recitation of three psalms at Terce,
as at the other two "httle hours''^ of the day^ is
founded on a universal and veiy ancient tradition.
Diveraenciea on this point are onqr exceptional. The
^aotioe of the Romui Liturgy, whioh at first ai|^

appears to be somewhat different, may he traced to
this tradition also. In this rite a part of Ps. cxviii is
recited at Terce as well as at the otho- " little hours",
the psalm being divided into three double octonaries.
After the new Psalter arranged in 1911-12, thepsahns
are: on Sunday, Ps. cxviii (three divisions) ; on Mon-
day, Ps. xxvi (two diviBions) ; on Tuesday, Ps. xxxix
(three divisions) ; on Wednesday, Pe. liii (two divi-
sions) ; on Thursday, Ps. Ixxii (three divisions) ; on
fViday, I^. xxxix (two divisions) ; on Saturday, Ps.
ci (three divisions). The number three is thwcfore
preserved in each case. The hymn "Nunc Sanete
nobis Spiritus" recalU.the desoent of the Hohr Ghoei
upon the Apostles. Hie other dranents are the same
as for Sext and None.

The Fathers of the Church and the liturgi^ts of the '
Middle Ages considered the hour of Terce as corre-

rnding to the hour of Christ's condemnation to
th. They also often point out on this occasion the
mysteries of the number threi^ whioh in ecclesiastical
embolism is a sacred numbor (see Bona, loc. eit.).
What gives to it its especial dignity, however, is its
association with the Descent of tne Holy Ghost upon
the Apostles on the day of Pentecost at this very hour
("seeing it is but the third hour of the day". Acts, II,
15). In several litui^ies, and particularly in the Ro-
man, this connexion is brought to mind by one or
other of the formulte. Again, this is the reason why,
from the earliest times, the hour of Terce was eboeea
as that of the Mass on feabt days. Sometimes, also,
this hour is called in liturgical language hora aurea or
hora ioera (see Durandus, "De rit. eccles.", c. viii).

Fbancouitiub, De tmport Ktuw. txtnonic. (Rxnae. Ifi71) ; Boma,
Opera omnia: D* lartia (Antwerp, 1977), 727 aqq.: the texts from
Tertoluan. CuiiiBNT OF Alkxakdbia, St. Ctpriak, etc.,

Juoted in BIithkb-Bibon, Hitloire du britiairt, I. 73, 78, 194-
97, eto.; MaktAmb, I>« anUguu iccImvc ritibut. III, 20 eqq.;
Z>* oniiswH mfmadurum ritibtt*. IV, Z7; Leclbboq, in CABBOLt
Diet, d» htvnrit tt tTareMolmit, a. v. Brtviairt; . Nbai^b and
LtTTLSDALB, CommnUorg on ikt Ptaima, 1, 34; Batiftou HUt. dn
Mtiairt (1911—). See Bbo UbUocnpliiM under Non; Ssrr.

F. CABaOL.

Terenuthis, titular see, sufh^gan of AntinoS in
Thebais Prima. Le Quien (Oriens chriert., II, 611)
mentions two of its bishops: Arsinthius in 404; Eulo<
gius at the Council of Ephesus in 431. The monks
sometimes sought refuge there durii^ incurmons of
thebarbarianMazik8(CoteIier, "Ecclesie gneonmon-
umenta", I, 393). John Moschus went there at
the beginning of the seventh century (Pratum flpir-
Ituale, LIV, CXIV). There is frequent mention of
this town in dSiristian Coptic literature. The present
village of Tarraneh in the Provinceof Beherah replaces
Terenuthis, the ruins of which lie about a mile and a
quarter to the west. It has 1330 inhabitants. About
nineandaquartermiles distuit are the Lakes of Nitria
and Scetis, nearwfaich were the lauras of these names.

OaatgU CifpriiDMeriplio ar6.raM.,«LaBua>, 125; Aitiuinuo,
La 9*00. VBgnU A Ftpovu CofU (hrit, 1893), 493.

S. Vailh£.

Teresa of Jesus, Saint (Teresa Sanchez Cbpbda
Davila t Ahum ada), b. at Avila, Old Castillo, 28
March, 1615: d. at Alba de Tormes, 4 Oct., 1582.
The third child of Don Alonao Sanchez de Cepeda by
his second wife, Dofia Beatrix Davila y Ahumada,
who died when, the saint was in her fourteenth year,
Teresa was brought up by her sa intly father, a lo vot of
serious books, and a tender and pious mother. After
her death ana the marriage of her eldest sister, Teresa
was sent for her education to the Augustinian nuns at
Avila, but owing to illness she left at the end of
e^teen months, and for some yean remained with her
father and occasionally with other relatives, notably
an uncle who made her acquainted with the Letters m
St. Jerome, which determined her to adopt the re-
ligious Ufe, not so much through any attraction to-
wards it, as through a desire of choosing the safest
course. Unable to c^tain her fatho-'s consent she left
his bouse unknown to him «i 2 Nov., 163$. to eater ttis

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516

Oamwlite OonveDt of the Inoanutioii at AvQa, which
then oounted 140 nuna. The wrench from her family
oauaed her a pain which she ever afterwards oompared
to that of death. Howevo*, her father at once
yielded and Teresa took the habit.

After her profession in the following year she be-
came very s^ously ilL and underwent a prolonged
cure and such unskilful medical treabncait that she
was reduced to a most pitiful state, and even after par-
tial recovery through the interoesstcm of St. Joseph,
her health remained permanently impaired. During
these years of suffering she began the practice of men-
tal prayer, but feariqg that her conversations with
some worldly-minded relatives, frequent visitors at
the convent, rendered her unworthy of the graces God
bestowed on her in prayer, disrontinued until she
came under the influence, first of the Dominicans, and
afterwards of the Jesuits. Meanwhile God had be-
gun to visit her with "intelleotual visions and locu-
tions", that is manifestations in which the exterior
senses were in no way affected, the thinga seen and the
words heard being directly impressed upon her mind,
and giving' her wonderfid strength in triaJs, reprimand-
ing ner for unfaithfulness, and consoling her in
trouble. ^ Unable to reoomme mch graces with her
shortcomings, which her delicate oonscienee repre-
sented as gnevous faults, she had recourse not only to
the most spirituid confessors she could find, but also
to some saintly laymen, who, never suspecting that
the account she gave them of h^ sins was greauy ex-
aggerated, believed these manifestations to be the
mak of the evil spirit. The more she endeavoured to
TOsiBt Hhesa the more powerfully did God work in her
soul. The whole city of Avila was troubled by the
pMls of the visions of this nun. It was reserved to St,
iVimcis Borgia and St. Peter of Alcantdra, and aftei^
wards to a number of Dominicans (particularly Pedro
Ibafiei and Domingo Baflez), Jesuits, and other re-
ligious and secular priests, to discon the wwk of God
and to guide her on a safe road.

Hie acoount of her spiritual life contained in the
"Life written b^ herself" (completed in 1565, an
earlier version being lost), in the "Relations", and in
Uie "Interior Castle", formsoneof the most remark-
able q>iritual biographies with which only the "Con-
fessions of St. Augustine" can bear comparison. To
this period belong also such extraordinary manifeeta-
tioQs as the piercmg or transverberation of her heart,
the spiritual e«>ousal8, and the mystical marriage. A
vision of the tuaoe destined for her in hell in case she
shoold have been unfaithful to grace, determined her
to seek a more perfect life. After many troubles and
much opposition St. Teresa founded the convent of
Discalcea Carmelite Nuns of the Primitive Rule of St.
Joseph at Avila (24 Aug., 1562), and after six monUis
obtamed permission to take up her reaidenoe there.
Four yean later she received the visit of the General
o( the Carmehtes, John-Baptist Rubeo (Rossi), who
not only approved at what she had done but gnnted
leave for uie foundation of other oonvents of nian as
well as nuns. In rapid succession she est^ished her
nuns at Medina del Can4)o (1567), Malagon and Val-
ladolid (1568), Toledo and Pastrana (1569), Sahb-
manca (1570), Alba de Tonnes (1571), Segovia (1674),
Veas and Seville (1575), and Caravaca (1576). In
the " Book of Foundations" she tells the story of these
ooavents, nearly all of which were estamished in
spite of violeut opposition but with manifest assist-
ance fnnn above. E!verywha« she found souls gen-
erous OTOUgh to embrace the austerities of the primitive
rule of CanneL Having made the acquaintance of An-
tonio de Ha%dia, prior of Medina, and St. John of the
Cross (q. v.), she established her reform among the
frian (^ Nov., 156S), the first convents b^i^ those
of Duruek) (IG6S), Pastrana (1660), Btlaaoera, and
Alcali de Henares (1570).

A new qmoh began with the entnuue into rdlgioa

of Jeronae Gratian, inasmuch as this remarkable man

was almost immediately entrusted by the nuncio with
the authority of visitor Apostolic of the Carmelite
friars and nuna of the old otwervanoe in AnHaJnaiifc,
and as such considered himself entitled to overrule
the various restrictions insisted upon by the gei^ral
and the genend ohapter. On the death of tlw nuncio
and the arrival of his suooeasor a fearful storm bunt
over St. Teresa and her work, lasting four years and
threateniiu to annihilate the nascent reform. Hie
inetdents of this persecution are best described in her
letters. The storm at len^h passed, and the prov-
ince of Discalced Carmehtes, with the support at
Phihp II, was^provedandcanonicallyestabushedon
22 June, 1580. St. Teresa, old and broken in health,
made further foundations at Villanueva de la Jai« and
Pakmcia (1580), Soria (1581), Granada (through her
assistant the Venerable Anne of 3 few), and at Burgos
(1582). She left this latter place at the end of Jidy.
and, stopping at Palencia, Valladolid, and Medina del
Cunpo, reached Alba de Tormee in S^tember, suf-
fering intensely. Soon she took to her bed and passed
awe^ on 4 Oot., 1582. the following day, owing to the
reform ot the calendar, being reckoned asl5 Oot.
After sfune years her body was transferred to Avila,
but later on reoonveyed to Alba, where it is still pro-
served incorrupt. Her heart, too, showing the marks
of the Transverberation, is exposed there to the ven-
eration of the faithful. She was beatified in 1614, and
canonized m 1622 by Gregory XV, the feast being
fixed on 15 October.

St. Teresa's position among writers on mystical
theology is unique. In all her writinps on this sub-
ject she deals with her personal experiences, which a
deep insight and analytical ^ts enabled ua to ex-
plam clearly. The Thomistio substratum may be
traced to the influenoe of her confessors and directors,
many of whom belonged to the Dominican Order. She
herself had no pretension to found a school in the ao-
oepted a&iae of the term, and there is no vestige in faw
writings of any influenee of the Aieopagitic, the Pa-
tristi^ or the Scholastic Mystical schools, as repre-
sented, amon^ others, by the German Dominican Myo-
tics. She is mtensely personal, her system going ex-
actly as far as her experiences, but not a step further.

A word must be added on the orthography of her
name. It has of late beoome the fashion to write her
name Teresa or Teresia, without "h", not only in
Spanish and Italian, where the "h" could have no
place, but also in fmich, German, and Latin, which
ou^t to preserve the etymological spelling. As it is
derived from a Gredc name, Tmarasia, the saintly wife
of St. Paulinus of Nola, it should be written Theresu
in German and Latin, and Th^rdee in French.

The UUkcrBplor of St. Terwa b ezooedingh' leoKthy, Unfor-
timt^, evsn Dk Cubzoh's BibtiographU Tkiritimm (^Mis,
1902) U far too inconqriote and ioaoourfttfl to be of muut om.
Here we can only deal with her own writlnKs, The antocraplw
of the lif« written by benvlf, ftod of tbe Book of Foundation* hav»
been publiabed in irfioto4ithocntphy by Don Viokntb db la
PaxNTX (Madrid, 1873 and 1880 respectively) ; the Interior
CatOt, under the direetion of Cakdikai. Llucr (Serille, 18S2) ;
the Wan <tf PeifKtwn (MS. of the £aoorial) and the VmtatMm
NunntrUt by Don Fkancuco Hekrbro Batona (Valladoli^
1883), with a transcript of the MS. of the Way oT Per/tetion pre-
eerred at Valladolid. Of the remainins worlca, tbe Bdationa, tbe
JSxdamationa, tbe Cottet^tunu^ tbe Miuimi, tlia CwhWmwwm,
and the poems (about thirty-nz of theee being oonuderod awn-
ine),no autoKraphs, or only small fragmenta, are knxjwn to exist.
The Seven Moaitatiemt on Lord"! Prayer ate not au^entie.
Tbe most recent English translations are Lbwu: Lift and As-
iaHan*. ed. ZiiaintMAN (1th ed., London, \9\\)\ Foundation*.
with tiie VitHittion and Coiutiiatumt (I^ndan, 1871, a new e«ll-
tlon beingDow tn the press). Tha InUrior CatOo, Bxdamation*,
and the Way of Ptrfution, transUted by the Bknidictinbb or
STAifBwxnE, ed. ZiwmauM; the two former, LondoiL 1906 («
second edition beinsnow in the press): tbe third, London, 1911.
The ConcejA-ion* of JHvint Lnt. the itaaimt and the poems, by
the same translators and editor, are also in tbe press. Pendins
the publioatlon of a eon^te English edition (rf tbe LttUrt wa
oanoot do better than refer tbe reader to the LeOm d» Saint*
Tkiriit, parUR.P. Orieoirt do m.'Joie^ (S rolt., Sod sd.. 190Q>.
Mention nast be made of the nmr Fiweh tnwhtloB of th«
itf th* nint (with aansnos doooMBto aad pMtsi iiMMoe-

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Mm*, not prevkmaly piUiliahad): (Switm cmmiUCm de Sai»t*
TMt$, oar IM CarnmUat du artmim- moNiufarw da Pari* (6 vols.,
Fwii, 1907-10} ; Si. TVmm, ed. Bcuca (New York. 191 1 ).

Benedict ZniyEBHAN.

Tttrwiiii Watyn of Canpiftgne, The Sdetben

Blessbd, guillotined at the Place du TrAne Renvera^,
now called Place de la Nation, Paris, 17 July, 17M.
They are the first sufferers under the French Revolu-
tion on whom the Holy See has passed judgment, and
were solemnly beatified 27 May, 1906. Before their
execution they knelt and chanted the " Veni Creator",
fls at a profession, after which they all renewed aknid
their baptismal aiid retii^ous vows. The novice vraa
executed fimt and the pnoress last. Absolute silence
prevdied the whole time that the executions were pro-
ceeding. The heads and bodies of the martyrs were
interred in a deep sand-pit about thirty feet square in
a cemetery at Picpus. As this sand-pit was the r&*
ceptaele of the boaies of 1208 victims of the Revolu-
tion, there seems to be no hope of their relics bang
recovered. Their names Me as follows: (1) Made-
leine-Claudine Ledoine (Mother Teresa of 8t. Aueus-
tine), prioress, b, in Paris, 22 Sept.. 1752, professed 16
or 17 May, 1775; (2) Marie-Anne (or Antoinette) Bri-
deau (Mother St. Louis), sub-prioress, b. at Belfort, 7
Dec., 1752, professed 3 Sept., 1771; (3) Marie-Anne
Piedoourt (Bister of Jesus Crucified), choir-nun, b.
1715, professed 1737; on mounting the scaffold she
said " I foi^ve you as heartily as I wish God to foi^ve
me"; (4) Anne-Marie-Madeleine Thouret (Sister
Charlotte of the Resurrection), sacristan, b. at Mouy,
16 Sept.. 1715, professed 19 Aug.. 1740, twice sub-
prioiess in 1764 and 1778. Her portrait is reproduced
opposite p. 2 of Miss Willson's work cited below; (5)
Nlarie-Antoniette or Anne Hanisset (Sister Teresa of
the Holy Heart of Mary), b. at Rheims in 1740 or
1742, profewed in 1764; (6) Marie-Fran^oise Ga^
brielle de Croissy (Mother Henriette of Jesus), b. in
Paris, IS June, 1745, professed 22 Feb., 1764, prioress
from 1779 to 1785; (7) Marie-Gabrielle Tr^zel (Sis-
ter Teresa of St, Ignatius), choir^nun, b. at Compiftgne,
4 April, 1743, professed 12 Dec., 1771; (8) Roee-
Chr^ien de la Neuville, widow, choir-nun (Sister
Julia Louisa of Jesus), b. at Loreau (or Evreux), in
1741, professed probably in 1777; (9) Anne Petras
(Sister Mary Henrietta of Providence), choir-nun, b.
at Cajarc (Lot), 17 June, 1760, professed 22 Oct.,
1786. (10) Concerning Sister Euphrasia of tho Im-
maculate Concept ion accounts vary. Miss Willson says
that her name was Marie Claude Crorienne Brard,
and that she was borb 12 May, 1736; Pierre, that her
name was Catherine Charlotte Brard, and that she
was bom 7 Sept., 1736. She was bom at Bourth, and
professed in 1757; (11) Marie-Genevifeve Meunier
(Sister Constance), novice, b. 28 May, 1765, or 1766,
at St. Denis, received the h^it 16 Deo., l^S.
She mounted the scaffold singing "Lauflate Domi-
num". In addition to the above, three lay sisters
suffered and two tourikres. The lay sisters are: (12)
Angfilique Roussel (Sister Mary of the Holy Ghost),
lay sister, b. at Fresnes, 4 August, 1742, professed
14 May, 1769; (13) Marie Dufour (Sister St. Ma>
tha), lay sister, b. at Beaune, 1 or20ct., 1742, entered
the community in 1772; (14) Julie or Juliette V6ro-
lot (Sister St. Francis Xavier),Uqr8i8ter,b. at Lairaea
or Ltgnifrres, 11 Jan., 1764, proKssed 12 Jan., 1789.
The two touri^M, who were not Carmelites at all,
but merely servants of the nunnery were: (15 and
16) Catherine and Teresa Soiron, b. respectively on 2
Feb., 1742 and 23 Jan., 1748 at Compifegne, both of
whom had been in the service of the community since
1772. The miracles proved during the process of
beatification were (1) The cure of Sister Ctare of St.
Josnih, a Carmelite lav sister of New Orleans, when
on the point of death from cancer, in June, 1897; (2)
The cure of the Abb6 Roussarie, of the seminary at
Brive, when at the ponnt of death, 7 Mamh, 1897; (3)

The our« of Sister St. Martha of St. Joseph, a Gar-
raelite lay sister of Vans, of tuberculosis ana an ab-
cess in the rifdit 1^, 1 Dec., 1897; (4) The cure of
^ster St. Micnsel, a Franciscan of Mtrntmorilknij 9
April, 1898. Five secondarv relics are in the poeaoiMOit
m the Benedictines of Stanorook, Worceetwshire.

PiXBM. Lm Snte CamUlite* de Comjii^pM (Ptfis, 1906); WiLb*
SON, Tkt Marti/r* of Cotnpiiffru (Westminster, 1607).

John B. Wainbwriqht.

TeTin (Bonville), Anthont, Ei^Jish theolo^an,
b. at Canford, Dorsetshire, in 16^; d, at Li^,
II Oct., 1676. His mother was a Catholic but his
father was estranged from the Faith, and in conse-
quence the young Anthony was reared in heresy until
his fifteenth ;^ear, when ne was converted and left
Ei^and, taking the alias Terill. He studied for
about three years at the EnkUsh CcJk*ro of St. Omcr
and then began his studies lor the prnrthood nt the
English College, Rome, where he va.T nrdaintd on IS
March, 1647. Two months later "nii rcfl iln- Jf s-
uit novitiate at San Andrea. At^ r lii.s imvio'ship
he was successively penitentiary at Lori->o, pri^ff^.'ior
of philosophy at Florence, professor ol" philoer^phy
and scholastic theology at Parma, director of
theological studies ana professor of theology and
mathematics at the English CoIlcErc Li^zr, and pd
three years rector of the same coll'titi Rlicro he died
with a reputation for "extraordiriin.' l''i'-*y. tnlcnt,
learning, and pmdence". He wrote ■■Cuuolujsiuues
philosophicie" (Parma, 1657), "Problema mathe-
matico-pbiloeophicum de termino m^nitudinis ao
virium m aniiualibus" (Parma, 1660), "Fundamentum
totius theologite moralis, sou tractatus de conscien-
tia probabili" (Li&ge, 1668), and "Regula morum"
which was published shortly after his death (Li^,
1677). His reputation as a moral theologian was
est&bUshed by these last two works, la the " Funda^
mentum" he ably defended the doctrine of probabil-
ism, and in the "Regula morum" refuted the objec-
tions brought against his first work by the Dominican
Concina, the Jesuit Elizalde, and other exponents of
the Rigorist School. Amort speaks of him as "em-
ditissimum et probabilisfamm antesignanum".

FOLST, Rtcordt of lh« EnolUh Prorina S.J., III (LmidoB.
187^, 420; SoKiiSRVOoaii:., BO. dt la Corns, Jftu*, VII (Btw
Mb, IBSeiiHnTKit, NommOatar.ll (ImiBbnick, 1893), 275-27S.

Edward C. Phillips.

Tmnwnu, a titular see, suffragan of Perge in
Famphylia Secunda. This is one of the most ancient
cities of ^e Pisidians, inhabited by the Solymi, whom
name was preserved for several centuries in Moimt
Solyma, known to-day as Guld^r^Dagh. and was re-
ferred to by Homer, II, VI, 184, and Strabo, XIII,
630. A warlike city, Termessua maintained its ind(»>
pendence even under the dominion of the Persians,
and refused to receive Alexander the Great, who
dared not besiege it (Arianus, 1, 27). Under the suc-
cessor of Alexander, Termessus preserved its auton-
omy and, in 189 b. c, formed an alliance with the
Roman consul, Cn. Manlius, who confirmed it: under
the Emperor Etomitian it still enjoyed this alliance.
Subsequently the city was incorporated with the
Province of Pisidia and later with tnat of Pamph^lia,
From the ruins of the monuments which remam, it is
evMent that this was one of the richest uid tihe most
civilised cities of Asia Minor; as far back at least as
the fourth century B. c, it had been colonised by the
Hellenic race. Among its bishops we note: Euresiue
present at the Council of Nictea in 325; Timothy at
Elpheseus in 431 ; Sabinianus in 44S; and Auxentius in
458. Timothy and Sabinianus bear the double title
of Termessua and Eudocias. Ramsay (Asia Minor,
18) has taken for granted that these two names refer
to one and the same city, but in the year 458 we find
at the same ijeriod Auxentius, Biah<^ frf Tcrmcasus,
and InnoomtiuB, Bishop of EludooiaB; moreover, in
the Eetheais of pBeado-Epiphaniui, towards 640 (Gel-

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■er, "Ungedruckte . . . Texte der NotituB epieoo-
patuum", 541), in the Notitue of Leon le Sage and of
Constantm Porphyrogenetus ("Georni Cyprii De-
scriptio Chbis Rontani", ed. Gelzer, 74), theee two
wobdioceaee are lUxwluteljy distinct id the tenth cen-
tury. It is not known wdwl the Diocese <A Tennes-
Boa or the city disappeared. The ruins of the city
situated at Karabounar, Keui in the sanjak ot
Adalia and the vilayet of Koniah, figure among the
richest monuments of antiquity in Asia Minor.

Le Quikn, Orient ehrulianut, I, 1019; Spatt and Fohbes,
Travdt in L^eia, I (London, 1847), 233; Suith, tHet. of Greek and
Roman Geography, b. Lebas-Waddinoton, AsU-Mineitra
(Pmris, lS«7-68), 1202-10; Journal of Hellenic Sludta (Loadoa.
1895), 120-128; LANCx6ROiraKi, Lea tilUa de la Pampk]/lie etde la
Pieidie <PariB, 1800), 23-126, 207-35; Cousm, Temie$»oi de Pin-
die in Butt, de torreep. helUnique. XXIII (Fftra, 1893), 165-192,

S. VajlbA.

Tennoli, Diocese op (TBERMrriuutuu), on the
Italian coast of the Adriatic, having a small harbour
near the mouth of the Petr^glione. In anoient days
it was called Buca; in 1567 it was put to fire and sword
by the Turks. Temioli contains a fine Gothic cathe-
dral. It is first mentioned as a diocese in 946, when
Benefetto, an usurper of the episcopal see, was forced
to withdraw by order of Agajiitus II; the earliest
known legitimate bisiiop was Scio (969). Among his
successors were: Jacopo Cini, O.P. (1379), author of a
commentary on the *'Sfflil«nces"; Domencio Giroda
(1381), a learned Servite theologian; Fedrico Merzio
(1602), a coUaWator of Baronius. In 1818 this see
was united with Guardia Alferia, a small town near
Cerrato, which had its first bishop in 1075 and its last
in 1775. Tennoli is suffragan of Beaievento, and con-
tains 10 parishes, 54 secular priests, and 1 convent of
nuns.

CAPnuJtrn, te Aiete tf iiUia, XIX.

V. BmnoNi.

Taman, Saint, Bishop of the Picts, flourished in
the sixth century. Much obscurity attaches to his
history, and it is difficult to reconcile his chronology
as given by various writers. Some say that he was
consecrated by St. Palladius in 440, others that he was
a monk of Cfulross in Fife, one of the monasteries
founded by St. Serf, or Servan, the tutor of St. Kenti-
gero. The Picts were not converted till about 570, by
the zeal of St. Columba. St. Kentigem died in 603,
and St. Serf of Cukoss died in 583 (feast 1 July). It
is safe to assert that St. Teman was a contemporary
of St. Serf. In the "Aberdeen Martyrotog/' tbei«
is mentkm of "the Gospel of St. Matthew bekniging
to St. Teman", which was "enshrined in a metal case
or cumdach (book shrine)^ covered with silver and
gold, after the Irish fashion." St. Teman is com-
memorated on 12 June. He must not be craifounded
with St. Trumwine.

Sum, Ce&tc Scotland (3 vols.. Edinburgh ,1870-80) ; Mouir,
Irieh SairOt in Great Britain (Rome, 1903); Bedb, Bod. Hiri. of
BmAutd, tr.SELLdiB (London, 1907);9n>KEa, £arlirCArit(ian Art
in IrOand (DuUin, 1911).

W. H. Gratfan-Flood.

Temi. See Nabni and Terni, Diocese or.

Temctna, Soaae, and Pipemo, Diocesb or
(Terracinensis, Sbttnenbis et Privernbnbib), in
the Province of Rome. The city of Terracina is
near the estuary of the Amaseno, on a promontory
(the old town), and beside the Via Appia (the new
town, founded by Pius VI). The harfaour, one <tf the
safest in the Mraiterranmn, is frequented mostly by
coasting-vessels engaged in exporting grain from the
Pontine marshes, and wine, oil, and v^etables from the
Lepinian hills ; hunting in the neighbouring woods and
the fishing industry are also carriM on with profit by the
inhabitants. There are ruins of the temple of Rome
and Augustus, at the place now occupied oy the cathe-
dral of St. Cbsuwis, containing the pillars of the tem-
ple and an ambo with mosaies. On one of the jnmn-

ontories are ruins of the great temple oi Venus; also
traces of the fortifications and of the palaoe of Theo-
doric. Terracina, called by the Romans Tarracina,
the ancirat Auxur, was a Latin city, and was subject
to Rome under the kinga. Later it was ciqitilrea by
the Volsdans^ who in 406 b. c. ceded it to the Ro*
mans. Hanmbal, after capturing Capua, failed to
take it. Und^ Antoninus Pius t£e hu'bour was en-
larged. It was included in Pepin's donation to the
Holy See, but about 780 was captured by the Byzan-
tinea, who, however, were expelled by Charlemagne.
The Saracens landed there on several occasions during
the ninth century. Later it was a fief of the Frajigi-
pani, but Gregory IX included it among the places
which were always to be immediately subject to the
Holy See. In 1798, the French commander having
been sUun during a revolt, the city was sacked. Ac-
cording to tradition, the first Bishop of Terracina was
St. Epaphroditus. The most ancient Christian rec-
ord of tne city is that of the martyrdom of St. Juli-
anus, priest, and St. Ciesareus, deacon, who were cast
into tne sea under Trajan; in the third century St.
QuaituB (bishop?) suffered. The first bishop whose
date is known with certainty is Sabinus (313). Among
his successors were: an African priest^ St. Sitvianus, a
fugitive during the Vandal persecution (about 443);
Petrus (590), auring whose episcopate the Jews were
persecuted so severely in Terracina that St. Gregory the
Great had to intervene; under Agnellus, former Bishop
of Fundi, which city had been destroyra, the two dio-
ceses were united; the l&^t ttuee liters only of the
nameof another Bishop of Terracina, . . fTsa,~are j>re-
■emkt in an inscription (C>>rp. loser. Lat., X It
6419); other bishops were: Joannes (969), who made
the vow that the inhabitants trf the city should offer
each year 6,000 eek to the monastery of Monte CTas-
sino; Ambrosius (1066), a Benedictine and ecclesiasti-
cal reformer; GreKmrius (1106), a Benedictincj sur-
named Calumna Ecclesice. About this time, if not
eariier, the sees of Pipmio (Privemum) and Sezze
(Setia), situated on the side of the L^inian hills, were
united to Terracina. The eu-Iiest of the seven Imown
bishops of Piperno is Bonifacius (769). There is
moreover an ancient Christian cemetery at Piperno.
The first mention of a Bishop of Sezze is a reference to
Stephanus (1036): in the time of Pollidius (1046), St.
Ligdanus founded the Monastery of St. Cecilia near
Sezze:amonKtheoth^wasLando,whoin 1178, und^
the name of Innocent III, usurped the papal tiara.
Tlw union of the tiaee dioceses was con^nedb>'Ho-
nwius III (1217) during the episcopate of Simeone.
Among his successors were: the Franciscan Fra Oio-
vanni (1362), who consecrated the cathedral; Zac-
caria Mori (1510), present at the Fifth Latcran Coun-
cil; Ottaviano Rovera (1545), nuncio in Switzerland
and Spain; Bernardo M. Conti (1710), brother of In-
nocent XIII, cardinal. In 1725 Benedict XIII re-
stored the See of Piperno and Sezze, declaring them
united aque principalita: Bishop Francesco Anto-
nk> Mon^lli (1S05) was exfled in 1809, for refusing to
take the oath of loyalty to Napoleon. The famous
Cistercian Abbey of Fossa Nuova is within the terri-
tory of this see. The diocese, which is immediately
subject to the Holy See, contains 22 parishes, 45,000
inhabitants, 94 secular and 15 r^ular priesto, 3 re-
ligious houses for men, 10 for nuns, I institute Ua boys
and 3 for girls.

CAPFZLurn, Le dtieee Italia, VI (Venice, 1847); dm La
Blakcbsrb, Terradna, eaeai d'hiii. locale (Paris, 18S4): OioKOl.
Doctun. Terraeineei in Bull. Inetituto Stor. lUU. Xvl (Roaw,
1896) ; LonARDiin, IMIa iatoria di Stem (Velletri. 1870) ; Vaus,
La Ma nmea di Pipeme iSivit', 164fl).

U. BSNIONI.

Temiaon, Andr^, French (ireacher, b. at Lyons
in 1669; d. at Paris, 25 April, 1723. He was the
eldest son ot a councillor of the Lyons presidial
(oDurt of juaUoe). Ekitering the Congregation of tha

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Oratory he devoted himself to preacdiii^, and winnisg
high reputation was called to fill important pulpits.
He preached the Lenten sermons of 1717 before Louis
XIV, next at the Court of Lorraine, and later twice
in the metropolitan church of Paris with considerable
success; the last of these series Inoke down his he^th
and led to lids death. His eloquent diction, which was
eohanced bv his outward action, was marked by
nobility and simplicity of thought, b^ forcefulness
and absence of artificiality. His good judgment led
him to avoid mere brilliancy of e:q>re88ion and clever
artifices of speech, but he was scnnetimes cold, per-
haps as a result of his Jansenistic proclivities. About
fifty of his diactHirsee, mostly delivered as Lenten
lectures, are preeorved, uui were publiahed at Fttris
(4 voU., 1726, 1736).

Gaspard, brother of the precedmg, b. at Lyons,
Oct., 16S0: d. at Paris, 2 Jan., 1752. He was also a
member of the Oratory, teaching humanities and af-
toiwards philosopl^. His oratorical gifts were re-
vealed at Troyes, 1711, on delivering the funeral
oration of the Dauphin, son of Louis XIV; but he
did not devote himself to the pulpit till after his
brother's death, when he fulfilled several ex^agementa
which the latter had made. Soon his reputation
increased beyond that of AndrS. For five years
he preached at Paris, and finally deUvered a Lenten
course in the Church of Notre Dame. More stub-
bom even than his brother^ he appealed time after
time against the Bull "Unigemtus"; he even pub-
lished anonymously twelve ''Lettree sur la justice
chr^tienne" (Paris, 1733k in which, to suppcot the
JansoiifltB whom the biBhops derived of the sacra-
ments, he raideavoured to prove the inutility of sacr^
mentu confession. This work was oondemned by
the faculty of theolcwy at Paris (1 S^., 1734), and
by the Archbishops of Sens and Embrun, as contain-
ing erroneous, scnismatical and heretical assertions.
Terrasson had to leave the Oratory and abandon
preaching. He withdrew to the Diocese of Auxerre
where the bishop, M. de Caylus, a well-known Jait-
senist, confided to him the care of TVeignL But
be was soon arrested (Oct., 1735) by the oider <rf the
kW for his Jansenistic activities, and was confined
durmg nine years either at Vincennes or with the
Minims of iu^nteuU. A belated retractation, the
authenticity or sincerity of which has never been well
established, was attributed to him. He was living
in retirement with his family when he died. As a
preacher his chief characteristics are simplicity and
eleamess, but at times he carries the subdivision of his
matter to excess; his style is somewhat dry luid lacks
vigour. Like his brother he holds a high place among
the orators of second rank. A volume of his dis-
courses appeared at Utrecht in 1733, but the first real
edition was at Paris in 1744 (4 vols.). The sermons
of the two brothers were r^inted byJAigpe in his
"Collection des orateurs saor^", XXIX (Paris,
1849).

CiTBSAT, Mfvuriret tw Ut mivantt dt ta famiiM de rerroMM
(TrtTOiu, 1761); Jfouveltes eecUtiaHiquat (1736, 1744J; Sup-
jiUmmt au nieroloo« dtt pJtM etl^m tU/Wnaeurt la vAnU (s. I.,
1763), 120: CaJTOBL, i« w*i»eote««r» franeaia datu Ja prMnifr*
moitU du XVIIU nicle (Paris, 1904): Tixxt. La FaeutU di
lUdogU da Parit, Bpwrua modeme, VI (Pvis. 1909), 144.

Antoihb DAgbbt.

Turestrial Paradise (DT^D, rafidSeum^ Paradi-
«u<). The name i>opularly given in Christian tradi-
tion to the scriptural Garden of Eden, the home of
our first parents (Gen., ii). The wwd panulise is
mtibably of Pwsian origin and sigQified (Hrixinally a
royal park or pleasure ground. The term does not
occur in the Latin of the Classic period nor in the
Greek writers prior to the time of Xenophon. In the
Old Testament it is found only in the later Hebrew
vrritmgs in the form miD {PardSs), having been
borrowed doubtless from the Persian. An instruc-
tive illustration of the origin and primary meaning

of the term vpears in II Esdras (ii, 8) where "AbkbSi
the keepo: of the king's forest" (Dl'^Cn, happerdh) is
the custodian of the royal park of the Persian ruler. '.
The association of the term with the abode of our
first parents does not occur in the Old-Testament
Hebrew. It originated in the fact that the ward
wafidSn99t was adopted, though not ezelnsively, by
the translators of the Septuagint to rendor the Ho>
brew ^T3?'^3, or Garden of Edea described in the second
ch^ttt of Qeneeis. It is likewise used in divers
other passages of the Sij^ptuii^int wliere Die Hebrew
generai^ has '''garden"'^ t^prctnllv if the idea of
wondrous beauty is to he convey /.J. Tliiia id GeU..
xiii, 10, the "country abuui Lhc juidaa" ia duscrihea
as a "paradise of the Lord" (rcndcriag foUowa^bgr.
the ViUgate). Cf. Numbers, xxiv, 6 (Greek) whem
the reference is to the beautifuL array trf the teita of
Israel, also Isaios, i, 30^ Eaeehiel, xad, 8, eta.-
Thoee interested in spf^mriiiion sst to the praoahle
location of the i'^ltijjiuj-u.I ( lurUt^u ol Eiicii, tfie pri-
meval home of mankind, are referred to the scholarly
work of Friedrich Delitsoh, "Wo lag das Paradiee? ■
(Berlin, 1881). In the New-Testament period the
word panMiise vp^ara with a new and more exalted
meaning. In the development of Jewish eschatolo^
which marks the jmst-Emlic epodi the word paradise
or "Garden of God"j hitherto mainly associated
with the original dwelling-place of our first parents,
was transferred to ugni^ the future abode of rest
and enjoymmt which was to be Uie reward of the
righteous after deatii. The term occurs only three
times in the New Testament, though the idea which
it represents is frequently ei^reRsed in other terms,
V. ^. "Abraham's bosom" (Luke, xvi, 22). The
siguification of the word in these rrauariu^Iy few
passages can be determined onljr from the context
and by reference to the eechatological notions current
among the Jews of that period. These views are
gathered chiefly from the Rabbinical literature, the
works of Josepbus, and from the apooyphal writings,
notably the Book of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees,
the Apoc^ypsB <rf Baruch, etc. An inqiection of
these sources reveals a great confusion of ideas and
manv contradictions regarding the future paradise
as a^ concerning the original Garden of Eden and
the condition of our first parents. The scanty refer-
ences to Sheol which embody the va^e eechatological
beliefs of the Hebrews as expressed m the earlier Old .
Teetament writings give place in these later treatises
to elaborate theories worked out with detailed de-
scriptions and speculations oftoi of a most fanciful
charaetor. As a sample of these may be noted the
one found in the Talmudic tract Jalkut Schim.,
B^esohith, 20". According to this description the en-
trance to paradise is made uirough two gates of rubies
beside which stand sixty myriads of holy angels with
countenances radiant with heavenly splendour. When
a righteous man enters^ the vestures of death are
removed from him; he is clad in ei^t robes of the
clouds of glory; two crowns are plaoea upon his head,'
one of pearls and precious stones, the other of gold;
eight myrtles are placed in his hands and he is wel- ,
corned with great applause, etc. Some of the Rab-
binical authorities appear to identify the paradise
of the future with the primeval Garden of Eden which
is supposed to be still in existence and located
somewhere in the far-distant East. According to
some it was an earthly abode, sometimes said to
have been created before the rest of the worid (IV
Esdras iii, 7, cf . viii, 52) ; others make it an adjunct of
the subterranean Skwl, while still others place it in
or near heaven. It was believed that there are in
paradise different degrees of blessedness. Seven
ranks or orders of the righteous were said to exist
within it, and definitions were given both of those to
whom these different positions belong and of the
gloriee pertaining to each ("Baba bathra", 75

oh ("Baba bathra". 75 o,

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quoted by S&lmond, Hastings, "I>iot. of the Bible",
B. V. "Paradiae"). The uncertainty and oonfumon
of the current Jewidi ideas ooncOTiinff paradise may
explain the paucitjr of reference to it in the New
Teetament. The first mention of the word occurs in
Lute, ndii, 43, where Jesus m the oroes eaye to libs
penitent Uuef: "Amen I say to thee, this day thou
dialt be with me in paradiae". According to the
prevailing interpretation of Catbolie theologians and
commeDtatora, paradise in this instance is used as a
srnonym for the heaven of the blessed to irtiich the
tnief would accompany the Saviour, together with the
souls of the righteous of the Old Law who were
awaitii^ the coming <A the Redeemer. In II Cor-
inthians (jdi, 4) St. Paul describing one of his ecstaaes
tells his readers that he was "eaught up into para-
diae". Here the term seems to indicate plainly the
heavenly state or abode of the blessed, implying
possibly a glimpse of the beatific vision. The refer-
ence cannot be to any form of terrestrial paradise,
especially when we consid«- the pvatlel expreseion
in verse 2. where relating a similar experience he ^vs
he was "caught up to the third heaven". Tbo
third and last mention of paradise in the New Tester
ment occurs in the Apocalypse (ii, 7), where St.
John, receiving in vision a Divine message for the
"angel of the church of Ephesus", hears these words:
"To him that overcometn, I will give to eat of the
tree of hfe, which is in the paradise of my Qod."
In this passage the word is plainly used to designate
the heavenly kingdom, though the imagery is bor-
rowed from the description of the primeval Garden of
Edoi in the Bode of Genesis. Aeoc»dii% to CatboKo
tho^ogy based on the Biblical account, the orif^inal
oiHidition of our first paraits was one of perfect inno-
cence and integrity. By the latter is meant that they
were endowed with many prerogatives which, while
pertaining to the natural order, were not due to
hum an nature as such — ^he&ce they are sometimes
termed pretematur^ Principal among these were
a high degree of infused knowted^, botwy immortal-
ity and fteedon fnun pain, and unmuni^ frran evil
impolsefl or inclinations. In othv words, the lower
or animal nature in man was }>erfectly subjected to
the control of reason and the will. Besides this, our
jBrst parents were also endowed with sanctifying grace
by which they were elevated to the supernatural
order. But all these gratuitous endowments were
forfeited through the disobedioice of Adam "in
whom all have dnned", and who was "a figure of
Him who was to come" (Rom., t) and restore fallen
man, not to an eartbhr, but to a heaventy paradise.

According to Josephus (Ant. Jud., I, i, 8), the Nile
is one of the four great rivers of paradise (Gen., ii,
10 sqq.). This view, which has been adopted by
many commentators, is based chie^ on the connec-
tion described between Gehon, one of the yet unidoiti-
fied rivers, and the land of Cuah. which, at least in
later times, was identified with Ethiopia or modem
Abyssinia (ef. Vulgate, Gen., ii, 13). Modem schol-
ars, howera*, are inclined to regard this Afirican
Cwtt as simply a colony settled by tribes migrating
from an original Asiatic province of the same name,
located by Fried. Delitsch (op. dt., 71) in Baby-
Ionia, and by Hommel ("Ancient Hebrew Tradition'',
314 sqq.) in Central Arabia.

EOBTVB, Thtotogia Dogmaliem Compmdtvm, TI (Inasbrnclc,
1803). 2M-83; vom RmaatJtxm. ConmtiU. in Omttim (Puta,
ComifWBfc in Cap, ii; \iaommJXt Did. ta BihU, ». r.;
5MciBl Ttiinduetion to tlu Studu of Ih* W Tmamtntt
( teS aqq. (New York, 1901).

James F. Dribcoll.

Terrlen, Jean-Baptistb, dogmatic theologian,
bom at St-Laurentnies-Autels, Maine-et-Loire, 2o
Aug., 1832: d. at Bellevue, near Paris, 5 Deo^ 1903.
He entered the Society of Jesus at Angers, 7 Dec.,
^864; taught philosopliy for two years aaid dogmatic

theology for twenty-two at the seminariee of Laval
(France), 1864-80, and St. Heher (Jcfsery), 1880-88,
then, after being spiritual father at Laval he was ap-
pointed professor of dogmatic theology and taught
three years^ 1891-94, at the Cathohc Institute of
Bans, remaining itfterwards in tiiis ra^ as spiritual
father and writer. Durii^ his first period of tea<^ing,
he did not pabKsh any theol<^oal woric, excq>t a
treatise, "De Veibo incamato", Jersey, 1882, tot pri-
vate cimilation; there are abo five or six oUier trea-
tises in MS. or Utfaogn4>faed, which fmn a substantial
body of Positive rather than Scholastic theok^, af Kr
the manner and doctrine of Cardinal Fransehn. In a
quite different style is framed a neo-Tfaomistic mono-
graph, publishea at Kwisin 1804: "8. Thome Aqa»>
natiSg O.V., doctrina sinoera de unione IwpoBbraca
Vert>i Dei cum humanitate amplissime deolarata".
At this time, Father Terrien bej^ to apply his dem
knowledge of Uieology to popular instruction, and
published the following doomnal treatises in French:
*'La Devotion au 8acr6-Coeur de J^sus. d'apris les
documents anthoitiqueB et la tbtologie , 1893; Ital-
ian trandatitm by O. M. Rossi (Naplee, 1895); "La
s^toe et b gloire ou la filiation adoptive des enf ants de
Dieu ^diee dans sa r£dit£, ses prinoipes, son per-
feotionnement, et son oouronnement final , 2 vols.,
1897; newed., 1908; "LaM^de Dieu et k MAredes
hommes d'aprte les P£res et la th€ologie", 4 vols.,
1900, 1902. These three works form imouestionably
the most conmiicuous lurt of Torien's literary pec^
formance, as they are hi^ily valu^le on aooouat of
precision and richneas of doetrine.

Xavibb Lb Bachblwt.

Tertluies (from the Latin tertiariu*, the rdative
adjective of tertiu», "third"), or what is known as
"Third Orders", are those persons who live accord-
ing to the Third Bule of religiouB orders, either
outeide of a monastoy in the wmld, or in a reUooua
oommunity. The idea which forms the basis ofthis
institute is in general this, that persons who on
account of certain circumstances cannot enter a
religious order, strictly so-called, may, nevertheless,
as far as possible enjoy the advantages and privilfnes
of religious orders. This is most clearly expressea in
the Rule of the Thbd Order of St. Francn whit^ al-
thou^ not ^e oldest, has, nevertheUss, become the
rao(wl iac the rule of almost all other Third OtAm.
Tertiaries are divided into B^[ular and Secular (see
Tbnu) OBnssa).

Fbbdinakd Hkcxicash.

TertnlUaa (QinNTUs Sjptimios Fuibens Tm-
tctlliantib), ecdemaetical writer in the seoond and
third craturies, b. pn^Htbly about 160 at Carthage,
being the son of a centurion in the proconsular serv-
ice. He was evidently by professicm an advocate in
the law-courts, and he shows a cloee acquaintance with
the prooedure and terms of Roman law, though it is
doubtfid whether he is to be idratified with a jurist
Tertullian iriio is dted in the Pandeets. He knew
Gredc as well as Latin, and wrote wcote in Gredc
which have not come down to us. A pagan until mid-
dle life, be had shared the paean prejudices against
Christianity, and had indulgedlike others in shameful
pleasures. His conversion was not later than the
year 197, and may have been earlier. Be embraced
the Faith with all the ardour of hb impetuous na-
ture. He became a priest, no doubt of the Church erf
Carthi^. Monceaux, followed by d'Alte, considers
tiiat his earlier writing were composed while he was
yet a layman, and if this be so, then his ordination was
about 200. His extant writings range in date from the
apologetics of 107 to the attack on a biiAiop who is
probably Pope Callistus (after 218). It was after the
year 206 that he joined the Montanist sect, and be
seems to have definitive separated from the Clraroh
about 311 (Hamaek) or 213 (Moii«taz)j^^Jltftar
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writing more virul^tly a^unst the ChuMh than emi
aoinat heathen and peraeouton, he aepcratod from
we MoataoiBte and founded a sect of his own. The
rannant of the TertulUaniste was leooncUed to the
Church by St. Augustine. A number of the works of
TertuUiaii are on special points of beUef or diecinhne.
Aooording to St. Jerome ne lived to extreme old age.

ogeticus". The fcvmer has been considered a
sketch for the latter; but it is more true to say that
the second work has a different puipose, though a
great deal of the same matter occurs in hoih, the
same argummts bong di^layed in the same manner,
with the same exam^ee and even the same phrases.
The aj>peal to the nations suffers from its tranamissioa
in a siD^ oodeoc. in which omissions of a word or sev-
eral words or wnole lines are to be deplored. Ter-
tullian's style is difficult Plough without such supei^
added causes of obscurity. But the text of the Ad
nationes" must have bcmi always rougher than tikat

yet to FwmiA us if we were known; — what a paralo*
^aml Tbe actual prooe&ire is yet more strange. In-
sUad of being tortured until we oonfces, we are tor>
tured until we d«iy. So far the "Ad natkmes" is
merdy developed and strengthened. Then, after a
condensed summary of the second book as to the
heathen gods, Tertullian begme in dii^jter xvii an ex-
position of the beUef <rf Christians in one God, the
Creator, invisible, infinite, to whom the soul of man,
which by its nature is inclined to Christiani^, bears
witness The floods and the fire have been His mes-
aauEors. We have testimoiw, he adds, from our Hb-
ered book& which are older thian all your gods. Ful-
filled prt^necy is the proof that they are divine. It
is then explained that Christ is God, the Word of God
bom of a virgin; His two comings, His miracles, pas-
sion, resuirection, and forty days with the disciples,
are recounted. The disciples spread His doctrine
throughout the world; Nero sowed it with blood at
Rome. Whan tortured the Christian cries, " We wor-
ship God through CSuist". Tlw demons confess Him
and th^ stir men up against us. Next, loyalty to
Cttsar IS discussed at greater length than before.

of the " Apokweticus", which is a more careful as well

as a more pea-»ct woric, and contains more matter be* When the populace rises, how eaai^ the Christians

cause of its better arrtmgement; for it is just same could take vengeance: "We are but of yesterday, yet

length as the two books "Ad nationes". we fill your oitiee, islands, forts, towns, coimdls, even

The "Ad nationes" has for its oitire object the camps, tribes, decuries, the palace, the senate, the

r^utation of calumnies aeunst Christians. In the
first place they are provea to repose on imreaaoning
hatred onty; the orooeduie <d txial is ilV^oaij tin
offence is nothing out Uie name of ChiistiBn, whidi
ought rather to be a title of honour; no proof is forth-
coming of any crimes, only rumour; tl^ first perse-
cutor was Nero, the worst of emperors. Secondly, the
individual chaises are met; TertuUian challenges the.
reader to believe in anything so contrary to nature
the accusations of infanticide and incest. Christl
are not the causes of earthquakes and floods sad I
ine, for these h^ipcoied long beftne Christianitiy. The
pa^uis despise tneir own gpda, banish them, forbid
tiieu- worship, mock tiiem on the stage: the poe' ' "
horrid stories of them; ibey were in reality o; ' '
and bad men. You say we worship an ass's
goes on, but you woiaiup all kinds of animaidf^pur
gods are images made on a cross framework, so you

forum; we have left you the temples alone". We
mi^t m^ate, and leave you in shame and in deso-
lation. We ought at least to be tolerated^ for what
are weT — a boc^ compacted by oommumty of re-
ligion, ot disciplme, and of h<^. We meet together
to pray, even for the emperors and authorities, to
hear reading from the holy books and exhortations.

We judse and separate those who fall into crime. We

■e ^^have elders of proved virtue to preside. Our oommon
ia^H^fuod is replmished by voluntanr donations each
aaW month, and is expended not on gluttony but on the
poor and suffering. This charity is quoted against
us as s disgrace; see, it is said, how they love one an-
other. We call ourselves brethren; you also are our
brethren by nature, but bad brethren. We are ao>
cused of evenr calunity. Yet we live with you; we
avoid no profession, but those of assassins, sorcerers,
.d such like. You spare the philoeophOTS, though

worship crosses. You say we worahip the sun; so do

you. A certain Jew hawked about a caricature of a ^ess that our teaching is older than theirs, for nothing

creature half ass, half goat, as our god; but you actu-
ally adore half-animals, As for infanticide, you ex-
pose ^our own children and kill the unborn. Your
promiscuous lust causes you to be in danger of the in-
ceet of which you accuse us. We do not swear by the
genius of Ctesar, but we are loyal, for we pray for him,
whereas you revolt. Csear does not want to be a
god; he prefers to be alive. You say it is through ob-
stinacy that we despise death; but of old su^ con-
tempt of death was esteemed heroic virtue. Many
among you brave death for gain or wagers; but we,
because we believe in judgment. Finally, do us jua-
tioe; examine our case, and change your nunds. The
second book consists entirely in an attack on the gods
of the pagans; they are marshalled in classes after
Varro. It was not, ui^es the apok)(pst, owing to these
multitudinous gods that the empire grew.

Out of this fierce wpeal and indictment was de-
veloped the grander " Apologeticus", addressed to the
rulers of the onpire and the administrators of justice.
The [onner work attacked popular prejudices; the new
one is an imitation of the Greek Apologies, and was
intended as an attempt to secure an amelioration in
the treatment of Christians by alteration of the law or
its administration. Tertullian cannot restrain bis ia-
Teotive; yvt he wishes to be ooneiliating, and it breaks
out in spite of his argument, instead of being its e»-
senoe as oef ore. He begins again by an appeal to refr-
■on. There are no witnesses, he urges, to prove our
crinMa; Trajan ordered Fliny not to seek us out, but

leir conduct is lees admirable than ours. They con-
g is older than theirs, for :
is older than truth. The resurrection at which you

jeer has many parallels in nature. You think' us
fools; and we rejoice to suffer for this. We conquer
by our death. Inquire into the cause of our con-
stancy. We believe this martyrdom to be the remit-
sion of all offences, and that he who is condenmed be-
fore your tribunal is absolved before God.

These points are all urged with infinite wit and
pungency. The faults are obvious. The effect on
the pagans may have been rather to irritate than to
convince. The very brevity results in obseuriW.
But every bver of doquence, and there were many m
those days, will have relished with the pleasure of an
epicure uie feast of ingenious pleading and recondite
learning. The rapier thrusts are so swift, we can
hardly realise their deadliness before th^ are re-
newed in showers, with sometimes a blow as <rf a
bludgeon to vary^ tae effect. The style is compressed
like that of Tacitus, but the metrical closes are ob-
served with care, against the ruleM>f Tacitus: and that
wonderful maker of phrases is outdone b^ his Chris-
tian successor in gemlike sentences which will be

auoted while the world lasts. Who does not know
le anima natwaliier Ckrixtiana (soul by nature Chris-
tian) 2 the Vide, inquiunt, itt invicem m ddioani, (see, they
exclaim, bow they love one another), and the Semen
eat tanguia Chriatianonim (The blood of Christians is
seed)? It was probably about the same time that
Tertullian developed his thesis of the " Testimony of
the aoul '' to the oistence of one God, in his little book

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withthiatitle. With Us asaal eloqaeiioe he aila^a
on the idw that ooamaa speedi bidfl us use enm^

sions such aa "God grant", or "If Ood will'' ''God
bless", "God sees"^ "May God repay". The soul
testifies also to devils, to just vengeance, and to its
own immortality.

Two or three years later (about 200) Tertullian as-
saulted heresy in a treatise even more brilliant, which,
unlike the " Apolcwetious", is not for his own day only
but foriUI time. It is called "liber de prsaoriptione
Mmticorum". Preeeription now means the rignt ob-
tained to something by lon^ usage. In Roman law
the signification was wider: it meant the cutting short
<rf a question by the refusal to hear the adversary's ar-
guments, on the ground of an anterior point which
must cut away the ground under his feet. So Ter-
tullian deals with heresies: it is of no use to listen to
their arguments or refute them, for we have a number
of antecoidait proofs that th^ cannot deserve a
hearii^. Heresies, he begins, must not astonish us,
for they were prophesied. Heretics urge the text,
"Seek and ye snail find", but this was not said to
Christians; we have a rule of faith to be accepted
without question. "Let curiosity give place to faith
and vain glory make way for salvation , so Tertul-
lian parodies a line of Cicero's. The heretics argue
out of Scripture; but, first, we are forbidden to con-
sort with a heretic after one rebuke has been de*
Uvered, and secondly, disputation results only in bias-
phemy on the one side and indignation on the other,
while the listener goes away mure puzzled than he
came. The real question is, "To whom does the
Faith belong? Whose are the Scriptures? By whom,
through whom, when and to whom baa been handed
down the discipline by which we are Christians? The
answer is plain: Christ sent His apostlee. who founded
churches m eaeh city, from which the others have bor-
rowed the tradition of the Faith and the seed of doc-
trine and daily borrow in order to become churches;
so that they also are Apostolic in that they are the off-

gtring of the Apostohc churches. All are that one
burch which the Apostles founded, so long as peace
and intercommunion are observed [dum at illia com-
municatio pacia ei avpellatio fraiemUaiU et eonieseera-
tio hoepiUUitatit\. Therefore the testimony to t'
truth u this: We communicate with the aposto'
Churches". The heretics will reply that the Apostl
did not know all the truth. Could anything be un-
known to Peter, who was called the rock on which the
Church was to be built? or to John, who lay on the
Lord's breast? But they will say, the churcnes have
erred. Some indeed went wrong, and were corrected
by the Apostle: though for others he bad nothing but
praise. "But let us admit that all have erred: — is it
credible that all these great churches should have
strayed into the same faith"? Admitting this ab-
surdity, thm all the baptisms, epiritual gifts, miracles,
martyrdoms, were in vain until Marcion and Valen-
tmus appeared at last! Truth will be younger than
error; for both these heresiarohs are of yesterday^nd
were still CathoUcs at Rome in the episcopate of Eleu-
therius (this name is a sUp or a false reading). Any-
how the heresies are at best novelties, ana have no
continuity with the teaching of Christ. Perhaps
some heretic may claim Apo^Uc antiquity: we re-
ply: Let them publish the onginsof their churches
and unroll the catalogue of their bishops till now from
the Apostles or from some bishop appointed by the
Apostles, as the Smyrmeans count from Polycarp and
John, and the Romans from Clement and Peter; let
heretics invent something to match this. Why, uidr
errors were denounced oy the Apostles long ago.
Finally (36), he names some Apostolic churches,
pointing above all to Rome, whose witness is near-
est at hand, — happy Church, in which the Apostles
poured out their whole teaching with their blood,
wlwre Pet«- suffused a death like his Master's, where

Paul was crowned with an end like the Baptist's.
nha^ John was pliuund into fiery oil without hurt!
The Roman Rule of Faith is summarized, no dotU>t
from the old Roman Creed, the same as our present
Apostlee' Creed but for a few small additions in the
latter; much the same summary was given in chapter
ziii, and is found also in "De virgim'bus vel^dis"
(chapter i). T«i,ullian evidently avoids giving the
exact words, which would be tau^t only to cate-
chumens shortly bef<ne baptism. The whole lumi-
nous argummt is founded on tbe first chaptm of St.
Irenteurs third book, but its forceful exposition is not
more TertuUian's own than its exhaustive and com-
pelling logic. Never did be show himself lees violoit
and lees obscure. The appeal to the Apostolic
churches was unanswerable m his day; the rest of
his argument is still valid.

A series of short works addressed to catechumens
bek>ng also to Totullian's Catholic days, and fall be-
tween 200 and 206. "De spectaculis" explains and
probably exaggerates the impossibility for a Christian
to attend anyheathen shows, even races or theatric^
performances, without either wounding his faith by
participation in idolatry or arousing his passions.
''De idololatria" is by some placed at a later date*
but it is anyhow closely connected with the form»
w(h4c. It explains that the making of idols is for*
bidden, and similarty astroh^, selling of incense, etc.
A schoolmaster cannot elude contamination. AQiris-
tian cannot be a soldier. To the question, " How am
I Uien to live? ", Tertullian replies that faith fears not
famine; for the Faith we must give up our life, how
much more our living? "De baptismo" is an in-
struction on the necessity of baptism and on its ef-
'ects; it is directed against a feioale teacher <A error
ilonging to the sect of Gaius (perhaps the Anti-
bntanist). We learn that btmtism was conferred
ly by the bishop, but with his consent could be
Buministered by priests, deacons, or even Ii^men.
The proper times were Easter and Pentecost. Ftvp-
was made by fasting, vigils, and prayers,
ation was conferred immediately after by
and laying on of hands. "De ptenitentia''
mentioned later. "De oratione" contains an
exposition of the Lord's Prayer, totitu eoangelU bre-
narium. " De cultu feminarum" is an instructi(Hi on
modesty and plainness in dress; Tertullian enjoys de-
tailing the extravaganera of female toUet and ridiculing
them. Besides these didactic works to catechimiens.
Tertullian wrote at the same period two books, "Aa
uxorem", in the former of which he begs his wife not
to marry again after his death, as it is not proper for
a Christian, while in the second book be enjoins upon
her at least to many a Christian if she does marry, for
pagans must not be consorted with. A little book <»k
patience is touching, for the writer admits that H is aa
impudence in him to discourse on a virtue in which he
is so conspicuously lacking. A book against the Jews
contains some curious choronology, used to prove the
fulfilment of Daniel's prophecy of the seventy weeks.
The latter half of the book is nearly identical with part
of the third book against Marcion. It would seem
that Tertullian used over again what he had written
in the earliest foim of that woik, which dates from
this time. "Ad versus Hermosenem" is against a cer-
tain Hermogenes, a paints (of idols?) who tau^t
that God created the world out of pre-existing matter.
Tertullian reduces his view ad absurdum, and estab-
lishes the creation out of nothiiq; both from Scripture
and reason.

The next period of TertuUian's titeraiy aetivi^
shows distinct evidence of Montanist opinions, but be
has not yet openly broken with the Chiurch, which had
not as yet condemned the new prophecy. Montaima
and the prophetesses Priscills and Maximilla had been
long dead when Tertulhan was converted to beli^ in
their inspiratkm. He held the words of Montanua to

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TSBTULLIAN

be reftDy. those of the Paraclete, and he characteriati*
oally exaggerated their import. We find him hence-
forth k^Muu; into rigorisia^ and condemning abso-
hitety second marriage and toreiveness of certain sins,
and maistii^ on new fasts. Hm teachin^^ had always
been excessive in its severity - now he positively revels
in harshness. Hamack and d'Al^ look upon "De
Viiginibus velandis" as the first wwk of this time,
though it has been placed later by Monoeaux and
others on account of its irritated tone.' We team that
CartJiue was divided a dispute whether virgms
should be veiled: TertuDian and the tov-Montanist
party stood for the affirmative. The book had been
meceded by a Greek writing on the same subjeet,
TertuUian declares that the Rule of Faith is un*
chai^;eable, but discipline is progressive. He quotes
a dream in favour of the veil. The date may be
about 206. Shortly aft^wards TertuUian published
faia largest extant work, five books against Marcion.
A first draft had been written much earlier; a seocnd
reoeosion had been published, when yet unfinished,
without the writer's consent; the first book of the
final edition was finished in the fifteraith year of Se-
vens, 207. The last book may be a few years later.
This controvffl^ is most impoitant for our knowiedge
of Marcion's doctrine. The refutation of it out of his
own New Testament, which consisted of St. Luke's
Qpepel and St. Paul's Epistles, enables us to reoon-
Btitute much of the heretic's Scm>tuie text. The
Bah may be seen in Zahn's, "Geechiehte dee N. T.
Kanons^', II, 455-^. A work agatuit the Volen-
tinians followed. It b mainly based tm the first book
of St. Irensus.

In 2O0 the tittle book "De palUo" appeared. Ter-
tuUian had excited remark adopting the Gredc pal-
lium, the recognised dress of philosophers, and he de-
fends his conduct in a witty pamphlet, A long book,
"De anima", gives TeartulOan'a pojrchology. He well
describes the uni^ of the soul: be teaches that it is
spiritual, but immateriality in tne fullest sense he ad-
mits for nothing that exists,-~even God is eorput.
Two woiks are against the docetism of the Gnostics,
"De came Christi" and "De reeurrectione camis".
Here he emphasizes the reaUty of Christ's Body and
His vii^n-birth, and teaches a corporal resurrection.
But he seems to deny the virginity of Mary, the
Mother of Christ, in partu, thov^ he affima it ante
parbm. He addressed to a convert yrbo was a wid-
ower an exhortation to avoid second marriage, which
is equivalent to fornication. This woik, " De eidiorta-
tione castitatis " , implies that the writer is not yet aepar
rated from the Church. The same excessive rigour
appears in the "De corona", in which TertuUian de-
fends a soldier who had refused to wear a chaplet on
his head when he received iho donative granted to the
amqr on the accession of CaraoaUa and Geta in 211.
The man had been d^raded and imprisoned. Many
Christians thou^t his action extravagant, and re-
fused to regard him as a martyr. Tortiulian not onhr
declares that to wear the crown would have been idol-
atry, but argues that no Christian can be a soldier
without oompromising his faith. Next in order is the
"Scorpiace"^ or antidote to the bite of the Scorpion,
directed against the teaching of the Valentinians that
God cuinot approve of mar^rdom, since He does not
want man's death; th^ even permitted the extenuU
act of idolatry. Tertuilian shows that God desires
the courage of the martyrs and their victory over
temptation; he proves from Scripture the duty of
suffering death tot the Faith and the great promises
attached to t^is heroism. To the year 212 belongs
the open tetter "Ad scapulam", adcuressed to Uie pro-
consul of Africa who was renewing the persecution,
which had ceased since 203. He is soleinnly warned
of the retribution which overtakes persecutors.

The foimal aecession of TertuUian fttun the Omxch
qI OBithafle nana to have takm plaoe athar in 2U w

at the end of 212 at latest. The earlier date is fixed
by Hamack on account of the close connexion be-
tween the "De corona" of 211 with the "De fuga",
which must, he thinks, have immediateh^ foUowed the
"De corona". It is certain that "De fuga in perse-
cutione" was written after the secession. It con-
demns flight in time of persecution, for God's provi-
dence has intended the suffering. This intoler^te
doctrine had not been held by Totullian in bis Cath-
oUc days. He now terms the Catholics "Fsychici",
as opposed to the "spiritual" Montanists. The
cause of his schism is not mentioned. It is unlikely
that he left the Church by his own act. Rather it
would seem that when the Montanist prophecies were
finally disapproved at Rome, the Church of Carthage
excommumcated at least the more violent among
their adherents. After "De fuga" come "De mono-
gamia" (in which the wickedness of second marriage
IS yet more severe^ censured) and "De jejunio",a de-
fence <rf the Montanist fasts. A dogmatic work, "Ad-
versus Praxean", is of great importance. Vinaeac
had prevoited, according to T^uUiw, the recogni-
tion of the Montanist prophecn^ by the pope; Tertul-
Uan attacks him as a Monarchian. and develops his
own doctrine of the Holy Trinity (see Monabchians
and pRAXBAs). The last remaining woik of the pas-
sionate schismatic is apparently "De pudicitia", if it
is a protest, as is generaUy h^, against a Decree of
Pope CaUistuB, in which the paraon of adulterera and
fornicators, after due penance done, was publidied
at the interoeseoott of the martyrs. Monceaux, how-
ever, stiU supports the view which was once com-
moner than it now is, that the Decree in question was
issued by a bishop of Carthage. In any case Ter-
tuUian's attribution of it to a would-be episcopu*
epucoporum and pontifex maximua merely attests its
peremptory character. The identification of this Do-
cree with the far wider relaxation erf discipline vit^
which HippolytuB reproaches Callistus is unoertsin.

The aisument of TertuUian must be considered
in some (tebdl, since his witness to the ancient syst^
of penance is of first-rate importance. As a CathoUo,
he addressed "De psenitentia" to catechumeos as an
exhortation to repentance previous to baptism. Be-
sides that sacrament be mentions, with an expression
of unwiUingness, a "last hope", a secondplank of salt-
vation, aft^ wluch thM« is no oth^. This is the se-
vere remedy of exomologeeis, confession, involving a
k>ng penance in sackcloth and ashes for Uie remiasion
of post-baptismal sin. In the "De pudicitia" the
Montanist now declared that there is no forgiveness
for the gravest sins, precisely tlrose for which exomo-
Ic^is is necessary. It is said by some modem
cntira, such as Funk and Tunnel among Catholics,
tiiat TertuUian did not really change his view on this
point between the writing of the two treatises. It is
pointed out that in "De psnitentia" thoe is no men-
tion of the restoration of the penitent to communion;
he is to do penance, but with no hope of pardon in this
life; no sacrament is administered, and the satisfac-
tion is lifelong. This view is impossible. TotuUian
declares in "De pud." that he has changed his mind
and expects to be taunted for his inconsistency. He
impUee that he used to hold such a relaxation, as the
one he is attacking, to be lawful. At any rate in the
"De psen." he paratlela baptism with exomologeds,
and supposes that the latter has the same effect as the
former, obviously the forgiveness of sin in this Ufe.
Communion is never mentioned^ since catechumens
are addressed; but if exomologesis did not eventually
restore aU Christian privileges, thore could be no rea-
son for fearing that the mention of it should act as an
enoouragement to sin, for a lifelong penance would
hardly be a reassuring prospect. No length is men-
tioned, evidently because the duration depended on
the nature of the ain and the judginent of tne biahop;
had death been the term, thia wpuld have been

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TUTQUJAH 5S

•iDpluitlcaUv expressed. Fiiudly, and this is conclu-
sive, it coula not oe insisted on that no second peoance
was ever allowed, if all penance was lifelong.

For the fuU understanding of Tertullian's doctrine
we must know his division of sins into three claases.
There are first the terrible crimes of idolatry, blas-
phemy, homicide, adultery, fornication, false witness,
fraud (Adv. Marc., IV, ix; in "De pud." he substi-
tutes apostasy for false witness and adds unnatural
vice). As a Montanist he calls these iiremisaible.
Between these and mere venial sins there are modica
or media (De pud., i), less grave but yet serious sins,
which he enumerates in "De pud.", xix:" Sins of daily
committal, to which we are all subject; to whom in-
deed does it not occur to be angry without cause and
after the sun has set, or to give a blow, or easily to
curse, or to swear rash^, or break a contract, or lie
through shame or necessitf ? How much we are
tempted in business, in duties, in trade, in food, in
eight, in heanngi So that, if there wcze no forgive-
ness for such thin^, none could be saved. Therefore
there will be forgiveness for these sins by the prayer
of Christ to the Father" (De pud., xix).

Another list (De pud., vii) represents the sins which
may constitute a tost sheep, as distinguished from one
that is dead: "The faithful is lost u he attend the
ohariot races, or gladiatorial combats, or the unclean
theatre, or athletic shows, or playing, or feasts on some
secular solenmity, or if he has exercised an art which
in any way serves idolatry, or has lapsed without con-
sideration into some denial or blasphemy". For
these sins there is forgiveness, though the sinner has
strayed from the flock. How is forgiveness obtained?
We leam this only incidentally from the words: "That
kind of penitence which is subsequent to faith, which
can either obtain forgiveness from the bishop for less^
sins, or from God only for those which are iiremissi-
ble" (ib., xviii). Thus Tertullian admits the power
of the bishop for all but "irremissible" sins. The ab-
solution which he still acknowledge for frequent sins
was obviously not limited to a single occasion, but
must have been frequently repeated. It is not even
r^ened to in "De pten.", which deals only with bap-
tism and public penance for the Bravest sins. Again,
in "De pud.", Tertullian repudiates his own earlier
traching that the keys were left by Christ through
Peter to His Church (Scorpiace, x) ; he now declares
(De pud., xxi) that the gift was to Peter peraonallj^,
and cannot be claimed by the Church of the Paychici.
The spiritual have the right to forgive, but the Para-
clete said : " The Church has the power to forgive sins,
but I will not do so, lest they sin afresh. "

The system of the Church of Carthage in Tertul-
lian's time was therefore manifeetW tiiis: those who
committed grievous sins confessed them to the bishop,
and he absolved them after due penance enjoined ana
performed, unless the case was in his judjonent so

grave that public penance was obligatory. This pub-
c penance was only allowed once; it was for pro-
tracted periods, even sometimes until the hour of
death, but at the end of it forgiveness and resttu^aticni
were iMoroised. The term was frequently shortened
at the prayer of martyrs.

Of the lost works of Tertullian the most important
was the defence of the Montanist mannra* of prophe-
sying, " De ecstasi ", in six books, with a seventh book
against Apollonius. To the peculiarities of Tertul-
lian's views which have alr^dy been explained must
be added some further remarks. He did not care for
philosiAy : the philosophers are the " patriarchs of the
heretics". Hts notion that ^ things, pure spirits and
even God, must be bodies, is accounted for by his ig-
norance of philosophical terminology. Yet of the
human soul he actually says that it was seen in a vis-
ion as tender, light, and of the colour of airl All
our souls irete contained in Adam, and are tnuumitted
to us with the taint of wiginal flin v^pon titem,— «n

ingenious if gross form of ImdueianiBm. EQa Ttiat
tarian teaching is inconnstent, being an amalgamation
of the Roman doctrine with diat ofSt. Justin Martyr.
Tertullian has the true formula for the Holy Trinity,
ires Persons, una Substantia. The Father, Son, and
Holy Ghost are numerically distinct, and each is God;
they are of one substance, one state, and one power.
So tar the doctriae is accurately Niceue. But by the .
side of Uus i^pears the Greek view which was cme day
to develop into Aiianism: that the unity is to be
sought not in the Essence but in the origin of the Per-
BOOS. He says that from all eternity there was reason
^aiio) in God, and in reason the Word (Samo), not
distinct from God, but in tndoa cordie. For the pur-
pose of creation the Word received a perfect birth as
aoa. There was a time when there was no Son and
no sin, when God was neither Father nor Judge. In
his Cbristology Tertullian has had no Greek innueuce,
and is purely Roman. Like most Latin Fathers he
speaks not of two Natures but of two Substances in
one Person, united without confusion, and distinct in
their operations. Thus he condemns by anticipation
the Neetorian, Monophysite, and Monothelite here- '
sies. But he seems to teach that Mary, the Mother of
Christ, bad other children. Yet he makes her the
second Eve, who by her obedience effaced the disobe-
dience of the first Eve.

Tertullian's doctrine of tiie Holy Eucharist has been
much discussed, ee|>eciaUy the words: "Aco^tum
panem et distoibutum disoipulis corpus suum lUum
fecit, hoc est corpus meum dicendo, id est, figin^ cor-
poris mei". A consideration of the context shows
only one interpretation to be possible. T^tullian is
woving that Our Lord Himself explained bread in
Jer., xi, 19 {miUamm lifinum in panem dw) to refer to
His Body, when He said, "This is My Body", that is,
that bread was the ^mbol of His Body. Nothing can
be elicited either for or against the Real Presence; for
Tertullian does not explaon whether the bread is the
symbol of the Body present or absent. The context
BU^ests the formw meaning. Another passage is:
Panem, quo twum corjnu mum reprtztenlat. This
might mean "Bread which stands for His Body", or
"Presents, m^es i^esent". D'Alte has calodatad
that the soise of presentation to the ima^nation oc-
curs seven times m TertuUian, and the sunilar moral
sense (presentation by picture, etc.) occurs twelve
times, whereas the sense of physical presentation oc-
curs thirty-three times. In tiie treatise in question
against Marcion the physical sense alone is found, and
fourteen times. A more direct assertion of the real
presence is Corpus tjw in vane eenselur (De orat., vi). -
As to the grace nven, he has some bewtif^ exprea-
Hions, such as: "Itaque petendo panem quotidianura,
popetuitatem postiuamus in Christo et individuitar
temacorporeejus" (Inpetitioningfordaiiy bread, we
a^ for perp^uity in Christ, and indivisibility from
His body. — Ibid.). A famous passage on the Sacra-
ments of Baptism, Unction, Confirmation, Orders, and
Eucharist runs: "Caro abluitur ut anima maculetur;
tan ungitur ut anima OMueeretur; caro signatur ut et
anima muniatur; caro nuuius imporitione adumhra-
tur ut et anima spiritu illuminetur; caro corpore et
sanguine Christi vescitur ut et anima de Deo sagin^
tur (The fleah is washed, in order that the soul
may be cleansed; the fleen is anointed, that the
soul may be consecrated; the flesh is si^ed [with the
cross], that the soul, too, may be fortified; the flesh
is shadowed with the imposition of hands, that the
soul also may be ilhuniuted by the Spirit; the OkA
feeds on the body and bkwd of Christ, that ttie soul
likewisemayhaveitsfillofOod — "Dere«.cami8.",viii).
He testifies to the practice of dail^ oommunion, and
the preserving of the Holy Euohanst by private per-
sons for this purpose. What will a heathen husband
think of that iriueh is taken by his Uiristian wife be-
fore all other food? "If he knows that H is Bread,

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will he not believe that it is simply whmb it is called? "
This im|>lies not merely the Rwl Pnaenoe. but tm^
eubstentiation. The statioQ days wcve Wednesday
and Fridf^; on what other days besides H<^ Mass
was offered we do not know. Some thoi^t liiat
Holy Communion would break their fast on Station
days; TertiiUian explains: "When you have received
and reeerved the Body of the Lord, you will have ae-
sisted at the Sacrifice and have aocomplifihed the duty
of fasting as well" (De oraticme, xix). TertuUian's
list of customs obsa-ved b^ Apostolic tradition though
not in Soripture (De oor., lii) ts famous: the baptisn^
renunciatioDfi tuod fee<ting with milk and hon^, fast-
ing Communion, offerings tor the dead (Masses) on
their anniversaries, no fasting or kneeling on the
Lord's Day and between Easter and Pentecost, anx-
iety as to the falling to the ground of any crumb or
drop of the Holy Eucharist, the Sign of the Cross
made oontmually during the day.

TertuUian's oanon of the Old Testament included
the deutcrocanonioal books, since he quotes most of
them. He also cites the Book of Enoch as inspired,
and thinks those who rejected it were wrong. He
seems also to recognize IV Eedras, and the Sibyl,
though he admits that there are many sit^lhne for-
geries. In the New Testament he knows the Four
Gospels, Acts, Epistles of St. Paul^ Peter (Ad Ponti-
eos), I Jc^, Jude, Apocalypse. He does not know
James and II Pet^, out we cannot tell that he did
not know II, III Jotut. He attributes Hebrews to St.
Barnabas. Herejectetbe"PaBtor"ofHerma8and8ays
that many councUsof the Psychici had also rejected it.
Tertullian was learned, but careless in his historical
statements. He quotes Varro and a medical writer,
Soranus of Ephesus, uid was evidently well read in
pagan- literature. He cites Irensus, Justin, Milti-
ades, and Proclus. He probably knew parts of Cle-
ment of Alexandria's, writings. He is the first of
Latin tbeologioal writers. To some extent, how great
we cannot tell, he must have invented a tbeologioal
idiom and have coined new expressions. He is the
first witness to the existence of a Latin Bible, though
he seems frequently to have translated from the Greek
Bible as he wrote. Z^m has denied that he possessed
any Latin translation, but this opinion is commonly
rejeete^ukd St. Perpetua ca>tain^ had one at Carth-
age in 203.

B«ddM Um fBiienl Ustoriea and luttoTin of dosma snd the
wtKdMdeal sse HnaxLBXM, TertuUian* Lthr4 (2 vols., Dorpat,
184S): FKKnmuTertvUien (P&rU, 1864); Hacck, TerttiUiaiu L«-
hm u. Sekrifim (Eriansen, 1877) ; I40u>echbk, TertTiUian (Ootha,
1890); MONCUVX. Hut, Utt. de VAfrivM ehrU., I (Paria. l&Ol),
the bMt SBMT&l work on Tert.; D'AiAs, Lo UUotogit dt rerhtlltm
(3ad od., I^riA, 1906), the best aooount of hia theology; Titrubl.
nrtuIKm (2nd od., Paria, 1905): D» Labkiou-b, TeH. jwiteon-
miit» ia NotaeUt rente ^hiuA. it it droit (1906) ; Ii>ui, L'areument
d» pr^Kripfitm in Rn. d'hiat. et dt litt. rWwMtUM (1006);
BcHLoaaMANN, TerlaUian im Liehl der Jnnapriidem in Z. ftur
Kirehennetch. (1906). On Tcrtutlian'a theology see Neandkb,
Afttienottieiu (Berlin, 1S25. 1849); CAnoAN&s, Tert. tl U mtmlor-
mtme (Geneva, 1876) ; Coitbdavuui^ Tert, in fimtM de VhieL dee
reliffioTu (1891) ; Cabkol, Tert. eelon St. Courdaveaux in La tdence
catholique (1891); EaaSH, Die Seetmlekre Tert.'e (Paderbora,
1893) ; Rauoh, Der Binftuee der iMeeiim PhiUteovhie auf die Lehr^
bUduna Tert'e (Halle, 1890) ; BONnouou, Teotooia di Tert. nei
eiioi rapporti eon la philoe-ttorioa in Reriela deOe icieme teolog.
(1906); also Momceaux, Tinmci., and eepeoially D'Ai.ie. On

Stnaooe in Tert., ne ooder Pskancb, alao Pbevbchkk, Die
ehri/ten De Pan. u. De Pud. mit ROckeidii au/ die Bweedieeiplin
wiltreucht (1S90); RoLPra, Da* Indvlgenxedild dee rOm. Bxeeh.
KdOiet (Leipiig, 1893) ; VnttTt, Dae IndidgerttediU dee P. KaUithu
in TKeoL Qvartaleehr. (Oct., 19061. On apoloaetioa oee Hsnt4
Beitr^ awr Kirettmneeeh., 1 (Tabinoen, 1844); J. E. B. Mator,
TertuUian'e Apohay ia Journal of Theol. (1893): Oaccher,
Vawtogftiipu ae TeH. (Auteuil, ISM); WAL-niNo, VApdUgHirrtie
de Tert., trad, el oomrn. (Louvain, 1910). On TertuUian's style
■ae Kbluikb, Uher die tpraeUiehen EiaenUltniiehkeilm Terlui-
Kan'e in TkeoL quartt^ehr. (1876); Hoppe, De eermone Tertul-
lianeo (Marburg, 1897); Ideu, Stm/ox u. 3til dee T. (Leipiig.
19(B) ; and the general works of KopiuinrB and Nordsk. On the
see WiBSOWA, TtrtvUiani opera, I in Corptu ear. eod, lot.,
XX (Vieims, ISSTO; Hartbu Pairiedeehe Studienia Siteungeber.
der K. Akad. der Witt., CXX (Vienna. 1890) ; Vurr. Stvdia etxl..
TtrtulL triUea at inUrpr. CUfdsn, 1891) : KaoTiLunt, Qweetbmea
TertHOiaeua eritiea (lunbrnok, 1894) iOoMPma, TertuUianea
(Vieniia,18e5}: CAi,LVirASBTj,£« codizFuUmeU,U meOkurUSS,

E6 TKRUEL

ataffOmlocr SM nuaoSK, Fundamenta ehronotogim TeH, (QMI-
iofeo, 1861); Bonwbwch, Die St^aiften Tert.'e naeh der EeU
ihrer Abfaeevna unlerewM (Boon, 1878) ; and especially NdiJ)»-
CBXN, MoNCXAUX, D'Aiiis, and Haienack; Chronol., fl (1904).
On TartoUiaii'a lAtin Bible aee Zabn, 6'mcA. dee N. T. Kanone, I,
61; Habmack; Momcsaox, elo. The citatioos are carefully ook-
leoted in RdKSCH. Das N. T. Tert.'e (Letpiu, 1871). Fordeiaila,
and for some of the innumorsble editions of separate treatises, sea
BanrsnQRlnfiMiisnMrf.,Bnd imecially Basdsmbswo, Ondki.
deraUkiriALLitl.,n(frSbaig.lM).

John Chapman.

Teniel, Diocbse op (Turolensib), suffragan of
Raragosaa, comprises the civil province d the same
name, excepting the town of Bechi (CastelI6n). It is
believed by some that Teruet and the ancient Turba
are the same. Turba was the city whose dilutes
with the Saguntines gave Hannibal an excuse for at-
tacking Saguntum and beginning the Second Punic
War. According to the annals of Teruel it ^Jpears
that Turba was not situated on the site of the present
city of Teruel, but at its boundary line. Teruel was
founded in 1176 by Sancho Suichez Mufioz and
Blaseo Gare^ Maroilla. It formed a separate com-
munity and was nsvemed by the Fusro ae SemSb>eda
until 1598, when the inhabitaatB abjured it before the
courts of Ar^on, in order to oome under the Govern-
ment of Aragon. Jaime I received- its support in the
conquest of Valencia, and the standards of Teruel
were the first to wave in the gateway of Serranos. In
1271 it joined in the war against Castile, invaded
Huete and Cuenca, and nded with Pedro IV in his
war a^nst the "Union". In recogniticMi of this Uie
king visited the city in 1348 and conferred upon it the
title of exenta (exempt) . Gregory XIII at the earnest
solicitations of Philip II created the diocese in 1577.
The first bishop, Juan P6rez de Artieda_, was elected
but not consecrated; the first bishop installed was
Andrea Santos, who was transferred to Saragossa in
1579. All the churches of Teruel are contemporary
with its foundation, as the founders built nine
diurches, one, Santa Maria de Media Villa, in the
centre, and the remaining ^riit in a circle following
the circuit of the walls. The central church was
made a collegiate church in 1423 and named the
cathedral in 1577. It was originally built of brick
and rubble-work, but since the restoration in the
seventeenth century it has lost its primitive char-
acter. The Doric choir stalls w^e the gift of Martin
Ferrer, Bishop of Teruel, and later of Tarasona.

Ferdinand and Isabella visited Teruel in 1482, took
the oath in the cathedral, and received the freedom of
the city. The founding of the Inquisition m 14S4 pro-
duced serious changes because the converts were
numerous and powerful. The inquisitor, Juan de
Solivellia, was forced to leave. Property to the
amount of 133,000 sueldoa was confiscated and turned
over *x> the city. The Churches of San Martfn and El
Salvador are reiavkable for their Arabic towers.
The first, Mooruh in style, was built in the twelfth
century. Pierre de Bedel, builder of the Arcos de
Teruel (Aqueduct) and of the Mina de Daroca, re-
paired its foundations from 1549 to 1551. The tower
of the Church of El Salvador, Moorish style of the
thirteenth century, was reinforced in the nineteenth
century by brick additions. In the Church of San
Pedro rest the bodies of the famous "lovers of Te-
ruel", Di;»o Martinez de Marcilla and Isabd de
S^ra. llie seminary, dedicated to St. Toribio de
Mogrovejo, was founded by the bishop Francisco
Jose Rodriguez Chico, who after the expulsion of the
Jesuits in 1769 was granted the use of their magni-
ficent Col!^ by Charles III. During the wars of
independence and the civil wars that followed, the
buildin g was taken over for military quarters and
shortly afterwards the seminazy was suppressed. It
was re-established in 1849 by Don Antonio Lao y
Cuevas, who gave his own palace for the purpose.
The Jesuit college has since been restored to toe <nrder.
Tbe episoopal palaee is in no way no!iari:Bble««X|)t

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TUTAMBMT

Mrfaape for its oourtyard, which has a well-propor-
Donea Ionic colonnade. The Cam del CavUtda,
where the ecckeisBtical chapter used to assemble, has
an altar dedicated to the Immaculate Conception and

to St. Emerentia, patroness of the city.

Among the distinguished citizens of Teruel must be
mentioned JenSnimo Ripalda, S.J.; the jurisconsult
Gaspar de Caatellot; M^el Jer6njmo de Castellot,

Judge of the courts of Aragon, 1665; Fray Juan Ce-
irian de Feralee, Bishop of Albarracfn, and Juan Mar-
tinez Salafranca, Viceroy of Aragon, founder of the
Academy of History.

CoadkaMi, Btpalta, tta manumsntoi: Ara^n (Baroclona.
USffl; PnmnDO, Criiiiea ammU tU Eavatia: Cr6nioa da Tend

RAiidN Ruiz Amxdo.
Test Act. Bee Oaths, English Post-Rbfobma-

TION.

Tegtament, Thb Old.— I. Namb.— The wMd " tes-
tament", Hebrew bertlh, Greek iut^icn, primarily
ngnifies the covenant which God entered into first
with Abraham, then with the people of Israel. The
Froqltheto had knowledge of a new covenant to which
the one concluded on Mount Sinai should give way.
Accordinsly Christ at the Last Supper epeska of
the blood of the new testament. The Apostle St.
Paul declares himself (II Cor., iii^ 6) a minister "of
the new teetament", siid calls (iii, 14) the covenant
entered into on Mount Sinai the old teetament".
The Greek exi^esBion Sm$^ is employed in the
SeptuagiDt for the Hetnew "beilth". The later
interpreters Aquila and Symmachus substituted for
iic^mi the more common ffvv&^Kiq, which probably
agreed more with their literary taste. The Latin term
is "fcedus" and oftener "testamentum", a word cor-
responding more exactly to the Greek.

As r^ards Christian times, the expre^on at an
early period came to signify the whole of God's Reve-
lation as exhibited in the history of the Israelites,
and because this old covenant was incorporated into
the Canonical Bookfj, it was but an easy step to make
the term signify the Canonical Scriptures. Even the
text referred to above (II Cor., iii, 14) points to that.
Bo, the Scriptures are called "books of the Old Testa-
ment" by Melitoof Saxdis and Clementof Alexandria
(rA woKm Alexia; ra t$s xaXtuai SioS^ki^ pifiXla).
it is not clear whethw with these authfus "Old
Testament" and "Scriptures of the Old Testament"
mean the same. Origen shows that in his time the
transition was complete, although in his writii^ signs
of the padual fixmg of the expression may oe still
traced. For he repeatedly speaks of the "so-called"
Old Testament, when meuiing the Scriptures.
With the Western writers this use of the term in
the most wcient period cannot yet be proved. To
Uke lawyer Tertullian the Sacred Books are, above
all, documents and sources of argument, and he there-
ibfe frequentiy calls them "vetus and novum in-
■trumentum". Cyprian once mentions the "scrip-
turs veteree et novs". Subsequently the Greek
use of the term becomes established among the Latins
as well, and throiu|h them it has been made common
property of the Christian world. In this meaning,
aa sonifying the Canonical Scriptures of the Old
Testament, the exoression "Ola Testament" will
be used in what follows.

II. Hdstobt of thb Text.— The canon of the
Old Testament, its manuscripts, editions and ancient
versions are treated in the articles Biblb; Canon
OF THE Holt Scriptures; Codex Alexandrinub,
etc.; Hebrew Bible; Massorah; Mandschipts
OF THE BiBUi; Versions of the Bible. Questions
concerning the origin and contents of^ toe single
books are propoeecTand answered in articles on uie
nq>ective Immu. This article is ctmfined to the
Bsneral introduotim on the text of the parts oi the

Old Testament written in Hebrew; for the few books
originally composed in Greek (Wisd<Hn; U Maoha-
bees) and those of which the Semitic origmal has been
lost (Judith; Tobias; Sirach, i. e. Ecclus.; I Machap
bees) call for no special treatmwt.

A. Text of the Maniueriptt and Maeaoretes.—Tht
sure startins^point for a correct sstimation of the
text of the Old Testament is the evidence t^tained
from the MSS. In this c<»me:don, the first tiling
to observe is that however distant the oldest MSS.
are — the earliest are of the ninth century a. d. —
from the time when the books were compoeed, there
is a uniform and homogeneous tradition concerning
the text. The fact is ul the more striking, as the
history of the New Testament is ijuite different.
We have New-Testament MSS. written not much
more than 300 vears after the oc»npoeition oi the
books, and in tnem we find numerous differences,
thougn but few of them are important. The textual
variants in the MSS. of the Old Testament are limited
to quite insignificant differenoes of vowels and more
rwely of consonants. Even when we take into
aocoimt the disorspanoies between the Eastern, or
Bal^lonian^ and Western, or Palestinian schools, no
essential differences are found. The moof fw the
agreement between the MSS. was established by B.
Kennicott after comparing more than 600 MSS.
("Vetus Testamentum Heoraicum cum variis leo-
tionibus", Oxford, 1776, 1780). De Rossi has added
considerably to this material ("Varife lectionei.
veterisTestamenti", Parma, 1784-88). Itisobviobft
that this striking uniformity cannot be due to ehanoe:
it is unique in the history of text-traditkm, and all
the more remarkable as the imperfect Hebrew syrteni
of writing could not but occasion many and various
errors and slips. Besides many peculiarities in the
method of wnting show themselves uniformhr every'
where. False readings are retained in the same
manner, so that the text is eleariy the result oC arti'
fidal equalisation.

The question now arises: How far back can we
trace this care in handing down the text to postoityT
Pfailo, many autiiorities on the Talmud, and later
Jewish rabbis and savants of the oxteenth and
seventeentii century favoured the opinitm that the
H^rew text, as it is now read in our MSS., was writ-
ten down from the outset and bequeathed to us un-
adulterated. The works of EUas Levita, Morinus,
Cappellus have shown this view to be unteaiable;
and later investigations have established tiie history
of the text in its essential features. The uniformity
of the MSS. is ultimately the outcome of ihe labours
of the Maesoretes, which were not concluded till
after the writing of tiie oldest MSS. The woik o(
the Masaoretee chiefly consisted in the faithful pres-
ervation of the transmitted text. This they accom-
plished by maintaimng aoeurate statistics on the
entire sti^ of the Sacred Books. Vorses, words,
letters were counted: lists were compiled of like words
and of forms of words with full and defective speUinc,
and possbilities of easy mistakes were cata](^eo.
The mvention of the agns for vowels and aocenta —
about the sevoith centuiy — facilitated a faithful
preservation of the text. Incorrect separation and
connenon of qrllables and words was henceforth
aU Init excluded.

Textual criticinn was employed by the Massoretes
very moderately, and even the little they did, shows
that as much as possible they left untouched all that
had been handed down. If a reading proved un-
tenable, they did not correct the text itseu, but were
satisfied with noting the proper reading on the mar-
gin as "Qer6" (read), in opposition to "Kethtbh"
Cnritten). Such corrections wore of various kinds.
Thenr were first of alt cometiona of real mistakes,
'vriiethor of letten w of entire words. A letter or a
woni in ihe text had, acoonSng to the note on the

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TBSTAUKMT 5

maTDD, Mther to be changed, or inserted, or omitted
by uie reader. Such were the flo-called "Tiqqund
Sophertm", oorrections of the scribee. The second

El of corrections eonmsted in changine an am-
us word, — of such eighteen are recorded in the
»ah. IntheTalmud no mention has aa yet bem
made of liiem. But its oompilen were aware of the
'"Ittard Sophertm", or erasures of the connecting
Waa, wfaieb had been made in several places in
opposition to the Septuagint and the Samaritan Ver-
sions. When later the Maasoretes speak only of four
or five uurtances, we must say with Gmsburg that these
cases are merel^ recorded as tyjncal. Cases are not
rare when oonsiderataoa for religious or moral feeling
has led to tlw substitution of a more harmless eujAe*
ndsm for an ill-sounding word. Hie vowels of the
expreenon to be read are attached to the written word
<^ tiie text, whilst the consonants are noted on the
margin. Well Imown is the ever-recurring "QerS"
Adonai instead of Jahv^; it seems to date back to the
time before Christ, and probably ev^ the first Greek
interpreters were acmiamted with it.

The fact tiiat the Massoretes did not dare insert the
changes deexsibed in tiie Sacred Text itself shows ttiat
the latter was already fixed. Other pecufiarities point
to the same reverence for tradition. We repeatedly
find in the text a so-called inverted Nun (e. g., Num.,
X, 35-36). In Is., ix, 6, there is a final Mim within the
word. A Waw is interrupted or letters are made big-
ger, whilst others are placed higher up — the so-eallea
suspended letters. Not a few of these oddities are
already recorded in the Talmud, and therefore must
be^greatage. Letters witii points are mentioned evm
in Uk "Mishoa". The counting <d the letters abo
nrobU)ly belong to the older period. Records serving
for textual criticism are extant from the same time.
In its eseentials the work is completed with the post-
Talmudic treatise "Sopherim". This treatise, which
gjves a careful introduction to the writing of the Sa-
cred Text, is one of the most conclusive proofs of the
scrupulofflty with which at the time of its orig^ (not
before the sevotth oentuiy) 1^ text wae genenUy
treated.

B. Older Witnestes. — The condition of the text pre-
vious to the aee of the Maasoretes is ^aranteed by
the "Talmud with its notes on textHsnticism and its
innumerable quotations, which are, however, frequently
drawn only irom memory. Another help are the
"Targums", or free Aramaic vermons of tine Sacred
Books, composed from the last centuries b. c. to the
fifthA.D. But the state of the text is chi^yevideneed
by the Vulgate Verrion made 1^ St. Jerome at the end
of the fourth and the banning of the fifth centuries.
He followed the Hebrew ori^al, and his occadonal
remarks on how a word was spelt or read enable us to
arrive at a sure judgment on tne text of the fourth cen-
tury. As was to be expected from the statements of
the Talmud, t&e consonanfr-text of the MSS. tallies
almost in every req>eot with the original of St. Jerome.
There appear neater discr^MuidfiB in vocalisation,
which is not to De wondered at, for at tliat time the
maridngoftiie vowels was not known. Thus the read-
ing is necessarily often ambiguous, as the saint ex-
pressly states. His comment on Is., xxxviii, 11, shows
that tms, statement is not only to be taken as a learned
note, but that thereby the interpretation might often
be influenced practic^y. When St. Jerome occasion-
aOy Qieaks of vowels, he means the quiescent or vowel
letters. Neverthdesa, the ojunion that in the fourth
century the pronunciation was stall fluctuating, would
be enoneous. For the sunt knew how, in a definite
cas^ an ambiguous word was to be vocaJized; he ai>-
pealed to the custom of the Jews standing in oppori-
tion to the interpretation of the Septuagint. A fixed
pronundation had already resulted from thepractice,
m vc^e for centuries, of reading the Holy Writ pub-
fic^ m the synagogue. There might be mvitt in par^

!7 TI8TAXINT

ticular cases, but, on the whole, evem the vowd-text
was secured.

The letters in whidi the MSS. of that time were
written are the "square characters", as i^pears from
St. Jerome's remarks. This writing distii^uished the
final forms of the well-known five letters (Pn^ogus
Meatus), and probably supposed the separation of
words which, exciting a few places, is tiie same as in
our Massoretic Text. Sometunes uie Vul^Me alone
seems to have preserved the correct separation in op-
pofdtion to the Masaoretee and the Greek Vernon,

The loss of Origen's hexapla is very much to be
regretted. This work in its first two columns would
have banded down to us both the consonant-text and
tiw vocalisation. But <mly a few scattered remnants
<tf the second are left. Tliey dkowtJiattliepronuncia>
tifm, especially of the proper namesj in the third oen<
tury dingrees not inlrequaitiy with the one used
later. 1^ alphabet at the time of Origen was Gub
same as that of a century and a half afterwards. As
regards t^e consonants toere is little change, and the
t^ shows no essential transformation.

We are led still further back by the Greek venoona
orignating in the second oentuiy. The most valuable
is Aqnila's, as it was based upon the Htixnm text, and
rendered it to the letter, witii the greatest fidelity, thtis
enabling us to draw reliable ooncnuuons as to the con-
dition m the orinnal. The work is all the more vfdu-
able, as Aquila does not care about the Greek position
of wrards and the peculiar Greek idiom. Moreover, he
consciously differs from the Septuapnt, taldii^ tiiB
then official text for liis ncHrm. Benog a disciple of
Rabbi Aqiba he presumab^ maintains the views and
imn(^>leB d the Jewish sonbes in the b^jnning of the
second century. The two other versions of tKe same
period are of leas importance for the critic. Theodo-
tion depmds upon the Septuagint, and Symmachus
allows himself greater liberty in the treatment of the
text. Of the ttuee vermons only very small fn^ents
have come down to us. The form of the text wmch we
gather from them is almost the one taanamitted by the
Maasoretes: the cUfferauws naturally became more
numerous, but it remains the fMie recentdon we know of
from our MSS. It must, therefore, be ascribed at
least to the be^jinnii^ of the second century, and r^
cent investi^tions in fact assign it to that period.

But that IS not all. The perfect agreement of the
MSS., even in thdr critical remarks and seemingly
irrelevant and casual peculiarities, has led to the as-
sumption that the preset text not' only repreeents a
angjEe recenmoii, but ^t Uiis leoenaon ie evm bu3t
upon one archetype ootttaininctfae very peouliaritiee
that now strike us in the MSS. In favour of this
hypotbeus, which, since the time of Olshausen, has
been defended and based upon a deeper u-gument
especially by de Lagarde, evidence has been brought
forward which seems overwhelming. Hence it is not
Burprinng that, of late, the ass^ion was made that
this view had long nnce become an admitted fact in
the textual eritidmu of the Old Testament. Yet, how-
ever persuasive 1^ argument appears at first si^t its
valimty has been constantly impugned by authorities
such as Kuoien, Straok, Buhl, Kdnig, and others dis-
tinguished by thdr knowledge of the subject. The
present state of the Hebrew text is doubtless the out-
come of systematic labour during tlie course (rf several
centuries, but t^e question is vrtietditf tin sui^Kned
archetype ever existed.

At tne outset the veryassumpt^ that about a. d.
150 only a miule copy waa available for the prepara-
tion of the Bible text is so improbable as scarcely to
deserve connderation. For even if durii^ the insure
rection of BarCocheba a great number of Scripture
rolls perished, there nevertheless existed enough of
them in I^ypt and Perma, so that there was no need
to rely on one damaged copy . And how could this

copy, the defective peculiarities of ""^^^W^^f^

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TISTAMHIT 528 TBSTAMUffT

have been overiooked, attoin to such undMputed sumaUy came iato uee tiien. The Nash Papyrus (tino
authority? This could have hmpened only if it bad Ten Commandments) would give some information if
much greater w^ght than the otners, for instance, for it were onhv' certain that it really belongs to the first
its being a temple scroll; this woiild imply further century. The question cannot be decidedj u our
that thore existed official texts and ooi^es, and so the knowledge of Hebrew writing from the first to the
uniformity goes further back. OnthesuppoeitioQthat third century is quite imperfect. The papyrus is
it were but a private scroll, preserved meiely by chuice, written in well-developed square characters, exhibits
it would be impossible to explain how the obvious mis- division of words througiiout, and always uses Un
takes were retamed. Why, for instance, should all copies "final letters". As in the TiUmud, the memoiy of the
have a ckwed <^oi>h, or a letter casually made hu^, relativ^y late distinctioa of the tiouble forms of the
orafinalJlf«in within a word? Suchin^robabilitiesariae five letters is still alive, their application in Holy Writ
neoesaarily from the hypothecs ot a angle archetype, cannot be dated baok too far. Even the Massot^
Is it not much more likely that the supposed mistakes contains a number of phrases having final letters which
are really not erroneous, but have some critical siniifi- are divided differently in the text and on the margin,
cation? For several of them a satisfactwy explana- and must, therefore, oelong to a period when the dis-
ticm has already been given. Thus the inverted Nun tinction was not as yet in use. fVom the Nabatssan
points to the uncertainty of the respective passages: and Palmyrian joscnptions we learn that at the time
in Prov., zvi, 28, for instance, the small Nun, as Blau of Christ the distinction already existed, but it dora
rightly conjectures, might owe its ori^ to a textual not follow that the same usage prevailed in the land
emendstioD suggested by the feeling prevaloit later west of the Jwdan and, in wticular in the Sacred
otL The laraer lettos ssrved perhaps to marie the Bodes. The Palnnrian inscriptions of the first to the
nuddie of a bodi. Possibly something similar may third century apply the final lorm of only one letter,
have iplven rise to Uie oth^ peculiarities for i^ch viz., J\run, whilst theNabataeangobevondtheHehrew
we cannot at present accoimt. As loa^ as there exists and use, though not consistently, double forms also for
the possilMlity of a probable explanation, we should Aleph and Hi. The time when the Jewish copyista
not make chance responsible for the condition of our be^an to distinguish the double forms must then re-
text, though we do not deny that here and there chance mam an open question. Moreover, the term "final
has been at pli^. But the complete agreement was letters" does not seem veiy impropriate, oonaider-
certainly brou^t about ^radiuiUy. The older the wit- ing the historical development. It is not the final
neeses, uie more they differ, even thofugh the noea- Sanaa then invented, bub rather the others, that
sion remuns the same. And yet it miuit have been seem to be the product of a new writing. For, with
expected, tlie more ancient they were the more uni- the single exception of Jlf6n, the so-callai final ftmns
form they should become. are those of the old charactera as exhibited partly at

Besides, if one codex had been the source of aU the least even in the oldest inscriptions, or at any rate in

rest, it cannot be explained why trifling oddities were use in the Aramaic papyri of the fifth century b. g.

eveiywhera taken over faithfully, whilst the constn C. The BAU Text o^ore Christ — As regards the pre-

nan^text was lees cared for. If, again, in later times ceding centuries, we are relatively well informed. In

the differences were maintained by the Western and place of the missing MSS. we have the ancient Greek

the Eastern schools, it is clear that the supposed codex Vowon <^ the Old Testament, the so-called Septuor

did not possess the necessarily decisive authority, gint, or Alexandrian, Version. The Pentateuch was

The present text on the contrary seems to have re- translated in the first half of the third century, but it
suited from the critical laboiir of the scribes from the cannot be determined in what order and at what inter-
first century B. c. to the second centuiy a. d. Con- vals the other books followed. Yet in the case of the
sidering the reading of the Bible in the s^agogue and majority ot the books the work was probably com-
the statements of Josephus (Contra Apionem, I, viii) pleted about the middle of the second century b. c.
and of Phik> (Eusebius, "Pnep. evang. , VIII, vi) on Of primary importance for us is the question of the
the treatment of the Sorqituree, we may rigbuy sup- state of the text at the time of the translation. As the
poae that ipeater ehapges of the text did not occur at version is not the work of one man— wit even the
that time. Evw the words of Jesus in Matt., v, 18, Pentateuch bad only one translator— nor the work <^
■bout the jot and tittie not passing away, seem to point one period, but is extended over more than a hundred
to a scrupulous care in the preservation of the very Y^^t it cannot all be judged by the same criterion,
letter; and the unconditional authority of the Scrip- The same holds good of its Hebrew original. Some of
ture presupposes a high opinion of the letter of Holy the Old-Teetament Scriptures had, at the time of the
Writ. translation^ existed for about a thousand years, whilst

How the work of the scribes was carried out in de- others had just been composed. Considering tnis his-

tail, we cannot asoertun. Some statements of Jewi^ torical development, we must, in judging the tacts, not

tradition suggest that they were satisfied with super- simply oppose the whole of the M. T. (Massoretio

ficial inveetigation and criticisnL which, however, is Text) on the one hand to the whole Septiu^int on the

all that could have been expected at a time when seri- other. Results of any practical value can be obtained

ous textual criticism was not even thought of. When only by a separate study of the different books of Holy

difficulties arose, it is said that the witnesses were Sarpture.

counted and the question decided according to nu- /Die oldest, the Pentateuch, presents considerable

merical majority. However single and imperfect this differences from the M. T. only in Ex., xxxvi-d, and

method was, under the oiroumstances an objective in Num. Greater divergences appear in Sam., Jer.,

account of the actual state of the question was much Jcb, Prov., and Daniel. The M. T. of the Books w

more valuable than a saies of hypotheses the claims Samuel has suffered in man^ places. The GreeA: Ves^

of which we could not now examine. Nor is there any sion often serves to correct it, though not alwa^. In

reason for supposing, with some early Christian Jeremias text-tradition is very unsettled. In the

writers, conscious chauges or falsifications of the text. Greek Version not leas than 2700 words of the M. T.,

But we are, perhaps, justified in holding that the dis- about an eighth part of the whole, are missing. Artdi-

putes between the Jews and Christians about the text tions to the M. T. are inconsiderable. Some of the

of theSoriptunswereoneof thereaaonswhytheformer parts wanting in Sept. may be later additions, whilst

hastoied the woric of unihdng and fixing the text. others belong to the original text. The transpoeitions

The MSS. oi that period prM)ably abowed little dif- of the Greek text seem to be secondary. Still the

ferenoe Snm those of the subsequent epoch. The order of the M. T. iff not unobjectionable nther, and

ocRiBoiunt-iext was written in a mwe aoaent fonn of sometimee Sept. i> right in opposition to M. T. On

the square chancters; the so-called final letters i»re- tia whole, the text of Sept. ■eons to4>e preferable to

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TUTAIUNT

tiw M.T. In Job the textual problem ia quite nrnflar.
The Greek text is considerably shorter than the M. T.
The Greek rendering of Proverbs diverges still more
from the Hdsrew. Lastly, the Greek Eeolesiasticus, a
translation which we must consider to have been made
by the aut^m's grandson, is altogether different from
the Hebrew reoeusion lately found. These facte prove
that during the third-second century b. c. texts were
circulated whidi manifeet traces of carelesB toeatmoit.
But it must be Temembered that tranilatOTs, sometimes,
may have treated the text more freely, anid that even
OUT Greek Version has not come down to us in its orig-
inal form. It is hard to determine how far we may
leoc^nize the official text of the period in the present
form of the Greek text. The l^nd of the solemn
mission to Jerusalem and the deputation of the trans-
lators to Egypt cannot be treated as historical. On
the other hand it is arbitrary to assume that the <xig-
inal of the Greek Version repreeents a corrupted text
evay time it diffos fnun M. T. We have to distin-
guish various forms ot the text, whethtf we call them
recensions or not.

For a judgment on the Sept. and its original, the
knowledge of the Hebrew writing then in vogue is
indispensable. In the case of the Minor Prophets
attempts have been made by VoUers to discover the
obaxaeters emplwed. The Books of Samuel fiave been
investigated by Wellhausen and Driver; Jeremias by
Kohler; Ezechiel by Comill; Job by Beer', Eeole-
aiastious by Peters. Fulloertainty as tothe chiu*aeterB
of the Hebrew scrolls of the third-eeoond century b. c.
has not as yet been obtained. According to Jewicui tra-
dition, Esdras brought over the new (Assyrian) writing
whmretumingfrom the Exile,in which script the Sacred
Books were thereafter transcribed. A sudden change
is improbiUjle. It is not possible that the writing <tf
the fourth century was quite similar to that of the
Nash Papyrus or of the first-century inscriptiwis.
The Aramaic writing of the fifth century diows an
unmistakable tendency towards the latter forms, yet
many letters are still closely related to the ancient
alphabet: as Bith, Caph, Mitn, Sama^, Ajfin, Tsade.
How did this change take place? Did it pass through
iheSamaritan alphabet, which tiearfy betrays its oonr
nexion with the Phcenieian? We know the Samaritan
letters only after the time of Christ. The oldest in-
scription belongs, perhaps, to the foiu^h centiuyA.D.;
another, that of Nablus, to the sixth. Butthiswriting
is undoubtedly decorative, diaplaying care and art,
and offers, theorefore, no sure basis for a decision. Still
there was i»esumably a time in which the Sacred
SeriptnrcB woe written in an ancient form of tlie
Samaritan characters wluch are doeely related with
those of the Hasmomean coin inscription.

Others surest the Palmyrian alphabet. Some let*
Um, indeed, agree with the square characters; but
GkiTMl, Hi, P6, Ttade, and Q6p/i differ so much that
a direct relation is inadmissible. In short, oonsiderii^
the local natiue of this artificial writing, it is hardly
credible that it exerted a wider influence towards tfaie
west. Tbe Hebrew square chamoteiq come nearer to
the Nabatnan, the sphere of whidi is more extended
and is immediately adjacent to Palestine.

As the change of the alphabet {»*obabIy took place
step by ste^, we must reckon with transitKm writings,
the form and relation of which can perhwe be ap-
proximately determined by comparison. The Greek
Version offers excellent material; its very mistakes
are an inestimable help to us. For the errors in read-
ing or writing, occasioned, or already supposed, by
the original, wiH often find tiieir reascm and explana-
tion in the form of the characters. A group of letters
repeatedly read erroneously is a clue as to the form
of alphabet of the original. For the well-^own
possibilities in the square writing of confounding
Ddleih with Riek, Ytdh with Wow, Btth with CapS
do not exist in the same way in Uie teansition wnt-
XIV.— 84

Tbe intsfohancing of fl«andffA&,of rMA sod

aw, so easy with the new characters, is scarcely
conceivable with the old ones; and the mistaking of
BHh for Caph is altogether excluded. Aleph and Tau
on the other hand can easily be mixed up. Now in
Paralipomenon, in itself recent and translated into
Greek long after the Pentateuch, Waw and Tau,
YOdh and Hi, Caph and Riah have been mistaken for
each othor. This can be accounted for only if an
older fmn of writing woe employed. Hence we are
compelled to suppoee that the old alphabet, or a
transition form luce it, was in use up to the second or
first century B. c. From Christ's words about the jot
(Matt., V, 18) it has been concluded that Yddh must
have been r^arded as the smallest letter; this holds
good with the square characters. We know otherwise
that, at the time of Christ, the new writing was aJI
but devekmed; at least Uie inscriptions of the Bend
Oiortr and; of man^ ossuaries sufficiently testify to
tliis. But in these inscriptions Zayin and Warn are
as small as or even smaller than Y6dh.

In addition to the form of the characters, orthog-
r^hy is of importance. The unpointed consonant-
text can be made essentially clearer by writing
"plene", i. e. by usi^ the so-called quiescent letters
(matres leotiouis). Tnis means was often absent in
the original of the S^t. In the text of the Minor
Prophets Aleph seams not to have been written as a
vowel-letter. Thus it came about that the translators
and tbe M. T. diverge, according as they suppose Uie
Aleph or not. If the vowel-letter was written, only
one interpretation was possible. The same applies to
the U9e of Waw and Y6dh. Their omission occasions
mist^es on the one or other side. The liberty pre-
vailing in this r^ard is expressly testified even for a
much later period. But it is going too far to consider
the omission of the vowel-letters as the rule commonly
observed. The oldest inscriptions fMedia, Silofdi)
and the whole history of Semitic wnting prove that
this practical device was known.

In particular cases the possibility of connecting or
separating the letters differently must be considered
as another souroe oi divers interpretations. Wbether
the divisitni of the words was expressed in the ancient
MS3. or not cannot-be shown by direct testimonies.
The Mesha and Siloah inscriptions and some of the
oldest Aramaic and Phcenieian divide the words by a
dot. The later monuments do not abide by this usage,
but mark the division here and thereby a little interval.
This custom is universal in Uie Aramaic papyri from
the fifth century downwards. The Hebrew fragments
make no excepikm, and the Syriao writing applies
Uie word-division in the earliest MSS. Therefore the
conjecture that word-division was used in the old
scrolls is not to be rejected at the outset. Still the
int<»*val8 must have been so small that wrong con-
nexions easily came about. Instances are not wanting,
and both the Maasorah and the Greek Version testify
to that. Thus Gen., xlix, 19-20, is correctly divided
in the Greek and in the Vulgate, whilst the M. T.
erroneously carries the if An, that belongs to the end
of vrase I9,OTertothef6lIowinff word ''Ashw*'. The
passage, moreover, is poetical and a new stanza
begins with verse 20. Hence in the archetype of our
M. T. the stichic writing, known perhaps at an earlier
period and used in the later MSB., was not applied.

The mistakes occurring in consequence of mter-
changing of letters, of wrong vocalization or connexion,
show how text^rruption originatai, and thus sug-
wiwB of repairing the damaged pasrages. Other
which always occur in the lumding down of
such as haplograpby, dittograf^y, insertion of
glosses, transposition, even of entire columns, must
also be taken mto consideration whilst estimatmg the
text of the Sacred Books. In books or passages of
poetical nature, metre, alphabetical order of verses
and stansas, and their structure, sw^ly a means of

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textual emendatkm, which ought nerotheless, to be
used with great prudence, especially where the MSB.
seem disarranged.

We miiBt^ however, bewfu% of comparing the Sept.
as a unit with the Masaorah. In textual criticism we
must distinguish between the questions: What is the
relatiOD of the Greek Version of the Scriptures in
general to the Hebrew? and, How far in a particular
case may one text be corrected hy the oth^7 The
Sept. may on the whole differ considerably from the
M. T., and yet often clear up an obscure passa^ in
the Hebrew, while the reverse happens just as fre-
quently. Apart from the Sept, there is but little to
assist us. The SamM^tan Text throws light on the
Pentateuch, at least up to the fourth century, per-
haps up to the time before E^sdras. Yet until the
critical edition, announced a couple of years ago,
appears it must remain an op^ question whether
the Samaritan Text was not influaieed by the Sept.
at a later period. Regarding shorterpassages, the
parallel texts allow of comparison. Tne deviations
observed in them show that changes have taken place,
which betray carelessness or intentional or aceidental
variations. Jewish tradition tells of a restoration of
the Sacred Scriptures by Esdras. Underlying this
narrative may be the recollection of historical events
that proved disastrous both to the political and reli-
^ous life of the people of Israel and to its Sacred
Books. The consequences do not everywhere mani-
fest themselves as much as in the books of Samuel
and Jeremias, for instance, but often enough are such
that the application of all critical means is needed to
come to a readable text. Sometimes in spite of all
nothing can be done and the passage is irremediably
disfigured. It will be inn)ossible to make the M. T.
agree entirely with the Sept. until we are favoured
fay some unexpected discoveries. Howero', all these
discrepancies do not alter the Sacred Texts to auch a
degree as to affect in any way the re%ious content of
the Old Testament.

MoRiNDS, Bxereilat. biblicarum de hdirai graeique textiu
tinceritate lib. dvo (Paris, 1609); Cappklltis, Cntica Mcra
(Halle, 1775-^): Hodt, D« Bibl. teaObtu originaL nrsien
grac. tt lot. vutguta libri IV (Oxford, J705); Oxiobr, UnehnJ.
wid Uhereeltungen der Bibel (Bieslau, 18S7); Stkack. ProUg.
eril. in Vet. Tett. kebr. (Leipitg, 1873)- Bcbl, Kanon und Ttxt
dt» Aiten Teat. (Leipsig, 1891), V. Macphxsson (Edinburgh,
1892); GiNBBDRQ, InUod. to the MattmtHco-eritieal Edit, of Ih^
BAr. Bib. (London, 1897) ; Kittel, Uber die Notvendioknt und
MOgUehkeit einer neuen Atttgabe der IuAt. Bibel (Leipiif, 1903);
Blait, Maaaretiaehe Vnterniehungen (Struburg, 1891); Idkh,
Zvr BinUUung in die hL Sckrift (Strasburg, 1894) : Idem, Stvdim
zum althebrAitdien Bvehweten (Strasburg, 1902); Bible Di&-
tioDwiei and Introduction! to the Old Teatsment, u Cobmelt,
HitUrrica tt critica introdueiio in utriutipu Teetameytti libra*
taerot, t (Paria, 1894, 2nd ed.); GiooT. Ocn. Introd. to the Study
of the Holy Scripture (New York, 1905); Stracs, Einleitvng ii»
da» A. T. (Munich, 1906); KOxio, Bijdeitiun/ in dot A. T.
(Bonn, 1803); Fell, LehrbwA dgr otifmMfnM MiiMtmB m
da* A. T. (Podcrbom, 1906).

Ano. Mbbk.

Testament, The New.— I. Name; II. Description;
III. Origin; IV. Transmission of the Text; V. Con-
tents, History, and Doctrine.

I. Name. — ^Testament comes from (eatomenfum, the
word by which the Latin ecclesiastical writers trans*
lated the Greek tio^cif. With the profane authors
this latter term means always, one passage of Aris-
tophanes perhaps excepted, the legal disposition a
man makes of his goods for after his death. However,
at an early date, the Alexandrian translators of the
Scrioturc, known as the Septuagint, employed the
word as the equivalent of the Hebrew berith, which
means a pact, an alliance, more especially the alliance
of Yahweh with Israel. In St. Paul (I Cor., xi. 25)
Jesus Christ uses the wor<k "new testament as
meaning the alliance established by Himself between
God and the world, and this is called "new" as
opposed to that of which Moses was the mediator.
Later on, the name of testament was given to the
collection of sacred texts containing the hiatoiy and

tile doctrine of the two alliances; here again and tar
the same reason we meet the distinction between the
Old and the NewTestaments. In thismeaning the ex-
pression Old Testament (4 toXoiA SmB^) is found for
the first time in Meiito of Sardis, towards the year
170. There are reasons for thinking that at this date
the corresponding word " testamentum" was already
in use amot^st the Latins. In any case it* was com-
mon in the time of Tertullian.

II. DBsciuFnoN.— The New Testament, as usu-
ally received in the Christian Churches, is made up of
twsnty-sevw different books attribute to eight dif-
ferent authors, six of whom are numbered among the
Apostles (Matthew, John, Paul, James, Peter, Jude)
and two among their immediate disciples (Mark,
Luke). If we consider only the contents and the
hterury form of these writings they may be divided
into historical books (Gobims and Acts),- didactic
books (Epistles), a prophetical book (Apocalypse).
Before the name of New Testamoit had come into
use the writers of the latter half of the second cen-
tury used to say " Gospel and ApostoUc writings" or
simply "the Gospel and the Apostle", meaning the
Apostle St. Paul. The Gospels are subdivided into
two groups, those which are commonly called sjti-
optic (Matthew, Mark, Luke), because their narra-
tives are paralka, and the fourth Gospel (that of St.
John), which to a certun ^ent completes the first
three. They relate the life and personal teaching fd
Jesus Chrrat. The Acts of the Apoetles, as is suffi-
ciently indicated by the title, relates the preaching
and the h^urs of the Apostles. It narrates the
foundation of the Churches of Palestine and Syria
only; in it mention is made of Peter, John, James,
Paul, and Barnabas; afterwards, the authw devotes
sixteen chapters out of tiie twenty-eight to the mis-
sions of St. Paul to the Greco-Romans. There «n
thirteen Epistles of St. Paul, and pfflhuiB foortem. if,
with the Council of Trent, we consider him the author
of the Epistle to the Hebrews. They are, with the
exception of this last-mentioned, addrrased to particu-
Ifu- Churches (Rom.; I, II Cor.: Gal.; Ephes. ; Phihp.;
Colos. ; I, II Thess.) or to individuals (I, II Tim. ; Tit. ;
Philem.). The seven Epistles that follow (James; I,
II Peter; I, II, lU John; Jude) are called "Catbolio".
because most of them are addressed to the faithful
in general. The Apocalypse addressed to the seven
Churches of Asia Minor (Ephesus. Smyrna, Pergamus,
Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, Laodioea) reaembles in
some ways a ootlective letter. It contains a vision
which St. John had at Patmos conc^ing the interior
state of the above^nentioned communitiee, the strug-
gle of the Church with pagan Rmne, and the final des-
tiny iA tJie New Jerusalem.

III. Obioin.— The New Testamoit was not writ-
ten all at once. The books that compose it appeared
one ^ter another in the space of fi^ years, i. e. in
the second half of the first cmtuiv. Written in differ-
ent and distant countries and addressed to particular
Churches, they took some time to spread throughout
thewholeofChristendom, andamudi loiter time to bih-
come accepted. The unification of the canon was not
accomplished without much controvert (see Canoit
OP THE Holt Scriptures). Still it can be said that
from the third century, or perhaps earli«, the carist-
ence of aJl the books that to-day form our New Testa-
ment was everyvriiere known, utbough they were not
all' universally admitted, at least as certainly canoni-
c^. However, uniformity existed in the Weat from
the fourth century. The East had to await the bbt^
enth century to see an end to all doubts on the subject.
In earl^ times the ciuestions of canonicit^ and au-
thenticity were not discussed sepu^ately and indq>end-
ently of each other, the latter being readily brou^t
forwud as a reason for the former; out in the fourth
century, the canonicity was held, espeoialij; by St.
Jerome, on account of erclesiasttcal pnscriptkm and.

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by the very fact, the authenticity ot the oonteeted
bcKto beoune of minor impOTtanoe. We have to
corns down to the sixteenth century to hear the ques-
tion r^>eated, whether the flpistle to the Hebrews
was wntten by St. Paul, or the Epistles called Catho-
lic were in r^ty oompceed by the Apostles whose
names they bear. Some Humanists, as Erasmus and
Cardinal Cajetan, revived the objections mentioned
by St. Jerome, and whidi are based on the style of
these writings. To this Luther added the inadmie-
aS^^ of the doctrine, as regards the Epistle of St.
James. However, it was practically the Lutherans
alone who sought to diminish the traditional Canon,
which the Council of Trent was to define in 1546.

It was reserved to modem times, especiallv to our
own days, to dispute and deny the truth of we opin-
ion received from the ancients ooneaninKthe origin
of the books of the New Ttttament. This doubt
Wid the negation regardii^ the authors had their pri-
mary cause in the religious incredulity ol the ei^t*
eentn century. These witnesses to uie truth of a
region no longer beUeved were inconvenient, if it was
true that they had seen and heard what they related,
little time was needed to find, in analyzing them,
indications of a later origin. The conclusions of the
TQbingen school, which brought down to the second
century the compoationa of all the New Testament
except four Epistles of St. Paul <Rom.; Gal.; I, U
Cor.), was very common thirty or forty years ago, in
.SO-caUed critical circles (see Diet, i^wlog. de la foi
oaUiolioue, I, 771-6). When the crisis of militant
incredulity had passed, the problem of the New Testa-
ment began to be examined more calmly, and espe-
eially more methodically. From the critical studies of
t^e past half century we may draw the following con-
ehiraon, whieh is now in its gennal outlines admitted
hy idl: It was a mistake to have attributed the or^in
of Christian literature to a later date ; these texts, on
the whole, date back to the second half of the first
century; consequently they are the work ot a genera-
tion that comited a good number of direct witnesses
of the life of Jesus Christ. From stage to sts^, from
Strauss to Renan. from Renan to Reuss. Weisss&cker,
H^tsmann, JttUcoear, Weiss, and from these to Zahn,
HarnaGk, criUciBm has just retraced its steps over
the distance it bad so inoonndwately covered under
the euidance of Christian Baur. To-day it is admit-
ted that the firat Gospds were written about the year
70. The Acts can hardly be said to be later; Harnack
even thinks they were composed nearer to the year 60
than to the year 70. The £)pistles of St. Paul remain
beyond idl dispute, except those to the Ephesians and
to the Hebrews, and the pastoral Epistles, about which
do^ts BtQl odst. In like manner there are many vbo
oooteet the Catholic Epistle; but wen if the Second
^)istle of Peter is delayed till towards the year 120 or
180, the E^pistle of St. James is put by several at the
very begiiming of Christian literature, between the
years 40 and SO, the earliest Epistles of St. Paul about
52 till 58.

At present the brunt of the battle rases around the
writiiUB called Johannine (the fourth Gospel, the
tluee Bpistles d John, and the Apocalypse). Were
these texts written by the Apostle John, son of Zebe-
dee, or by John the presbyter of Ephesus whom Papias
mentions? l^ere is nothing to oblige us to endorse
the oonclusions of radical criticisms on this subject.
On the contrary, the strong testimony of tradition
attributes these writings to tne Apostle St. Jc^n, nor
is it weakened at all by internal criteria, provided we
do not lose si^t of the character of the fourth Gospel
—-called by Clonent of Alexandria "a spiritual gos-
pel", as compared with the three others, which he
fftyled "corporal". Theolt^icallyj we must take into
consideration the recent ecclesiastical documents
(Decree "Lain«itabili", pnm. 17, 18, and the answer
ol tbe RtHuan Conunissitm tor Biblical Questions, 29

M.ay, 1007). These decisions uphold the Johannine
and Apostolic origin of the fourth Gospel. Whatever
may be the issue of these controversies, a Catholic will
be, and that in virtue of his principles, in exception-
ally favourable circumstances for accepting the just
exigencies of criticism. If it be ever established that
II Peter belongs to a kind of literature then common,
namely the jMeudepigraph, its canonicit>^ will not on
that account be compromised. lustration and
authenticity are distinct and even separabfe, when no
dogmatic question is involved in their union.

The question of tbe origin of the New Testament
includes yet another literary problem, concerning
the Gospels especially. Are these writings indepen-
dent (tf one another? If one of the Evangelists did
utihze the work of bis predecessors how are we to
suppose it happ^ed? Was it Matthew who used
Mark or vice versa? After thirty years oi constant
study, the question has been answored only by con-
jectures. Amount these must be included the docu-
mentary theory itseU, even in the form in which it is
now commonly admitted, that of the "two souroes".
The starting-point of this theory, namely the priority
of Mark and the use made of mm by Matthew and
Luke, although it has become a dogma in criticism
for many, cannot be said to be more than a hypothesis.
However disconcerting this may be^ it is none the less
true. None of the proposed solutuxis has been ap-
proved of by all scholars who are rea% omnpetent m
the matter, because all these solutions, while answering
some of the difiiculties, leave almost as many unan-
swered. If then we must be content with hypothesis,
we ought at least to prefer the most satisfactory.
The analysis of the tract seems to agree f^ly well
with the hypothens of two sources—Mark and Q.
(i. e. (^elle^ the non-Marcan document); but a con-
servative critio will adopt it only in so far as it is not
incompatible wiUi such data of traditifm conoeming
the origin of the Goq>ds as are certain or worthy <n
respect.

These data may be resumed as follows, (a) The
Gospels are really the work of those to whom they
have been always attributed, although this attrSiu-
tion may perhaps be explained by a more or less me-
diate authorship. Thus, the Apostle, St. Matthew,
having written m Aramaic, did not himself put mto
Greek the canonical Gospel which has come down to
us under his name. However, the fact of his bdng
considered the author of this Gospel necessarily sup-
poses that between the ordinal Aramaic and ihe
Greek text there is, at least, a substantial conformity.
The original text of St. Matthew is certainly prior
to the ruin of Jerusalem, tliere are even reasons for
dating it earli^ than the EmsQea of St. Paul and con-
sequently about the year fiO. We know nothing defi-
nite of the date of its being rendered into GreeK. (b)
Evo^thing seems to indicate the cUite of the compo-
sition of St. Mark as about the time of St. Pet^s
death, consequently between 60 and 70. (c) St. Luke
tells us expressly that before him "many took in hand
to set forth in order" the Gospel. What then was the
date of his own work? About the year 70. It is to be
remembered that we must not expect from the an-
denta the inrecimon <tf our modem chronology, (d)
The Johannine writings belong to the end of the first
century, from the year 90 to 100 (approximately);
except perhaps the Apocalypse, which some modem
critics date from about the end of the reign of Nero^
A. D. 68 (see Gospel and Gospels).

IV. Transmission or the Text. — No book of
ancient times has come down to us exactly as it left
ibe hands of its author — all have been in some wav
altored. The material conditions under triiich abook
was spread before the invention of printing (1440),
the little care the copyists, correctors, and glosssr
tors for the text, so different fnmi the desire of accu-
racy eidiibited to-di^, explain suffieientlj^thedivn^

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genoee ve find betwem TSriouB MSS. of the same
work. To these causes ma.y be added, in regard to
the Scriptures, exegetical difficulties and dogmatical
oontroversies. To exempt the sacred writings from
ordinary conditions a very special providence would
have been necessary, and it has not been the will of
God to exercise this provideiice. More than 150,000
diffmnt readings have been found in the older wi^
nesees to the text of the New Testament— which in
itself is a proof Uiat Scriptures are not the only, nor
the principal, means of revelation. In the concrete
order of the present economy God had only to pre-
vent any such alteration of tne sacred texts as would
put the Church in the moral necessity of announcing
with certainty as the wwd of God what in reality was
only a human utteranoe. Let ua say, however, from
ihe start, that the substantia tenor of the sacred
text baa not been alt^^, notwithstanding the tmcer-
tainty which hangs over some more or less long and
more or less important historical or dogmatical pas-
sages. Moreover — and this is very important — these
alterations are not irremediable; we can at least very
often, by studying the variants of the texts, eliminate
the defective reading and thus re-establisli the prim-
itive text. This is Uie object of textual criticism.

A. Bri^ HUtory of iha Teietual Criaeim.—Tb»
anoients were aware of the variant readings in the text
and in the versions of the New Testament; Origen. St.
Jerome, and St. Augustine particularly insisted on
thLs state of things. In every age and in diverse
places efforts were made to remedy the evil; in Africa,
m the time of St. Cyprian (250) ; in the East by means
of the works of Ongen (200--54); then by those of
Lucian at Antioch rad Ikqrchius at Alexandria, in
the beginning of the fourth centui7. Later on (383)
St. Jerome revised iho Latin version with the aid of
what he considered to be the best copies of the Greek
text. Between 400 and 450 RabbiUa of Edessa did
the same thing for the Syriac version. In the thir-
teenth century the universities, the Dominicans, and
the Franciscans undertook to correct the Latin text.
In the fifteenth century printing lessened, although
it did not oomplete^ suppress, the diversity of read-
ings, because it spread tiw same type of text, viz., that
wmiui the Hellemsts of the Renaissance got from the
Byzantine scholars, who came in numbers to Italy,
(jermany, and France, after the capture of Ck>nstan-
tinople'. This text, after having been revised by Eras-
mus, Robert Estienne, and Theodore de Bdze, finally,
in 1633, became the Elzeverian edition, which was to
bear the name of the "received text". It remained
the nsKorftfur text of the New Testament for Protee-
tanta up to the uneteentit century. The British and
Foreign Bible Society continued to spread it until
1904. All the o£SciaI Protestant versions depended
on this test of Bvzantine origin w to the revimon
of the Authcrizea Version of the Anglican Churdi,
which took place in 1881.

Ilie Catholics on their side followed the official
edition of the Latin Vulgate (which is in substance the
revised version oi St. Smme), published in 1592 1^
order of Clement VIII, and railed on that account
the Clementine Bible. Thus it can be said that,
dining two centuries at least, the New Testament was
read in the West in two different forms. Which of the
two was the more exact? According as the ancient
MSS. of the text were discovered and edited, the critics
remarked and noted the differences these MSS. pre-
sented, and also the divergoices between them and
the oommodhr reomved Gr^ text as well as the Latin
Vulgate. The work of comparison and critidsm that
beeiune urgent was begun, and for lUmost two centu-
ries has been oondueted with diligence and method by
many scholars, amongst whom the following deserve
a special mention: Mill (1707), Bentley (1720),
Bengel (1734), Wetatein (1751), Semler (1765),
Oriesbaoh (1774), Hug (1809), Sdmlr :1S30), both

Catholics, Tjtfthmann (1S42), Tr^eUes (1857),
Tischendorf (1869), Westcott and Hort, Abb6 Map-
tin (1883), and at preeeat B. Weiss, H. Von Soden,

R. C. Gregory.

B. Beaources of TexhuU CrUidstn. — Never was it as
easy as it is in our own days to see, connlt, and con-
trol Uke most ancirat dociunents concerning the New
Teetament. Gathered from almost everywhere they
are to be found in the libraries of our b^ cities (Rome,
Paris, London, Saint Petersburg, Cambridge, etc.),
where they can be visited and consulted by everyone.
These documents are the MSS. of the Giedc text, the
old versions and the wcvks of ecclesiastical or othw
writers who have cited the New Testament. This
collection of documents, daily increasiiwin number,
has been oalled the apparaiu» criiieus. To facilitate
the use of the co(£oes of the text and vmions they
have been classed and dentnninatsd by means <m
letters of the H^rew, Greek, and lAtin a^habets.
Von Soden reomtly introduced another notation,
which essentially consists in the distributitm of all the
MSS. into three groups designated respectively by the
three Greek letters a (i. e. iiaB^K^, the MSS. contain-
ing the Goqiels and something ^se as well), < (i. e.
ttayyi^ the MSS. containing the Go^iels only),
« (i. e. ianvrOm, the M^. oontaining the Acts snd
tlie Epistles. In each series the MSS. are numbered
accoroing to their age.

(1) Mamuscripts of the Text.~-More than 4000
have been already catalogued and partly studied, only
the minority of which contain the whole New Testa-
ment. Twenty of these texts are prior to the eighth
century, a dozen are of the sixth century, five of the
fifth century, and two of the fourth. On account of
the number and antiquity of these documents the
text of the New Testament is better established than
that of our Greek aad Latin classics, except Virnl,
which, from a critical point of view, is almost in the
same conditions. The most celebrated of these m anu-
scripts are: B Vaiicanua, i 1, Rome, fourth cent.;
Sinaitieiu, 8 2, Saint Petersburg, fourth cent.; C
Ephramut reaariptiu, S 3, Paris, fifth cent. ; A Alex-
andrinutt ' 4, Ixuidon, fifth cent. ; D CaniabrigienHe
(or CTodex Bese) i 5, Cambridge, sixth cent.; D 2
ClaromotUanua, ■ 1026, Paris, sixth cent.; Laurmsia,
9 6, Mount Athos, ei^th-ninth cent. ; E BattUxntis,
< 55, B&le, eighth cent. To these copies of the text
on parchment a dozen fragments on papyrus, recently
found in Egypt, most of which go back to the fourth
century, one even to the third century, must be added.

(2) Ancient Versions. — Several are derived from
original texts prior to the most ancient Gredc MSS.
These versifHis ar^ fdhnring the wder of their age,
Latin, Syriac. Egyptian, Armenian, Ethiotnan,
Gothic, and (ieorgtan. llie first three, especially
the Latin and the Syriac, are of the greatest import
tanoe. (1) Latin version. — 'Up to about the end ai
the fourUi century, it was diffused in the West (Pro-
consular Africa, Rome, Northern Italy, and en>e-
cially at Milao, in Gaul, and in Spain) m slii^tly oif-
ferait forms. Hie best known of these is Uuit of
St. Augustine called the "Itala", thesouroesitf which
go as far back as the second oentuty. In 383 St.
Jerome revised the Italic type afto" the Gredc MSS.,
the best of which did not dmer much from the text
represented hy the Vaticanus and the Sinaiticus. It
was this revision, altered h&re and there by readings
from the primitive Latin version and a few other
more recent variants, that prevailed in the west froxa
the axth century under the name of Vulgate.
Syriao Version.— Three primitive types are rqm-
sented by the Diatessaron of Tatian (second cent.),
the palimpsest of Sinai, called the Lewis codex from
the name of the lady who found it (third cent., per-
haps from the end m the second)^ and the Ck>dex of
OnetoA (third cent.). The Synac Vasim of this
primitive epoch tiiat still survives contwns only the

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TXBTAMDIT

Gospd*. Later, in the fifth omtury, it waa rerised
after the Greek text. The moet wideapread of these
revisions, which became almost the official version, is
calkd the Penttd (Feahitto, simple, vulntte); the
others are called Philoxenian (sixth cent.), Ueraolean
(seventh cent.), and Syro-Faleetinian (sixth cent.)-
(3) Egrotian Version. — The beet-known type is that
called Bohafric (used in Uie Delta from Alexandria to
Memphis) and also <I!optic from the generic name
Copt, ^ ^ corruption of the Greek afyvrrof

E^gyptian. It is ihe version of Lower Egypt and
dates from the fifth oentury. A neater interest is
attached to the version of tipper E^l>t| called the
Sahidic, or Theban, which is a work m the third cen-
tury, pt^haps even of the second. Uofwtunately it
is only inoomptetely known as yet.

These aneient versions will be toaadtsnd predw
and firm witnesses of the Greek text of the first three
centuries only when we luve critical editions of them ;
for they themsdves are represented by copies that
differ from one another. The work has been under-
taken and is ahreadv fairly advanced. The primitive
Latin version had Been already reconstituted by the
Benedic^e D. Sabatier ("BibUorum Sacrorum lat-
inn veraKmeB antiquueseu Vetus Italica", Reima, 1743|
3 vols.) ; the work naa been taken up again ana com-
pleted in the En^ish collection "(Jld-Iatio Biblical
Texts" (1883-1911), still in course of pubUcation.
The criticfd edition of the Latin Vulgate published at
Oxford by the Anglicans Wordsworth and White,
from 1889 to 1905, gives the Gospels and the Acts.
In 1907 the Benedictines received from Pius X the
commtssion to prepare a critical edition of the Latin
Bible of St. Jerome (OU and New Testament). The
" Diatessaron" <^ Tatian is known to us by the Arabic
version edited in 1888 by Mgr. Ciasca, and by the
Armenian version of a commentaiy of St. Ephraem
(which is founded on the Syriac of Tatian) translated
into Latin, in 1876, by the Mechitarists Auchar and
Moeainger. The recent pubUcations of H. Von Soden
have contributed to moke the work of Tatian better
known. Mrs. A. S. Lewis has just published a com-
parative edition of the Syriac palimpeest of Sinai
(1910); this had been ah«ady d<»ie by F. C. Burkitt
for the Cureton oodex, in 1904. There exists also a
critical edition oi the Pe^tto hy G. H. Gwilliam
(1901). As r^fu^ the Egyptian versions of the Go»<
pels, the recent edition wG. Homer (1901-1911, 5
vols.) has put them at the disposition of all those who
read Otptic and Sahidic. The English translation,
that accompanies them, is meant for a wider circle of
readus.

(3) Citatimis <d Ecdesaatieal Authors.— The text
of the whole New Testament could be reconstituted
by putting togetlier all the citations fotmd in the
fathers. It would be particularly easy for the Gos-
pels and the important Epistles of St. Paul. From a
purely critical point of view, the text of the Fathers of
the mst three centuries is particularly importimt,
especially Irenteus, Justin, Origen. Clement of Alex-
andria, TertuUian, Cypnux, and later on Ephraem,
Cyril of Alexandria, Chmostom, Jerome, and Augus-
tine. Here again a preliminary step must be taken
by the critic. Before pronouncing that a Father
read and quoted the New Testament in this or that
way, we must first be sure that the text as in its prea-
mt form had not been harmonised with the reading
commonly received at the time and in the country
whore the Father's works were edited (in print or in
M8S.). The recent editions of Berlin for the Greek
Fathers and of Vienna for the Latin Fathers, and
espccialty the mono^'aphs on the citations of the New
Testament in the Apostolic Fathers (Oxford Society
for Histnical Theology, 1905), in St. Justin (Bousset.
1891), in Tertullian (Ronach, 1871), in Clement ot
Alexandria (Barnard, 1899), in St. Cyprian (von
Sodon, 1009), in Oncsn (Hautach, 1909), in St.

Ei^aem (ButkeU, 1901), in Mareion (Zahn, 1800),
are a valuable help in this work.

C. MeihodfoUotoed.—il) The different readings at-
tested for the same word were first noted, then they
were daaaed according to their causes; involuntary
variants: lapsus, homoioteleuton, itacismus, scriptio
continua; voluntary variants, harmonizing of the
texts, ex^ens, dogmatical oontioversiefi, liturgical
adaptationa. This however was only an accumula-
tion of matter for critical discussion. (2) At first,
the process employed was that called individual
exammation. Tnis consists in examining each case
by itself, and it nearly always had as result that the
rwling found in moet documents was considered
the rit^t one. In a few oases only the greater antiq-
uity of Ofotain reading prevaifed over numerical
superiority. Yet one witness might be right raster
than a hundred others, wiu> oftui depend on com-
mon sources. Even the oldest text we have, if not
itself the original, may be oorrupt^ or derived from an
unfaithful reproduction. To avoid as far as possible
these occasions of error, critics were not long before
givii^ preference to the quality rather than to the
number of the documoits. The guarantees of the
fidelity d( a copy are known by the history o£ the
intomediate ones connecting it with the original, that
ie by its genealogy. The genealogical process was
brought into vogue especially by two great (Cambridge
aoholars, Westcott and Hort. By dividing the texts,
versions, and Patristic citations into families^ tliegr
arrived at the following conclusions:

(a) The documents of Uie Kr^v Ti-rsranient an
grouped in three families that may hti called AlexaCin
drian, Syrian, wid Western. NoDC:cd th^ is entirely
free fnm alterationa. (i) The tctsi called Westam.
best represented by D, is the most altexad idthouf^ |i
was widely Eipread in the second and third oenturia^
not only m the West (primitive Lmin Vcrfiion, .St.
Iremeus, St. Hippolitus, Tertullia!i. .S(, C > |>riiiiij, but
abo in the East (primitive Syriac Vt rniim. Tixtmii, imd
even Clement of Alexandria). How over, ire find in it
a certain number of original reading which it alone
has preserved, (ii) The Alexandrian text ifrthebort^
this was the received text in Egypt and, to a certain
extent, in Palestine. It is to be found, but adulter*
ated,inC (at least as regards the Gospels). Itismore
pure in the Bohairic Version and in St. Cyril of Alex-
andria. The current Alexandrian text however is
not primitive. It appears to be a sub-type derived
from an older and better preserved text which we have
almost pure in B and N. It is this text that Westcott
and Hort call neutral, beouue it has heea kept, not
absolutely, but much more than all the others, free
from the aefonning influences which have systemati-
cally created the different types of text. The neutral
text which is superior to all the others, althou^ not
perfect, is attested by Origen. Before him we have
□o positive testimony^ but historical analogies and
e^)ecially the data oi internal criticism show that it
must be primitive, (iii) Between the Western text
and the Alexandrian text ia the place of the Syrian,
which was that used at Antioch in Cappadocia and at
Constantinople in the time of St. John Chryaostom.
It is the result of a methodical "confluence" of the
Western text with that received in Egypt and Palea-
tine towards the middle of the thirdcentury. The
Syrian text must have been edited between the years
250 and 350. This type has no value for the recon-
struction of the origlou text, as all the readings which
are peculiar to it are simply alterations. As rMuuds
the Gospels, the l^ian text is found in A and £, F,
G, H, K, and also in moat of the Peschitto MSS.,
Armenian Version, and especially in St. John Chryso-
stom. The "received text" is the modem descend-
ant of this Syrian text.

(b) The Latin Vulfpite cannot be classed in any of
these groups. It endeot^ depends on an edectio

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text. St. Jerome revised a western text with a neu-
tral text and another not yet determined. The whole
was contaminated, before or after him^ by the Syrian
text. What is certain is that his revision brou|^t the
Latiii vetaon perceptibly neaxar to iba neutnu text,
that 18 to say to the hat. As to the received text
which was compiled without any really scientific
method, it should be put completely aside. It differs
in nearly 8000 places from the text found in the Vati-
oanus, which is the beet text known.

(c) We must not confound a received text with
the traditional text. A received text is a determined
type td text used in some particular place^ but never
current in the whole Church. The traditionai text
is tiiat idii<di has in its favour the ocmstant testimony
of the entire Christian tradition. Considering the
substance of the text, it can be said that every
Churdi has the traditional text, for no Church was
ever deprived of the substance of the Scripture (in as
far as it preserved the inte^ty of the Canon) ; but, as
r^ards textual criticism of which the object is to
recover the ipsisaima verba of the or^nal, there is no
text now existing which can be rightly called "tra-
ditional". The origimd text is stiUto oe established,
and that is what the editions called critical have been
trying to effect for the last century.

(d) After more than a century's work are there
still many doubtful readings? Accordinff to West-
cott and Hort seven-eighths of the text, that is 7000
verses out of 8000, are to be considered definitely
establi^ed. Still more, critical discussions can even
DOW solve most of the contested cases, so that no
serious doubts exist except concerning about one-
sixtieth of the contents of the New Testament. Per-
haps even the number of passages of which the
authenticity has not yet had a sufficient critical dem-
onstration does not exceed twelve, at least as regards
substantial alterations. We must not forget, now-
ever, that the Cambridge critics do not include in this
calculation t^rtain longer passages considered by them
as not authentic, namely the end of St. Mark (xvi,

0- 20) and the episode of the adulteress (John, viii,

1- 11.

(3) These conclusions of the editors of the Cam-
bridge text have in general been accepted by the
majority of scholars. Those who have written since
them, for the past thirty years, B. Weiss, H. Von
Soden, R. C. Gregory, have indeed proposed differ-
ent classifications; but in reality they scarcely differ
in their conclusiinis. Only in two points do they differ
tram Westrott and Hort. These latter have accord-
ing to them given too much importance to the text
of the VaticanuB and not enough to the text called
Western. As regards the last-mentioned, recent dis-
coveries have made it better known and show that it
is not to be overmuch depreciated.

D. Restdts. — (1) The critical editions of the New
Testament resulting from a personal study of the
sources, whidi have ai^Kared during the past fifty
years are those of Const, "nschendoif, "Novum Tee-
tamentum grace, editio octava critica major" (1860-
1872), with the Prolegomena to Tischendorf's eighth
edition of C. R. Gregory, 1894; that of S. P. TregaUes,
"The Greek New Testament, with the Latin version
of Jerome from the cod. Amiatinus" (1857-1872), and
an ^pendix of Dr. Hort (1879); that of B. F. West-
cott and F. J. A. Hort, "The New Testament in the
widn^ Greek" (1881), with a volume of introduction
edited by Hort; that of B. Wdss, "Das neue Testa>-
ment" (1892-9), and a more recent edition (1902-5).
H. Von Soden has published only the valuable intro-
duction to the edition of the text, which is being pre-
pared for the last twelve years, under the title "uie
Schriften des neuen Testaments in ihrer filteeten
erreichbaren Textgestalt hergestellt auf Grund ihrer
Textgeschichte" (1902-10). C. R. Gre^ry also has
anwHinoed diat he is pr^uuitng a new cnticaJ editktti

(cf. Vorsohlfige fOr one krituohe Auagabe do w»

ohischen neuen Testaments, 1911).

(2) From the materials thus collected manuals have
been edited. The best known to studoits are the
foUovins: R. F. Wco^ou^ whose work aims at beinc
the resultant of the critical editiMB that appeared
before 1886. The author usually sides with the
majority. O. de G^hart (1895) foUows Tischendorf ;
E. Nestle (1898) (Greco-Latin) keeps in his text the
reading accepted by both Tischendorf and Westcott-
Hort (this ordiuiuily means the accord of B with N),
If they do not agree, the editor generally follows Wey-
mouth and Weiss. Snce the vear 1904 the British and
Foreign Bible Society have substituted the text of Nes-
tle tor the received text, which it had used from the
time of its establi^ment. Besides these Protestant
texts th^ are three Greco-Latin editions of manuals
of Catholic origin: F. Brandscheid (1893); Hets-
enau^ (1896); E. Bodin, who published an anony-
mous edition (Paris, 1911). Between the Protestant
and Catholic editions there is a double difference.
The latter keep in their text the sections of which the
authenticity is contested (Mark xvi, 9-20; Luke xxu,
43-44J John v, 4, vin, 1-11; I John v, 7); and abo
in their choice of variants they pay more attention to
the readily authcnrised by the Latin Vulgi^.

V. CONTENTS OF THE NbW TbSTAMENT. HlsUtrv

and /)M*-ine.— The New Testament is the principiJ
and abnost the only source of the early history? of
Christianity in the first century. All the "Lives
of Jesus Christ" have been composed from the Gos-
pels. The history of the Apostles, as narrated by
Kenan, Fairar, Fouard, Weissfteker, and Le Camus,
is based on the Acts and the Epistles. The "Ilie-
olc^cflof the New Testament", of which so many have
been written during the nineteenth century, are a
proof that we can with canonical texts build up a com-
pact and fairly complete doctrin^ system. But what
18 the worth of these nturations luid syntheses? In
what measure do they bring us in contact with the
actual facts? It is the question d the historioal
vdue of the New Testament which to-day preoccupiea
higher criticism.

A. History. — Everybody a^ees that the first three
Gospels reflect the beliefs regarding Jesus Christ and
his work current among Christians during the last
quarter of the first century, that is to say at a di&-
tance of forty_ or fifty years from the events. Few
ancient historians were in such favourable conditions.
The biographers <A the Coesus (Suetonius and Taci-
tus) were not in a better position to get exact infor-
mation. All are forced to admit, moreover^ that in
the Epistles of St. Paul we come into immediate con-
tact with the mind of the most influential propagator
of Christianity, and that a quarter of a century after
the Ascension. The faith of the Apostle represents
the form of Christian thought most victorious and
most widespread in the Greco-Roman world. The
writings of St. John introduce us to the troubles of
the Churches after the fall of the Synagogue and the
first ^counter of Christianity with the violence of
pagan Rome; his Gospel expresses, to say the least,
the Christian attitude of that period towards Clirist.
The Acts inform us, at all events, what was thought in
Syria and Palestine towards the year 65 of the foun-
dation of the Church; they lay before our eyes a
traveller's diary which allows us to follow St. Paul
from day to day during the ten beet years tA his
missions.

Must our knowledge stop here? Do the earliest
monuments of Christian literature belong to the class
of writings called "memoirs", and reveal only the
impressions and the judgments of their authors? Not
a single critic (meaning t^ose who are esteemed as
such) has yet ventured to underrate thus the his-
tfwiml worUi <rf the New Testament taken as a whole.
Tbe andoita did not even raise the question, so

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TBBTAMUIT 5

evidflmt did H seem to them that theee texts narrated
futhfully the history of early ChriBtianity. What
aroused the distnist of modem critics was t£e fancied
discovery that these writings although sincere were
none the less biased. Composed, as was said, by
bdievers and for. believers or, at all events, in favour
of the Faitti, they aim much more at rendering cred-
ible the Hfe and teaching of Jesus than at nmply relat-
ing what He did and preadied. And then they sur
these texts contain irreoondlable oontradietkms whioi
testify to uncertainty and variety in the traditkm
takea up by them at different Btagea vi ita develop-
ment.

(1) It is agreed that the authors of the New Testa-
ment were sincere. Were thev deceived? If ao the
writhig of truthful history dbould, wparently, be
ghren up altogether. They woe near the evrats: all
eye-witnesses or depending immediately on eye-wit-
nesses. In their view the fbrst ctmdition to be allowed
to "testify" on Gospel lustorv was to have seen the
Lord, eepedally the risen Lotq (Acts, i, 21-22; I Cor.,
ix, 11; xi, 23; I John, i, 1-4; Luke, i, 1-4). These
witnesses ^arantee matters easy to observe and at
the same tune of supreme importance to their readers.
The latter must have controlled aaaerUonB claiming
to impose an obligation of faith aiul attended with
consiao-able practical consequences; all the more so as
this control was easy, since the matters were in ques-
tion that had tAken place in public and not "in a cor-
ner", as St. Paul says (Acta, xxvi, 26; cf. ii, 22; iii,
13-14). Besides, what reasonable hope was there to
get books aco^ted which contained an altered form
of tJie tradition familiar from the teachii^ of the
Chiffdies for more than thirty years, and cherished
with aSl the affection that was borne to Jeeus Christ
in person? In this sentiment we must seek the final
reason for the tenacity of ecclesiastical traditions.
FineJly, these texts oontrol each other mutually.
Written in different circumstances, with varying

greoccupations, why do they agree in substance?
or history only knows one Christ and one Gospel;
and this history is based on the New Testament.
Objective reality alone accounts for this agreement.

It is true that these same texts present a multitude
of differences in details, but the variety and uncer-
tainty to which that may give rise does not weaken
the stability of the whole m)m a historical {mint of
view. MiK-eover, that this is compatible with the
inspiration and inearran^ oi t^e Holy Scriptures, see
Ihspiilltion of thb Bibub. The causes of these
apparent oontradiotions have been long since pointed
out: vii., fragmentary narratives (A the same events
abnipUy put side by ride; different perspectives of
the same object according as one tekea a front or a
side view; different expressions to mean the same
thing; adaptation, not alteration, of the subject-mat-
ter accordmg to me circumstances a feature brought
into relief; documents or traditions not agreeing on
all twints, and which nevertheless the saoed writer
has related, without claiming to guarantee them in
everything or decide the question of theu- divei^nce.
These are not subtleties or subterfuges invented to
excuse as far as possible our Evangelists. Similar
observations would be made about profane authors if
there was anything to be gained by doing so. Try
for example to harmonize Tacitus with himself in " Hi»-
toriie", V, iv, and V, ix. But Herodotus, Polybius,
Tacitus, Livy did not nairate the history of a God
come on earth to make men submit their whole life
to His word. It is under the influence of naturalistic
prejudice that some people easily, and as it were a
priori, are opposed to the testimony of the Biblical
authors. Have not recent discoveries come to show
that St. Luke is a more exact historian than Flavius
Josephus? It is true that the authors of the New
Testament were all Christians, but to be truthful
must we be indiffmnt towards the facts we relate?

!6 TIBTAUKNT

Love does not necessarily make us blind or untruthful,
on the contrary it can allow us to penetrate more
deeply into the knowledge of our subjects. In any
case^ nate exposes the historian to a greater danger of
partiality; and is it posmble to be without love or
bate towards Christianity?

(2) These being the conditicms, if the New Teatar
meat has handed on to us a counterfeit of history, the
falsification must have come about at an early date,
and be asrigni^le neith^ to the insincerity nor the
incompetence of its authors. It is the early Christian
tradition on which they depend that becomes sus-
pected in its vital sources, as if it had been formed
under influences of religious instincts, which irrevo-
cably doomed it to be mythical, legendaiy, or, again,
idealifltie, as the ^mbousts put it. What it trans-
mitted to us wa^ not so much the hisbnrical figiues <rf
Christ (in the modem acceptation of the term) as His
prophetic image. The Jesus of the New Testament
had become such as He might or ought to have been
imagined to be by one who saw in Him the Messias.
It is, doubtless, from the saying of Isaias, "Behold a
virgin shall conceive", that the belief in the super-
natural conception of Jesus spring — a belief whicn is
d^nitely formulated in the narratives of St. Matthew
and St. Luke. Such is the eimlanatkm current
amongst unbelievers of to-day, and amongst an evet^
increasing number of lib^al Protestants. It is noto-
riously that of Hamack.

Avowedly or no, this way of explaining the forma-
tion of Gospel tradition has been put forward princi-
pally to account for the supernatural element with
which the New Testunent is permeated: the objec-
tivity of this element is refusedreoognitionforreasons
of a philos^hical order, anterior to any criticism of
the text. The starting-point of this explanation is a
merdy speculative prejudice. To the objection that
the position of Strauss became untenable ttie day that
critics began to admit that the New Testament was a
work of the first century, and therefore a witness
closely following on the events, Hamack answers that
twenty years or even leas suffice for the formation of
l^nds. As regards the abstract possibility of the
formation of a legend that may be, but it still remans
to be proved that it is i>osaible that a legend should be
formed, still more, that it should win acceptance, in the
same concrete conditions as the Gospel narrative.
How is it that the apocrypha never succeeded in
forcing their way into the mighty current that bore
the canonical writings to all the Churches, and got
them accepted? Why were the oldest known to us
not composed till at least a century after the events?

Furthermore, if the Gospel narrative is really an
exegetical creation based on the Old Testament proph-
ecies, how are we to explain its being what it is?
There is no reference in it to ^exts of which the Mes-
sianic nature is patent and accepted by the Jewish
schools. It is strange that the "f^nd of the Magi
come frcHn the East at the summons of a star to adore
the infant Jesus should have left aside completely the
star of Jacob (Num., xxiv, 17) and the famous pas-
sage in Isaias, Ix, 6-8. On the other hand, texts are
appealed to of which the Messianiam is not obvious,
and which do not seem to have been commonly in-
terpreted (then, at least) by the Jews in the same way
as by the Christians. This is exactly the case with
St. Matthew, ii, 15, 18, 23, and p^haps i, 23. The.
Evangelists represent Jesus as the popular preacher.
par excellence, the orator of the crowd in town ana
country; they show Him to us whip in hand, and they
put into His mouth words more stinging still addressed
to the Pharisees. According to St. John (vii, 28, 37;
xii, 44), He " cries out" even m the Temple. Can that
trait in his physiognomy be readily explained by
Isaias, xlii, 2, who had foretold of the servant of
Yahweh : "He shall not cry' nc»- have respect to person,
nrither shall his voice be heard abroad"? Agun,

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"Olie wolf shall dwell with the lamb . . . .and
the micking child shall play on the hole of the asp"
(Jaua^ xi, 6-8} would nave afforded material for a
charming idyl, but the Evangelists have left that
realism to the aTpoerypha, and to the MiUenarians.
What paasa^ of the Prophets, or even of the Jewish
apocalypse, mspired the first generation of Christians
with the fundamental doctrine of the transitory char-
acter of the Law; and, above all, with the prediction
of the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple?
Onoe one admits the initial st^ in this theory, be is
logically led to Leave nothing standing in the Go^l
narrative, not even the crucifixion of Jesus, nor His
existence itself. Solomon Reinach actually pretends
that the Passion story is merely a commentary on
Psalm xxi, while Arthur Drews denies the very exist-
ence of Jeeus Christ.

Another factor which contributed to the alleged dift-
twtion of the Go^l story was the necessity imposed
on primitive Christianity of altmne, if it were to last»
the ooneeption of the lungdom of God preached by
Jesus in person. On His Bps, it is said, the Go^l
was merely a cry of "Smm aid peut" addressed to
the world which He believed to be about to end.
Such was also the perauasion of the first Christian
generation. But soon it was perceived that they had
to do with a world which was to last, and the teaching
of the Master had to be adapted to the new condition
of thin^. This adaptation was not achieved without
much violence, done, unconsciously, it is true, to his-
torical reality, for the need was felt of deriving from
the Gospel all the ecclesiastical institutions of a more
recent date. Such is the eschatolo^cal explanation
propagated particularly by J. Weiss, Schweitzer,
Loisy; and favourably received by Pragmatists.

It is true that it was only later that the disciples
understood the eagnificanoe of certain words and acta
of the Master. But to try and ^lain all the Gospel
Btory as the retrospect of the second Christian gene-
ration is like trying to baUmce a pyramid on its apex.
Indeed the hypothesis, in its general application, im-
plies a state of mind hard to reconcile with the calm-
ness and sincerity wliich is readily admitted in the
Evangelists and St. Paul. As for the starting-point
of the theory, namely, that Christ was the dupe of an
illusion about the imminent destruction of the world,
it has no foundation in the text, even for one who
regards Christ as a mere man, except by distinguish-
ing two kinds of discourses (and that on the strength
of the theory itself), those that are traced back to
Jesus, and tnose that have been attributed to Him
afterwfu*ds. This is what is called a vicious circle.
Finally, it is false that the second Christian generation
was prepossessed by the idea of tracing, per Jtu et
lu^as, everything — inBtitutiona and doctrine»---back
to Jesus in person. The first generation itself decided
more than once questions of the hii^iest importance by
referring not to Jesus but to the Holy Spirit and to the
authority of the Apostles. This was especially the
case with the Apostolic conference at Jerusalem (Acts,
XV), in which it was to be decided in what concrete
observance the Gospel was to take the place of the
Law. St. Paul distinguishes expreaely the doctrines
or the institutions that he promulgates in virtue of his
Apostolic auUiority, from the teachings that tradi-
tion traced back to Christ (I Cor., vii, 10, 12, 25).

Again it is to be presumed that if Christian tradition
had been formed under the alleged influence, and that,
with such historical freedom, there would remain less
^parent contradictions. The trouble taken by apol-
ogists to harmonize the texts of the New Testament is
well known. If the appellation "Son of God" points
out a new attitude of the Christian conscience towards
Jesus Christ, why has it not simply r^laoed that of
"Son of Man " ? The survival m the Gospels of this
latter expression, dose by in the same texts with its
equivalent (which alone diowed clearly the actual

16 WTAXBMT

faith of the Church), could only be an encumbrance;
nay more, it remained as a telltale indication of the
change that came — afterwards. It will be said per-
h^>8 that the evolution of popular beliefs, coming
about instinctively and Uttle oy little, haa nothing to
do with the exigencies of a rational logic, and thera-
fore has no coherence. Granted, but it must not be
foigotten that, on the whole, the literature of the
New Testament is a thoughtful, reasoned, and even
I4>olo^;etic wi»k. Our aoversaries can aol the less
deny it this chuacter, as, according to them, the au-
thors of the Mew Testament are "tendentious", that
is to say, inclined more than is right to give a bias
to things BO as to make than acceptaUe.

B. DodriTiea. — ^They are: (1) specifically Ovistiaii;
or (2) not ^lecifically Christian.

(1) Chnstianity being the nonnal continuation
of Judaism, the New Testament must needs inherit
from the Old Testament a certain number of reU^ous
doctrines concerning God, His worship the original
destinies of the world, and e^cially ol men, the
moral law, spirits, etc. Although these beliefs are
not Epecifically Christian, the New Testament devel-
ops and perfects them, (a) The attributes of God,
particularly His mairituality. His immensity, His good-
ness, and u>ove all His fatherhood are insisted on more
fully, (b) The moral law is restored to its primitive
perfection in what regards the unity and perpetuity
of maniage, respect tor God's name, forgiveness of
injuries, and in general the duties towards one's
neighbours; the guilt of the simple desire of a thing
forbidden by the Law is clearly set forth; extemu
works (prayer, ^msgiving, fasting, sacrifice) really
derive their worth from the dispositions of the heart
that accompany them. The ^fess^anio hope ia puri-
fied from the temporal and material elements with
which it had become enveloped, (d) The retributiona
of the world to come and toe resurrection of the body
are specified more clearly.

(2) Other doctrines, specifically Christian, are not
added on to Judaism to develop, but rather to super-
sede it. In reality, between the New and Old Testa-
ments there is a direct but not revolutionary succes-
sion as a superficial observer might be inclined to
believe; just as in living beings, the imperfect state
yesterday must give way before the perfection of
to-day although the one nas normally pr^iared the
other. If the mj^stery of the Trinity aod the spiritual
character of the Messianic Kingdom are ranked
among the peculiarly Christian dogmas, it is because
the Old Testament was of itself insufficient to estab-
lish the doctrine of the New Testament on this sub-
ject; and still more because, at the time of Jesus, the
(minions current among the Jews went decidedly in
the opposite direction.

(a) The Divine life common to the Three Persons
(Father, Son and Holy Ghost) in the Unity of one and
the same Nature is the mysteiy of the Trinity,
obscurely typified or outlined in the Old Testament,
(b) The Messias promised by the Prophets has come
in the person of Jesus of Nazareth, who was not only a
man powerful in word and work, but the true God
Himself, the Word made man, bom of a virgin, cruci-
fied under Pontius Pilate, but risen from the dead and
now exalted to Uie right hand of His Father, (c) It
was by an ignominious death on the Cross, and not by
power and gloryi that Jesus Christ redeemed the
world from sm, death, and the anger of God; He is the
Redeemer of all men (Gentiles as well as Jews) and He
unites them to Himself all without distinction, (d)
The Mosaic Law (ritca and political theocracy) hav-
ing been given only to the Jewish people, and that for
a tune, must disappear, as the fi^jure before the reality.
To these practices powerless m themselves Christ
substitutes rites really sanctifying, especially baptiaro,
eucharist, and penance. However the new econonw^ ia
to such a degree a religion in qiirit and truth, tnat.

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TBtTAMllTTlT 51

ibac^USfy ^teakine, man can be eaived, in tha iImmmw
of an eoctenor meaiuv 1^ tnbmittmg himnff' faBlf
to God by the faith and rare of the Redeemer.

(e) Before Christ'e coming, men had been treated
b:^ God as slaves or children under age are tz«ated, but
With the Gomel begins a law of love and liberty writ-
ten first of aU in the heart; this law does not consiBt
merely in the letter which forbids, commands, or con-
demns; it is also, and chiefly, an interior grace which
tyloses the heart to do the will of God. (0 The
Ejngdom of God {veached and establiriied by Jesna
CSinat, thooj^ it exists already visibly in the Churdi,
win not be perfected until the end of the world (of
which no one knows the day or the hour), when He
will come HimeeH in power and majesty to render to
eath one according to his works. In the meantime,
the Church assietea by the Holy Spirit, governed by
the Apostkfi and their succeseors under the aut^writy
of Peter, teaches and propagates the Gospel even to
the ends of the earth, (g) Love of our nelghbouT is
Tweed to the he^t of the love of God, because the
Gospel makes ua see God and Christ in all men sinoe
they are, or ought to be. His mystical membexv.
When necessaiy, this love must be carried as far as
tiie sacrifice of self. Such is Christ's commandment,
(fa) Natural morality in the Gospel is raised to a
higher sphere by the counsels of perfection (poverty '
and chastity), which may be summed up as toe poei-
tive renouncement of the material goods of this life, in
00 far as they hinder our being completely given up to
the service of God. (i) Eternal life, which shall not
be fully realized until after the resurrection of tJbe
body, consists in the poesession of God, seen face to
face, and of Jesus Christ.

Such are the fundamental points of Christian
dogma, as expressly tau^t in the New Testament.
They are not found collected together in any of the
Canonical books, but were writt^ thrtn^^mit a pe-
riod extending from the middle of tin first century to
the beginning of the second; and, oonsequently, the
history of the way in which they were exprewed at
different times can be reconstructed. These texts
never could, and were never meant to, dispense with
the oral tradition which preceded them. Withoat
tidfl perpetual commentary they would not tJmt^
bare Men understood and frequently would hatve
been misunderstood.

Cstbolio Works.— jAOQtJm, BuL du Kvm At Nbtnmu Tf
AMMaJ (4 roU., Puis, 1903-8); Idsm, L« Nouv. TmL daiu tBMae
dtrU. (Patifl, 1911): Baccez-Brassac, Man. bibligu«: Yous. TeiL
<S vote., Puia, 1910-11); Batitfou L'mMienettutU de JSnu
(Parifl. 1906); low, OrpA«M « rtenptfa (Puis, 1910); Hubt,
ChriMtu* (Parli. 1912), xv; Dumand, Le UMe du Aoui. Tett. ia
Btudu (Pari* Feb.-May, 1011); Chapman, Note* on the Barlu
Biit. oftht VtOpate Goav^ (Oxford, 1908); GiOOT, OutUnMafjf.
T. Hilt. (N«w Yori^, 1898); Idui, (7«n. tntrod. to Ota Hoiv Beriv
Iww (Now York. 1903).

Protestant Works. — ^WEarcorT-HOBT, The New TMament in
th* oriQiMol Cfretk (2 vols. Cunbridoe, 1881): Bmun, The Oot-
pel Hid. and ite TranamiMeion (EdiDbureb. 1901) ; Samdat, Sludiet
«n lAe Sjmoptie Problem (OzfoKl, 1911); Moffat, Introd. io the
N. T. (EtUnWch, 1911); Gabonbr, A Hiet. View of (A« N. T.
(London. 1901); Haskack, What i* Chrittianitvf (tr. London,
1901); iMu, Luke tiU Pki/eieian (tr. London, 1000); Ibbm, jSov-
HV«4^ Janu (tr. London, 1907); Idui, Atte of the AjtoUtit (tr.
London, 1908) ; Bchweitzxb, Queet of the Hiet. Jeetu (tr. London,
1906): Bakdat, tife of Chriel in the Light of Reotnt Reeeareh
(Oxfotd, 1907); Stanton, Tha Qoepde ae uitt. DocumeiUe (Cuk*
bridca, 1909); Pbakb. Crit. Introd. to the N. T. (New York, 1910);
QumaoKt, Canon and Text of Ike N. T. (New York, 1907).

Jewiih.— HomsnOBB, Byn^ptio Ooep. (London, 1MB).

AmoD Ddumd.

Taitftmmta of ti» TmHf Patrtartihi. See

Atocbtpha, subtitle II.

ToBtem B«uflToleutl»{ an Apostolic Letter of
Leo XIII addressed to Cardinal Gibbons, 22 Janutty,
1899. It opens fay explaining its title, remarking
that just as His Holiness had given frequent protn
flf hb affection f<»- the people as well as for the Church
in the United States, by praising thdr spirit and their
progrcBB) so now the same affection prompts him to
point out certain things which should be avoided or

17 TUTIM

oonerted, in codir to set at rest cratrovcroes that
mn inrarioiM to peace. Btfening to Uie prafaott
of the f^eh truwhtion of the "Life of Isaao
Hedcer", as the occasbn ctf these oontrovorsies, he
prc^MMes to examine certain opinions therein advanced
on the manner of leading a Christian life. The basis
ot these opinions is that, to make converts, the
Churdi riKHild adapt herself to our advanced civili-
sation and relax her ancient rigour as r^ards not
onhr the rule of life but also the deposit <^ faith,
ana shonld pass over or minimise certain points of
doebinfe or evoi give than a meaning miich the
Oixunh has nevw hdhi. On this the Vatican Gouneil
is dear; faith is not a doctrine for speculation like a
philoeophical theory, to be relinquished or in any
manner suppressed under any speaoiupretext what-
sbever: suoi a process would alienate Catholics from
the Church, instead of bringing converts. In the
words of t»e council the Church must constantibr
adhere to iho same doctoine in the same sense aaai
in the same way; but the rule of Christian life admits
of modifications aecordii^ to diversity of time^ place,
or national custom, onljr audi changes are not to
depfmd on t^e will of [Bivate individuals but on the
juo^ent ot the Churdi. What makes the new
opinions more dangerous is the pretext of those who
follow them that in matters of faith and of (Jhristian
life each one should be free to follow his own bent in
the ^irit of the large measure of civil Hberiy reco^
niied in tixm days. The difference between the two
spheres had already been indicated in the Encyclical
on the Constitution of States. The argument now
adduced in favour of this new Uberty is a preposterous
one. When declaring the iofallibilitjr of the pope,
the Vatican Council did not have in mind a situation
in irtiidi, this rawl fKwogative acknowledged, the
faithful mi^t nave a widbr field of thot^t and
action in reHgtous matters; rather the infallibility
was declared m order to provide against the roecial
evils <rf our times, of license which is confounded with.
liberty, and the habit of thinking, saying, and print-
ing eveiythiDg regardless of truth. It was not in-
tended to hamper real serious study or research, or
to conflict with any well-ascertained truth, hut only
to use the authority and wisdom ot the Church more
effeetuiUly in protecting men against emv.

Next follows a consideration ot the consequences
that flow from the principles and opinions just
rejected, first, it is declared wrong to say that
spiritual direction ia less needed in our days, on the
score that the Hoty Ghost is now more bounteous
with His gifts than m times past. The history of the
Churoh does not warrant Uiis view. The Holy
(jrhost is active in His influeoces and good impulses;
bat His promptings are not easily disoemed or prop-
erty foUowad without ertemal guidance. Diyine
Frovidenoe has so ammged that men should be saved
by men, and that men should be led to loftier holiness
by the direction of their fellows as in the caae of Saul
by the help <A Ananias. The more perfect the way
of life one may enter the more direction is necessaiy.
This has been the invariable view of the Church and
oi tluwe who have been remarkable for holiness.
Secmdly, nattnal virtues must not be extolled above
the supernatural. The former, aoocH'ding to the new
opinions, are more in accordance with present ways
and requirements, and make mtstx more ready and
strenuous; as if nature with grace added to it were
weaker than when unaided, or as if the habit of acting
always with good natural motives could be sus-
tained without grace. E^ven were the acts of natural
virtue all they seem to be in appearance, how can they
without grace become solid and enduring, or av^
for the supernatural beatitude to which we are des-
tinedt Tnirdlj^, it will not do to establish a division
between the virtues and regard some as passive,
others «■ aetivo^ and advocate the prai^iee of tiw

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TE8T-OATB 5

latter as mm suitable for our day. Ttiem can be
DO really paanve virtue. All virtue impUfls power
and actaon, and every virtue is suitable at all ^es.
Christ, meek and humble of heart or obedient unto
death, is a model in every age, and the men rjho have
imitated Him in these virtues have been powerful
belpa to reli^on and the State. Fourthly, the vowb
taken in religious ordera must not be c^iddered as
narrowing the limits of true liberty, or aa of little use
for human society or for Christian perfection. This
view n not in aocord with the usage and doctrine ot
the Qiurch. To assume the obligations of the eoun-
sels, in addition to those of the commandments, is
not a of weak-mindednesB, nor unptn^table, nor
hurtful, nor injurious to liberty; rather it is a wav to
the fuller libwty by which Christ has set us free.
The history of the Church, particularly in the United
States, is a testimony to the alacrity and success
with which the relinous orders work ereiywhere,
by {veachii^ teaefiing, and 1^ good examiile.
Wbether in active ministration, or in contemplative
seclusion, they all merit well m human sodety, and
their prayer propitiates the majesty (rf God. And
the congr^ations that do not take vows are not to
magnify their manner <A life above that of the religious
orders. Finally, as for methods of dealing with
those who are not Catholics, it is not pruoient to
neglect any method which has proved useful in the
past. Should the proper autlKHaty wprove of other
meUiods such as, for instance, preacnmg, not in the
ohurch, but in any private or proper place, or by
amicable conference^ rather than oy disputations,
let this be done, provided that the men devoted to
this task be men of tried knowled^ and virtue.

The Letter concludes with a bnef exhortation for
unity, as against a spirit that would tend towards
developing a national Church. The term American-
ism is i^)proved as applying to the dunoteristio
qualities which reflect honour on the Amerioan
pe<n>le, or to the conditions of their oommonwealtlu,
and to the laws and customs prevailing in them; but
as applied to the opini(»ia above enumerated it would
be repudiated and condemned by the Bishops of
^nenca. "if by that name be designated the char*
aeteristie qualities whi<di reflect honour on tlie peapib
ol America, just asotiber nations have what is B|>eaal
to them: or, if it implies the condition of your com-
monwealths, or the laws and customs prevailiDg in
iYvan, there is no reason wh:^ we should deem that it
ought to be discarded. But if it is to be used not only
to signify, but even to com mend the above doctrines,
there can be no doubt that oiu: venerable brethroi, the
bishops of America, would be the first to repudiate and
oondnnn it, as being espedally unjust to them and to
the entire nation as well. For H raises the susptdcm
^t there are some among you vbo conceive and de-
sire a Church in America different frtna that which is
in the rest of the world."

This Letter put an end to a bitter controversy which
had been a^tated for nearly ten yecus, particularly in
the Catholic press. In expressing their adhesion to
the Holy See and their uiraualifiea acceptance of the
teadiinflB set forth in the Letter, the bishops of the
United States made it clear that whatever departorea
from the same might have occurred in this oountty
they had not been either widespread or systematic as
they bad been made to appear by the interpretation
put upon the " Lifeof Father Heck»" in the prefaoeto
the French translation. (SeeHECKEB,IsAAcTBOHA8.)

Eluoit, The We «/ Fatksf Hadctr (Now Yi^k, 18H), Fr. tr.
Kunf (Paris, 1S0S): MAiairaif. U Phrt Hedter, oHI m mbar
(Room utd ^rii, 1898); DBiATraB. Vn CalholieuiM Anurieain
(Namur. 1898); Kt-nN, CaiMieUmt Amfrieain in Amu Fran-
faiMd'Edinixfuro (BvpU-OeL. 1897); Schkll. Dit tune Teit und
dtr aU» OlmdH:CorriMOm, La Palimimtt FrmtcaUe nir la Viedu
Irtn Htdur (Fari%, 1898); Babst. Tht Frnch Li/* o/ Father
Btektr in Catkolie Tinua and CalhoMe Optnum (Llvnpool, 9 Dec.,

CoHDi B. PauuH.

18 THT-OATK

Ttrt-OMh, Missouri.— In January, 1866, Hiere
assemUed in St. Louis, Missouri, a "Constitutumal
Convention" composed of individuals, most of whom
were unknown omade of the localities in iriiieh tiuy
claimed to reside. Hi^ had been chosen by a frao*
tion of the voters, ss people of voting age were gen-
erally in either tbe Confederate or Federal army,
or in the guerrilla companies then abounding, or
were fuiptivee from their homes, in order to save their
lives. The "Constitution" made hy this conven-
tion was put in fwoe on July, 1865, no one beang al-
lowed to vote on it unless he first took the test oath
it provided. A reign of terror, accompanied by
arson, robbery, and murder, in many piurts of the
state followea. Certain classes of persons, including
bidiops, priests, or other clerg3rmen "of any religious
perenasion, sect or denomination", and teachers in
fuiy educational institution, were by the provisions
of this Constitution allowed sixty days, after 4 July,
1866, in «4iich "to take, subscribe and file", the oath
prescribed by it. Hioee who failed to file it, and con-
tinued to preach, solemnise marriage, or teach, were
subject to fine and imprisonment. The terms of
the oath, according to Justice Field of the SuiH«me
Court of the United States, required amongst other
things, the affiant to deny, not only tliat be nad ever
been in armed hostility to tiie United States, or to the
lawful authorities thereof, but that he had ever "by
act or mod", manifested fais adherence to tiie cause
of the memiee <d the United States, foragn or domes-
tic, or his desire for their triumph, over the arms <ji
the United States; or his ^mpauiy with those en-
gaged in rebellion, or had ever harboured^ or aided, any
person engaged in guerrilla warfare agunst the ioy&l
mhabitanta of the United States. About the last
d July, 1865, a pastoral letter, in I^tin. whi(^ the
foUowmg is a translation, was sent by the Most
Ber. FMer Ridiard Kenrick, ArchHdiop of St.
Louis, to eveiT priest in his diocese, which was thai
coextenrive wab the state.

St. Louis, July 28th, 1865.

Reverend Sir: Since under the new Constitution,
a certain oath is to be exacted tk I^ests, that they
may have leave to announce God's word, and officiate
at marriage, which oath, th^ can in no wise take,
without a sacrifice of ecclesiastical Wberty, I have
judged it expedioit, to indicate to you my tinmen
In the matter, that you may have before your cyea,
a rule to be followed, in this extraordinary matter.
I hope, that the civil power will abstain from exacting
such an oath. But, should it happen otherwise, I
wish you to inform me of the particular circumstances
of your poeitiMi, that I mi^ be able to sve you
counsel and assistance. I am, Reveroid Sir,
Yonr servant in the Lord,
Peter Richard,

Archbi^op of St. Lonls.

The state ofiidals ignored this letter, but their
party newspaper organ in St. Louis referred to it,
"as important in view of the larf^ number of persons
whom the Archbrahop of St Louis in oob sense, miQr
be said to represmt; and further because ot the fast
that at least three-fourths <^ such peratuu. have,
throughout the war, been disloyal men". The op-
position press was almost mlent.

At that time. Rev. John A. Cummings,'a younjg
priest, was in charge of St. Joseph's Church at Loutei-
ana. Pike County, Missouri. He had not taken the
oath, and he said Mass and preached as usual, on Sun-
day, 3 Septonber, 1865. The court having jurisdiction
of crimes committed in this county was heM mt
Bowling Greea some twelve miles distant, and con-
vened with its accompanying ^nd jury on Monday,
4 Swtember. Father Oimnungs was indicted by a
grand jury onnpooBd d mea who h^ taken Um uv<

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TKTZKL

famous oath, promptly, on the first da;^ td the court,
and the charge was, that he acted as a pnest and mmis*
tH" c( the Cauiolic r^ipous persuasioa without having
fint taken, Bubecribe<^ and filed ihe oath o( lojratbr.
He was arrested a few days afterwards, and brought
into court in-the custody of the dMsiff on the 8th.
When asked to say whether he was guilty or not
guilty, he declined to answer, but recited the Apostles'
Creed. Hon. R. A. Campbell, subsequently lieu-
tenant^overaor of the state, then took chaise of his
defence at the instance of some of Father Cimunings'
puishioners, and made the same defense which was
afterwards sucoessful m the Supreme Court of the
X^ted States. He was tried on UieMi, found guilty,
and in default of parent of a fine of S500, c<»iunitted
to jail, and placed m confinement witii three penons
of the most degraded type, charged with felonies.
On 15 September, he gave bond, being directed to do
so by Archbishop Kenrick, who caused an am>eal
to be taken to the Supreme Court of Missouri. That
court had been, a few m<mtbs beforej reorganized
by military force, and its bench filled with men com-
mitted to iq^oraing the oath. Father Cummings'
appeal was promptly denied in the followine month
<n Octob^ and then his case was appealed to the
Supreme Court of the United States. Pending his
appeal, many imests and reli^ous were indicted
and arrested; amongst others, the s^ntly Bishop
Hogan, of the diocese of Kansas City, Missouri, vet
hvins at the age of 82 years, then a priest at Cnil-
Hcothe in livin^ston 0)uQty. He made the oath
as odious as possible by accompanying the arrestii^;
bfficer to the court-house, dressed in soutane, surplice,
stole, and biretta, carrying in his right hand a crucifix,
and in his left a large Bible. He took a change of
venue, gave bond^ and was finally discharged by the
effect of the decision in the Cummings case. In an
address to some of his jiarishionerSj referring to hb
arrest and the oath, he said: "The civil authority has
been, ever from the days <tf Herod, the enemy of
Christ. The quesUcm, now pending, is not one merely
<^ loyalty or disloyalty, past, present, or prospective.
Hie issue is, whether the Church shall be free or
not to exercise her natural and inherent right of calling
into, or rejecting from, her ministry whom she pleases;
or whether, yielding tft the dictation of the civil power,
she shall admit those on^, who, according to its
judgment, are fit for the omce."

In Cape Girardeau County, the fanatics did not
stop wi^ priests, but indicted dght Sisters ot Loretto
for teadiing. Sisters Augusta and Margaret were
arrested by the sheriff, but the others could not be
found, and probably fled from their persecutors.

When the case of Father Cummings was heard in
the Supreme Court of the United States in March,
1866, there appeared for him, David Dudley Field,
Reverdy Johnson, and Mont^mery Blair, ul three
lawyers of national reputation. Notwithstanding
the sanctity of the principles involved, the Supreme
Court, on 14 January, 1867, by only one majority
declared the oath void, and thus relieved the prieste
and nuns of Missouri from further persecution.
The effect of the decision in Father Cummings* case
is best summarized by Justice Miller in his diraenting
opinion in ex parte A. H. Garland (4 Wall 333) where
he says of it: "In this case, the Constitution of the
State of Missouri, the fundamental law of the people
of Uiat state, adopted by their popular vote, declares
that no priest of any church shall exercise his minis-
terial functions, unless he will show, by his own oath,
that he has borne a true allegiance to his government.
This court now holds this constitutional provision
void on the ground that the Federal Constitution
forbids it". Father Cummings' health was seriously
injured by his brutal treatment, and a few years
■fterwaids he lost his mind, and <fied a martyr to
the cause oi dvll and rdi^ous liberty.

CmutOuHon a/ MUmrij^lBes. Art. II, SmUoiu 3, 6. 7. S,
Vol. 71 U.^ Bvp. a. n*p^. LXXI. 277.

WiLUAU T. Johnson.

Tatwl, JoH ANN, first public antagonist of Luther, b.
at Pima in Meissen, 1465^ d. at Leipsig, 11 A»k^
1519. He b^an his studies at Leipzig during the
semester of 1482-83; was promoted to toe baccalau-
reate in 1487, being the sixth in a class of fifty-stx.
Not long after he entered the Dominioan Order,
whether at Pima or Leipzig, cannot be established.
Disaffection and friction having arisen in the Leipzig
communis, he went to Rome in 1497 to secure per*
mission from Joaohim Turrianus, the general of the
order, to enter another monastery. In spite of a re-
oall of this permission, he seems to have carried his
point. A few years later we find him as prior of the
monastery at Glogau, which belonged to the Polish
province. At the request of the Polish provincial
John Advooati, he was appointed inquisitor for Po-
land by the maflter-general, Cajetan. At this time
hs also received pcnniaaicm to tan the neoessaiy steps
to have himself promoted to the doctorate of tbeok«r.
His relations with the Leipzig convent must in the
meantime have been friendly again, for not only do
we find him preaching a number of times la the Do*
mtnican church at Leipzig, but after severing his rela-
tions with the Polish province he was appointed in-
quisitor of the Saxon province. The activity of his
Ufe and publicity of his office made him a well-known
figure. In 1603 he made his first appearance as a
preacher of indulgences, when the Teutonic Order iA
Kni^ts in Livonia obtained pennisskm from Alex-
ander VI to have a jubilee indulgeuoe for three years

g reached in the ecclesiastical provinces of Magde-
urg, Bremen, and Riga. After the lapse of three
years Julius II (22 Nov., 1506) granted a new indul-
gence for three additional years in the provinces of
Cologne, Mainz, and Trier. At the end of 1509 he was
induwenee oommissary at Staradvurg, and from here in
1610 he went to Nuremberg, WUnbu^, and Bambe^.

'Ptom Ju^, 1510, to AjHil, 1516, ul traces of him
were lost. It was his appearanoe as an induwenee
preacher in 1516, to aid the constmctibn of St. Peter's
at Rome (see Luther, vol. IX, 441), that thrust him
into an undue prominence, invested him with an exag«
gerated importance, and branded him with an un-
merited odium that only the most painstaking critical
resetutih is now slowly lifting. It was while preach-
ing at Jaterbog, a small town outside of Saxoi^r, not
far from Wittenberg (where the indulgences were not
allowed to be preached), that Luther in one of his
most violent philippics in 1541 relates "many people
of Wittenbere flocked after indulgences to Jttterbog "
(Wider Hans Worst in "Sammtl W.", XXVI, 50-
53), and then after much hesitation nailed the ninety-
five theses on indulgences on the castle church door at
Wittei^>erg, 31 Oct., 1517. That this preaching of
the indulgence was not the primary and immemate
cause that precipitated the promulgation of Luther's
ninety-five theses may be inferred not only from his
subsequent course but also from the fact that the
"Annales" of JUterbog (Hechtius, "Vita Joannis Te-
zelii", Wittenberg, 1717, 53 sq.) prove thatTetael

E reached there as early as 10 April; that Luther in his
ttter to Archbishop Albrecht (Oct. 31, 1517) admits
that he entertained the thought for a longtime to
preach against indulgence abuses (Enders, 'HDr. Mar-
tin Luther's Brief wechsel", I, Frankfort, 1884, 115);
that Tetzel for several weeks had already been in the
(Ustrict of Brandenburg (Paulus, "Johann Tetzel",
Mainz, 1899, 47).

The theses dispute between Luther and Tetsel, is
handled so circumstantially in a^eceding volume of
The Cathouc Enctclopbdu (IX, 441-4«2) that wa
need not repeat it here. The pufaueation of Luther*!
"Sermon on Indulgenow and Qraoe'^vas rmUed to

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by Tetiel's "Vorlegung", mvnd in April, 1518 (Lea,
in "A Histonr of Auneular GonfcBSion and Indul-
geiieeB", III, 395, erroneous!;^ makes it Vorlemng), in
which the scholastically-tramed theologian, though
not profound, scents nevertheloBB with keen penetra-
tion, not a mere academic toiumament, but a far-
reaching and m(Hnentous battle of princiipleB, involv-
mg the very fimdammtals of the Christian religion
aiu the authority of the Church. He lays bare with
extramdinary precision the unfortunate consequences
that would arise. At the dose of bis "Vorlegung",
Tetsel announces that he would present!/ pubush "a
few other principles and positions". These are the
second senes of theses, fifty in number, with Tetsel
as author, and published in May. 1518. In these, in-
dulgences are but lightly touchoa upon, the burden of
the argumentation odng diif ted to the authority of
the Church. Tetzel as yet was ooiy a bachelor of
theology. In the ooiurse of 1518 he was promoted to
the doctorate, whether b^ the master-general or the
University of Frankfort is not known. Luther's a^-
tation havii^ frustrated further efforts to popularize
the graated indulgeaee of eight years, Tetzel, deserted
b^ the public, broken in spirit, wrecked in health, re-
tired to his monastery at Leipzig in 1518. Here in
tiie middle of January, 1519, fie had to face the bittw
Kproaches and un|ust mcriminations of Carl von Mel-
tits. It was at this time that Luther magnanimously
penned a letter in whic& he tries to console him by de-
claring "that the agitation was not that of his [Tet-
lel'sl creation, but that the child had an entirely dif-
ferent father' . Tetxel died soon after, received an
honourable burial, and was interred before the high
idtar of the Dominican church Leipiig.

History presents few characters tnat nave suffered
more senseless misrcTOesontation, even bald carica-
ture, than Tetsel. "Even while he lived stories which
contained an element of le^nd gathered aroimd his
name, imtil at last, in the minds m theimcritical Prot-
estant historians, he became typical indulgence-mon-
ger, upon whom any well-worn ancedote might be
fathered" (Beard, "Martin Luther", London, 1889.
210). For a critical scholarly study which diows him
in a proper perspective, he had to await the researches
of our own time, mainly at the hands of Dr. Nicholas
Faulus, who is closely iollowed in this article. In the
first place, his teaching reoarding the indulgences for
the hving was correct. The charge that the forgive-
ness of sins was sold for mon^ r^ardless of oontntion
or that absolution for sins to be committed in the fu-
ture could be purchased is baseless. An indulgence,
he writes, can be appUed onfy "to the pains of sin
which are ocmfessed and for whidi thwe is contrition".
"No one", he furthermore adds, "secures an indul-
goice unless he have true contrition". The oon-
fessional letters (am/eagioncdia) could of course be
obtained for a mere pecuniary ooneid^ation without
demanding contrition. But such document did not se-
cure an indulgence. It was simply a permit to select a
proper confessor, who only after a contrite oonfession
would absolve from sin and lesarved cases, and who
possessed at the same time facilities to impart the
plenary indulgence (Paulus, "Jidiann Tetsel", 103).

As much cannot be said about his teaching regard-
in^indulgMMses for Hie dead. The couplet attributed

As soon as the gold in the casket rings

The rescued soul to heaven springi,
like thai attributed to Luther,

Who bves not wine and wife and song

Remains a fool his life long;
though veiball^ spurious, can in both iDstanees be in
■ubstanoe unfailingly traced to the writings of their re-
spective authors. By Tetzel they are substantially
acdbuvwledged in his Frankfort theses. Here he
■eoepted tbs mere sohocd <^Hnicm c< a few obsoun

writ«, iHilob overstepped the oontento of pu»I in-
dulgenoe BuUs. This opinitm found no recogmtion but
actual condemnation at the hands of authoritative
writers, and was rejected in explicit terms hy Cardinal
Cajetan as late as 1517-19. By the teaching he laid
himself open to just censure and reproach. To condi-
tion a plenary indulgence for the dead on the mere gift
of money, without contrition on the part of the giver,
was as repugnant to the teaching of Ihe Qiurch, as it
violated every principle of elementary justice.
"Preachers act in the name of the Church", writes
Cardinal Cajetan, "so long as th^ teach the doctrines
of Christ and the Qiurch: out if th^ teach, guided by
their own minds and arbitrariness of will, things of
which they ere i^orant, they cannot psss as repre-
sentatives of the Church; it need not be wondered at
that they go astray" (Paulus, " Johann Tetzel", 165).
It was this deviation from the correct teaching the
Church and the obtrusive and disgraceful injectiim of
the treasury chest, that led to abuses and scandals
reprobated Dv such contanporaries as Cochlseus, Em-
SOT. and Diike George (Paulus, op. cit., 117-18).
"Grave abuses arose; the attitude of the preachers,
tile manner of offering and publishing the indulgences
aroused many scandals: above all, Tetzel is in no way
to be exonerated" (Janssen-Pastor, "Geschichte des
deutsch. Volkes", 18th ed., Freiburg, II. 84).

If Tetsel was guilty of unwarranted theological
views, if his advocsOT' of indulgences was culpfJ^ly im-
prudent, his moral character, the butt of every sense-
lesB burlesaue and foul libel, has been vindicated to the
extent of leaving it untainted by any grave moral
dereliction. These would hardly be worth alluding
to, did not some of them have Miltitz as the source.
But Miltitz has been so discredited Uiat he no longer
carries historical weight. "All efforts", writes Oscar
Michael, a Protestant, "to produce Miltits as a reli-
able witness wiUprove futile" (Mttnch. Allg. Zeit., 18
April,1901). "Thecirculatedreportsof Miltitz about
Tetsel deserve in themselves no credence", writes
another Protestant author (ibid., 14 March, 1910).

The Ratisbon adultery change, with its penalty of
drowning, detailed by Luthw, Matheous^ Sleidan and
almost every Protestuit Reformation historian, baa
been proved so preposterous, that Briefer (Theodor)

claims "it is high time that it vanish from

alihistory " (Theol. Literaturzeit., 1900, 84). Dibeliua
of Dresden says : " Among the faults and shortcomings
ascribed to Tetzel by his enemies,, that of immoralitv
cannot ^taod" (Lecture on "Tetzel's Lebenu. Lehre
in "Dr«8dner Journal", 20 March, 1903). "Paulus",
in the wcnrds of Beeaa (A.), "luui so effectually re-
futed the notions adultoy anecdote, that no one will
ever revive it" (Histor. ViertelsjahrBchr. f. Geoch.,
1902, p. 256). The charge made by Luther in his
seventy-fifth thesis, that Tetzel had preached impi-
ously concerning the Blessed Vin;in, and repeated in
Luther's letter to Archbishop AUu%cht (Enders, I,
115) and in most explicit terms in his pamphlet
"Wider Hans Worst'', was not only promptly and in-
dignantly denied by Tetzel (13 Dec., 1518)^ declared
false by an official resolution of the entire city magis-
traoy of Halle (12 Dec., 1517), where it was claimed
the utterance was made, but has now been successfully
proved a clumsy fabrication (Paulus, op. cit., 56-61^.

The charge of embezzling the indulgence funds is
also l^ffindary. The precautions adopted to safe-
guard uie alms w^e of a character that precluded all
diance of misi^propriation. The chest to receive Uie
money always baa two or three locks, the keys of
which were in the custody of different persons, includ-
ing a r^resentative of the banking-house of Fugger.
It could never be opnied save in the presence of a no-
tary. The ecclesiast ical injunction was that the faith-
fulnadtodeposittheircontributionsinperson. Togive
it to the confessor or indulgence subcommissaiy invali-
dirtedtheindulgBnee (PaulUB,op.cit.,7ft-77). TheTet-

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h1 indulgenoe obastB othibited at JOtobog and other
German towns, are counterfeits, acoordi^ to the Prot-
estant writer K5mer (Tetzel'e Leben, Ti). _ The lat-
est Catholic biographer of Luther, Griaar, writes: "To
ascribe to the unhappy monk the 'cause* of the en-
tire apostasy that set in since 1517 . . . ia an un-

OOBL,

LuUmt

(3ad «d., Bom, ISflO) ; Hofuamm. £«bm«bMcAr«(frwur df AUom-
■artdietn Johann TtUai (Leipsic, 1844): KOkhbb, TOmiierAh-
kutprediger (Fmnkenbiu^, ISSc^j J&xssbn-Pastok, Oesek. d—
dnOchen VoOut, II (FraiburK. 1S97), 81-83; OsiaAB, ImA», I
rPiriburc, lei I>. 278-88; Paoldo, JoAorni TtU^ dtr AbtaMprmUgtr
(Muns, 1899); tbo laaMuuMd for tboiouchncM of rMMrch attd
objective chsncUr nipenodfla all that bu over baaa writtoa on
TetMl, on both the CathoBc and Protoatant ridn.

H. G. Ga»bs.

Teuchln, a titular see in Libyan Pentapolis. Teu-
chira, T«6xtipa, neuter plural, was a city on the coast
of CyTenaica,200 stadia west of Ptolemais. It was cel-
ebrated for its worship of Cybele^ in whose honour an-
nual festivals were held. During the reign of the
Ptolemies it was called Arsinoi; at a later period it be-
came a Roman colony, and was garrisoned by Jus-
tinian. The ruina are called Tokra (vilayet of
Benghaai). Two of its bishops are known, Secundus,
at the Council of Nicsa in 325, uid Zeno, at that of
Epheeus in 431 (Le Quien, "Orirais cfarist.''^ II, 623).
The see is mentioned in Parthey (Notitia episoo-
patuum, I) about 840.

SuiTR, Dia. of Or. and Rom. Oaogr., s. v. TVucAira; UflLt-BB,
note* U PUtmy, ed. DiooT, I, 666. S. P^TKIDis.

- Teutonic Order, a Jnedieval militai^ order mod-
elled on the Hospitallers of St. John, which changed
its reddence as often as the latter. These resi-
dences, marking as many stages in its development,
are: (1) Accon (Acre), its cradle in Palestine (1190-
1309); (2) Marienburg, Prussia, the centre of its
temporal domination as a military principality (1309-
1525) ; (3) Mergentheim in Franconia, which inherited
its djminiBhed possessions after the loss of Prussia
(1525-1805); (4) finally, Vienna in Austria, where the
order has gathered the remains of its revenues and
nirvives as a purely fao^ital order. A Protestant
branch likewise subasts in Holland.

(1) There was already a Teutonic hospital for
pilgrims from Germany in the Latin Kingdom of
Jerusalem, with a church dedicated to the Bleesed
Virgin, who is still the patroness of the order and aft^
whom the name Manani is sometimes given to its
members. But this establishment, which was under
ih» jurisdiction of the Grand Master of St. John,
was broken up at the conquest of Jenualffln by
Saladin (1187). During the Third Crusade German
pilgrims from Bremen and LUbeck with the Duke of
Holatein established a temporary hospital und^ the
besieged walls of Acre ; this was a large tent, constructed
from the sails of their ships, in which the sick of
their country were received (1190). After the cap-
ture of Aire this hospital was permanently established
in the city with the co-optfationof Frederick of Suabia,
leader of tlie German crusade, and at the same time
rdL^oua knights were attached to it for the defence of
pilgrims. The Order of Teutonic Knights was founded
and took its place beside the other two orders of
Jerusalem, the Hospitallers and the Templars. As
early as 1192 they were endowed by Celestine III
with the same privileges as the Order of St. John,
whose hospital rule they adopted, and as the Order
of the Temple, from which they borrowed their
military o^anisaUon. Innoooit III in 1205 granted
them the use of the white habit with a black orosB.
Tlie emperors of the House of Suabia heaped favours
uixtn diem. Moreover, they took sides with Fred-
erick II even after he had broken with the pwacy
and in opposition to the other two military orders.
During the Four^ Crusade, when the gates <A Jeru-
lalem were for the last time <qMDed to Christians,

under the oommaad of this the Teutonic

Kni^ts wore aUe to take posssesion of their fint
house, St. Mary of the Gam ana (1229). But it
was not for long and before the aid ot the oentury
they left Palestine, which had again fallen under tlw

yoke of Islam (1291).

(2) A new career was already open to their war-
like and religious seal, in Eastern Europe, uainst
the pagans of Prussia. Hiis coast of the Baltio,
diffioilt (rf aooess, had hitherto resisted the efforts
of the missionanes, many of
whom had there laid down tiieir
lives. To avoige these Chris-
tians a crusade had been
preached; a military order
founded with this object, the
Sword-bearers (see Militart
Orders, Thb), had not been
very succeesful, when a Polish
dukCj Conrad of Massovia, de-
termmed to ask the assistance
of the Teutonic Knights, offra-
ing them in return the t^ritory
of Culm with whatever they
could wrest from the infidels.
Hermann of Salza, fourth
Grand Master of the order, was
authorized to make this change
by Honorius III and tiie Em-
peror Frederick II, who, more-
over, raised him to the rank (tf
prince of the empire (1230).
The knight Hermann Balk,
appointed Provincial of Prussia,
with twenty-eight of his brother
knights and a whole anny of
crusaders from Germany b^an
this struggle which lasted
twenty-five years and was fol-
lowed by colonization. Owing
to the privile^ assured to
German colonists, new towns
arose on all sides and eventually
Germanised a country of which
the natives belonged to the
Letto- Slavic race. Thence-
forth the history of this military prinripaKfy ia
identified with that of Prussia (q. v.). In 1309 the
fifteenth Grand Master, Sighied of Feuchtwangen,
transferred his residence from Venice, where at
that time the knights had thmr chief house, to the
Castle ci Mazienbuig, wfaic^ tbiey made a formidaUe
fortress.

The number of kni|^ts never exceeded a tiunuand,
but the whole country was wgaxdzed in a mUitary
manner, and with the constant arrival of new crusa-
ders the order was able to hold its own among its
neighbourB, especially the inhabitants of Lithuania,
who were of the same race as the natives of Prussia
and. like them, pagans. In the battle of Rudau
(1307) the Lithuanums were driven back, and th^
were converted only some years later, with tiieir
grand duke, Jagellon, who embraced Chiistiaiiity
when he married the heiress <^ the Kingdom <n
Poland (1386). With this event, which put an end
to paganism in that section of Europe, the Teutonie
Kn^ts lost their raiton tCilre. Thenc^orth their
history consists of incessant conflicts witii the kings
of Poland. Jagellon inflicted on them the defeat
of Tannenbei^ ^1410), which cmt them 600 kn^ts
and ruined their finances, in order to repair wi lich
the order was obliged to have recourse to exaction^
which aroused the native nobility and the towns and
provided the Poles with an opportunity to interfere
against the order. A fresh war cost the order half
Its temtoiy and the remaining half was only held
nzider the suierainty of the Emg of Epland (Ttaafey.

FlOUKB ON TBX TOHB

OP Conrad of Thcb-
iMOu, XIII Cm-

TURX, SBOWIMO TU

Habit ow tbb Tcu-
totno Kmiuhm

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TIWKUBUBT

of Thorn, 1466). The loss of MarieDbui^ caused the
transfer of the Grand Master's residence to KfinjfEs-
berg, which is still the capital of Prussia properly
Bo-raUed. To maintain itself agdnst the kings of
Poland the order had to rely on Germany and to
oonfide the office of Grand Master to German
princes. But the second of these, Albert of Branden-
ouig (1511), abused his position to secularize Prussia,
at the same time embracing Lutheranism (1525).
He made Prussia an hereditary fief of his house under
the suzerainty of the Crown of Poland.

(3) NeverthelesB, the dignitaries of the order in
the remainder of Gennany faithfullv preserved its
possessions, and having broken with the apostate
chose a new Grand Master, Walter of Cronenberg,
who fixed his residence at Mergentheim in Fran-
conia (1526). After the loss of Prussia the order still
retained in Germany twelve bailiwicks, which they
lost one by one. The
aecession of Utrecht
(1580) meut the loss
of the bailiwick of
Uiat name in the Low
CSountries. Louis XIV
secularized its posses-
sions in France. The
Treaty of Lun^viUe
(1801) took away its
possessions on the left
bank of the Rhine and
in 1809 Napoleon
abuidoned its pos-
sessions on the right
bank to his allies of
the Confederation of
the Rhine. The Teu-
tonics retained only
the bailiwick in the
"^rrol and that in the
Austrian States.

(4) Thus the order became purely Atistrian, under
the supreme authority of the Emperor of Austria,
who reserves the dignity of Grand Master for an
archduke of his house. Since 1894 it has been held
by Archduke Eugene. There are at present 20 pro-
fessed knights who are bound to celibacy while they
enjoy a b^efioe of the cffder, and 30 knights of honour
who are not bound to thia observaooe, but who must
furnish an eatirance fee of ISOO florins and an annual
MHitribution of 100 flnins. Moreover, their ad*
mission exacts a nobility of sixteen quarterings. The
revenues of the order are now devoted to religious
works; it has charge of 50 parishes, 17 schools, and
9 hospitals, for which object it supports 2 congr^a-
tions of priests and 4 of sisters. Moreover, it per-
forms unbulance service in time of war; it pays the
ooBt of the ambulance, while lay Mariansareengft^ as
ambulance bearers. Thus, alter various vicissitudes
the Teutonic Knights are restored to their ori^-
nal character of hospitallers. Besides this CathoUc
branch in Austria the order has a Ftoteetant branch
in the ancient bailiwick of Utrecht, the possessions of
which have been preserved for the benefit of the
nobility of the rountty. The members, who are
chosen by the chapter of knights, must give proof
oS four quartoii^ of nobiuty and profess
Calvinistic religion, but are dispensed from celibacy.
When Napoleon took possession of Holland in 1811
he suppressed the institution, but as early as 1815 the
first King of the Low Countries, William I of Orange,
re-established it, declaring himself its protector.
The present order comprises 10 commanders,
JonkheeTen,and aspirants (expedanten), who pay an
entrance fee of 525 florins and have the right to wear
in their buttonhole a small cross of the order.

HiiMrt de I'ordrt tevUnigue par un ehetalier dt I'ordre (4 vola.,
Fsrii, ITSftJ; Voior, O—A. daa deufchn RitUrardtiu (BvUn,

18fi9); K5HUUL. KHUnta. II (Brcdmu, .1880); LatuU, Lm
chnaHen leatontquM m Prtuam ia Amw du D»u* iiondtt {Jfw^
1870}: RangUtt* u. PwrtoniwMatm <fu dmUtehen RiUerordnu fir
dot Jakr 1909 (Vtonna, 1909); Staafalmanach d*r NtdeHcmdm
(The Hacue. 1911).

Ch. Mobllbb.
Tewdrig (Theodobic), a Welsh saint, son of Kins
Teithfallt of Moi^anit^ or Southern Wales, flouri^ed
probably in the sixth centuiy. He was a liberal bene-
factor of the church of Llandaff . He resioied the gov-
ernment to his son Meurig and devoted himself to
religion and contemplation at Tintem in Monmouth-
shire. When, however, the Saxons undor CeolwuU
crossed the Severn and pressed hard upon Meurig,
Tewdrig left his solitude and gained a brilliant victory
at the bead of his old troops, but was killed in the
main battle. A chxu^h was erected over the grave of
the royal martyr; it was called Marthyr Tewcuig and
is now Mathem at the junction of the Rivers Wye and

Severn. The day of
faisdeath isS January;
the year is uncertain,
the dates 610, 577,
527, or even 470 bein^
given.

Godwin, D« praiul^nu
Anolia (Londoo, 1616),
619; RsBB, An S»iai/ on
tht Welth SainU (Loadoo.
1836). ISa aq.

Klehbns LOffleb.

Tewkesbury,

John. See Tunsted,

SlUON.

Tewke sbur J
Abbey, Gloucester-
shire, England, de-
rives its name from
Theoc, a hermit of
ear^ times, to whose
memory a monastery
was dedicated by the dukes of Mercia in the
eighth century. In 980 it became a cell of the
Benedictine Priory of Cranborne, in Dorset-
shire; but having grown in wealth and impor-
tance after the Norman Conquest, and being richly en-
dowed by FitzHamon (a cousin of the Conqueror) it
became an independent abbey in 1103. Go-ald was
the firet abbot, and the m^njfioent church — the
largest in England, after Westminster, of abbey
churches not now used as cathedrals-^aa completed
and consecrated in 1123. FitiHamoB, with his son-
in-law Robert, Earl of Gloucester, was regarded as its
second founder; and their descendants, the De Clares,
Despenoers, and Beauchamps, remained closely asso-
ciated with it almost until the Dissolution. The
tombs of many of them are still to be seen in the
church. The Annals of Tewkesbury from the Con-
quest (1066) until 1263 are extant, and contun
valuable notes on the national history, but little of
interest about the abbey itself. During the thir-
teenth and succeeding centuries Tewkesbury wae
constantly receiving new endowments in lands and
money, and became one of the wealthiest of English
monasteries, its income at the Dissolution being set
down at £1600 (equal to more than ten times that
amount in modem mon^). The great battle oi

TawxasBuaT Abbr

Tewkesbury on 4 May, 147J, between Yorkists and
Lancastrians, was fought in the very precincts of the
abbey; and many of those who fell, includii^ Henry
VI's only son, were buried in the church.

Sixty-eight years later the last abbot, John Wake-
man, surrendCTcd the abbey to Henry VlII. Wake-
man himself was handsomely pensioned, and in 1541
became &st bishop of the newly-erected See of
CHouoester. The abbot's house was preserved intact;
most of the remaining monastic buildings were de-
stn^ed as "superfluous"; but the magnificent ciHirdt

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msndiMquentfy sold by Vat king tothei
of TewkoDury, and was tiius Baved from deBtraotkm.

it measures 317 feet long by 122 across the transepto^
■nd the nuuedve central tower is 132 feet high. The
fdlars and trif orium of the nave and the lower part of
the choir belong to the ordinal Norman church; the
iplmdid groined roof, replacing the original Norman
ceiling, and apsidal onoir with chevet of surrounding
(^^>eb (closely resembling Westminster Abbey), date
from the lourterath ana fifteenUi oeaXwiea. The
cbcur windows contain some fine old stained glass.
The whole church underwent careful restoration under
^ Gilbert Scott (1875-79), and four years later the
restoration committee was enabled to repurchase
vbat remained (rf the monastic boildings.

ButKEiT, Hiti. <d r«wbM6wv (London. 1630) ; Bldst. Tawb**-
(uv^UcyoiMj it* vlMoeuUiaiM (London, 180S); AtmaiM mvnaaUti,
td. LVAXD. I (London, 1864), zv-xxvU, 4^180; DuaDA.Li,
MmatL an^ic, II (London, 1817), 53-80; Tamnkr, N«titia
timutiea: Oleme., (I^ondon, 1787), xxzi: Oasquet, /fmrv VIII
liU Bnglitk Uonaaterie* (London, 1889), I, 68. 29B. 418; II,
' m; AnHtMrian and Tapogr, Cabintt, II Cuoadaa, 180^, E, E3

D. O. Httntbb-Blaib.

Tmu, SftATK OF. — The name, Texas, is probably
derived from T^a*, the name of a friendly tribe of
Indians met within the territory 1^ the earfy Spaiudt

SuL cv IBM State or Tszas.

3RAPHT AND PhTBICAL CJHABACTSRIBTICe.—

iThe state is bounded on Uie north by Oklahoma,
1 « the weat by New Modoo and Mexico, on the south

hy Mexico and the
Gulf of Mexico, and
on the east by the
Gulf of Mexico, Lou-
. A isiana, and Arkansas.

ffij/ffllP^ A It Kea between 26°

lCfftl^^r(^rWL\f^l 50* and 3d' 45' N.
maSS^^'/^ Wi>» lat. and 93* and
MlVit 106' 30' W. long. It
\ yM^IT Jl^J ' ranbraces 265,896 sq.

" * miles, of which 3498

sq. miles are water.
Four great natural
provinces, running in
general direction from
south to north, are
fomted geological development. The first of these,
aeareat tne coast^ is called the Coastal Plain, oonsist-
iag of Coast Prairies, a Tertiary area, and Black Prai-
ries. Extending back from the Gulf Coast for from
thirty to fifty miles, an outcrop of underlying clays
gives a flat, almost treeless tract running along the
vlxdelengUi ftf the ooast and known as the Coast
Pniiie. Diffoait climatic conditions with respect to
runfall vary the products of different parts of thiare-
gioQ. The eastern an^orthem part, where the rainfall
re&chee from forty to fifty inches annually, are suitable
fw rice culture, which is localized there; in the central
portion along the coast where the rainfall is less,
sigar^^e. fruit, and "truck" are extensively culti-
while in Uie southwest, with a rainfall of only
20 to 28 inches annually, cotton culture and "cattle
nioag on the ran^" are the chief industries. Itri-
gBtiuL however, in this south-western r^on makee
toe ciutiration of sugar-cane and sorghum as well as
coUcn of some profit. Favourable underground
BMiditions make this Coast Prairie the locati«» of
CQpwtant oil-fields. Further to the intmor the
pMst Prairie is succeeded Tertiary deposits

fviog a generally sandy conditKm to the soil. This
Brtiaiy area also is divided fay climatic ooo-
utioDB. lie south-western and western part, the
Rio Grande Plain", having a very shallow rain-
'ul, produces only a dwarfed and Muiibby natural
vegetation and is hence called tie "Chaparral
(Auntry"; the humid part, however, north and ntoth-
«art, MOed the East Texas timber belt, grows both

the short and kmg-leaf pine. lAmibering is here
the impwtant industry. In the nntfaem part of
this r^OQ more fertile soil affords the great fruit and
"touek" products; cotton and tobacco are also grown.
In one part of the west of this Tertiary reraon cotton
is cultivated, and valuable deposits of brick and pot-
tery clays and lignite are extensively worked. Fur-
ther inland and north of the Colorado River in this
Coastal Plain are the Black and Grand Prairies, the
most impcHtant uricultural r^on of Texas. Black
waxy calcareous c&y soil, for the most part uoda-laid
by prolific and widespread water-bearing formations,
makes this rwion the great cotton and com produc-
ing section, while oats, wheat, alfalfa, and scffghum
are also extensively grown. Wherever the climate
becomes arid cattle raising increases as an industry.
The Central Basin is the second great natural prov-
ince. This r^on, situated in north-west uid
oentral-west Texas, was once covered with cretaceous
materials, but now is denuded by the head waters of
the Red, Brasos, trad Colorado Rivers. Its south-
em exb«mity, the "Llano Country", as it is called,
has a granite foundation, much quarried, and deposits
of hematite and magnetite occur here plentiful^.
On the eastern side the soils show a carboniferous area,
and include sands, loams, black and tightKX>lourea
days, producing, in the heavier soils, cotton, wheat,
oats, sorghum, niila-maize, and in the %titer, ootttm,
maize, miit, and garden products. The weston
portion contains notably fertile soils, yielding abun-
dant crops of kafir-com, milo-maize, cotton, wheat,
oats, peaches, and alfalfa. Deposits of salt, clay,
and gypsum occur in this area. The third natural
province of Texas is the Plateau Province, having
three Kreat divisions: the Llano Estacado, Staked or
Palisaded Plains, which extend beyond the limits ctf
Uie state, and the Edward's and £tto<dttcai Plateau.
The Uano Estacado, a phiteau 2500 to 4000 fert in
elevati(Hi, dmves its name from being itself an ex-
tenfflve uplifted meaa, surrounded, except on the
Edward's Plateau side, by "breaks , clifis, or walls,
which, as palisades, have to be climbed b^ore the
plateau is attained. The plateaux are treeless,
grassHxtvered prairies; the soi& are fine, sandy loams,
and the annual rainfall only from fifteen to twenty
inches. Formerly this region was devoted entirety
to cattle, but now alfalfa, barley, broom-corn, maize,
cotton, wheat, and fruits are being successfully culti-
vated. The water supply may be made abundant
mainly from wells at a depth of 100 to 600 feet.
Attempts to utilize these for irrigation on a small
scale are now being made. On the Edward's Plateau
the upland prairies are mainty givoi over to cattle,
sheep, and goats; in the cafion vaUeys, bowevo*, are
alluvial plants in wiiich cotton, com, milo-maize,
wheat, and oats are a success. On the Stockton
Plateau the fonnatic«i resembles that Edward's,
but the rainfall being less, av^aging only fifteen
inches annually, it is used almost entirely for cattle.

The fourth province is that of the Trans- Pecoe
Mountains, with elevations ranging from 5000 to
.0600 feet. Here the chief wealth is in the minerals,
consisting of silver^ copper, and lead of good grade
and some gold, tin, zmc, and qtucksilver. Local
conditions have, howeva*, retarded the mining dev^
opment, and silver and ctuicksilver are the <mly ores
worked on a commercial oasis. The annual rainfall
on these mountains is as low as ten to fifteen inches,
but irrigation of the valley lands is practised by means
of impounded storm-wata, and alfalfa and kafir-
oom are commonly grown. The chief industry of
the section is tiie care of cattle. Over sucb an ex-
t^ed area the drainage is naturally diverse. In
the east there are numerous small streams flowing
south and ««t into the Gulf of Mexico, in the Trans-
jPecoe redon there are practically no streams at
that nadi the sea. In Uie arid regions the drainagft

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ohanneb flow only for a abort time after rainf alL
On the west and soutb-weet boundary the Rio Grande
runs for 1200 miles. The Peoo6 River cronee the
western portbn of the state, from north to south,
without a tributary. It has a broad plain where it
enters the state, but descends into an inaccessible
eafion as it approaches the Bio Grande. The Cana-
dian River crosses the extreme north d the state
from west to east merely as a small stream on a wide
bed of wet sand. The Red, Brasos, and Colorado
riv^ and their numerous tributaries rise in the
Llano Estacado and flow south and east to the Gulf.
Their valleys broaden as they approach the coast
and end in very wide alluvial bottoms. Many other
rivers originate from artesian springs at the foot ol
the escarpments, called Balconw, at the south at
Edward's Rateau. The annual rainfall in Texas
varies frun 40 to 60 indies in the east — it is 60 at
Texarkanar— to 10 in the' west. Moreover, the
evi^wration in the west is excessive as com pared with
that in the east, hence the eastern part of the state
is humid, the west arid. The Oulf breeses cool the
air in the summer, and bring rains to the north and
east in winter and spring. The northern limit of
the Medcan rainy seascHit with its water from the
Pacific in summer and autumn, reaches the TVan»*
Peeoe Province and akmc the Rio Grande. The cold
winds called "Northcn , blowing from the north-
west or from the Rocky Mountains, sweep at times
over the whole state. A considerable difference,
20" in avo^ge temperature between various places
in the state, is olra^able.

Population and Resoubcbs. — The population
of Texas as given by Uie thirteenth decennial census
is 3,896.542. This causes the state to rank fifth
in population in the Union. In 1850. when Texas
was first enumerated in the United States crasus,
tiie number of inhabitants was given as 212,592.

AffricuUure. — ^There are in Texas, according to the
Federal Census Report (1910), 109,226,000 acres of
farm-land, and 27,120,000 acres of this are improved
farm-land. It is estimated that the state has
167,866,000 acres of tillable Und. At present the
number of farms is given by the census (1010) as
416,377, with an averts of 2B2 acres to the farm.
Over 1,000,000 acres are now (1911) under irripatiim,
r^resenting an investmrat of S17,000,000 for irriga^
in^ plants. Several lar^ irrigating enterprisea are
bemg inaugurated that will neatly extend the acreage
under irrigation in 1912. The total value of farm
prop^y in the state (lands, buildiius, implements,
and machinery) was $1,879,246,000 in 1910. In
1911 the acreage for some staple crops is given offi-
cially as follows: eotton, 10,868,000; corn, 9,240,000;
wheat, 1,240,957; potatoes 60,000; rice, 276,000;
tobacco, 600.

The following figure^ culled frmn the offices of
the State and Federal CommiasioneTB of Agriculture,
show the values of same Texas crop yields for the
year 1910: cotton and ootton seed, $266,966,944;
com, $114,206,000: wheat,$18,404,000:oats,$lL443,-
000; barley, $135,0()0; rye, $47,000; tux. K.'mfiOO;
enunet and spelt, $30,000; k&fir-com and milo-maise,
$3,900,000; peanuts, $1,430,000; other grasses and
seeds, $750,000; potatoes, $3,366,000; sweet-potatoes
and yams, $2,600,000; hay and forage, $13,900,000;
tobacco, $105,000; sugarnune, $4,360,000: iaoom
com, $160,000; truck, $30,000,000: total value,
$476,733,944.

The United States Government Bulletin, showing
the number of bales of cotim ginned to 20 March,
1912. gives Texas 4,437,876 bake as against 3,172,488
for the entire season in 1910. The twle given above
names only the principal crops and products. The
Texas Hajrmakers' Aaiociation has estimated the
value of the Texas hay orc^, including local oonsump-
ttoo and inter-state ahipmeots — the census does not

A TlXAB

give rnuik local shipments— at $180,000,000. AHo-
sether, the estimate of Texas farm aitd garden prod-
ucts, not including livestock, gives a market vbIu»>
tion of $650,000,000 annually. As Texas leads in
the production of cotton so also in range cattle, pecan^
figs, watermelons, bees, and honey.

Livettock. — ^The livestock statistics given below
are takoi from the office of the Commissioner <k
Agriculture of the State of Texas and f rmn the U. S.
Census (1910). The figures give the value of B"Timlf
in the state:

Milch cows, $33,642,000; other cattle, $100,104,000;
haraee, $97,199,000; mules, $69,498,000; sheep,
$5,154,300; goats, $2,000,000; hosi, $18,702,400;
poultry, $4,806,653; total vahie, $340,006,362;
number of colonies of bees 238,107: value, $676,000.
The wool product givm by the Federal census, 1010,
for the then current year is valued at $2,202,342.
Conservative estimates of the dairying industiy in
Texas state 4,000,000 lbs. as the output from the
creameries in 1910. Official reports of^the Fish and
Oyster Commission for the year ending 1 A^ust,
1911, relative to the fish and oyster catch in Texas
waters, give: oysters, 110,660 barrels: fish, 3^1,159
Ibe. Mfmy thousands U pounds of fish an also taken
tnr fidwrmen and apottaoai who do not come under
the License Act, a^id yrbxme catch is not reomded.
The timbo- and lumber industry from the last report
is valued for its output at $1,150,000.

Minerala. — The following figures are taken frmn a
statonent made by the director of the Bureau of
EconcHnic Geology and Technc^ogy of the University
of Texas. They have been compared with figures
irom the United States Geological Survey for 1909
tad show the increase or decrease that may be ex-
pected from one year to another though the general
sums may differ but ctHnparatively litUe.

Asphalt, $1,040,846; clay industries, excluding
pottery, $2,744,846; coal, $2,397,868; fuller's earth,
$8,582; granite, $60,909; iron ore, $34,003; Ugnite,
$763,107; Ume, $226,592; limestone, $477,2S9;
mineral waters, $128,549; petroleum, $6,605,755;
pottery, $112,604; quicksilver, $161,413; salt, $272,-
668; sandstone, $40,471; sand and gravel, $517,225;
silver, $205,374; stone (crushed), $306,862; tin,
$2,586; cement, gypsum, natural gas and sand,
lime^iriok, estimated $600,000; total. $16,697,367.

Martt^aeturea. — ^The Value of the manufactured
products of Texas as shown for 1909 (U. S. Census,
1910) is $227,896,000, the capital invested b«ng
$216,876,000 and the raw material used being
valued at $178,179,000. The industries given do
not include aiigr whose mxxlucts are less than $600 m
year and likewise exclude steam laundries. The total
wealth of the state as shown by the reprai oompiled
by the State Comptroller's Department for 1911 is
valued at $2,615,632,745, The capital and surplus
of Texas baidcs amounts to $113,065,617, while the
deposits, 1 June, 1911, amounted to $206,664,471,
these figures being takai frcan the Texas Bank Diieo-
toiy (1911), excluding a number of private banka
not rendering a r^>ort.

Means of CowuuincATiON.—Texas has 140,000
miles of public highways, 35,000 miles of which, are
^aded and are classed as improved hi^ways.
Besides these last many thousand miles are naturaJly
of such good formation as to be passable at all seasona
of the year axtd do not require much ejqiMnditure^
while many thousand miles more receive Bttaititm
in places, but are not inched in the class "improved
hil^way''. The total railroad milea^ of the atste
is 16,192.34 miles. These figures are derived inm
the report eorajp^ed by the comptroUer's d^Mtrtment
of the sUte. The Port of Galveston is the prindfltU
port of Texas and the south-west. The total fwcisn
businces of the Galveston custcoaa district for tue
flsoal year ending 30 June. 1911. was tmMmi

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of tha the «s|Mrta wen in value S2a0,401,366. The
eoaBt-wise commeroe of the port ia eetimated sfc
S200,000,000. Pwt Arthur, the port next in impo^
tanoe to Galveaton, had on 30 June, 1911, fwojpk
exports for the year to the value of $23,981,681;
the value <rf the unporta waa 9173,815. The domeetie
Gommme of thU pwt ii said to be in excees of the
foreipi. Hw towns of Beaumont and Orange will
soon riuve with Port Arthur in the conun«-ciaI bene-
fita of deep water, all three being connected by the
Sabine Neches Caiial, now about to be deepened to
25 feet. Houston also is to ahare with Galveston by
the completion of the ship-ehannel which connects
the city with Galveston Bi^. The seouxinK of deep
wat« at Aransas Pass will make Harbor Island ao^
othCT deqt-water port. Velasco at the mouth of
the Bruoe River, and Point Isabel at the mouth of
the Rio Grande, will yet be important porta for deep-
aea .commerce, al-
though <Hily b^pn-
nings are now in evi-
dence. The proiect
of the Fed^ Gov-
«nimait to form an
inland water-way
from the west coast
of Florida to the Rio
Grande, skirting the
Gulf Coast, throufl^
the protected b^m
where poBsibl& has
been a&eady be^
in one section in
Texas, between the
Btasos River and
Matagorda Bay,
throuffa the main-
hmd. Other chan-
nels an being mainr
tained in various
traces while snne of
the riven are utihied

for navigation and ,
projeeta kh- rendedng them more navigable are
b^og ivoeeGuted. The value of Texas shipping,
steamnips, and sailing vessels ^ven the oomi^
1x0116^8 department is 92,299,860.

Bdveational Syttem.—lDB public educational sye-
tean of Texas kuludes, undor State control, the iTni-
Tcnity of Texas at Austin, luul its medieal depart-
mmt at Galveston; the Afpricultural and Meebanioal
Cdlege at College Station; four normal schools
dttiated respectively at HuntsviUe, San Marcos,
Denton, and CWymi; the College of Industrial Arta
{ior womm) at Dokton: the normal and industrial
s^ool for coloured youths at Prairie View, and the
high Bohoc^ and common schools in the various in-
depttdeikt aid eonunon school districts of the State.
The intsDtion expnssed in the Constttution ot tike
RepubUo of Teotas of establishing a univcnity, and
the later endowment granted hy tne Conoeaa to give
it effect (1839), never attained fruition. In 1869 the
new Constitution of the State a^ain directed the
e^hiblidunent f>f a university and m accordance with
thM mandate the Lepslatxire (1871) refunded a prior
endowment of 9100,000 and added thereto 1^000,000
aores of Isnd. In 1^1 the main univunty waa
loeated at Aiistin and the medieal department at
QalreBtaa. Tbit main university was opened in 1883
with an enrollmeait of 221 students. Not until 1891
did the medieal department receive its first studmts.
The income of the university from its lands is about
$170,000 yearly; the legisUtive apravpriation for
1912 is 92^545, in 1913 it will be 9400^000. The
iwtitution haa 46 mofeason, 43 mstructors,
10 tiitoi% 10 feDows, 34 student assistants; the
MMMil enxdmsot in the nuia .uninnttv at Ant-

tin is 1777: la the medioal dsiMrtmsst. Oahestoa,

385.

The Agricultural and Mechanical Coll^ was
canned in 1870 with Federal aid. Its present enrol*
uHot is 1123. Tlw Legislative i^iwopriatiw for
its tp^mfammaiw aod that at other ooUeges is shown
below.

Asn<-ultur&l and HMfcMHHl'CaUeca

Bun H^ uiWQ Monnkf n»oal

Botithi-Bcsi Tviu Normal School

Norlh TiiSM Norniai School.

W«it T«iaj Nonul Se^l ■ . '

InBdlkitf (or tUf Lllm'l
inbtjiiilC' Inr ibi- Deal ii mi Dumb .

1912

« H.760

33,000

51.400

33,(XKI

i21,:;ij0

IBlO-ll

19L2~t3

tl&fi.MQ

110.5M

Miw*** or Sim Tmaxcoco db Ewaoa, Emm Hilm Boms or Buk

Amoino, Bona ITSO

The school prop-
er^ in independmt
school districts, in-
eluding oitiss and
towns, is valued at
916,602,3^, and in
oommon school di»-
triets at 96,644,998.
Enrolled in the scho-
lastic census of the
ind^iendent districts
are 368,303 children,
in tiwoommon school
distaets are 623,106;
in all 991,409 between
the ages of 7 and 17.
thesoK^astic age fixeti
by law. : The total
available fund for the
euirmt year from all
sources for the educa-
tion of these diildreQ
k $13,361,121.

Political His-
Tonr. — Early in the

sixteoith century Spanish expkwen atong the Gulf
Coast and in the interior of the tenitanr had gained a
knowledge of Texas, among the first bdng AImuo
Alvansde Pineda. AlvarNunes, better known as C»*
vesade Vaco, unmistakably investigated the Gulf shore
fran Florida to Mexico before 1530, and had even
travened Texas from the coast prwabty near Gal-
veston tea pmnt In the vidiuty of Et Paso. Thereis
evidenoe to show that Coroiudo, in his memwable
northern expedition from Mexioo, 1540, travelled near
San Efisario and entensd Uie pueble of the Twvas,
afterwarda called Ydeta, when a diurdi was built.
A churdi still exists on what is said to be the site of
that buih under the eye of Coronado. Spain's
knowledoe of this oountnr, however, had no result
towsi^ na ooetqiation before the hading of L« Salle
in 1685. Robert Cavelier de La StoUe, who had
sailed down the Mississippi to its mouth in 1682.
was retutning from Stance in 1686 prqmred to found
a oohm on the banks of the "Father of Waters"
and hold the |reat river for Fruioe; because of an
enor in* his esUmate of the latitude of its mouUi he
Msped the mii^ty stream, and sweemng along the
Gulf Coast landed in Matagpl4» Bay in Texas,
irtiicb h» named the Bay of ot. wjmard. In this
nodiboariiood he attempted to (odnd a colony sad
called the place Fort St. Louis. Frpm it be made
expeditions to discover the posititMi his eonfr^ de
ToDti, who had been left in charge of a colony near
the month of the IQinois River. On one of these La
Salle was slain by one of his own follower^ an enemy
of his nephew, Duhaut. His faithful friend and
companion. Father Anastase Dou^, buried in Texas
soU the boqr of this jntrepid and flDterprimg eaidorer.

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tSZAS

Tbe oc^ony vas soon aoattered and destroyed by
aiokness aiul the Indians. When news of the Froich
attempt reached Mexico, Don Alonzo de Leon was
sent by the Count of Mfflielova. Vicooy of Mcadoo
(1686), to scour the o6tintry and arive out the French,
De Leon visited tbe niins of Fort St. Louk and made
some httle exploratiwis on his way. Later, in 1690
and 1691, some attempts were made to occupy the
"New Philippines", as the toritoiy was called.
Twentj^-three years later (1714), Cadulae^ Governor
of Louisiana, sent Uucherau St-Denis mto Texas
toritory to' est^lish trade with Mexico. Sl>-Deni8,
adventurous and enterprisiag, met ^nth remarkable
success and the trail known as the old San Antonio
road from Naoogdodies to the Rio Grande was the
artery throudi whidi commerce flowed between the
nations. Ower movements of the Frendi evoked
counter actions from the Spanish. It may be re-
marked that the appellation Texas probably arose
from La Harpe's dating a letter from tbe territory
d "Las Tekas", althou^ some ascribe the bestowal
(rf the Diuny to dfi Leon, The French trade ciiUa^
ivises stimulated dpein to inaugurate in \7lo an
octcraled pcQiidlo uuf roianon pbui to liold the
eountry sad to civilize and ChfistiaDine the Indiang.
Many tribes of the^e inhabited the broad prBirips;
some, wild and niiiJiTiiiibif ; others, epil*^nt[iry, R?ilh-
exed in tywnf? or ^mdifon, mnl po^^tfiinp !i ru'li* kind
of oivili^iitii'in, Stirn*^ of tbcee puebli^ iun- si ill
traoeebli' iin'] the iiiuiont town of the Tejas Indians
mce oocupied the mitc of the pnaeait town a( Mound
Ffturie, Tba Bpuiisb mijHiosuiy ^ort spoki^Ti of
more pflrtleularly in anoth^ pArt nf tluB artit^'le
eovers the period froni 1715 to 1794. Other efforts
mn made By the French to utdiisfr tliis Land, claixnod
because of Lfi SalVs dL«i(x>veiry and actttnnent, and
various atriiKnlr^ bftwMn both rauntrios were finally
settled hy tbi* crfs.sion ki .Spain of [jouieiana in 1763.
Previous' io ibip in 17^8, howevc*, Swnirii settliet^
from the Canary iHlmidB supplemented by otbas fmn
Menoo vten introduced at great lo^fftf^alE^ TeKss
was mode a sepetfate jpraviiiEe. This iSvwml popu-
latkm, !»lf or more Eiiropear. liowcver. RrfW vprr
slowly (SOOO in 1714 and in ISOo only 7000).

FVom the latter part of the ei^teenth century
there had been renewed attempts to enter the tem-
tory <A New Spain from t^e Louinaaa side for the
purpose oi tnufe. The policy of I^Min had omosed
all trade with f<»e%n nations, but scnne oontniband
was no dodH oonnived at or leffftimate ri^ts to
trade granted from time to tnne. The expedition of
Philip Nolan towards Uie end of this o^teenth
century (1797), to provide horses for the army in
Louisiana from the wild herds roaming the prairies
of Texas, attracted the attention of United States
dtizens to Texas. When, after Hie purehase of
Louisiana, the excitement of the consequratt distrate
between the United States and Spam had been
allied in 1806-06 and Captain Zcinilon M. Pike
bad made his famous expeoitioD and returned bis
glowing repwt, and when Burr's attempt at empire
came to nau^t, this interest was still more stimu-
lated. Hence, the efforts of Mexico to eun inde-
pendence begdnnmg in 1810 gave rise to fifibustering
movements mto Texas, whose eastern boundanr
was determined on the pundiaBe <tf Fkirida in 1819.
These were followed by attempts to colonise, so that
•wbm in 1S21 Mexico had achieved andependenee
Stephen F. Austin sad other empretarios, as they were
named, received grants of kmds for colonies and
intvoduoed many families from tbe United Stfttes into
Texas. Great umd prhril^ee vrete giv«n these early
settlers, but some restrictions were also invcrfved in
their twwire, one being that tbey tHY>feas the Catholic
Faith. In practice, however, this was interpreted
in a very noounal way. Real Cfttiralies aliD entered
ban the States and ban Eaiope at tUi pnkA.

Catholic colonies even were founded, e. g. Irish settle-
ments near Refugio utd San Patrido on the Nueces
River (1828 and 1829). President Bustamente's
decree of 1830 prohibiting further entry into Texas
of colonists from the United States and deilay in
separating Texaa politically bom Ccwhuil*— they
had been united in 1824 — with other sources <rf duh
content, brou^t about a succesHftd tevolutiMi in
1836-36. On 16 March, 1836, a constitution was
adopted for tbe Republic of Texas and signed oa the
seventeenth. Its independent existence lasted until
1845, when it was annexed to tbe United States.

The Territory' embraced besides its ptesent area
what DOW forms part of New Mexico, of (Jklahomycif
Kansas, of Color^o, and even (tf Wy<»Dlng. The
P(ni;ion8 outside its present borders were sold to the
United States in 1860 for $10,000,000. The mag-
nificat public domain possessed by the Texas Gov-
ernment as a repubUc and retained by her as a State
gave ample opportunity for colonizing scliemes, and
hence grants of land were made to promoters of
colonies, some of which were largely Catholic. Henry
Castro, consul g^eral for Texas at Paris, obtained
lat^ grants from the Republic in 18G, and intrc^
duced five hundred famiUes from France a few years
later. Caatroville on the Medina River was thus
founded. Similarly New Braunfels was settled by
the Prince de Solms, who brought over Gennan and
Alsatian families a year or so earlier. By this liber-
ahty in granting hmds Texas invited sMtlos, usinK
also the same means to encourage the building rail-
roads within her borders. The war with Mexico in
1846 concerning the Texas boundary cemoited the
union of the young State to her older sister nation,
but this imion was rudely broken. The Secession
movement of 1861 carried Texas away from the Fed-
eral Government. Texas furnished not a few dis*
tinguished generals and over 90,000 soldiers to the
"Lost Ouise". and at Brownsville, Braios Santiago,
within its boraers was fou|^t the last sktamish of tbe
war between the States, on 13 April, 1865, between a
partj;; of Confederates and a detachment fnan the
division of General Banks. After the vidntudes ot
Reconstruction the State Constitution at present in
force was adopted (1876), and under its provisions
and legislation the State has encouraged every form
of luitimate enterfnise. In populataim and wealUi
the. mate has made rapid strides. The natioiis irf the
world have poured, and emtinue to poor herithy, in-
dustrious agriculturists into her territory. Her de-
velopment has only begun and her untold possibilities
promise comfort and wealth to him who fears not toil.

Catholic History and Pbogebsb. — ^The history of
the Catholic Church in Texas begins paotically with
the Unding of La Salle in February, 1685. Witli him
was a missionaiy force of seven priests, four Rec(^-
leets, and three Sulpicians, who ministered to tbe
q)iritiul wants ctf the French colony at Fort St. Louis
while it lasted. On its destruction by the Indiana in
1687 some of these doubtless perished with their flock,
the others made thdr way to the French settlements
further north. Don Alonso de Leon, Governor of
Coahuila, was accompanied in his expedition from
Monelova to the site of La Salle's settlemoit in 1689
hy Fr&y Damian Martinei or Maixanet from the
f^aadscsn Apostolie oollege of Banta Crus at Quere-
taro. Two of these oollegts were estaUwhed in
Mexico, one at ^eretaro in the seventeenth century,
the other later (1706), at Zacateoas. From Ukm
centres missionary activity, on the representAtaon ttf
Fatho- Damian, began among the Indians Texas.
In 1690 Leon again returned to ihe ruins of Fort 8t.
Louis. This time Fathw Damian witb iour other
Franciscans again acemnpanied him and e(ttabfidicd
the mission to^ San Franetsco de los Tejas in wstem
Texas amoi^ Uie Teitts Indians on tbe 'Rinity Brrar.
On 16 May, 1691, Doningo de Tstu, imiujui «l

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Leon M Governor of the IVoyfnefe of Co«htriU, with

(he intent of obcupjrfnK and settliiH Textf, nt out
from Monelova with "offieers, olvu and military",
brinmng with them Boldiers^ laboiffers, and ariiauH,
together with domestic animals and seeds for farminB.
With this expedition went nine Franciscan fathers,
Fruieisco Hidalgo, Nicolas Redo, Miguel EsteHee,
Pedro Fortony, Pedro Garcia^ IldefmMo Monge, Jose
Saktona, Antonio Miranda, and Joan de Garagrusehea.
These priests attended the settlemelits founded durii^
the expedition on the Red River^ the Neeiiea, and the
Guadalupe^ establishing th»e missioDB fw the Indlftts
and baptumg many thousands at them.

AHhoughj Ib consequence of the rebelbon of the
Indians against the miutary and religious diBcij>line of
the presidios and missions (1693), Kins Phihp II of
Spam authorised the abandwment of these postv,
"unto such time as oireumetanees rfwuld offer nune
hope of Buecess", it H"' '"^IMR^T"'
is certain that the ^B3£A
devoted misaionaries ' »I^WP

did all that was pos-
sible to attend to the
religious needs of such
of their converts as
remained faithful. In-
deed we know that
during the period from
1693toI714theSpan-
i^ missionsries, when
forced to withdraw,
took with them to San
Antonio their faithful
Indians and were
brought back to the^
missiona by Doa Do-
mingo Ramon in 17H.
In 1703 the Mradon
San Francisco de
Solano was founded

on the Rio Grande .,,-™.„o„i^^ »™™
by Franciscans from

Queretaro; afterwards this mission was moved
in 1708 or 1709 to the intirior of Texas and
called Ban Itdefonso; again in 1710 or later (1713)
H was moved back to the Rio Grande and caUed
San Jos^. This mission was moved Fatho'
Antonio Marpt de Jesus to San Antonio de Bexar
and located at San Pedro Swings nndor the name
of San Anttmio de Valem about 1718; in 1733 it
was moved to the military pktxa is San Antonio,
and in 1744 to the ate it now oocmies, when
it was named the "Alamo". About ITOS the mii-
aon became a perish ditireh. and m 2 Janoary,
1793, the Biriiop of Montmgr oireoted the reocHds to
be handed over to the curate <rf San Antonio de Bexar.
The expedition of St. Denis in 1714 led the Duke of
Linares, Viceroy of Mexico, to favour a widespread
mission movement in Texas, and ao from that date the
founding of theee religiouB histitutions went on with
great spirit. Father Margil, referred to ^ve, whose
virtues wov declared herme by Pope Gregory XVI,
founded the nussions of Quadaiu|>e among the Nacog-
doches, Dolores among the Aes, and San Mi^el ahumg
the Adaes Indians, also the mission of Nuestra Senora
del Pilar de los Adaes. The founding cS other mis-
eiona in the nortiiem jaact of the territory is abo
ascribed to this holy priest. In June, 1719, duraig
the war between Spain and FVanoe, rae misaionarieB
and their faithful flodcs were again foroed to zetfav to
San Antonio, but after th« oessatkm of boMllitieB
these missions were re-established and the French set-
tlers in Louisiana, as well as the Indiuis, profited by
them, that of Nuestra Senora del Filar de be Adaes
being only about twenty miles from Natchitoches.

Father Bdaigfl was awo the founder <si €*im mis-
tioOB; among tbem one of tiw lUost beantlfiil la the

-aefi^bboaihoM cl the dty of San Antonio, the BfMoB
San Jos^ founded 1720. Even in deei^ thia minion
arouses the most intense interest, its artistio carvinn
and senlpture exoitiiig wonda. In t)ie same ne^-
' bouihooa is the missian ot La Purinima Conoepeicm,
dating back to 5 March, 1731, when the cornerstone
of its church was laid by Father Bargarro and Captain
Peres of the San Antonio garrism. At the same time
and near the same site were built the missions San
Juan Capistrano and San Ftaneiseo de la Espada, but
the original nmssionB of all these titles were founded in
-1716 on the San Marooe River. Other missions were
founded in various parte of the territory of Texas up
to 1791. Among uiese may be menticmed Espiritu
Santo, founded first in 1722 near Fort St. Louis; La
Bahia, also founded in 1722 at Fcnt St. Louis, and
with its neighbour transferred later to Gcdiad; Rosario
(1764), near San Juan, and Refugio, on Mission Rnrar,
— - — _ -■ - — -^ws) the last foundation of

the kind, in 1791.
San Saba Mission, on
the San Saba River,
In what is now Men-
ard County, was
founded in 1734 by
a company of priests
from Santa Fe,
among the Indw$
Bratot (Wikl Indians)
~the Apaches and
Comanches, for the
humane reason of the

Erieste that it was
etter to civilise than
to kill them. This
misMXi gave great
encouragement to the
sealous workers >mtfl
^ reopening <A the
San Saba silver
mines. Las Atmagras,
a fH-oject which re-
sulted in the demoralisation of the uidians. Dur-
ing a war between the Comanches and Apaches
in 1758, ^ former, seising the ouKfftunity iriien
the small Spaush garrison was usent, fell upon
the misaitHi and destnwed all, both pastors and Sock.
Evan the small- guard of soldiers did not escape.
Tradition inforau m that no one was left to tell Uie
' news of the maawere. The remains of the missions
sUtt to be Been, in a greater or less d^ree of preeerva-
tKmorniin, give ample testimony to the labours (rf the
Franciscansanuwig toe Indians, uid demonstrate what
oouM have been achievU if the woric fA God had not
been iotaftfed with. St^oient has been said under
Calhornia Missionb to indicate the method of the
missionaries with the Indians, the nature of thtir
buikUngs and enekwures, and tiie routine (rf their wcnk
for the qairitua] bettatuient and eivilisatkm of the
Indians.

When the movement b^ore referred to, of eokmis-
ing the Ptovinoe of Texss with settlen from Canary
luaads and other Spanish dependencies, was put into
effect (1728), the first colony was founded in San
Antfmio and the oolonists were fairty well est^
lished in 1731. They had built their dwdlings around
the "Flasa of the Constitution", or present Main
Flasa (called by these ookmists, howevN', in memory
of ik» se»4;irt home they had l^t, "Plasa dee las
Islas'*}, aDQ 9ven tbev isAy the name San Fenando,
Cftttent for a short time with a small ehiqid of tlieir
own, wlueh, together with the mission church of San
Antonio de Valero in the adjoining and pre-existing
settlement, temporarily satisfied their religious need^
they founded in 1744 and dedicated in 1749 the church
of Ban Febnandi^ part of whieh is still used as the
vanotuMry (Of theaauednl of Saa Feniudoi the eatb^

or Bah AHTGonCi, BuiiT 171B

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dral ohuroh ef tiw Dioocae ot 8m Antonio. Thm
qiiritual jurisdiotian d tiie Dknoe ol Ouftd^ajan
extended over Tezae until the cnotion, in Mexieo, of
tike Diooeee <rf,Nuevo Lete, now Mont«mr, onder the
title oi Linaree, in 1777, and TesEae fovteed part of its
temt<»y. The Francisoan miniMtt ttere immediately
under a preadent oi miEBiona. One of these at this
date (1777), by an Indult of Pope Gknent XIV, was
empowered to admiiustcr confinnati<»i in all parts of
Texas. Don Pedro de Nanra, oonmandant-general of
Chihuahua, whose jurisdictiMi mduded part ci Texas,
imied a deeree in 1794 by wbaA the temporalitiei a
an the misBirais of his two pnrinees "woe plaeed hi
the hands oS the civil authoriUes". It also '^directed
the division of their lands in severalty among the
inhabitants of these establiriinients". In Texas, now-
ever, the prooees of secularisation vttut on very
riowly. In 1813 the nuasioiiB in some parts of Texas
were still flourishing when the Spanish Cortes secular*
ised all the missions in Texas. Not until 1823 did the
hat of the miiMiinnii at San Antonio beeome extinctf
wboi the GoTcnunait of M«doo put into exeoutHu
the decree of the Cortes. It was not until 1827 that
the last (rf the mission lands were distributed among
the individual ImHot reduddot, who fcomerly had
possessed theoA in common. Dioceean priests took
the places of the Franciscan friars as they departed,
when the population required it. The archives <a
the misBicHis went with their lte^>erB to Quaretaro and
Zacatecas. These with the various repmtsaaitfran
time to tame, during the oefttury and a quarter of mi»-
tkmry aotivtty, would beamoat interesting field for
the histnian, while fumnhing unbounded pathos tot
thepoet.

The experiment of 1728 ^ved too expensive to be
repeated and so the population European extiaoticHi
remained small, as we have seen. Later, however
(1806), when the boundary dispute wiUi the United
States sesmed likefy to assume a TOrlike aqwot,
bestdee troops to occuot military posts Spain burriea
hundreds <a families m settlers to take poosceeion <rf
the oountiy. These were of course provided with

S nests and in 1806-1806 we find Don Pritoo Fdichuo
f arin. Bishop of Nuevo Le6n, making a visitation in
the province, setting ohuroh anairB in order, and mak-
ing a drcumrtantid report of the qaritnal condition
ot tbo pen^.

When dapi. Zebulon M. Pika visited Tegns on Us
famous expedition (1806^), he miarked the hofy
Uvea and refinement <A the priests he had mat, tfaenr
bkased influence upon their flocks, and the geanral
hai^meas and morality of the people. The European
population of course remained small (7000 in IMO).
and the revolutionary period bwinning m 1810 ami
lasting fuUy a decade lowued the gcnecal standard
both m morals and relifi^on. After settlements from
the United States began to be made (1890), we find
fai the oorrespeodeooe frf the settlers oooaaional men-
tion of iHiests still serving same <tf the eld misHon
diurdiea and in the towns. In the official doeumwts
radiating the laying-out of otAotaal towns provision
is always made for the site ol a chureh and pHesfs
bouse on one (tf the public squares, thou^ ofoeifflle
most of these colomsts woe Protestant. The Irish
setUemoDts, hugely Catholic, made near Refugio and
on the Nueoes Rivn, San PatricM, were served by
{ffieste, one of whom. Father Henry Doyle (1880). b
moitioned by non-Catholio historians. A Fauiflr
Michael Mnlaoon was an eapedal favourite of the old
settlers from the United States. non-Cethdic bl well
as Cathohe. His vista and those of his ooHea^es
were events in the settlemeots, his ministrations
kmged for. He is mentioned as oartieipating in
some cl the stirring evraits immediately preeediat the
Texaa Bevolution. When not from Mexieo these
priests were from Eentudn, the Dieceae of St. Loui%
srthatof NevOrlsaDa. ErcniatbscedountoflCtht

TeaaRsndation there is nwntkn of the intervention
of prissts between the oontoidiag parties, to arranos
tot the burial of the dead after a battle or otherwise
provids for human need^ osepofal as well as spiritual.
Vet when the RepuUic <a Texaa was«stablished(1836)
very few priests were in Texas: Father J. M. Odin and
FMoer Jobn Timon, <rf the Congregation ctf the Mis-
siock, from theirseninaiyat the Barrens, Perty County,
Missouri, in the Diocese oi St. Louis, had visited m
Teus tMritMy previous to its independence, and con-
tinned to viMt there witii other priests of their oonne-
pation. In Jans, 1838. ArohbisfaiwBhuw of New Or-
leans wrote to Biehop Kosati (q. v.) of St. Louis and to
Father John Hmon, then viaitm- of the Congregation
<tf the Miamm in the United States, dedanng that
it was the wish of the H<^ See that a trustworthy
person be aeut to examine into the condition of reh-
gion in Texas and to'r^xut to Rome. The Bishop of
New Orieans wished Father Timon to undertake this
work. FathCT Tinxn aootwdiBgly wait to Texas,
landing at Oahreston in Deoembsr, 18^ aeeompanied
hv M.X'Eberia. On the feast of the Holy Innocoita
the viutor cdebrated in Galveston what was probably
the first Mass ever said in the oity. Many ministra-
titMis to Catholics were required of him, both there and
in Houston, then the capital of the R^id>lio, whither
he wmt on 31 Deconb^, where he fneached in the
hall of Congress in the presence of many legislate.
On his return to Oalvesttm (0 Jaauaiy, 1839) after his
tour thzou^ the RnuMio, a oooasnittee wboax he had
wpointad to provide wan and aaeans for acquiring
a lot whereon tobuildaehurdi, met him and r«)orted
favourably. On his visit through the country ne had
found the care of religion in anythiiu but a good stat e,
although tiiere were not a few Catholics. He made
an official r^rt of hk findings to Bishop Blanc, who
forwarded it to Rome. Although Father Timon had

SrevifHi^ refused to be made Coadjutor Bidiop of
t. Louis witfi the ruriit of suooeasion (7 Beptemba*,
1839), he was prevailed upon to aooept the Iwmour
of IVefect Apostolio of Texas with power to administer
confirmation <12 Aptfl, 1840). tie immediately di»-
mtehed Mgr OdaS \q. v.) to TcKas as vice-jMrefect and
Father DouterlouBge as ansistant, and a UtUe later
obtained for the vioe-prrfect the power of conferring
tbe Sacrament of Confirmation. On 6 December,
1S40; Fadier I^nsn reached Galvestw for tbe second
time. Hs at once wgad f<ffward the effnts of the
people to boikl a diurai thoe and iwovide means to
supptirt a priest, disi^yii^i the same metfy at Hous-
ton. Pushing on to Austin, now the oamtal, he pre*
smted letters from Cardinal Fransooi of Propaganda,
addreised to President Mirabeau 0. Lamar, which
letters were virtually a reoogniticMi by the papal eoy-
ensoent (rf the independoMe d the Rwuolic. The
Texas executive, Vioe-I^csidait David G. Burnet,
acting iar PvaeideDt Lamar, then abmni, was greatly
irieased to receive these letters. On 23 December,
1840, the first Mass was odebrated ii> Austin. Mgr
Himen was wdl rsoavod by the legislatorB as well as
by the eawoutive. Ha preached in the ci4)itol more
.than once, and in eonvetsation with aotmg-Preeident
Bimet and a few proBiinent members « Concreas
created a very fanrsuraMe estimate ct the Cat
Faith. With the diplomatfe aid of M. de Sal
synister from France to the Repulse of Tocas,
Ontin's IhU for the rcetrastdon oi <^urch imperty
^KmtaoeoQsly endofsed by the iMjslattHv to whom
it was &rst read in |«ivate, was then introduced to
Congress and passed. Thus by Act d Congms
wefe rMlored to "the Chief Pastor of the CathbEc
Church in the Rqsublie d Texas", the churebes of
Stt FcBBMido, the "Alamo" (San Antouo de Talero),
La Puriaiaa Conoepcion. San Jos6, San Juan CapiB-
tranq. San FVaneiseo de la Eniada, Goliad, Victoria
and Refugio, with their k)ta, the ktter not to exoeed
tttenaoMB. Bstuninc to Gahrsston Father Timoi)

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adminutflred confinDation (18 Jan., 1841), to Mar^

Sret De Lacy whom he had oon verted and baptiied on
e ISth of the same month. The entry in the
"Liber Confiimatorum" <rf Galveston Diocese certi-
fying to this sacred fimction may be said, together
with bi^itismal record beginning 7 Deoember,
1840, to duHe the beginning m tiw history <rf the
Diocese of Galveston (q. v.).

The Prefecture Apostolic of Texas was made a
vicariate ApcwtoUc in 1842 by the Bull of Pope Greg-
ory XVI, pubUshed 10 July, 1841. Rt. Rev. Jean-
Marie Odin, previously vice-prefect Apostolic, was
consecrated Bidiop of Claudiopolis and made vicar
Apostolic. Bi^p Odin, too, had previously refused
to be made Coadjutw Bishop of Detroit (May, 1841).

In fact Texas was sii^Iarly blessed at that time in
having labourers who were quiddv deemed worthy of
important bishoprios. Kilu^ Iiinoa was visitor of
the bouses of his order
in Texas and throu^
out the United States
until 1847 whoi he
was made Bidiop of
Buffalo. Rev. John
J. Lynch, C.M., one
of the companions of
Bi^op Odin on his
coming to Galveston
(29 Utty, 1841), was
made president q( St.
Mary's College, Bar*
Koa. Missouri, in
IMS; after a service
d some years in Texas
founded Niagara tJni-
vetsity (Our Lady of
Angels, Niagara Falls,
nTy.) in 1866; and
was consecrated Bish-
m of .^chinas and
Coadjutor of Toronto
in^69. In I860 he
auoceeded to the See

first archbishop and MetropoEtan of Ontario in
1870. In 1844 the settlement of New Braun-
fels, Comal County, was founded and in 1845
Castroville. The oolonists_ were mainly Catholic
Alsatians. Other Catholic immigrants, Poles, Ger-
mans, Bohemians, Italians, and othera, have since
continually come into the State. Ine State oi
TexaSi wiu the exception of El Paso County, whidi
was subieot to the Vicariate of Arisona, was eneUd
into a wwase in 1847 with Bishop Odm as bijA<q>.
Tbcfe were then thirteenprieets, including the bishop,
in this vast territory. Of these at least six were of
the CoDgreoation m the Mission. In 1849 three
Oblates of Mary Immaculate were brought from Can-
ada by Bishop Odin and two of these were sent to
Fort Brown, Brownsville, on the Rio Grande. In

Sste of the privations and hardships of the Rio
rande Mission, and even their temporary withdrawal,
enforoed by lacic of means, tiie Oblate Fathov have
ezwdsed tneir seal in th» State of Texas. Schools,
collies, Mid churches have arisen where they had
trodden on the cactus and chaparral, and to-day these
devoted missionaries have flourishing institutions in
every eccleaastical division of the great State. The
very existence of religion among the Mexicans along
the Rio Grande is largely due to the mighty labours
of Uiis C^ngr^ation.

Religious oraers of nuns (1848) and of teaching
brotiiers (1863) besan their fruitful labours. AO
the activities of a fully developed diocese assumed
shape under the guiding nand of Bidiop Odin and were
prosecuted with all possible vigour and success.

On Archbishop Odin's retirement he was succeeded
in the See of Oalvestmi in 1862 by Rt. Rev. Claude

Marie Dnbuis, D.D. In 1872 we find the immense
territory of the diocese organised into the four dis-
tricts of Galveston, San Antonio, Brownsville, and
Laredo, a vice-chancellor bang provided for each dis-
trict. Thia organisation premured the way for the
eoderiastical division (1874> of the State frf Texas, 13
Paso County excqsted as before. All east ol the
Colorado River remained the Diocese of Galvestcw,
while out of the territory west and south of this river
and within the limits of the State were erected the
Diocese oi San Antonio (q. v.), reaching from the
Colorado to the Nueces River, and the Vicariate
Apostolic of Brownsville (q. v.), now (1912) the Dio-
cese of Corpus Christi, westward to the Rio Grande.
A second aivirion of the Diocese of Galveston was
made in 1890 at theTequeet of Bishop N. A. Galladier
and the Dioceee of Dallas (q. v.) was formed out « its
iKMthem and naith-weBtem portions. In 1891 E3

Paso County hitherto
beloi^ingto the Vica-
riate ApMtolic of Ari-
zcma was attached to
the Diocese of Dallas.
Thus within theStf^
and embracing all oi
its territory are the
four Dioceses, Gal-
veston, San Antonio,
Dallasj and Corpus
Christi. The popu-
lation of the Diocese
of Galveston is given
(1912) as 70,000:
whites, 66,000;
bUcks, 1200; Mexi-
cans, 3800. St.
Maiy 8 University,
Galveston, is con-
ducted by the Jesuit
fathers. St. Mary's
Seminary at La

jmmmm^ Wvtmi^nmmmm, b*» Aaroww, Bciu mt portc is now beii^
<rf Twonto and became its managed by diocesan prieets, imder the presidency

of Vety Rev. J. M. Kirwin. The Congregation
oi the Oblates of Maiy Immaculate have taken
charge of pari^ work in Harris Coun^. A Josepbite
Fatha also serves a churdi in the city of Houston,
where the Basilians conduct St. Thomas College.
Among the Orders of Nuns formerlyrecorded may oe
named the Sisters of the Incarnate Word and pleased
Sacrament who have charge of an academy and
parochial schools, also in Houston. The IMooees of
San Antonio shows no change in the statistics given
imder the title except that the Redemptorist Order
has taken chaste oi the parish of St. Gerard Majella
in the city f>f San Antonio, where a new church and
school are now being erected. Besides the informa-
tion dven under the title, the following facts about
the Diocese of Dallas are worthy of record: Rev.
Father J. M. Oowid in 1864 erected a church at
Jefferson in Nwth Texas. The ehurch at St. Paxil's,
Collin (I^imty^ an Irish settlement, was the religious
centre of a parish organised in 1870 by Father Thomas
Hennessy, ^e present pastor of the Annunciation,
Houston. The population of the Diocese of Dallas
(1012) includes about 40,000 Caucasians; 22,000
Mexicans, and 250 negroes. The present bishop of the
see is Rt. Rev. Joseph Patrick Lynch, D.D., b. 16 No-
Tonba-, 1872, at St. Joseph, Mich. When appointed
to the see (after the sudden death of Bisiiop Dunne at
Green Bay, Wis^^ 5 August, 1910), Bishop Lynch was
administrator of the diocese and rector of St. Ed-
ward's Church in the city of Dallas. His consecration
took place 12 July, 1011. Besides the orders of nuns
mentioned in the article on the diocese the following
should be noted: the Sisters of the Good Shepherd
(Ottawa, Canada), conducting a house in D^laswith
Digitized by V^UOy It:

raxAs

560

forty-eight penitents; the Sisters of the Holy Ghost thoritiss show 3lli667, and doubtkas since the
^an Antonio, Texas), devoted to the coloured race, inorease in the numW of children communicants a

the Josephite Fathers also have charge of the col-
oured people. The Vincentiams conduct the Uni-
versity of Dallas, which has an enrolment of 20ft
students. The Catholic population shows rapid in-
crease because of the immi^tion, chiefly from the
northern States, of settlers, European in origin, and
the work of organizing new parishes goes on quickly
here as in the other dioceses. The new Diocese ^
Corpus Christi is a vacant see at the present writing
(1012). It has 15 churches with resident priests
and sixty missions with chapels. Thirty^three priests,
sixteen secular and sevente^ Oblates, serve the Cath-
oUe population, which is over 81,917.chiefiy Mexicans.
Probably between three and four thousand are Cau-
oaaaos. The Oblates have thor novitiate for the
province of the south-west, which includes Mexico, in
this diocese. A new builtfing for the novitiate is now
in course of construction at La Lomita on the Rio
Grandt! upar the town of Mission. The Marist
Brothers corKJii'.t 8l- Joseph's Cullrge for boys at
Brownsvillj' ']'1lc Eijllnwing ordprn of nuns arif en-
^ged in tbor various works in the diocese: the
Ursulian ■ SgtoiK ^KHjywfc ind wntear.u^d St,
Peter's -Eh£66l: M I<airedD; the BkMli d Mercy, the
Mercy FlDspilftl, Laredo, and schools iTi VHrioiis towns
in thediocMt;; the Sisters of the Jloly GhoKt, Arad«my
of Our Lfldy of Guadalupe, Liin-'do. th** Si.?ler3 of
Divine ProvidencPf St. Clary's Amuiwny, Bcr^-jlle;
the Si^'fir.^ of ihc Incarnate Word, conv**ni ;iri<I
acadetiiv, I'.nhV. nsville; the SiBti!rs of the iTifiim ilF'
Word u-nd Ulorbnod Bacrameut, schools al Corpus
Christi, Rio Gnmle Ci(^ and Bvnat Jbitm fi
Charity of the Incarnate WonL Spohn eUmitariitD),
Corpus Chrisli; the HermaMsdm Sacrado CoraitAr dp
Jesus conduct an orphanagie inLartno. The number
d pupil'i attending the academies and parochial

schools in tlx- dinrf'so m OVer 1200.

Di6TiN\;nsuia3 C.^TBOUCS. — In the oivanieatlon
of the Texas revi-lLiiinnnry Govemnient of 1836 the
loyalty, patxiotiam, and talents of LoreuEo de Zavala
were deemed eCwdi^ faujh a^der as to qunlify ^lim for
the office of ^TtcB^nricnnt of the ^Republic. A man
of culture, a statesman, and a soldier, de 2avala was
above all an ardent Catholic. He was bom 3 Oct.,
178S, and died 15 Nov., 1836. Colonel Francisco
RuiE, another distinguisned Catholic and patriot,
exerted himself to achieve Mexican independence,
hence endured exile in the United States front 1813 to
1822. After his return to Texas he united with those
struffl^g in their turn for Texan freedom and later
indep^dence. He was elected as a delate to the
convention held at Washington on the Brazos, and his
name appears among the siniers of the Texas Declara-
tion of Independence, 2 March, 1836. As a repre-
sentative of his native Texas to the Mexican Congress,
1833, as a delegate to the Revolutic^iaty Convention
of Texas and signer <tf the Declaration ta Texan Inde-
pendence, as an upholito td the rights (rf the Texas
Government, member of the Conaess of the Republic
(1S3S), and Senator of the first Texas State Legislar
ture (1846), Jose Antonio Navarro commended nim-
self to the gratitude of his fellow-countrymeQ and
edified them by his loyalty to his Catholic Faith.
Lieutenant-General CabeQ of the Army of the Con-
federacy, who died in the Diocese of Dauas, 17 F^ru-
ary, 1911, was a convert to the CathoUe Futb-

FopuLATioN AcconniNO to Rbugious Bblikf.—
In numbers, the Catholic (rapulation raiiks third of aH
the religious denominations in the State. The Census
Bureau's figures (1906) give Baptist bodies in the
State, 401,720 communicants; Disciples of Christ
73,556; Lutherans 27,437; Methodists 317,496; Pres-
byterians, 62,090; Protestant Episcopalians, 14,346;
Catholics, 308,556; Jewish oongnntion, 11;67S. Hw
figures i^ven nwce racently by Catiidio ^Kioesan au-

larger showing mtky well be claimed. Altojgether, of
the population of Texas about 25 per cent is Protes-
tant, about 9 per cent Catholic; all other religions, less
than 1 per cent, leaving about 65 per cent having no
definite reli^ous beUef .

Legislation.— The Constitution of Texas in its
"Bill of Rights" (Act 1, Sec. 4) prohibits a religions
test as a qualification for holding office or a public
trust, or the exclusion of any one from office on ac-
count of religious sentiments, "provided he acknowl-
edge the existence of a Supreme Being". Sec. 5
prohibits disqualification to give evidence in any
court on account of religious opinions or of the want
oi religious belief^ "but all oaths or affinnattons shall
be administered in the mode most binding upon the
consdence". Sec. 6 enunciates the right of freedom
<rf worship, prohibits compulsion to wiHship or to
support or attend places of worship, or preference
before the law of nny religious society or mode erf
worship Sec. 7 priliiliils the appropriation of state
inon<>y or praperry for tl)f ri- fit of any sect or re-
ligious ^ciety, Lheologit'ii] or religious scminaiT. For
tbe proper oMVrAnce of the Sunday etc. the lawn
of the Stat^tinuitbit, under penaliy, aisturbine public
wonhtp also labour on Sunday or comppthng to
labour thereon. Hunting within one-half mile (rf a
church or Bchoolhouee, hor^rndng, and the sale of
p(Kiiis lire. rIso prohibited on Smuiay. Cursing, swear-
irit;, ririd indcrent laoguafrc arc punishable by statute
ii.i liri'a.ijhps of (he; pwtce, VjKler the Constitution
ea£h Legislative Chainbrr determines the rules of its
Kom pfOfliadjsp. Hence B. chaplain for each chamber
is Udually elected and the seaecions are opened with
prnyn-. ObristtQde IW all days appointed by
the Hreaidsnl^tbs Imited Blattn or by the governor
oi (he State tpfisUuoc tfaanksgivinK da^s are the
only holidayi^afwEra^louafnaiiire in addition to Sun-
day sanctioned fi^ Taw. Should the occasion ever
arise wherein thi^ integrity of the seal of confession
should be in question before a Texas court there is
little doubt that the conatituiional guarantee re-
ligious llheriywould protect it, although no Statutory
provision covers the hypothesis.

The general law of incorporation obtains in the case
of churches. Among the first-named purposes enu-
merated in the statute under which corporations are
formed are, the "support of public worshq), the sup-
port of any benevolent, charitable, educational or
missionaiy undertaking". Any religious society may
become a body corporate and any church or associa-
tion failing to organize under the provisions of the
statute cannot sue as a corporation or hold real
estate. Schools and churches, cemeteries, public
charity, and endowment funds of institutions of leam-
ing not used for profit and all buildings used by
persons or associations of persons for school purposes
are exempt from taxation. Clei^ymen, aH ministers
of the Gospel, engaged in the actrve distui'atSe ol their
ministerial duties, are exempt from jury sefviee. No
compulsory military service is required of any <rae
under Texas law.

Marriage is regarded as a civil contract, a common-
law marriage; all licensed or ordained ministers of
religion are among the officers in whose presence the
marriage ceremony may be legally perfottned. For a
legal marriage there must be in the parties eapaidty to
contract, mutual consent, mutual wills expreasea in
the prescribed manner. A licence must be obtained
from the county clerk of the county. The age at
which marriage may be contracted is for males 16, for
fem^es 14. The consent of the parents of the parties
is necessary for the issuance of a licence by tha
county clerk until, for males, 21 years of age, for
females. 18. Marriage may be annulled because
oertaio Kgal Impedimeota. A marriage betweoj me

Digitized by

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551

of the CauoaHUUi and «ke of the negro raee u iJiegBl laay, witii the eoiiKnt of the nvwintwdent. vuit th«
and forbiddai under pmalty. Maiiia^ are pto- inmataataeaMnfthk timeei.amevea itteaco* thoiu^
bilnted betweeo pmnu related in cntam deyeea oi tbcn the tcadiing miut be nOHectarian. Any in-
fcindred: A mtn with his mother, hia father's siater or nute aim may have nob relioous ministrationa as he
half-aistw: hia mother'a sistar or baU-fliater; his deairefl. The aame rules govern religious ministn"
dao^tcr, nia father's daughter; hia mother's daugh- tions in the house of oomoUon and the reformatory,
ter; his brothw or 8iBta>'a daughto-; the datuhter of Bequestsfor religious purpraee are undoubtedly recog-
his half-brother or half-aster; the dauf^ter of his son
or daughter; hia father's widow; his son's widow; his
decrased wife's daughter; or the daughter of hia de-
ceased wife's son w daughter. Similarly for a woman
with male relatives of equal d^ree.

The grounda for divorce may i»aotica% be dassed
under four heads: (1) Exoeases in, or outrageous taeat-
ment from one of the parties, au^ that living to

rer ia insupprartable; (2) adulteiy by (me party;
Abandcmment of one party for three years;
ocmvietion of feloi^ ana omfinement in State
prisoacf oneof the pATtju. The
distariot court has juEisdiation. in
caaea of divorce aiu petittobA an
granted mly upon full and satis-
Motory evidence, and upon ver-
diet of a jury, if a jury be de-
manded; ii not, \xi>on judgment
of the court, affinning infiterial
facta alleged in tlx: petitioa.
Evidmce of collusion between
the parties being, kwwD, or
where both pactico^ art equally
guilty, no divonst! ia granted.
Div(^ed perstns maf tegaUy
re-maxry. The aiatndy afthr
children by the mjirriaj;*' ip
granted by the ocujrt lo (;iiher
party as may appear Huitabk.
The court eubo miij.k4:\i such di-
visioa d community wti^ip
seems just.

The system of public pducii-
tiimisnoiHWotarian in the mean-
ing erf the law. "Thr. rt-u'ling
of the Bible without fiinmient,
the recitation of the Lord ' s I 'ruyer
and the sinking of songa" of a

Beneralhy reh|nouBcharQ.(;ter have -r i ■ , .

been judged by the courts as Jebel et Tur (mountain of moun-

kgitimate exercases in the public schools. By a tains), a name iriuch they give likewise to Mounts
dMision, however, of the State deipartment erf educa- Qarizmi; Sinai, and Olivet. Mount Thabor is distia-
tion the weuing of a diatinctivefy religious gaib or guided among mountains of Palestine for ita pic-

niied. The proviaionB of the Conatitution with
Teq>eot to religion would moat |»obably protect be-
quests for Masses for the repose of the teetator'a soul
eqtedaUy if the beqaeats were made to » named peiv
Bcm. The law hicpdy fwraura bequfl^ made fair
(Aaritable porposes of general phjlanthrojHo char^
Mter. The incorporation of eemetery aaaooiationB is
authorised with but Uttie difl^ent otuiditioos from
Uie general law. Severe penaltiae an aittae^ to the
desecration of gravea.

YciAKCMS, [litlory of TeiM, od. WaoTKn CDallM,
WiNsoB, Karmtiet aiwJ Criiicai

Amtrim amtMil^*
CiUmfn, ul: BiMtmimut
Afrxiiran Stale* and Ttxa

Arizona an/i New Merieo;
cartrie^ of AmmfA: CA.fln4
Narratizt £ V dJlsdoBd. IMS),

iNouAN Siara fWuhiiWtui. ISGI);
bacA, Ut^oTv of CoiAoHc MuwimM
fNw \aik, IS^K: Itium, UM. CatK
Ch. m U.S. (New York, ISH}; Jbennfa

gtkvDioem of GelwtUm (uDpuhlbbAd);
ECVBIK. Lift ami Tima of tht ML
An. Jotm riman. D. D. IBulTitlo, N. X.,
lS7t»; Rtmrdx a,/ thf Obiat— af Hmi
Tmiruicuiaittt Pnnnc* of TA* ScHttoM-

UnilfJ ^UiU!/: Difimn and sMr A^eHiI
/rom tarimiM uuthoruits in Ttxa*; T'uiUt
Almanax liiaU fi«toa - UaSlao. IHISQ;.

JoHW T. -O'aait

Tlulior, MoUHT^The naine
1,1" Mount Thabor, "flSn in* la-
rendered in the Boitua^t . as
tpat OajSf^p, and in jWenuas and

Osfip as lTa^i))jio». It ia under
l..hi^^ l.'tit fiiriri [Itjibyrioii or Ata-
byriori) tlLal iha maiint fiRurca
in til? bi:^ tori c ill works of the
accienL". The? Arabs call it

religioas sjrmbols by the teacher constitutes the school
sectarian. No law, however, covers this ooatinsency.
No compulsory educatiui law has been passed by de
L^pshtture though aome Uttle agitatim to that md
has been made. The State Constitution and conse-
quent legidaticm provide for hmatie asylums, an
institute for the blind, for the deaf and dumb, for
orphans and confederate veterans, and the widows of
confederate veterans. For the care of orphans, the
aged, and other infirm^ private chanty also exerts
iteelf, in the lead of which ia the Catholic Church.

Besides the regulation of the aale of liquor by
Ucenoe, penalties more or less severe are atta^ed by
statute to selUng intoxicatina liquor to oertam per-
sons: wild Indians, mincns, habitual drunkarda; to the
sale of intoxicants at certain times: Sundays, days ol
deetion; or in certain places: places of religious wor-
i^p, places devoted to educational and literary pur-
poses; to pennittii^ in places, Ucensed for the sale <rf-
Uquor, certain stated pastimes and persons: gaming,,
dimcingi minora, eto. Local option may be voted in
stay county or subdivision tbereofi and pmaltiea
ate attached to adling or giving liquor in aueh pro-
hibited districts. The sale of tobwwo to minors is
alao T^ulated by law.

The Letpfllature makes an annual ^ipropriatim far
» oif the panltentiai7( but any cdargymaa

turesque site, ite graceful outline, t^e remarkable
vegetation which covera ite sides of calcareous rook,
and the splendour of the view from ite summit.
Neatly isolated on all sides and almost hemisnberfeal
in ^iiq>e it rises in a peak 1660 feet above the Plain (tf
Esdraelon, whieh it bounds on the north and east,
about five miles south-east of Nazareth. It attains a
height of iS43 feet above the level of the Medit^
ranean and (rf 2540 feet above that of the Lake erf
Tiberiae. Josephua <Bell. Jud., IV, i, 8) gives it a
height of thirty stadia, <Hr 18,201 feet, but he doubt-
less made use of the figure A (four stadia or 2427
feet), which the oopyist must have replaced by A
(thirty). The summit forms an oblong plateau about
3000 feet kms, from nori^-weet to south-east, by
1000 wide. Ton vya ia immediately attracted to ^e-
north-east by Uie dgantic masses of Great Hermon,
then to the Vall^ of the Jordan, the Lake of Tiberias
and the mountain chains of Hauran, Basaa, and Ga-
laad. To the south are Nairn and flndor at tiie foot
of Jebel Dahy or Moilnt Moreh (Jutkes, vii, 1),
wTon^r identiSed by Euaebfus and St. Joome wiUi
little Hennon (Pa. xli, 7); Bome>v^t farther off is
seen Mount Gelboe. Westward the rich plain of
drelon stretehea as far as Mount Carmel and innumer-
abto BOdieid and historisal looalitiea stir thmighto of

Digitized by VjOOglC

TAIBBAOA

563

nuou

Mount Thabor is tbe object ofpoctiaJ oompwrisoni eral attacks by tbe Bnaens, but after tbe battle of

<m tbe part of the Psalmist (Fia. Ixxxriu, 13), the Hattin (1187) they had to abandon the mountain.

All sttMki by the Bameeu, but after die bottle of

Prophet' Jeremias (xhri, 18), and the Prophet Oeee
(t, 1). The beautiful mountain also played an im-

Krtant part in history. Thwe the Prophetess
ibbors secretiy assembled 10,000 Iva^tee under tbe
command of Barae, who subsequently swept down
upon the army ot rasan and put it to flight at the
ttwrent of Gison (Judges, hr, t). Liiter tiie Madiaifc-
itee and Amaledtee slew there the farothan of GedaoD
and other Isradites who had sou^t refuge there finm
the enemy (Judsea, vi. 3>viii, 18-19). At the division
of the Promisea Lima, Thabor fonned the boundary
between Issaohar and Zabulon (Jos., xix, 22). Within
the tribe of Zabulon, but near Dabereth, a oity of
Issachar. tbe Bdok of John (xix, 12) mentions tbe
oity of Ceedeththabor, in Hwrew Qualotb-ThabOT,
wUoh means "slope or aide of Thabor". I Par.
(vi, 77) also speaks of
a aty of Zabulon
called aimpbr Thabor
and aaaigDed to the
Levites descended
from Merari. This
ia an abbreviated
form of the name of
the same city, and is
probably the same as
that which as Dabour
figures amtn^ tbe
<&lilean cities con-

?uered by Rameeee
[, aeoordmg to the
"Papyrus Anaatasii"

(ilist.. V, txx» 0) r^
lates that in 218 B.c.
Antioohus th9 Great
captured by strata-
gem the city of
Atabyrion in Galilee.
HistcHy makes no

further mention of tbk eity, not even in connexion
wiQi the bloody battles fou^t at tbe foot of
Mount Thabtv m 63 B. c. between Alexander^ tbe
8on of Aristobulus, and Oabinius, the lieutenant of
Pompey ("Ant. Jud.", XIV, viTl; "BeU. Jud.", I,
Tiii, 7). Eusebius alpne again refers to it in the
words "Dat«« ... a village of the Jews on Mount
Thabor" ("Onom. ed. KkMtmnann, 78). Dabe-
reth (Jos., xix, 12; XXI, 28) is indimitabty tbe modem
Tilb^ of Dabftriy^h, at the foot of MoQut Thabor
towards the west.

A ten minutes' ascent nwthward frtHU Nasareth
brings one to tbe ruins of a Hebrew ^aoe oalled by the
natives Khirbet Daboura (ruins of Daboura) ana aJeo
Abu AmoAd (father of columns). This is the site of
the Biblical Ciseleth Thabor, of the Daboura of tbe
Egyptians, and the Atabyrion of the Greeks. It com-
manded the road of caravans and armies. During
the revolt <A the Jews against the Romans, Josephus
surrounded "the plateau of Thabw" with a wall of
cireumvallation twenty-«ix stadia at about two miles
in eircumferenoe, whidi tadc was aooompliibed in
forty days. This fonned a kind of entrenched camp
where the rebels, pursued from all directions, sDught
rcdTuge in order to (Hvanise their last stand. VtB'
pasian's lieutenant, Placidus, marohed against them
with a force of 600 horsemen, enticed them into the
plain by stratagem, and completely defeated them
('•Vita'\ 87; "BeU. Jud.", II, iv, xx, 8; i, 8). In the
fourth century of our era Mount Thabor,iniieh was ae-
knowledged as the scene of Christ's Traiwfignration,
bec&me a place of pilgrimage and was surmounted by a
basilica and several ehurohee and diapds. In llOl
-*be BeDedietine monks rebuilt the saflrwl edifices and

Mted a fbrtifiet} abbey, whepe I^h^ wjtbitood

Melek el Adel built there (1210-12) a huge and solid
fortress wliioh the Crusadete attacked in vain in 1217;
in the following year Meldi el Add caused it to be dls--
mantied. Theplateauctf Mount Thabor is now oocu--
pied by Franciieaiis and Schianatia Greek monks.

BoumoM. BOtUal Kmwthm m AKKmul IU (BdMoii, 1M1>;
SmnnofW: PaL JTMiofrfcl fLandnii, USl): QoSMn>^iwip'

TMw (Pa^ IMO).

Bahnabas Mbuctbmamh.

ThalmtiO% a titular see of Nimiidia near the sea, be-
tween theArmuaandtheTusoa. Thabraoawas the last
Numidian city in the direction of theZeugitana and was
a Rmoan colony. It was connected by a road witii
Simittfau, to which it served as a port for the eimorta-
tion of its famous marbles. At Thabraoa Gildo, the

brother of Fmaa»,
committed suicide.
Under OeoMtie it
had a mtttasteiy for
men and one for
women. It is now
Tabaika. annend to
the civil district of
Soukd-ArK Titnii,
and a rather impor*
tant fishing centre.
Confronting it, at a
dietanoe of about 386
yards, is tbe small
Islana of Tabarca,
where the Genoese
Lomellini, who had
purchased the pani
of the tonX nam^
from the Turks, main*
tained a garrison f ron
_ IMO to 1742. Het«

^Mow»T^A»o« may Still be seen tho

Tnm > Pfaotocnpb ruins of a stronghold,

a church, and some (xenoeee buildings. At TaMoka
Ibe ruins consist of a pit used as a church and
some fragments of walls which beknged to Chri^
tian buildinas. There are also two Tuikiah fortwssee^
one of whicn baa been repaired. The dtycontabiB
■everal Christian cemeteries, many of the tomba havioK
oovera adorned with curious mosaics. An insariptioa
(C. I. L.,VIII. 17a-82) mentions the oult of the martyr
Anastaaia and her coinpani<mB. The bishops of Tlu^
braca, who met with those of the proeonsubte, were:
Viotoricus, at tbe Council of Carthage (266) ; Rustici-
anus, at the Conftfence of Carthage in 411, idiere his
oompetitor was the Donatist Chu<entia8, and aignw
in 410 of tbe letter fnmi the council of Proconsular
AMoa to Pope Innocent; ClarissimuB, who in 64d
signed the letter from the same Council to Patriarch
Paul of Gonstantinopte against the Monothelites.

Bum, Diet. Gntk and Ammm 0*m., a. v.: Todlotti, 04»~
mwpkit dt VAJriqM dMttnuM.- MiariM* (Pvu, 1894). 277-«0;
DOBU L'AJiiqtu BskuiKm (Paris, 1806). pudm.

8. PAraiDka.

Thada SContana, a titular see in Africa Prootm-
aularis, suffragan tA Carthage. An inscrmticai die-
covered in the ruins known as Henahir Bedji, amons
them a church, near Bordj Messaoudi, seems to intb-
cate that this was the site of the munieipivm of Tha-
oia, to which Wady Tasaa. wTessa, also owes its name.
It was located cm tbe highway betnreen CJarthage and
Tbeveste, midway between Musti (Meat) ana Dru>
siliana (Khanguet Kdim), Tunisia. It is mentioned
by Ptolemy (iV, 3),the"TabubiPeutiBger." andthe
^Geogr. Ravennat." (161); it was fortified during
the Byiantine period, and at the and of 546 the Byiaor-
tine general, John, was defeated and dain there. On
the otiMr hand, at the prennt EuMl^ 6J< mfln

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of BeteU (Heuhff Batria), At the zuini «M
Hnshir 2hfctotui, ao uiswiption dm been found prov-
iuK the •xisteDoe at that m»M of another mmiapium
eaued Thaoa, alao fortified durug the Byiantine
Mriod. Mgr Toulotte ('*Q«(he. de I'Afrique Chrt-
tieuM nncoiiBulaire", Paris, 1^, 25S^) aamgna to
the first locality two bishope, the Donatist Creeoo-
nius, |H-eseat at the Coimou of CabarBuasi in 393, and
Viot(», who in 646 signed the letter auunst the Mono-
thelitee fnun the Council of ProooDsuiar Africa to the
Patriaroh Paul of CouBtantinople; to the second local-
ity he assigns Rufinus, preeent at the Council of Car-
toace in 525, and Probns who in 646 signed the letter
to the Fatrianh Paul The two last-cuuned were en*
titledbishoMof'Tada Montana". It may be ques-
tioned whether there were really bishops of Thaca, or
if there was not near Thacia a luace of the same name
to which was added a distinctive epithet. The official
list of titular sees of the Roman Curia mentions only
Thacia Montana and identifies it with Btwdj Mes-
saoudi.

ThaddMU, Baott. See Judi, Epistlx or Saint.

ThMUi, a titular see in Africa Bysaeena. It is
menyomed m numerous ancient eeogi^iliieal doou-
mwts and was a maritime oit v of Byneium in AMca
Propria, atuated at the moutn of a river (now Wsdy
Tina) which emptied into the Syrtis Minor. Its ruins
(SauAar lina) are somen^iat north of Oonoa, for-
ma^ Jnnca, Tnms. The city was crowned by a
hill surmounted by an scnropoUs, its walls attained a
length of about two Roman miles and it had a large
eemetery. The OMoe Thaoa has numecous varia-
tions in Qreefc and Latfai wiitws, but is borne out by
ept^rairfiy. The Panic coins of the oitT Aam tint its
native name was Tainat. Undor Hadrian or Anto-
ninus it became a colony which iws called "Cokmia
.£Ha Ai^usta Mereurialis Thsnitaoa". Six of ita
bishope are known, Euoratius at the Council <rf Car-
thue (266); Latonius, at the coaferenoe of Carthage
(411), where he had ^ rivi^ the Donatist Secimis,
at a Council of Thelepte; Per^pinus, a former deaoon
of St. Aogustine; FaMduirius, exiled Inr Hunerio in
484: Fontianus, present at the Coaneil of Juuea (62S):
Felut, who in 641 signed the letter from the provincial
OOUDcil to the emperor against the MoDoUielites. A
oounefl was bdd at Thmue at ^ beginning of the
fourth century, three of its caaoons being extant
(Maasi, "Ami^issima Ooll. conoiHorum", IV, 440).

SKm, Did. Omk omt JSmi. Otog., a. t. Thtna; QuAmiN, Foy>

a* ardkMwiffw Oant tm rJvmef de Timm (Puis. 1862), I. 178;
Sua, notM lo PtalMw, «1. Didot. I. 634: TouLom, 04^
^^g5& M^Mbw ahriMmmK Bymtimt * HpiWWw (Moatwutl,

8. Ptmioks.

Thagaita (Taoasts), a titular see in Numidii^

having been t^e birthplace of St. Augustine, who was
bom there in 354 of the pagan Patrioius and St.
Monica. St. Augustine speaks of a monasteiy of Tha>
saste where he lived with Severus his oompatnot and
wieod, later Bishop of Milevis. Only three bishope
•of Tlutgaste are known: St. Firmus (end of third cen-
tury), menUoned in the Roman MaitynHogy on 31
..Ally; m. Alypius (q. v.)(b. at Tliagaste, theniend of
Augustine, whose feast is 15 August; and Januarius,
MUt fay Hunerio into exile (484), where he died for the
fUth. The See of Thagaste still existed about 600.
At the thne of the French occupation the country was
under the dominion of the Arabised Berber tnbe of
the HanoiahafWhose territory bordered on the mod-
«nTuniiia. Thi^astei8now6oakAhra8,os9»ltalof a

.|fflffpw«wM> tti •ran iwtt^mhStMtm rt wham 4nnft m»m Ij^mw

peaas, and of a mixed community oi ti,flOO inhabi*
tanta, D^wrtment of Constantino, AJjnria. Souk-
Abras, its modem representative, is buut on a snuUl
peaked plateau, and is well served by railwsya. It
IB a Toy important agricultural oentre, its indus-
tries oonsistin|E (tf vin^jwrds, cattlfrteeediog, vast
forests^ and mining. Ruins of a basilica and various
Christian monuments have been found.
Touiiom. OfMrapAM 49 VAfriam ehrWmiw. Ifumidit (Fuit,

m^mmm «t lillii li* ii (1W7-^.M.

8. PAntn^.

■

Tltffon (Tagora), titular see in Numidia, men-
tiooad by the "Tabula FOutinperiana", which caUs it
TliMOra,andby tiie"ItineranumAnt(wiiuiB''; jua>
tinian f<Hlified it. It is now the viUage of TaounL
near Ain Guettar, about thirteen miles south-east of
Souk Ahras (an<aeot Thagaste), Dqurtment of Con-
stantine, Algeria. It has ruins of baths, a church,
and the fortress of Justinian, and a number of inscrip-
tions have been discovered. Thagura was the birtn-
plaes of St. Criqnn, nuutyred at Theveste (nowTe-
DBSsa) under Diodatian, «ul whose feast is observed
on 5 Deeembv. It was also the seme of the mar-
tyrdoms of Sts. Julius and Potamia and ten other mar-
tyrs who are likewise commemorated in the Roman
Marts^Tolt^ on the same day. The first two figure
In the Hien^mian Martyrouejr and the Calsidar of
Carthage. I^iree bishops of Thagura are known:
Xanthippus in 401, mentioned in a letter of St. Augus-
tine's; Restitutus, present in 411 at the conference of
Carthage; Timotheus, exiled by Huneric in 484.

18M). 385-87; Dism, L'Afrivfivvitim (PMris, 1806), 606.

8. FinmiB.

Ihaif (TtaAina, ob Thaibu}, Saimt, a penitent in
Egypt in tiia fotirtb eentiuy. In the Giwk menology
her name occurs <m 8 Oct., it is found also in the mar-
tyrologies of Maurolyohus and Orevra, but not in the
Roman. Two lives are extant, one, originally in
Gredc, perhaps kA the fifth century, the other, in verse,
by Marbod, Bishop of Rennes, who died in 1123
('^Acta 88?', IV, Oct., 23S; "iWbl. hag. lat.", II,
1161). Hie saint is reiweeented burning her treao-
ures and ornammts, w pnning in a oeU and diq>h^^
a soroD witti tho wwds: "Tbou who didst create ma
have merev on me". According to the legend Thais
was a public siimer in Egypt mo was convcsted by
St. Paphnutius, brought to a ooiwent and eneloeed in
a cell. After three years penance she was rdcased
and placed among the nuns, but lived only foorteea
days more. The name d tiie hermit is given also as
Beasarion and Serac^ the Kndonite. Delahaj*
8avs(Anal.boU.,X:iaV,400),"Ifthels|andishtetofVi
oal the hermit must have besn Puilmiitins".

Bmn. £4m «/ Salmi*: 8 OoUbtr: DcMuUL DM.
«f SaMftrVMMnCLondoo, laot); Anal. UH, II. 301. W; Nao,
AM. * ThNi la AmmJm AmmmI* OyimtL £DC (1009), 81;

U08), Iff. ™-— .

Franos MaBamiAH.

Thalbarft Siamoin>, musical composer and
piaBist, b. at Geneva, 1812; d. at Posilipo, Italy,
27 April, 1871. The predse date of his birt^ is a
mattor ot dispute. He was a natural son ot Prince
Merita Dietrichstein, and at an early age was brought
by him to Vienna. While yet a boy, at the Poly-
teehaie Inatitute of the Austrian camtal, Tbalb^
f<»med a Mendship with the young I>uo de Reich-
•tadt (popularly known as L'Aiglon), who so fired
his imagination with the vision oTmiUtary glory that
be was upon the point of entering that career. From
this stM) he was saved by the early discovery of his
musical genius througji Mittag, tne Viennese ba»>
■oonist. Devoting himself in good earnest to musl^
of iriiich he had acquired some knowledge from
Mittag, ha studied thMzy under Seditar ana i^mo-

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1

654

TBunoiTDia

forta teohnie under HummeL At the age of four-
tam he h&d alreadv made bu fizBt public appearance
at a pianist in Prince Mettemich's B&k>n. Four
years later (183(^ he bwan touring Europe, waa
received with enthusiaflni by the virtuoa of the daSt
and was eventually (1834) upointed court ehambw*
muaiciaD by the emperor. During tiw next quarts
of a century, a perwd in wfaidi the development of
the pianoforte made enormous advances, Tnalberg's
fame was unrivalled save for his great oon temporary,
fVans Lisit. His concerts and recitals drew crow(u,
not only in all the ci4>itals of Europe,*including Lon-
doiL but also in Brazil and in the United States
(1857}. The world of musical criticism was for a
time divided between the twoparties of TliaKjerg's
admirers and those of Liszt. To lisst, nevertheleas,
is due perhaps the most decisive encomium of Thai*
berg as a pianist: "ThaBserg is the only artist who
can play the violin on the piano". In 1843 he
mamed the widow of Boudier, the painter, a daugh-
ter of the famous operatic basso, Lablache.

Thalberg's chief contribution to the advanoeraient
of mudcaTart seems to have been as an eroonent
of possibilities in pianoforte technic which had been
unsuspected before his time. He not only possessed
the mastery of touch in a transcendent degree and
excelled in soBlenuto playing by the use of the pedal,
but actually discovered a method of making two
hands produce the triple effect of melody, accom-
paniment, and bass on one k^board — a resource
eiqiloited by numy composers after him. His oom-
poaitions, snne 100 in number, inchide two operas,
"Florinda" and "Christina di Sueiia", both impor-
tant only as demonstrating his unfitness for this
field of art. He composed succrasfuUy only for the
instrument of which he was an unquerticmed master,
his best-known works being tha fantasias <«i operatic
and other popular melodies.

Hums, in Diei. of Uiuie avd Mvneiatu (London. lOM-ll);
3%iib«V and ViMx-t*mpi Grand Coneert Biok (pamphlnt ih»
Mrrad m tbe Biiluh MuMum, London)'

E. BfacVHaBscm.

. TluUi<tf«r, VAUnmn, Cterman theologian, b. at
UntetTOth, near Uhn, 21 Jamiuy, 1825; d. at the same
plaoe, 17 September, 1801. He took his gymnasia]
stndieB and philosaphy at Dillingen, then nxMu 1845
studied theology at the University of Munich. In
184S he received the d^ree oi Doctor of Theology
and waa wdained prieet. After this he was prefect
at theseminary for priests at Dillingen (1850-63), pro-
faiBor ctf «BegeBiB at the lyeeumof Dillingen (1863-
1876), director of the seminary for priests, the Georgi-
anum, at Munich, and professor of pastoral theolosy
at the University of Munidi. In 1877 he was made
cathedral dean and professor of liturgy at Eichstfttt,
and in 1800 beouue the cathedral provost there. He
was an able and hi^y respected teacher, a man of
noUe charact^, a seaJous confessor, puQiit orator,
and eatechist, and waa a fruitfid wnter, thorough
and intdlecAual in his wink. His labours at the
Qeonianum, for which he was highly praised, greatly
bttftefited the institution. His first publioation was a
prise essay at Munich on the bloodless sacrifioe of the
li^wtttawonhip (1S481 . In 185S hr' ivrote intiiereport
el the DtlEngen lyceum for that ycor^ a dissertation
W the doctrine of^sacrifice contained in the Epistle to
Hebrews. In the samiS ycAr be b^w a successful
oppMition to the jpseDdo-omtfedsm and Irvingism
vuoh were spn^&w |n £N«wi& M that thne. His
oh^ wf^'lULtw^^ was the "Btitr&ge sur
Gtaohie&W ^tr'Aftennyfiticifimus tind insbesondere
da IrviD^twamnis im Biatuni Aiii^hurg" (1857).
ieoEodlisnt oommentarj' on the Fnalms was very
jlar ffii^t published in 1857; 7ih ei., 1904). In
' -63 h(i f^diii^d the official publication of the Au8»<
DiiMtaa and brou^t it to greuKr proqierity.
[IbaStanBrmAdow^Qf&feWBnndBnoaat

Munich duuld be mentloDed hit •dltlng of a " lOmiT

of the Fathers" in elgh^ vohunea (ISOIhSS); a week
on the sacrifice of the Ola and New Covraants (1870);
and the editing of the "Lehrbuch der bibliscdMii
Hermeneutik" of his deceased friend fVans Xavier
Reithmayr (1874). At ESchstfttt he was oommia*
stoned by Hie Inmaip to lavise the "Rituale R<miano-
E^tettense", and m additiui issued a smaller ritual
as a manual for the clei^ of the diocese (18TO-80).
He then began his chief woric, a large " Handbuch d«r
Liturgik", which rests on a thorourii study of Uie
original authorities and is still in^spensable. Of
the special lituigies, he published himself in 1800 the
"Liturde des heiligen Measopfen", and from the
papers of the deceased Andreas Schmid he added to
this in 1803 the "liturgie dee kird^Bohen Stundcsiga-
betes", the ''Utuii^e der Sakramente und 8alaR»>
mentaUen'^ and the doctrine of the church year.
Adalbert Eoner began a revised edition of this wort,
but unfortunately no more has hem published than
the first section of the first volume (1894). Schmid
also edited from Thalhofer's literazy remains "Die
heilige Messe und das Priestertum der katholischen
Kirche in 25 Predigten darKeatellt" (1893). In addi-
tion to these larger works Thaihofer also wrote tmA-
lent articles for theobnoal renews and £or the
"Kirchenlexikon" of FnibuzK.

8cHMiD,i>r. ThaO^fir (KmpUn. 1802), eompflnd frocn Una ■ob-
J«Dt'B own papers.

EUBMBNS LOnuB.

Thftngmar (Thankhab), historian, b. about the
middle of the tenth century; d. probably at Hilde-
aheim a£ta 1Q22. Hia first ^warance in history is
as the head of the cathedral school at Hildsshdm; at a
Uter date he became dean of the cathedral, and bang
at the same time notaiy and lU>rariaa hia peeition waa
a T0ry important one. Thangmar was (fistin
both as a scholar and a statesman; be taud^t Biahopa
Bwnward of Hildesheim, Meinweric of Taderiwm,
and Benno of Meissra, as well as the Emperor Heniy
II. He exercised great influence over Bemward of
Hild^eim, and a large part of the affairs under epis-
copal control were directed by him. In 1000 ha ao-
oompanied Bemward to Rome, and was sent sevaial
times to the imperial court as the repreeentative at the
bishop to settle important matters, being highly ea-
teemed by Emperor Otto III. After the deaui of
Bemward in 1032 be wrote an account of the active
and varied life (tf the bishop, a biography for which he
had ah^uly gathered the material and of which he had
probably written the first ten chm>ters during the
years 1008-13. He had bent an eore^toesa of maay
of the evfflits he relates and had taken sa acttvepart
in aO important measures. As he says himself , Bem-
ward trusted him as a child does its father. Cmae-
quently his "Vita Bemwardi" is one of the finest
biographical productions of the Middle Ages, and ia
also one of the most valuable authorities for an im-
portant poiod of German history. He displays much
affection for the dead bishop, and has written a plain
and simple narrative, unrhetorical and toutliful. U
is only m the account of the dispute between ^nw
Ar^itashops of Hildeeheim and Mama M to the right
of jurisdiction over Gandeshelm that Thangmar ap-
pears at times to be a partisan of Bemward. TTio
best edition is that in the "Mon. (3erm. Hist.: Scnp-
torffl", IV; 757-782; it is also found m Migne. P. L.,
CXL, 393-436. The life has beenedited m*S«man
by Httffa- (Berlin, 1857), and by Wattenbach (Uip-

nuakfgiTixig before and after Metis.— Tba
word jiaos, wtoh, as applied to inaycr arm food.

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656

TBAHKMIfnrO

alwi^ in iff»>EUnibethu Gi^flish took ^ phihd'
torn gnetBf meaiu notUng but thanktgivmK. (Cf.
tte Latin ^ratfaruiR wMo and the Italian (^nu^f
"thanks".) Although the wqwMtion <tf natitude to
Qod for HiB boun^ when He has aupidiea the whne-
withal to satisfy the nH>«t primaiy « human needs is
an idea whi^ is by no means exdusiveWChristian.
(see Deut., viii, 10;Bx., xviii, 12 ; lAvy, XXXIX, xliii;
Athensus, iT, 27), still in the Christian dispcnsaticHi,
foUowins the personal exanaple of our Saviour ( J<^, vi,
11 andSs), the obligBtion of thankegivinK seems to
haTebeenemphaalsedftomtheverybwinnlng. Thus,
under oonditiona which altogether excmde the idea of
a Ettchaiistic celebration, we are told of St. Paul
(Acta, xxvii,35) that "taking bread he gave thanks to
Qod in the sight of them all and when be had broken
it he bc^toeat" (Cf. I Tim., iv, Rom. xiv, 6;
ICor.,1,30). Pas8ingovertfae''Didaobe",inwh)chthe
formula of prayer over food ma^ be connected wiUi
the Eucharist or the Agt^, we &id (o. a. d. 123) the
apolorast Aristidee deelanBg of his fellow Christiana
that ''over their food and over their drink they ren-
der God thanks" (Camb. Texts and Studiee. I, 416).
Similarly TertidUan, " We do not redme at a baoquet
before prayer be first tasted — in tike manner prayer
puts an end to the feast" (De orat., xxr). In nearly all
the Fathers similar paseages may be found- In par-
ticular the Christian poet PrudentiuB, at the b^pn-
nii% at the fifth century, has a set of^ hymns "Ante
eibum" and "Post cibum" in which ocoiff such
verses as the following (Cath. Hymn., Ill, Ante oib.,

n, 10 sq.):—
" Witoout Thy presence, nou^t, O Lord, is sweet,
No pleasure to our lipe can aught supf^.
Whether 'tis wine we drink or food we eat,
Till Grace divine and Faith shall sanctify. "
- Many anecdotes idso might be cited from such early
writers as Gr^ry of Tours and Bede, clearly attest-
ing the prevaknce of the practice of saying grace.
Bwle, for example, when he wishes to tell us that Os-
wald and Bishop Aidan were about to begin dinner,
remarks that "they were on the point of stretching
out their hands to blees the bread" (Hist.Ecol.,III« vi).
The Welsh legal cbdes^ ascribed to the ninth and tenth
oenturies, when qiealong of the king's three indispen-
sable attendants, name first "his priest to say Mass
and bless his meat and drink", while the function of
the queen's priest is also to blees her meat and drink
(Haddan and Stubbs, I, 231 and 235). William of
Malmesbury (Geet. pont., IV, 140) refws to St. Wul-
stan's blessmgs at table as if they perpetuated some
custom that was peculiarly EnRlish; nut that the Nor-
mans were no stran^Eers to such a practice is curiously
proved by a some m the Bayeux tapestiy, where we
look on Bishop Odo at Bayeux ae he stands up b^ore
the table at the banquet, while the inscriptkm be-
side him tells us: "Et hie episoopus cibum et potum
benedicit."

In the religious orders, naturally the custom of
grace was much insisted upon. A special section is
assigned to it in c.xliii of the Rule of St. Benedict,
and this was much amplified in later expositions. The
early monastic rules m fact generally required that
each dish brought to table should be separately blessed
before it was set before the community. In the "An-
oren Riwle" (c. a. d. 1200), which preserves perhaps the
earliest instance of the word "graces" in an English
tmatise, the erace is described as said standing, and,
since it included the "Miserere", it must have been
pretty long. The souls of the faithful are also prayed
for in the thankopvins after meat. Great imporr
tancewasatta^edto the proper learning of the ^ace
by i^dren. It is commonly a prominent feature in
the Books df Curtesye and other medieval works for
the instruction of the yoimg. Moreover most educa-
tkmal foundations, Uk* tHEogUflh noblio ssheali and
the ocAeges at the BBtntsMM, had ipaeU fonai of

grace preeeribed fw them, often metrical in part,
some of which are maintained to the present day.
Hie grace oflSeially provided by the Church is con-
tained in the "Breviarium Romaniun" under the
heading "Benedictio Mense". The form for suppw,
both before and after eatinc, varies sightly from
that assigaed for dinner, and during the octaves of
certain: ipeater feetivds q>ecial verses are substituted
for those m ordinary use. Graoe begins witji the
aoclamatien "Benedieite", whiA is spoken by the
officiant and repeated by all i»eeent. The "Graoe
before and after meals" commonly found in the eate*
cbisms for children and used by the laity consists
substantially oi a translation o2 two items in the
longer Latin grace, the blessing spoken before the
meal and the thanksgiving afterwards.

As for this kniger Latm graoe contained in the
ftwviary, Abbot Cal»ol says with reason that the
wiiole aeries at fonnulB wiui their appropriate cita-
tfcma tnm the Psalms, particularly Ps. xxxiii, possess
a very high antiquity. In pmnt of fact a great part
at the existing forms can be traced back to the nmth
oeotmy. See for example Rhabaous Maurus, "De
ias. OMrio.", II, X. The benediction, "Bless us, O
Lord, and these Th^ gifts", eto., which is retained
in our shiut grace^ is to be found in the "Gelasian
Sacramentary , whidi is emuderablv earlier. More-
over, without precise verbal coinoidence, it may be
said that our existing longer grace echoes the language
ef the very earliest document of the kind preMrved
to us. Inis is contained in a treatise dubiously
■embed to St. Athaoasius, but certainly of early
date and, probably at least, the work of a contempo-
rary. It is upon this treatise that G. von der Qolts
largely bases his theory of the development of grace
for meals out ot the primitive Eucharist (Golti,
"Tischgebete und Abendmahlsgebete'^ pp. 33 sq.).
This woric (De virginitate) is remarkable for the
circumstance that the writer recommends as a prayer
before an wfinanr meal precisely that form (tf words
which we find in the "Didadie" in connexion seemingly
with a Eucharistic celebration. We also find in
this fourth-oentury document the verside. "Our
merciful and compassionato Ood has given food to
them tiiat fov Km", and m the exisung Breviary
grace we havc>—

"Tha Lord merciful and compaauuiato, has per>
petuated the memory of His wonders. He has given
food to them that fear Him."

Another very early graoe may be found in tba
"Apostolic Constttutjona", VII, xUv.

Bikitocn In JHcffoHMiifra df/mUol. thnt. tt dt UtwtU, a. t.
fMMKTwfi tih b Tohiv Oabwl. Le Um d« Id wriirt antiaia
(Ptrii, IMO), Gav^mtub. ThtmiMuM Kurmtm nhiwtR,

in (Vvnioc, 1833), 233^28; MARvfera, D» MK^Hia eeeifim
IV {Veoioe, 1783), 90-33; BuBSUir in FcsmVALU
Bi9k. Eferiy Enc- T«xt Bm., 7»ffu* (Loiuloi, 188S).
Mt daUiia hpw^m »n jdm the exoellent littu
A! H, L. DIxaD, Swiw^^Hif (taq4on, 1903), vliioll
rdDt^H autiur doouKiAqta minwfl cnttn. Sn aae •lao: Vok
□ h fi OoUlh ylwfaltrf* inf JflWfciaUtytata JLaipBifc 1906).
^jjBlt^^^t^^^^^lt:,^^i^lil LnTt iin! Ill, Kmllmm^ Arek-

Hbbbbbt Thubsioh.

TbanksglTliur Day.— A civil holiday observed an-
nually in the United States of America on the last
Thuraday in Nov^ber. The president tsauee a
proclamation, calling on the citizens^ all Federal offi-
cials, and others subject to Federal authorit^^ to ob-
serve the day as one of national thanksgiving and
prayer. The governors of states concur in the prea-
dent's proclamation and also recommend the citizens
to obs^e the holiday, and all pubho business is sus-
pended. The. custom originated in 1621, when Gov-
emlor Bradford of the PIvmouth colony appointed a
day for public praise ana prayer after the first har-
vest, and the praotiee smead throughout the other
New Entftad ooknlss. Tite fint national obaervanoe
«M. wkoL- VtMrn^ Waahibgton, tequaat of

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Congren, reeommeoded HHimbqr, 30 Narambflr,
1789, to the people of the United States "m a day«(
pubbc thanki^viiiK and prayer to be obairvea by
aoknowledgiug witb ^tcral hearts the many and
signal faTOun of Almighty God". Hub proelama*
tion exhorted the pec^le to "beeeedi Him to pardon
our national and other faBiMgwriont, to pnmote the
knowledge and practice of true rdigbn aad TUtnSf
and t<^grant unto all mankind raeh a oUgvee <rf tem-
poral proqieriW m He alone Icnowa to be best". It
was the first observation of the dn- on the date that
preaeDt custran holds it. In 1817 Thanksgmng Dtgr
WM first officially noticed in New York Stat& and
1860 ite observance had spread to twenty-ei^ states
and two territories. In 1863 President Lincoln made
his first inoclamation, namlag the last Thunday of
November as a day <rf naticnial obsemnoe, wfaldi
day President Johnson also selected in 1807 and
n<esident Oraqt in 1870. Sinoe then there has been
no chai^ the last Thuradj^ in November hiing
named in each year's proclamation. Catholio veeoK-
nition of the day b^ special rdigious features has onfy
been of oomparativeV reoeot date and not as yet
(1911) of official general custom. Historians of the
our attempt to traoe the orinn of Oovsraor Brad-
ford's idea (1621) back to the old Hebrew Fesst of
the Tabemacks and throu^ the ages to the ancient
Oiedc Harvest Feast, llieemophOTia, the Roman
Cerealia, and the Eni^ish Harvest Home. In iha
Dominion of Canada the govemor-'gaieral by ptoo-
lamation sets aside the bst Monday in October as a
legal holiday for the purpose of acknowledging Qod's
toovidenoe and exinmaing the nation's d^Mntknoe mk
His bounty.

maUoM iarTlumlU^Siio (AJbuVr ISM): Lots, TkiPaMt md
CS^rYaA, IS Nov.. 1910), Urn.

Tbwab F. MmmoAN.

Thapnit, a titular see in Byuoeae A&iea. It was
a Phoenician market on the coast of Byiaoium in
Africa Pn^ria, eetabhdted near a salt hJce on a point
<rf land dghty stadia from the Mand of Lopadussa*
confronting it» between Lc|»kis Mnnr and SulleotaBif
and had both militaiy and tradiw porta. In 46 b. o.
it was the scene of the defeat by Cwsar of the generab
M Pompey and King Juba. Be exacted of the van-
qnished a payment of 60,000 sesterces. Thapsos then
became a Roman colony. VigiUus, the only known
bi^op, assisted at the asssmUy convened at Carthage
in 484 by King Hunerio and was exiled by the latter
with his eoUesAues. He is the author of several oon-
tro^^sial works against the Arians and the Euty-
chians (see Vioilius). The ruins of Thapsus are lo-
cated at Ras Dimes, near Bekalta in Tunisia. Thenr
consist of the remains of a mole, a fortress, an ampht
theatre, and hage cisterns; in the neighbourhood them
is a Punic necropolis.

SuiTR, Dietionan/ of Ormk mitd Aomm Otofraflq/ (Loadon,
I (Pwk 1883), 88, 469; ToouRB, OtMnrnkit 4» FA^ifM

ThMotf a fitular see in Maoedonia, suffragan of
Thessalomoa. The island of Hmsos was anoietttiv
known under many naanes, sudi as Mri&, JEtim, and,
<m account of its gold mines, Chrysos. Its first Imown
mhabitants were the Pbcenicians, whom the Greeks
supplanted. The latter eztaided the prosperity of
the iaiandf which had a powerful navy and founded
mai^ oolonies — Parium, Datos (afterwards Miihppi),
and others. After having repulsed, in 4M B.C., an at-
tack by Histt»u8 of Miletus, Tfaasoe sunendered in
492 B. c. to Xerxes, who took its navy and cBchanstad
the island with the tans he levied. After the defeat

of the Porsians, Hiasos johied the OonfedaratioB of Tkutir, Jotat. isisBkMiaiv,
Daloa, but, havtog quamtted irtlh Alhsoib «w N«wA|^ vzdaiMd to the

fsated fay sea and 1^ huid sikd, eonplstaly ruined by
its rivaL beeaae its tributary in466 b. c. IV^g-
notu^ the oelefanted painter, a native of Thaaos^
then followed the Athenians, llie idand passed fnMn
the domimon of Atfaeos to that of Sparta, then again
to that of Athens, and at last became a Maosdoolan
possBssion. The RomaiiB gave it baek its Indapaad-
cnee in 197 a. c, until it was annexsd to the Roman
Empire and inouded in the Province of the Islands.
Le Quf«i (Oriens christianus, II, 87} mentions <Hily
one bishop, Honoratua, who was wesent at Chalcedon
in 461. Aleunder, in the eighth century, is known
by an inseription (Echos d'(^ient, IV, 93). At least
as early ss the tenth century, Thasoe was a gaSnma
of MitylsDe (Geber, "Ungedruckte . . . Texte der
Notiti* Episeepatuum", SSO); under Manuel Pftbso-
kigus (1301-142S) it was raised to the rank of an au-
toeqihakMisanhbtAoprio(Gdser,<9.eit.,613). Hw
relies of the h(^ martyrs hla^, Sotericus, and Valm-
tina, Tecesated on 34 October, were brou^t thither.
The Patriardi St. Nioephorus lived as an exile thm
under Leo the Armenian.

Hie Venetians took Thasos in 1204, and it was
givea to the Dandolo family; the Greeks aftOTpards
noaptured it. and it was ttn ooMfned by the prinees
Qatdusi trf uoUmb, and finally conquered by Mo-
hammed IL in 1468. In 1841 the Sultan Mahmoud
II granted its revenues to Mehemet AB, Khedive of
Egypt, wlto intmdueed a garrison of Eg^iaas into
the isbuid; but the Turks reoecupied it m 1908, and
Egypt now (1911) reoeives only the revemies, accord-
mg to the terms of the treaty of 1841. The island
constitutes a casa dependiiw upon the sanjak of
Drama and ttie vilayet of Sawmca. It is ferule and
well timbered, and us an area of 100 square milea and
a population <rf 18,000, all Greek schismatics.

Lmodc BmtUI* ark» (Puis. 1868). 872-6; Hambuack,
Dt uuufa TItato rMarimrc 1830); Psokbscr D'OnSH. DaD*
wola di Ta*o in Ditttrtatiotti diUa portiiJUia aead«mia romarta di
arOiMtoM. VI (Rtnne, 183S), 181 ■q.: Millib, L» MoM Athm.
VaUpHi, rib dt TAmm (PMk 18») : Cowbt, La Tmrtm» d^AwU,
I(PariaUBS).i2MM. « „ ^

S. VAna«.

Thanmad, a titular see in Theasaly. suffragan of
Trfwiiwa, commanding the defile of Gaels at the en-
trance to the Theesafonian plain. Vainly berieged io
198 B. c. by PhiUp, it was taken in 191 by the consul
AciUus Glabrio in the war a^inst Antioehua. The
Greeks call it to-day Domokos; it is the chief town ni
the demos of Thaumakoi, and a well^fortified place; it
has 1600 inhabitants, and is beautifully dtoated on a
rock crowned by a medieval fortress, west of which
are some old walla. Durino; the last Oreoo*Turkish
war, in 1807, it was the finalnalting-plaeeof the van-
quiwed Greek vnoy. We do not know if Thaumaei
was a bidu^irie whilst Thessaly owned aOefiaBoe to the
pope; in any case, when lUyrieum. in 732, was with-
drawn fifom the pope's jurisdietion by the emperors of
Constantinople, this city became a suffragan (tf La-
riasa. In 1^, during the annexatitm of Theasaly to
Greece, the diocese became dependent upon the auto-
omhaloua Church of the Kingdom of Greece. After a
while the diocese was suppressed by thenewMganisa-
tlon of this Chureh (1899). LeQmen. "Oriensehria-
tianus", II, 127, names onhr three bmops of Thau-
maei from the aixteenth to Uie ei^teenth century; it
would be easy to aunnent this list. After tiie fVank-
ish conquest in the Uiirteenth century, Thaumaei be-
came a Latin bishopric, and four of its titularies are
mentioned: Gualo, 1208: Marcus Mordlus, about
1334; John, d. 1366: and another John, a Fhudsoaa
monk, iriio replaced him.

La Quiaa. OrinudhrUiBmu, III. Wl. 1123; Bdwl, ffimrcMB
atliW&M«iNmf.I.S8l.

S. PifUDfea.

, oonvert, first native of
psiisthood, b. at Boe-

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557

(OB, Maw., 17S5: d. in UaMtiak, Irelaad, 6 Febrawy,
1812. His famur were aman Um eirty PurHu
■Bttkn ot New Kngland and alTduring im etna he
maniftsted muob m Ukw stem unbenmnf abmHiet.
Educated at Yale, he became a OoBgwgationaliat
mioiiter and aa suon served during the RiBrohitMrnaty
War as eh^tlain of a oMnpaBy waaidaed for the d»-
fence of Boston and of which J«ui Haooodc was oon-
mander. After the war he wandered over Eoiope
and was in Borne when the bessar-saint Benediet
Joseph Labre died. An attsnmt be made to dinmte
some of die mirades wroujritt wou^ Bkased LsHni's
interoeasKm rauhed in 'iWyer'a oonvenaon to the
Faith, 25 Mw, 1783. His own aooount of this oon-
Towm, one « the first of pmwninent N«w ^i^fl"*d
FrotestantSj was printed in 1787 and reisBued in
■ereral editions in the Unitod States, in London, and
in Ireland. It was also translated mto Rvncfa and
Spanish, and created a great omtrovmial sensatioo
at the time. Ambitious to convert his noD^CathoUo
feUow-oountrymen, he then took a theological course
rmder the SulpicianB in Paris where he was ordained
priest in 1789. He returned to the United States the
loOowing Tear and was put in charge of the newly or-
ganised Catholic ooi^pr^tiott in Boetui but aooD
failed aa a pastca* because ot his erratic and contm-
tious tempo-.- He left Boston in 1799, and ministered
fen* a very short time at Alexwdria, Virgiuia, wh»oe
he went to Kentucky as a nuasiottaiy. Here he re-
Dtained for four years, hu seal, however not eotnpen-
■Btnig fm his laek poli<7 and his innmity (rf ten-
penunent. His wandering in<^natkHi8 oairied him
aerosB the ocean anin in 1803 and be finally settled
down in Limerick, Ireland, where he died, looiJIy es-
teemed as a priest of edifying piety uid ascetic life.
The remainder of his small private fortune, with some
^fts he had collected, he left by will to found a convent
in Boston. Inspired by th» wish the three daughters
of a merchant named James Ryan, with whom he
lived in limerick, emigrated to Boston (1819) and
there founded the Ursiuino Community, whose oon-
rent, Mount Benedict, neu> Bunker HiU^ Charies-
town, was burned and sacked by an anfa-Catholic
mob on the ni^t of 11 August, 1884.

fcu, lA/a and TVmim e/
1888);Fuioi'ii. ,

MtMl Itn. JolM CamB QTew Yoric.
CM. itDMriauM (N«v Yarii, 1873} ;

SrAiAOiO, atmelut Bath CalktHe Uiuimu i» JTMMute <Loid*-
T9k 18S7); Wm, TIU Cmmam </ CalMicUK m Kentuckg
(L<M^>TiII«, 1884): Am. CaA. HUL Rutar^ (PUkdehrida).
mwb; ifeMMkiMtto SoldUn and 8oiUr§ of BnojuHmary
War (Boaton. MOT); Utmtwiai Hut. of AmCmi, UI (fioMon,
U90)rtr&Cai4. aU ifatfojNM, U (New York. 18S8).

THos. F. Mbshait.

ThMtinM fCuBBics BxcitniUt) , a rdi^dous order of
men, foimded by Gaetano dei Conti di Tiene, Paolo
Consglieri, Bonifacio da GoUe, and Giovanni Pietro
Carafa, afterwards Pope Paul IV. CanJa was Bishop
of Cbieti (Theate), a city of the Abrusii in Southern
Italy, from which the congr^tion adopted its specific
name to diating[aish it from other congregations
(Jesuits, Bamabites, Somaschi, Cbraociouni, etc.)
modelled upon it. Gaetano consecrated his order to
the Cross, which he adopted as its emblem, and the
foundation took place on the feast of the Finding of
the Ho^ Cross, 3 May, 1624. It was approved on
34 June, 1524, by Oement VII in the Brief "Exponi
Nobis". On 14 Sept., feast of the Exaltation of
the Holy Croo^ CK. Gaetano and his companions made
aolunn profession belore the papal attar of St. Peter's,
Rwne, m the presence of Mgr. Giovanni Battista
Boniiano^ Bishop of Caaerta, q>eaial papal delegate.
The chief object of the order was to recall the clergy
to an edifying life and the laity to the practice of
virtas. St. (^t^ano and his companions sealously
ndaavoored to combat the errors of Martm Luther,
^liob, having gained a foothold in SwitiariuML Oer^
nai^, EndancIC ud Vnam, thea threatened Italy.
1%qrfam3edo(»tocin(HMiictheB tbs oelehrrieil

Dlmn»_Amort) aod hoqiitals, devoted themselves to
; the GormI, and reforming lax morals,
their good example clergy uul laity were
to better Ihrins.
Kotwithrtamting their sercre rale of life and strict
vow of poverty, the Mmgregstion rapidly developed,
and soon numbered among its men^tters illustrious
names oi the ItiJiao aristecraqr (Vesaoei, "Illustri
serittori Teatini", Rome, 1780). They founded
many beautiful churches, among them that of S. An-
drea deUa VaUe in Rome, a gift of Costanza Pio-
ootomini lyAragona^ Doohees of Amalfi. This
church is the martetpiece of Carlo Mademo, and con-
tains ssireral paintings by Domenichino. The The*-
tines were invited to Turin, Genoa, Venice, Milan,
Padua, Piaoenaa, Psnaa, Modena, Fkirenee, Jfaples.
PalsEmo, Meenna, Lsce^- etc., 1^ the autlwHities of
tiuae places. They also attuned a great develop-
meat m fonisn oountries. In FVanee, through the
efforts of Carmnal Masarin, they built the Church of
St. Anne la Boyale opposite the Ix>uvre in 1644. In
&iaia. under Ailip ll, the Theatine Cardinal Paolo
Burau d'Areisc^ afterwards beatified, filled various
wnbansies at the command of the viceroy of Naples.
In Portugal Jofan IV, in 1048, nve the Tbeatines a
kplendid house and oolk^ for l£e educatim of noble
TOUth. In England, under Hanry VIIL Goldwell,
Bishop of St. '^iph, mtered the order of Tbeatines
(see GoLDwnui, 'Iw}iias).

The Tbeatines were the firet to found papal mi^
sioiis in fmign lands, as in: Gohxmda, Ava, Peru,
Mingrelia, the Islands (rf Sunda, Borneo, Sumatra, the
histoiy of which was writtMi by the Theatine Bar-
tolomeo Ferro (Missioni Teatine nelle Indie Orian-
tali); Georgia, Arabia, Amumta, in which latter coun-
try Father Galano, author of the history of the
Armenian Church, UMOtiated and concluded the recon-
ciliation and union c$ that Church with the Roman
Catholio; Persia and in muy other places, as is shown
twlliemne manuscripts datii^ from 1530 till the end
of the eighteenth century. £a the nineteenth cen-
tury the order began to OBcline, and in 1860, through
the wdMokOwn supprsssion of religious orders, it was
reduosd to a shadow of its former greatneos. In
aeooidanee with the spirit of its rule, it had never
aoquired poesennjons and is the raily order iriiioh feds
tine oonssquraces of the law of suppression.

Father PVaneesoo di Paola Rap>Deai, general of the
order and the last surviving representative of its an-
cient traditioos, restored theOiurdi of S. Aiufa«a della
Valle to its fomier qdendour, by his care and seal aided
hf the munifioeoce of Comm. Fibf^ Qiove Romano.
Tha Theatinaa maintain a flounshing missiott at
Durango in Colorado, U. S. A. Pius X, in a Motu
Proprio of 15 December, 1909, decreed the union of
the ancient Congregation of the R««ular Theatine
Clav7 with the youthful Spanish Congregation of
the Boly Family at Baroeloaa. Besi<ks the two
sainto, Gaetano, invoked for tbs iatwposition of
Providence, and Andrea Avdlino, against sudden
death, the order furnished mw pope, Paul IV
(Giovanni Pietro Carafa). 2S0 bidiops, anhhiehaps,
and papal legates, and the cardinals: Keesed (So-
vanm Marinoni, Blessed Paolo BuraU d'ArcsBO^
Blessed Giuseme Maria Tomaat, (^ovanni Ber-
nardino Seotti, FVaneeaoo and Dmmenioo Fimatefli,
Giuseppe CwMwe-Zurlo, Frasoeaoo Maria Banditi. and
Ferdinando ^roatdli, the last named created cardinal
by Gre^oiy AVI. Father Anton F^oeseo Vessosi
{■wboBx CIsment XIII wished to malm cardinid, but
chose instead Fr. Gangandli <rf the Conventuals who
succeeded him in the papacy as Clement XIV) treats
of the illustrioue men of the order in his work "I
serittori de' efalerid reinlari detti Teatini", Rome,
1780. The last famous Theatine was the phikMonher,
Umml&ur, and groat sacred orator, Father Gioao-
eUno VMam dM faannii di Rayfiea, n SiailM^ Hei

Digitized by V^OOglC

THUTmB '&

presdwd and vrote in both Italian and FVueh. Bia
most celebrated work is lus funeral oratioh on tin
death of Daniel (yConneU. He was the friwd of the
most illustrious men of hia day, among them the AbM
de Lamennais whom be sou^t to save the Catho-
lic Church. He died at Versailles in 1860.

Theatinb Nunb, a rdigioDs ooi^r^Btion of
women — oblates and hCTmitc—cs cMstmg m Nas>leB
and Sicily, founded imder the name of Sisters of the
Immaculate Conce^tkm of the Virgin Maiy, by Ven-
erable Ursula Bemncaea. This lUustrious woman,
who, according to Padre Silos (" letorie Theatine",
Palermo, 1666, XII, p. 657), united in herself the
spirit of Gertrude, <^ Catherine oS Biena, of Kigid,
And of Paulat was born at N^les, 7 August, 1647.
Hct parents were Giroktmo Benincasa and V^ieensa
Genuina. Her famil:^ came originally from Sima,
in Tuscany, and bad given to the arts, to the acienoM,
and to the Church both men and women of great
distinction. Venerable Ursola herself displayed great
talent; while still a young girl, she comprehended
the most recondite meanings of Latin bo<^ and of
the Holy Scaripturea. Her inclination to the monastic
life was strond^ pnmounoed from her earlieat yean.
Mai^ of her DK^nvhies (that of Maggio; Flamino
da Latera, "Compendio della storia degU ordini
regolari" s. t. "Theatine dell'Immaoolata Conoe-
sione"; Bonanni in "Catalogo delle Veixine dedicate
a Die") state that when ten years old me attempted
to enter the monastery of 8. Maria di Gerusaionme,
which flourished at Naples under the rule of St. Clare,
and after TariouB pilgnmagea and trials she foonded
tiie Congregation « the Hieatine OUate Sisters.
Her sisters, among them Christina who became the
fint superioress, and some of her nieces formed the
community. Little by little, other ptoua women
joined them, to the number of sixty.

The date of this formation is fixed by some as 1681,
accordii^ to others (including so weighty an author-
ity as Padre Bonanni, S. J.) as 1583. The latter date
is the better substantiated, fv in 1681 Ven. Ursula
merely determined the apai on which she int^ded &
lAurcn to be erected: it was in fact built near Cartel
S. Ehno, with the help crif tite Spanish priest Gregorio
Navarro, Abbot of Franca villa, whom she had told
of a vision in which the Biassed Virgin had commanded
her to build a church in honour of the Most Holy
Conception t>f Mary. At this poiod, having created
much popular excitonent by her viaiaDS, her ecstauee.
and toe foftiness of teaam^ and having attracted
mthtisiastjo admiration and mvenomed calumny,
rfte was accusedctf being possessed by a devil and was
therefore summoned to Rome. Baronius and Tarugi.
OratOTians and illustrioiis cardinab, received her ana
took her to have audience of Gregoiy XIII at Frw-
cati, 3 Mav, 1582. By the pope's authority she was
placed imaer the spiritual direction of St. Philip Neri,
who subjected her to the most severe trials; he was
ecHiBtanthrastfinidied by her piety and humiuW, In
1683 the foundation proper took place, under the pn>-
tectioh of the Blessed Vi^in, St. Jaeq>h, St. Michael
the Archangel, and St. Peter,

The rules of the Congregation of the Oblates are
dioae of the active life of St. Martha, with ample
•vawa. They include recitation of the Office of the
Blessed Virgin and the Dinne Office daily; one hour
of prayer in common at morning, besides the redta-
tioa <a the Veni Q«ator and we De IWundis at
None; mm boto' of idomtiaa beftne the Bkased
Sacrament, exposed in the church every FiKUy,
with sinj^i^ ot appropriate hymns. In addition to
the ordinary fasts prescribed by tire Cbttrch, the
OUatce fast on the vigils of the feasts of Corpus
CStristi, the Purification, and the Imniaeulat« Con-
ception, and they are exhorted to wear the hairehirt
on Fridi^. The daily recitation of one^hkd of
Hie Kosary is also prescribed. nuyanMoadmeiKled

58 tBstnw

to Mmit- with th^ hteida, to practise the cqmmon
life, poverty^ and the other virtues. The habit is
that of the Theatjne clerics: a white tunic under a
blade gannent with wide aieevea and girdle of wotd;
on the hMtd a white veil without wimple, the place
of niiioh is -supplied by the collar of the outer gar-
ment, like tliat « the Theatine cleri(» (Baronius and
Bonamn).

The Theatine Hermitesses <fiomt(« Teatine) were
founded in 1617. As Ven^ablo Ursula wished to
oompletely withdraw from the world she took thirty-
three companions, in memory of the thirty-three
years of Christ upon eartJi, and retired to a hermitage.
The rules of the Hermiteeses are much like those (tf
the Oblates as i^ards works of piet^; but the former
religious follow the oontenqilative life of St. Magd»-
fene. In additiim to their solemn vows, their con-
< Btitution imposes on them great austerities. They are
bound to perpetual abstinence from flesh meat excwt
in case of illness, to fast on the vigils of feasts of the
Blessed Vi^in and with still greater rigour on the
vigils of the Immaculate Conception, the Ascenaion,
and GocpuB Christt They also fast every Saturday
and on tiie last two days ot Carnival, beades the
ordinary fasts of the church. They are bound to
keep the Blessed Sacrament exposed for five hours
every Frid^, with continual adoration by five
religious, and to practise penance regularly. The
age of reception to the hermits^ is twenty, and the
novitiate lasts two years. On admission to solemn

■ profession, a rdigious may converse with her nearest
rdatives tot oao day, but must not expect to see
then again. Their enclosure is c^. the strictest,

• and they hold no ocnnmunication with anyone except

those charged with supplying them food, which is
given to t^n through a turnstile. Their nabit is of
whito ckrth with a lather girdle, light blue scapular
and mantle, black veil ana wimple like other nuns
(Bonaimi, op. cit.). The building of the Hermitase
was begun on 10 June, 1633, and completed in 1667.
The Auea of the Hermiteeses and those of the Oblates
were apmroved by Gregory XVI . in 1623.

The Theatine Sisters, more particularly the Oblates,
were under the govemmeni and ipiritual direction
of the Fathers of tbe Naples Oratoiy, by the request
of the Abbot Navarro mentioned above, until 1633.
In this ^ear the Theatine Order, under the presring
and insistent solidtation of important personwea,
among them Pope Urban Vlll, undertook thir
charge, undo* the g0neraUin> ^ Padre Matteo 8an-
tomagno, who was the depontary of Ven. Ursula's
last wishes and desires. Oblates and Hermitesaes
pracUeed fervent and incessant prayer to avert from

. mankind the .terrible^ chastisements which Ven.
Ursula by Divine Providence foresaw in her ecstasy.
The life of the Oblates is active, that of the Hermit-
esses contemplative. These institutes— like many
othem which have not lived in touch with the world
Uixough schools, hoqiitals, and the like — continued
to live uid ^osper while the days were less e^

. than now, and their members were regarded with
wopder a^ victims expiating with prayer the sinsirf
humanity; but. through the spoliation of monas-
teries they have, now ahnoat disappeared and are
reduced to a shadow of their fonper greatness. Ven-
erable Ursula's rule and the pious practice of the Blue
SctBpular, which she introduced, are still observed.

CoiMitvtioiM Cltriomim Rtfulvrium (fioms, 1604, 1610);
R^ole ptr U veraine RomiU TMoiitu ddV Immacolata Conet^
Hone (Naples, 1680); Ado SS., Aug. II. 282Bqq.; Cabacciou, Dt

■ tita Pamh Iv (CofcWn, 1611} ; Tvrto. SUtia 4ei dntnd twtari
(ftcniMt J^eiO): Pepb. VUa di S. Gattano (Robm, IOST); &um.
Historia ebruorwm leaolarium (Palermo, 1666) ; Mokelu, San
Gaetano (Verona. 18i»): Thact, Saint Oajilttn (Pftria, 17T4);
Flora. B. Pat^ OinUiniani (RotM, ITtt): Canoxluew, Cmn-
jnnt devriUa (Roene, Cmtsisa, HM. ef Migtoua Ordtn
(Vt:yr York. 189^, 367-6; Dumobtter, St. Galtan de niCM*
(Pails, 1882); Fniio, Slmrin dtOe murimi M eM«riei TnKiti
(Rmm, 17M>: HteMSOeam, DU Ordm mod Xmntwo^mm, til

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559

XBBATIUI

(Pani. 18S0), H»-73; La, CiATites. SL OaUan (Puia, 10O1>. tr.
eLT(LondoD, 1002); LObeh, i>«r At Caittan *m Tien* (Rati*-
bom, 1S&3): lUnout, L« fi. P. VmtumJPiiM. 1906), Vila ditta
KcM. ^wr OrMja. MriMA </« u» Padn TaaHno (Rome, 1796);
Baootxa., yUa ftdia Ventrabile Ortola Bmineata; BoNi, cAieaa
(ii 5. AtuhM ddbi ValU (Rome, 1907) : Ri.aoNEai. Ddla vOa (ft S.
AMbm .4MttHH> (Roma, 1908): DC HAOUHi, &m OtoMon* • Is Ai-
/anm CoUoHm (Hodw, 1480-1U7), tr. Sutamk (Boom, 1011).

FRAxaacm Raoonksi.

ThMtra, The.— Conaideriiw the tone of what is
preen-ved to ub of the works of the Greek tragedians
and even of the comedies of Plautua and Terence,
it seems at first difficult to understand the uncom-
urcnnisii^ attitude adopted lowarda the theatre by
Ouristiaa writers oS the early Knturies. But the
fact remains that by the Fatlien of both East and
West all fonns of the dr&Qia were banned indja-
criminately and in terms of the wjniteBt reprobaUo^
We can only infer thai pb^ nod Dumu loqm
pM)ular under the
Elmpire were as a rule
gronly indecent and
poisonous to virtue.
The surviving plays
of Aristo^anes would
alone suffice to show
how inconceivably
lax public opinion
was, even at the most
cultured periods of
pasanism, while the
t^wntawnichmarked
the legal status of an
actor at Rome is sig-
nificant of the degra-
dation involved by
such a profession.
Under the Emt>ire
tragedies and even
the . better class of
otMnedies were not
much represented in
public. They were
regarded rather as

Tas Obese AHnDTBUTtE, SraActwt

literature, and at best read aloud in a select circle
of friends. The most popular form of play was the
mimus, and, as Diomedes, a rhetorician of the fifth
century, imphes, the note of indecency might be
said to enter into its veiy definition. (Mimus eat
faetorwn «( dictorum ttarpium cum lawivia imUalio:
cf. Ovid. "Tristia", II, 497, and Valerius Maxhnus,
ii, 6 and 7, etc.) Further, there is a good deal of
evidence that in the third iBid fourth centuries the
parody of Christian rites formed a regular feature
ci the mimes. Probably the Christian {i xp^^'^*
KMiufMiM9ot) was almost as familiar an object of
ridicule at these representations as is the pantaloon
in a modem pantonune (Greg. Nasianz., "Orat",
II, 84; P. G., 489). There are Acts of the

martyrs, no doubt more or less legendary, in vhic^
is recorded the oonvermon of an actor Drought to-
know the truth by the very rite of baptism, which
he simulated on the stage. Porphyrius (4 Nov.)
and Genesius (25 Aug.) are thus commemorated,
while the story of St. Pelag^a (8 Oct.), however apocry-
phal it may be, presents the actor's profession m
even darker colours (see Deleha^e, "L^gendes
hagio^i4>hiques"). But even accepting these facts,
the violence of the language in which the Fathers
condemn all scenic representations is remarkable.
Tertullian in his treatise "De Speotacuhs" strikes
the key-note and, as Chambers obsen'es, "his vivid
African rhetoric is no unfair sample of a catena of
outspoken comment which extends across the third
oenturv from Tatian to Lactantiua" ("Media;v.
Stage , I, ii). . For Chrysostom and nearly all his
oonteznporaries the theatre is the temple of the Evil
(hke,ana^whofrequmt the theatre thmibyadmowl-

edge him as their master (P. G., LVI, 26S; LVII, 71,
426; LVUI, 120, 188, etc.). Even Julian the Apostate
forbade access to the theatre to the new pagan priest-
hood he was anxious to create. Almost alone
amongst the Fathers, St. Augustine ("De Civ. Dei",
ii, 8) _seems to make some distinction between the
gross indecenoy of tbe mimes and the classical drama
of an earlier age, approving tiie study of the latter
for educational purposes! It is not entirely clear
from the "Confessions" of the same writer (iii, 2)
whether the performance of serious tragedies was
still maintained in his youth.

Vile and degradiDg^aB were the more poplilar fonbs
of scenic representation under the Empire, tbi? pro-
letariat WBTT ao wedded to thrao that ■ v ri !tj< ^'hrts-
tian emperors dared not altogether -^ii]>]>ri's-< ^uch
aauaetueiitB. Still something was done. My ihe
'Wbeo^isma Code (XV, 5), mnii ihtatomm

eircensiiim vnluptas
(ull liivtTsions in the
liif'.^trt' and circus)
■Vk\Tf prohibited on
Siiijdiiy:«^ frativflJa.
and seasons of special
sanelicy. DieabUities
of variiniP kinds, in-
t'linling ^^'^^I■i'.'lil^f3rf i\n

but on LLfiotht^r hano
the laws of caste were
ael aside vad it was
iii>\v msnis possifale
for ail uclr>\'ia, UjMO
l-i rujj\ing n Cliriatian
,111'! quining this way
uf lifh', to acquire a
status of n ypectubil-
!;.y. Al an ev^n car-i
lier date some pf tlie
ChristUn MiUicQs
had dealt with tha
subject. At Elvira in
Spain, about .'^,Ij.302, it iraadfioided that actorFmight
be bupiisfd, l>ut on]y an ronditioa of (heir giving up
that w'^y <">i Ijff At Artcs in 314 Oiwirici and agiia-
tores lai'n-irs an'I charinicfrs in the- paiurti) were
declsJf'd exfommunicale. Somewhat lait-r the Sy-
nod of Laodicea direotv^ ^Jijb 1^ clergy who w^tq
present at wnJdjiiK festMtltfi 6r oanquets ou^t tiM,
to remain for tlii^ pljiyp that might hp pfrformed
afterft'ar*ls. At Ilipjuh iji ^93 it was forbidden that
the sons of t-ishops i>r of (■■fclfr^ii«?ricj3 aliould be pres-
ent ill j'ljiy;. [ir gi\y [hem. Willi rcEurd to actors
it wa^ ilccidcd thai, if thfj- wishE-d tn bi-noiTiF CrhriFW
tians. liicir h;i.pti?m need ncit be jiioglpfjnM iinli-fi-
nitely. lu 4G1 a Council of Carthage decided that
plays DUjdjI noi \fi tak« place on Siincla^ s and fes^
and FiiiEo&ftm auburl aptatB being decoyed batt to
their oM way of life J3^t Cod- ThcM.^ XV, vii,
13). Pballj;, the Couiidl !h Truilo in 692, for those
that rr^'ognized it, condemoied plays altJ3g';t;hcr,
threfiuijiiit; iiii'i^riiiiatioij against till drrins and
oomriuiii^'aUHjii upnin^l iln^ lisJty who titisiiiied m tlie
perforlH!U]rr'.-i ; Hh'fi'l('-Li'rlfrt'(|, "Cutici]! .-: T, .I'lG,
283, 10y2; IIj S7, S9, 126^ 471: 111, 56<i, bWi. The
tone of all this Icipsdaiiaa is mtldtr th^ the luigua^
used by individual Fathers, but it is quite plear that
the actor's profea^on was looked irnoo as that of a
public sitiaer and mDst of thf? early bishops wmilii
nave ii^rml with i?t. Cyprian (Ep., u) that it waa
preferabti:- f ri nmin lain BUOD a man out <j the funds of
the Cliir -li riiilir-r 'han allow him fo continue in his

the debased drama of the Roman Empire
the theatre of Shakeqieare, CaMmm, Moli^ and
Schiller has no diwot connexion. Th^-^ ' '"" -^'

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THKATU

or nugatoTM, who m»y tor a wliile have sunrired the
downfall of the Empire and become stroUere, tum-
blers, joculatorM QoDj^vn), and even minstrels,
ttumot be ^own to have inq>ired any new dramatic
developments. Tlieir oonnodon with tbe Noman
aHf$, one of the forms ^ the old French dibatt or
dialogues, is quite problematical. Moreover, the
Teutonic races nad their teop or deeman, who was
just as likely as these stroUen to have evolved ulti-
mate a dialogue form for some of his compositions.
Again the Christian imitirtiona of Terence by the
AbbesB HroBwitha of Gandetabdm (d. 1002) or "the
Suffering Christ" (xf^ rlrx*'") of Byiantine
Utwature inspired no mutators wd ^yparently were
not even intended for repeeentation. Thus there
is a consensus of opinion tnat the modern drama has
sprung out the mystery or miracle pU,^ of the
Middle Ages and is ultimately reli^ous in its origin
(see MiBACLX Puts and MTannias). We can
even ^t our finper with some confidenoe uptm the

{rimitive germ oftlie irbcit subseouent devdopment.
t is to be found in a trope whicu Fr^ and others
have printed from a St. Gall MS. of the ninth century,
attached to the Intrott of the Easter Mass. In the
earliest English tropes written before 1016 it appears
thus, the dramatic form being clearly indicated by
the headings:

Angelica de Chriaii Reswrredume.
Quou queritis in aepulehro ehristiodeT
Sandarum MidSenm Rttpomio.
Ihesum Nasarenum crucifiximi o celicole.

Angdice voeia contolaHo,
Non est hie, surrexit sicut pnedixerat;
Ite nuotiate quia surrexit, dicentes;

Sandarum mulierum ad omnem dentin modulaUo.
Alleluia. Resurrexit dominus hodie,
Leo fortis, chiistus filius dei, deo gratias dicite; eia.
DiaU Angdut.
Venite et videte locum; etc.

This dialogue was transformed at an early date
into a separate interlude following the third lesson of
the Easter Matins and repreeentmg the visit to the
Sepulchre. The Sepulchre itself had been previously
constituted on Good Friday by curtaining <m a vacant
altar and depositing there the mictfix and sometimes
the Blessed Sacrament. The whole rite is fullv de-
scribed in the " Concordia reguUris" of St. iBthiuwold
(tenth century), where the compiler remarks by way
of introduction: "since on this day we celebrate the
interment of the body of our Saviour, if it seems good
or pleasing to any to follow on similar lines the use of
certain of the religious which is worthy of imitati(»i
for the strengtbenmg of faith in the unkanied vulgar
and in the neophytes, we have wdered it in this wise*'.
These scenes of the deposition on Good Friday and the
visit to the Sqiulchre on Easter morning became grad-
ually mate and more developed and less and leas dis-
tinctly liturgical, until we reach a stage when we have
a dramatic representation performed Dy lay folk, out-
side the Church. Great li|^t has recently been
thrown on the transition stages in England by the
discovery of the ShrewAury uagments, which show
how the miatter was broui^t to ue level <d the people
bv the insertkm of vomaoular versos in Latin songs.
Equally "fm the strcoigthening of faith in the un-
learned vulgar and in the neophytes" there were
kindred dramatic tropes adopted at Christmas time.
The form of one of the tentn oentiuy Tropes of St.
Martial at Limoges seems to show direct imitation of
the Paschal interlude: Quern ouomtU inprtnepe
ioraat (Whom sieek ye, shepnerds, in the man^r?)
So the dialogue b^an. There were also other mflu-
en 068 besides the tropes which led to the same result.
For example portions of a sermon, wrongly attributed
to St. Augustine, used to be read among the lessons
at the Cnristmas maUns. It introduced various
Proi^eta iriio bore tcBtimmy to CSirist A aqwimt*

voioe was M"g"*^ to eac^ mucli as in the Goqid of
the I^ssioii whoi read in axAy Week, and thia at onee
mipi^ied die elanents of a promising OirirtmaB
drama (see Sepet, "Proph^ do Christ", 10).

We may probably, with Mr. Chamboa, distinguidi
three stages in the whole evolution: (1) the liturgical
stage, i. e. the devek)pment of these dramatic di»*
logues, aided ss Uiot were by impersonation and ges-
ture, within the Church ceremonial ftsdf; (2) Uie
transitional stage, i. e. these Latin plays were tran^
latcd into tlie vonacular or interpolated with ver-
nacular passages, while different inddents eoaleaoed
to form one remesentation and other new elementa
were added, unul the whole cyde the matter treated
extended from the Creation to the Judgment: (3) the
final stage in which the plays were eompletdy secu-
larized. They fell into tne hands of the guilds, some
plays being ass^ned to one guild and others to an-
other, while there were constant ohuiges in the di»-
bgue and rearrangonrat 6[ incidents to suit new
conditions: but the t^cUc form was firmly adhoed to.
On the other hand, these stages in the evohttion of
the drama were not of course marpfy defined and thqr
merged into one another. For further details the
reader must be referred to the articles Miracle
Plats and Mtbtbbies and MoBALrnB8,but it should
be noted that an important influence in the process
of eeeularisation was supplied by the Latin plays,
partly scholastic exercises and partly diversions,
which the cathedral and mimastic schools acquired
the habit of performing, more particularly at the
Christmas and Easter seasons. It is easy to see how
readily such repreaentations addressed to a young or
misceOaneous audience might come to be interpolated
bv passages in the mother tongue, particular^ those
of a more humorous character. Moreover, it waa
natural to extend the scope of such drverdons and we
have evidence that in the twelfth centuiy^in France,
En|^d, and Crermany, dramatic compositions were
represented dealing with such su^ects as tlie life
of St. Nicholas, the martvrdom of St. Catherine, tbe
resurrection <rf Lasanis, tne parable of Uie virgpns, w
a ludxie prophetarum omaHasimite, whith inchided
Gideon and the Philistines, David and Herod. But
tJie further transference <rf sudi representations to the
guilds must have taken place early, for it is genmJly
agreed that the play of "Adam* , written in Anglo-
Norman EVench of the twelfth century, was probwly
first represented by a guild and upon Ei^Usfa bou
(see Grass, "Das Adamsspid", 1007). In (Smnany,
however, the religious plan's seem to have remainea
almost entirely in the bands of the students, thou^
in Italy the main impulse came from the loudeti
oonfrateniities, tbe survivors (rf the FlaceUant move-
ment, who met together in their own ehi^ to das
laudi (cantides) in nonojar the Blessed Virgin, whicE
gradually assumed a dramatic form and gr^ into
rappreaentanoni aacre. A pla^ in the Roman dialect
of the fourteenth century, edited bjr Vattasso (Studi
e Testi, no. 4), expUdtly bears the title katda (loo. dt..
p. 53). But in every country of Europe Spain and
Poland not excepteo, a new drama seems to have
arisen whidi maag mto existence in dependence on
the Church. Only oy slow degrees did the subjecta
of such plays in Uie ranacolar kiae touch with any
religious puipose. An entirely new source of ii^irap*
tion came mto play contemporaneoudy with the
humanism of the expiring Middle Ages. In Italy
eepedaUy it began as early as the fourteenUi century,
with the revival of the study of the tragedies of Sen-
eca and, what was more important, with the oompo-
ation of 6riElDal Latin tragedies upon tbancs supplied
by medieval history. From these it was but a st^
to the plays called meaddaii, in whidi the influenoe
both oi the Tappretentanon eacref iriiioh were the
final development of the rdiglous druia, and alio
of danical modeb may be dfiNiy dkoenwd. AttH

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56i

b bapoariUe to jnmae ths nASeot here. W« hm
■D Italiw tragedy, the "Sofontaba'', bv O. TiteiiK^
tet«d before Leo XinlSlJSfWhuetaeevIjroom^
dice (Boiardo's "Timone" was presented before 14M}
were introduced gradually in the wake ctf improviaed
InrleeqaeB to which the orleceAino (harlequin) oon-
tributed a thread of unity but which still savoured
■ometbing of the earliest moralities. In any ease it
IB to be noted that no Boouer had a pcnwlar dram*
MtaUidied itself Independently td eccteebstical inflo-
eaee than the licentious excesses of such writers as
Ariosto, Macchiavelli, and Aretino (Leonardo Bnini)
foreed the Church back into much the same attitude
^ oncompromising hostility to the stage which existed
under Uie Roman Empire. The representation of
saored and moral dramas and sometimes td classical
playB was indeed encouraged in ooUe^ and similar
mstitutionB. The pb^mostl^ in Latin, which wen
mitten and acted in the Jesuit schools, form quite
» literature by themselves (See e. g- Bahlmann,
"Jesoiten-Drs^en d. niederrhein. Ordensprov.",
1896). But apart from such sdiolastic exercises the
public theatres, on account of the laxity of morals
niicb as a rule prevuls at such representations, are
neariy everywhere forbidden to the clergy by the
decrees of provincial and diocesan eynodi (see the
"CoDeetio Laoensts", pusim). It is maintained hy
Km iiuA these proubitions have only f cnee to Mnd
the clergy belonging to the diocese or province in
which th^ are issued itdulst they remain within tfae
Umits oS the diocese, but tbe point is at best doubtful.
No authoritative decision has ever been given whidi
would allow clerics who come from a diocese in which
stloidance at the theatre is forbidden, when pasdng
through another diocese in which it is equally for-
bidden, to regard themselves as free to visit the theatre
at win. To asrist at perfonnanoes whldi are grossty
imprcmer is of course f orbiddoi both to clergy and
htty alike, both on account of the proximate danger at
an as also of the scandal which may thereby be nven
to othen. Finally we may note that in the Papal
States no permanent public theatre was allowed to be
eonstnicted until 1691 and the theatre which was then
tmoed by permission of Aleumder VHI at Tor di
Kua was mbseguently dismantled by his Bucceflsor
Inooeent XII. But in the course of t^e eighteenth
eentory several Uieatres were buHt in wiUi
pa^ sanction, though th^ were subjected to a very
strict censorship andf were cloeed at sacred seasons.

Thi Cbvsch aho th» Tbmtbb. — Staba, 2w Wandvune dtr
hrA. Antehauunatn Vbtr dtr Thtattnet—n In Thtol. tjuortoi-
■dkrffl, LXIX (18S7), 832-4M: HaniA £M«r AtenmNM,
M0.IB Thul. QuartaUehrift, XXIU (1841), 306 nq- iiftorwuS
tqgriniad in hi* Bmtrtot (18S4); MdBLn. ^vfntoui. Sth acL,
tU S.; BOMUCT, JfoxtnM « rtfiaittnt «w oemUMa (PkrU,
1093); Plghptu, in DieL Chrid. AM., u v. Aalon; MATOm
Ik nC 0. *, Tktain: Pbtmnb, AiKricMMUiu: (London, 1073).

MmiiTAL Dbaha. — A vut Ut«ntura baa crawii up about
Ihia tubjeot eopeciftDy of late ye&n. Only « fsw IcAdlnc worlu
<u b* neatiAMd hm. E. K. CaAHmna, Th* M»~
8tm (a Tok-, Ojford. 1003): CnaisnucB, OMsUrtl* i

Dmrna*, I (Hnll*. 1S73); Pnrr db Juixbvilui, Im Mt/tiirta
(3 mta., Fam, 1880): o'Ancona, Oriffini dd Teatro fUUano
ffod wL, S Tola., TnHn. ISBl); A. W. Wa«b, HUtonr of Jhw.
i>WMa«je MwatMiw, I (3 mL, Laodoo, ISOOitTaAiVKt. Hwa tf
Fonfinktn. New York, 1008: W. Metxk, FragtiiiUa Bumna
(QMtinMU. 1901); Davimok, Bnelith Uutttnr rtam (Loodoa,
ISU); Dr MnttL, Orimnm loHnt du T%tdlr* madtni4 (Cun.
1*49); ConMavAn*. i>rafMH Uwv^raaa do mtytn 6ft (Paria,
ino); wiUi mnaio (Paris, 1886); MitcaaACK, Di* CM<r> wmI
FkmttmpUU nVolTenbattol, ISW); CASnl, L*t dram— Ktmr-
miMt it la eoMdrah d» Rmmt (Evrmu, 1893); R. FaOHiira,
Oai Dtvma d— UiUdaUtrt iZ vola.. 8tattoiV.l^l): LaKOB.
ui* tortm'artan flWar/«Mm (MmrfM. 1887); WBCamM, Di»
MMmbpftM JUorianUvan (HaUa, 1893;; Bcmbnusm. Di*
MmimUagm (Gik*. 1875) ; Cohbh, Hitt^ da Is mut-tm-Mhu
WM,la lUdfra nlieieux fi^miKai* dii Wvm doa (Paria, 1908);
ftgg. It FrophMu du Chritt fn Sifr. <h VEcoU da* Ghartm.
XXVni, and pobliabad Mpw«Ubr (Pwi^ 1878); Ibsm, U
*mm oMKan ok mourn if* (Puia. 1878): Idbm, Oriffinm etA-
mguM du CMdIra modama (Puia, 1878); wiktb. Di* OaMr- wtd
AiriMUfpMa Mi aitai XVt. iaArAwMMtr FKOmmi, ZXn JVtmm
dw gtfBranrtiBwiiia (BtotlJit. 19U0; HAMMAior, I/<««rdM«M-
IHaiin>i iMAM^pM (LajpaiK 1079): Ami. iHa loMniachai*

JftMHto MNMCam i/ jr«dv» £«w. j(V a/ ^Maries. XXIV
fflaMaw*. 1900), 41»-fl»i K. Yodno, 5mm Ttxi* of Litwp.
hm in PubtimtUtu tif MoSim Lang. A'n. XXIV (Bkltlnion,
ism, 394-333 ud other papora In the aune peiiodioal;
K. Yoma,Th* 'Harrmtine cf HtO' in Liturgieal Drama ta
Tram, if IKanMam Aeadtmy, XVL pt. 3, 1909; Rajto. 8*nu da
Coi^^Mwna DialbM in Modtrn P^Sim/. II (1904); Fma.
THa Winelmlar Trmtr (Hanry Bradalunr Society, Lond., 1878;
WaRb and othan u CoaiMdr* Hittory of Bniliih I/ilvatmn,

Herbbrt THUBaroH.

VMtald.— Tbe vall^ of the Nile, under Roman
domination^was divided- into four provinces: Lower
and Ui^wr Sgypt, Lower and Upper Thebaid. The
last two eompriasd the upper part of the valley. Dur-
ing tfae fourth and fifth centuries it was the chosen
land of the monks, who by their sanctity and by the
form they impressed on the monastic system greatly
influeneed the East and the West. Thenr monasteriee
nuur be divided into several groups. The best known
is toe Facbomian gniup, founded and l^idated for by
St. Pachomius. oliey formed a real religioas order
with Tabenna as a mother-house and its superior as
their general. Besides Tabenna there were Peboou,
Sehenesit, Akhmin, Esneh, MonchosiB, Thebaid, Tee-
ming, HermopoUs, and Armoutim. Saint Pachomius
governed this group till his death (346), and was suo>
oeeded by Abbot Orcinus, and th^ by Abbot Theo-
dore. Inen was a oonununi^ at women, {
by Paehomius's sister, foDowing the same nue as 1^
men. The life of tite holy founder and the rule he
drew vp reveal the interior organization of these
monasteries and the congregation. It has all the
essential characteristics of cenobitie religious life.
Vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, a dress dis-
tinct tmm that of secular pa-sona, lengthy psalmodies,
manual woric, and penitential exercises.. The monks
lived in huts scattered in groups. The groups were
endoeed by a wall and formed the moautcfy. l^e
saperim general bad absohite authority over eadi
house and over its superior. He held a gmeral as-
sembly of all the religious twice a year. Bgol
founded at Atripe a croup distinct from that oi
Taboma. We know oi it from the life of his suo-
oessor Schnoudi. The monks even increased the
aust^itiee prescribed by St. Pachomius and oould
change from tiie oenobifeio to the ennnitieal life.
Schnoudi died about 462 at the age (tf 118. His re-
form had only a mediocre suceess.

The eremitical life was introduced into tbe Lower
niebaid by St. Anthony. Bom in 251, he embraced
the asoetio life at the a^ of twenty ; then impelled by a
love of BoHtude he buned himself in the desert. After
twenty years of oomplete isolation the fame of his
sanctity drew around him disciples who imitated his
mode of life. Like him they were hermits though r^
maining undw his aothonty. llieir solitude was
relative. Those more advanced in jreare had one
or more disciples, whom tiiey instructed in the paths
of pMfectlon. Others had companions or neighbours.
Th^ visited one another. Grottoes or huts I^e those
<ti the fellabeen served them as oelb. The rules called
by St. Aatiiony'B name are not his composition; but
his bi<^Era{^, compiled by his admirer and friend St.
Athanastus in 365, pTBServea the memory of his vir-
tues and his teaching. The auUior wisned to illus-
trate what the life of a monk should be. It infiuenoed
tbe development ef eastern and western monaehism
very considerably. Most of tbe Ern>tian moiUcs of
tiiat period were more or less directly connected witb
the school of St. Anthony, for instance the two
Maearii, Isid<we, Heraclides, (uid Fambo, who are
looked upon as tbe founders of the group of Nitria.
Tin noap of Soete derives its origin from tbe same
■ehool. Th^ were numoous fervent centres of a
partly oenobitioal, partly eremitical life. The "Hi^
torioa Laoaiaca" <h Palladius gives us tbe details erf
the ordinary Ufa oi ttie Nitiian monks; the "i^Aopb-
«hipM«ftin«nim'' and tiw "Vita pi^nm^' m m

Digitized VjOOgK

ranAK 5(

ttKwe <tf So«te. In the wildenieai aloDC tbe two

banks of the Nile thtfe were many monks, living eome
alone, some in groups. Others dwelt in populated
r^ions, wme even m tlie towns. The monks di^
•mwared with the fall of the Byiantine donunatkm in
these oountricB and Hie succeaa of the Sanoeii m-
vaders. Nottung nmains ctf Tabenna. The two
montuteries of St. Anthony and ot Nitria by Uieir
name and location recall tiiose aiunent days. The
:rule8 obeMrlml ttfere ure entirely diflhnmfe!Anp»4boBe
of iho fourth and fifth c^iiluries.

BtTi.f-St, r'l-r anritnt Coptic r^iirrJui of Bavvt (Oribrd. IBS4>;
llifcM. T','. l^i-inai: Hislorv uf P^U^i hua voti,, CftmbFCdga, 18S4,
IWH) ; AiilLiNai.li. Miat. ae iSairU Pakhomr H lie lea etmmm-
WMtli (Puia. lS8t); locit, Lti irutinti fff]/ptima: Vi» dt
JSitiumdi [Fmr». IBfW]; Ladbbib. Etu4e tur U cM(iMl>*«U po*-
AMHt>Tt_v#7Kfo'U It tVr tQeji ff la. Trtniin mvUU dm ViJLoilMibL,
1S98>;Beuk. inoiw d'Orlm M<*hMI m mmMK^m.-
Maine (Pniti?n. IQDO): LECLaBCq iB iMriit «rilWti!Wtitl'#<»
lvlurg7;r. a. v. CtnnbtirTru^.

J. M. Buax.

Thebaii Legion. See Aqauhuu.

ThttMUid, AuQVSTDS, Jr^uit educator, and pub-
Itoist. b. at Nantee, France, '20 Nov., 1807} d, at St.
John^s College, Fordham, K^w York, 17 Dec, 1886.
Father Th^baud was the bou of a worthy but not
wealthy mra'chant who was iiiiu-rieNl to his piaua wife
in the dark days of the Terror by a loyul pnesl, a cir-
cumetance which eloquently provcij their earnest
Catholicity. Their children were brouKht up with
great care and given the best Tehgioue f^ucation
which France at that time ^ordc<L Vouug Tb^baud
studied at first in the preparatory teminuiy at Nantee,
then entered the arand siminttire and was ordained to
the secular priesthood at the usual age. Aftv three
years of parochial work in his native city, he entcdred
the Society of Jesua in Italy, on 27 Nov., 1835, whence
he returned to France in 1837 to pursue a course of
Boientifio studies at the Sorbonne under Amptee and
other distinguished professors. He landed in the
United States on 18 Deo., 1838, ahd was called to the
chair of ohemisby at St. Mary's College, Kentucky,
where he became rector in 1846. Before the end of
that year however the Jesuits left Kentucky to take
charge of St. John's Collie, Fordham, New York,
whicn had been transferred to them by Archbishop
Hughes. Father Th^baud was the first Jesuit Presi-
dent of St. John's, a position which he held fmm 1846
to 1851 and again from 1860 to 1863. In the interval
he tauf^t the sciences for two years, 1851-52, under
Father lisrkin, and the following eight years he speat
as tJie pastor of St. Joseph's Church at Troy. To ttui
chaige he tetumed after his second Teotorship at
Fordham and filled the position from 1863-68, and
a^ain from 1873-74. The intervening years we find
hun at first in Montreal and thai ivt St. Joseph's
Qiiirch, Hudson City, New Jersey. After esKinding
another year at Fordham, he was aasigaed to St.
Francis Xaviffl''s parish. New Yo^ where he passed
Uie rest of his days.

Father Tb^baud, who always bad a strouK literary
bent, wrote a swiee of bodes on xeli^ous and EistOTieal
subjects and published, besides numerous articles in
the "Catholic World" and the "Catholic Quarterly
Review", two novds, "Louisa Kirkbridge, A Tale of
New York" (1870), and "Twit Twata, An Allegorioal
Story of Birds" (1881). His more important works
are: "The Irish Race in the Past and in the Present"
(1873); "The Church and the Gentile World" (2 vok.,
1878); "The Church and the Moral World" (1881).
From 1875 to his death, he also prepared his remi-
niscences in three vohimee. Of these the United States
Catholic Historical Society jtublisbed volume III
(1904), giving an aooount of his American experienoee,
and voltimel (1011), containing the recollections of bis
life in France. Father Th^aud was a maa full of
energy, even in old am, an untiring student, and
wdVufonnad scholar, withal he was •■most i^m-

a TBXBSi

Mb oonrpanion. witty and full of life, and miinmQy
beloved 6j his friends and his pupils.

WoodtMc UtUn, XX (1891), 25-38: L«U«r« la ttw AmiSm 49 la
pntaaaltn 4tUM, XIV. 38»-«01 ; XVI, 449-76: TI^Qmttkn
VoCMwn I. III. adlM by HwasMVAHir jig04 mud 1011).

Charles G. Herbbbiianh.

Thebw (Thkba). a metropolitan titular see <rf
^diaia Secunda. The city was founded by the Phoe-
nician Cadmus in the sixteenth century b. c,
afterwards made illustrious by the legends of Laiu^
(EdipUB, and of Antigone, the rivalry of Eteocles and
Polynices, and the unfortunate siege by the seven chiefs
of Aw)s. After the taking of Troy, Thebes became the
capital of Bceotis^ but did not succeed in imposing its
hc^mnony, for Athens supported certain towns in their
oi^iosition. Thebes amed itself to the Persians
a^inst the Greeks, but was conquered with them and
submitted to Sparta, until its two generals Pelopidas
and Epaminondas restored it to the first rank. The
death of the latter before Mantinea in 363 B. c,
opened a new series of misfortunes for the city. Con-
quered by Philip <tf Macedon, in 338 a. c, it
revolted two.years aftw and drew on itself the ven-
geaoce of Alexander who killed or sold all the inhabi-
tants and destroyed all the houses save that of the
poet Pindar. Rebuilt in 316 b. c, by Cassander, it
was taken and retaken again. In tne second centui^
B. c. the acropolis alone was inhabited. In the Mid-
dle Ages the city was repeopled through the silk in-
dustry. In 1040 the Bulgarians took possession of it;
six years after the Nonnans sacked it. In 1205 it was
taken by Boniface III of Montferrat and assi^ied with
Athens to Othon de la Roche; by muriage it passed
later to the lords of Saint-Omw; one them, Nicho-
las II, constructed the Frankish ch&teau of the Cad mi
which was destroyed in 1311 by the Catalans. In
1364 the Turks took it in behalf of Frederick III erf
Sicily and later on their own account, but its neigh-
bour, Livadia, soon supplanted it.

The first known bishop, Cleonicus, was at Nicsa in
325 (Geli«\ "Patrum nicienorum nomina", LXIV).
Le Quien (Chiens Christ., 11, 207-11) quotes ten other
titulars, among them: Juuua at Sardica in 344;
Anymus at Epnesus in 431; Architimus in 458; Mar-
oianus in 867. At first a suffragan, Thebes was an
autocephalous arohbishopric at tne bennning of the
tenth century and until 970 (Gelzer, "UngMruckte
. , . Texte der Notitis episcopatuum 551, 571);
about 1080 it was a metropolitan see (Le Quien, op.
oit., II, 210) ; and about 1!7G it numbered five suffra-
gan sees (Gelser, op. cit., 585). In 1833 TheBes was
reduced to the rank of bishopric with the title of
Boeotia; since 1882 the diocese has had the title of
Thebes and Livadia. The bishop resides at Livadia
and exercises his jurisdiction over the entire distoiotof
Boeotia. The city numbers fiOOO inhirfntants iiH
eluding the suburbs. Since 1210 it has had a Lfttin
metropolis whidi beeame by decrees a titular. Eubel
(Hierarchia oatholioa medu svi, I, 506; II, 274; III,
331) mentions a number <rf l»aiKH»> During tbe
lYimkish occupation, the B^anolsoanfl had a eustody
named Theb*.

Bakut, Tha Spartan mtd Thtbm Bupr&maei— (LondtMi, 1877) :
MeuJBL GmcK. rJMMf (Laipng, 1870); FAMuaro, TJUbM (Fri-
boorc lamiiiDuKaT, aitloirtam Grw (3 vob..Pwu. 188«.

S. Tanoi.

TlMbM CTheba), titular see of Tlidnis 8eeunda»
suffragan of Ptolemais, and tbe seat at a Coptio

Catholic diocese. Thebes was tbe No-Amon of
the Jews, the Nouit-Amen of the Egyptians (City or
Kingdom of Amon), tbe Nia of the Assyrians^ and
the Dioepolis of the Gree^. wbich is the exact translfr-
tion oS Nouit-Amen. The Egyptians also called
it Per or Pi-Amen, the dwelling of Amon, and also
Apet, wheitGe, with the article Ta bef on the feminine
nameApet, is derived Ta-A|iet, or Tapc^asHlaoallBd

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563

b^tiw modern Oopt8, the Oibfatfrf the Gredu, Thebes
is mentioned three times in the Bible under the name
tit No-Amon in the Hebrew text, which the Vulsate
each time renders incorrectly by Alexandria. Nahun
(iii* S-10) refers to the victories of Aasurbampal,
King of Ninive, over Tanutamen, Bang of E^Eppt*
as we now know from the (^linden of that sovereini
(G. Smith. "History of Assurbanipal", 52-56). It
is Utought that Jeremias (xlvi, 25) and Eiechiel
(xxx, 14-16) allude to the two campawns of Nabuoh-
od<moeor against Thebes, which took plaoe in 583
and 588 B. c.

OrigLoaUy amere borourii, Thebes grew by d^rees^
and as early as the twelfth dynasty its sovereigns
dominated E^ypt. Thenceforth also its god Amon-Ra,
to whom the pnarat^ bad erected numerous monu-
ments, became the foremost of the gods. Halted
for a ume by the invasion of the Hyksos, the growth of
Thebes oontmued under the pharaoha of the eighteenth
and especially those of the nineteenth dynastv, who ex-
tendea their dcuninion to the sources of the Eunhrates.
When the sovereigns of Thebes had become acKcner-
ate they were replaced by the priests of the god Amon,
who constituted tbemeelves toe twenty-first dynasty.

diampeared in turn and the ci^utal of Egypt ms
tlwn traoi^rred to the Ddta. The city began to fall
away, especially aiter the Asem-ian armies had cap*
tured and devastated it in 668 and 664 s. c. and
Nabuchodonosor had twice rified it of its treasures.
However, as long as there were Egyptian sovereigns,
even under the Ptolemies, work was done at the
temple of Kfuraak, which was only abandoned under
the Roman domination. Thebes then became a
place (rf xolgrimage and swht-seeing. Christians
ertiiJ>lishedr thwr churches in the temples, monks and
laymen dwelt everywha«, preferab^ in the ancient
tombs. The great earthquake of 27 B. c. caused
some damage, DUt that which ruined the temples iA
Karnak must have occurred two or three centuries
later.

A see was established at Thebes at an early date.
Ammonius ctf Dioqxilis asBiBted at the Council of
Nioea in 325, unleas he was Bishc^ ai Diospolis
Parva (Hamack, "MiBei<Hi und Ausbreitung dea
Christentunu", II): Maletius was a partisan of
AriiuhacG(»xiingtoFailoetOTgiuB and Nicetas Chonia^
tee (y Thesaurus orthodoxs fidei ", V, 7) : Hero uxietap
tised under Julius the Apostate, according to Philos-
torgius (Hist, eccl., VII, 13): Stephen was Catholic
metropolitan at the time ol i%otius, and Kalta was
Jacobite metnnralitan in 1086 (Le Quien, "Qriens
ohrUt.", II, 611). The Coptic diocese, created in
1895, has 15,000 CathoUca to 300,000 Jacobite Copts
and about 3,000,000 Mussulmans. There are 31
Coptic priests, 35 churches^ besides 6 which belong
to the Franciscans, 18 stations, 26 primary schools
with about 500 pupils, 4 convents of Franciscans. 3
oi Brotiiers of the Christian Schools, and 1 of native
Sisters. The seminary which is used by the three
Coptic Catholic dioceses has 17 students and is
situated at Tahtab, the residence of the Bishop of
Thebes.

The ruins tit Thebes are among the most beautiful
in the world. The city was situated on both banks
(tf the Nile, which is more than two miles wide at this

§oint. On the right bank was the temple of Luxor,
uilt by King Amenotfaes IH and Rameses 11, the
great t^ple of Amon, and the great hypostylie hall
of Kiunak, the woric of the pbaTaohs Ramesea I,
Seti I, and Rameses 11, and which is 337 feet broad
by 169 feet deep. A vedtable forest of 134 colossal
columns divides it into three naves, forming a hall
whidh has not its like in the world. The temples of
Luxor and Karnak were joined by an alley nearly
two miles long by about 3K miles wide, borara^ b^
rams or crioc^thalous q}lunxe8. On the left side is
Qutnmiah, Ymat begins the line (tf temples of vbich

the Rameoseum is afanost in the omtre antf Medinet-
Habou at the southern extremity. A Ime drawn
around all these monuments either from the right or
title left bank describes a circuit of nearly S% miles.
Now DiodoruB Slculus (I, 45) and Strabo (XVII, 46)
give almost the same dimensions to the Dio^K^
m the first century before Cbrist. But in the time
of its real splendour, according to Eustathius and
Stephanus Bj^antius^ confirmed by other geographers
and modem disoovenes, Thebes was almoel400 stadia
in oiroomference, or nearly 28 miles. It is probable,
however, that these figiues included not only the
extent of the city, but uso the oitire territory the
commune.

L^aiaK 1b DieL d» la Bible, a. T. Np-AtMn: B*riDiT% OiiUa
^mM|«gni*« (Tub. IWQ). B(ttli«hM*Mithonc>veBdeUil«l

S. VAnai.

Th»dft (Tbcu), SAHfT, Benedictine Abbess of Kit-
singen and Ochsenfurt; date of birth unknown; d. at
Kitzingen about 790 or later. St. Boniface, ApoeUe
of Germany, kept up a constant intimate oorreapond-
ence with the community of Wimbome, Dorset, and
from the abbess, Tetta, in 748-49, he obtained monas-
tic colonies for Germauy. Among these nuns one of
ttw most iUuBttHms for sanctity and learning was
UteclSj^a relative of St. lioba, whom cne accompanied
from Wimborae and under whose rule she lived for
some time at Tanberbiscbofsheim, until St. Boniface
appointed her abbess of the newly founded abbey at
Ocnsenfurt. Later, on the death of St. Adelheid, or
Hadelonga, the foundrees and first Abbess <jt Kitsin-
gen on the Main, die was called to rule that abb^
while still retaining the government of Ochseafurt.
The Roman as well as the English and Benedictine
Maliyrolf^ commemorate her on IS October: others
on 27 or 28 September. The name Thecia does not
appear on the ust of the abbesses of Kiiringen, but
it is generally thought that she is desisted as
Heilga, or "the saint^'; unless we admit this, the list
must be oonmdered interpolated. Among Boniface's
letters is one addressed io Lioba, Thecia, and CJyne-
hilde, as the beads of separate redii^oos oommimitlee.
Its tone reveals how far the mms had entered as int^
ligent fellow-laboarers into his u>ostolate. St. Boni-
face seems to have had a tiireeiold purpose in sum-
moning these Anglo-Saxon nuns as his auxiliaries: —
to propagate the full observance of the Benedietine
Rule by new foundations: to introduce it into already
fbunded monasteries, and to restore its observance in
others; and finally to bring their gentle influence to
bmr on the fierce Teuton women, both bv example
and by the education imparted to their children, ^e
ruined Ghapd of St. Thecia, on an islet in the Severn,
may have been dedicated to her, as Walstod, a Sawn
bish<^, was set over thatpart at this time. Some
have tried to prove St. Thecia one of the nuns of
BarUni; to whom St. Aldhelm dedicated his "Treatise
on Vii^mity", but as this treatise was written before
706, and as St. Lioba went to Qermany about 748-M,
it is evident that her disciple who survived her was not
this nun of Barking.

Ochsenfurt gradually declined, most probably ow-
ing to its proximity to Kitaingen. There is no record
of its having any other abbess after St. Thecia. Kit-
zingen was used for secular purposes by the mar-
graves of Brandenburg, to whom it had been mort-
gaged from 1440 to lffii9, when it was redeemed by
Philip Adolphus, Bishop <^ Wttrzbun, and restored by
John Godfrey of Guttenberg as a school for the Ursu-
linee. In 1803 the institute of the UrBulmes was sec-
ularized, and to-day the abbey church is in tbe hands
of Protestants and serves as their parish church. The
tombs of St. Thecia and St. Addheid in this church
were profaned in the Peaaante* War, 1525J a fanatic of
IQtzingeD med the heads to play at skittles; whoi
itJu ditbdi was rriiwlt (1696), toe venerable bodies

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TBIOLA

564

won covered with rubbish. The monastery con-
tains a Catholic and a Protestant srhool for ^Is, a
Protestuit school for boys, apartments for some
teachers, and the district court. The abbess's castle
is private moperty .

Jida 8S.,TM.., VlII; Enja, The EtitOth Cvrrmmimmi St.
Smijaa {LiHidon. IDIl); Ahok., Lii* of SL liAa {Ldodin):
Hope. Si. Bonifacnmd Ma CotMrtM q/" Onwuiir OAoiloa, 1977] :
KwM. St, Bonifitei {Far», 1907); SitrrEH!. Bmifi^ia. do-

Qbbtbudb Casanova-

ThMla, Saintb.— I. Thecla of loonium, the re-
puted pupil of the Apostle Paul, who is the heroine
of the apocryphal '^Acta Pauli et Thecbe" (cf.
ApocKTraA). Our knowledge of bar is derived €9c-
oluaively from these Acts, whidi wpeazed about 180.
Acoarduig to this narrative Thecla was a virgin of
loonhim who was converted to Chzistianity aad led
to dedicate herself to perpetual vitginity by the
preaching of the Apostle Paul. Miraculoxuly saved
from death at the stake to which she had been con-
demned, she went with St. Puil to Antiodi in Pisidia
where she was thrown to the wild beasts and was again
saved from death by a miracle. After this she went
to Myra where the Apostle was, and finally to Seleucia
where she died. With the consent of St. Paul she had
acted as a "female Apostle" in |m>claiming the Gos-
pel. Notwithstanding the purely legaufiuy chaj>
aotcr of the entire story, it is not impossible that it is
connected with an historical person. It is easy to be-
lieve that a viigin of this name who was a native of
Io(mium was actually oonverted by St. Paul and then,
like many other women of the Apostolic and later
times, laboured in the woric of Christian missions (cf .
Hamack, "Die Mission und die Ausbreitung des
Christentums in den ersten drei Jahrhimdearten , 2ud
ed., I, 295; II, 68). In the Eastmi Church the wide
circulation of the Acta led to a neat veneration of
Thecla. She was called "Apostle and protomartyr
among women". Her venerati<»i was eif>eciaUy

rt in a number of Oriental oities, as Seleucia where
was buried, loonium, and Nioomedia. Her oult
i^q»eared very early also in Weatem Europe, par-
tnulariy in those districts where the GaUican Uturn^
prevailed; there is direct proof of this in the fouiui
century. Her name is given with various topo-
Kn4)hical comments (Nioomedia, Seleucia, Asia) on
several days in the "Martyrologium Hieronynu-
anum". Thus Thecla is m^itionM in this martyr-
ology on 22 February, 26 February, 12 Septenober,
23 8^tember, and 17 November (^'Mart. Hienm.".
ed. de Rossi-Ducbeeiie, 24, 36, 120, 124, 144). It
■eems entain that on all these datco, and probal^
also dn 20 and 21 December, the same St. Tbaela. the
pupil of St. Paul, is meant. In Bede's MartynMogy
(cf. Quentin, "Martyrotogai historiques du mo>;en
ue", 93) her name is mentioned with a brief notice
twcen from the Acte on 23 September, the same date as
that on which her feast is even in the present Roman
Martyrology. The GrauE Church celebrates ber
feast on 24 September and gives her the title of " Fl<o-
tomar^ among women and equal to the Apostles"
(cf. Nilles, "OaTendariumiitriuBque eodcde^ 1,283

bibliocraphy of AvocaiTnu; Houhst, DU Tluda-Aktm,
Mr* Vtrinnitwo u> Beurteiiung tn der Kirch* (Muniob, 1005).

n. We poasesa historically accurate acoounte of the
nMityrdom of a Christian of Gasa in Palestine named
Thecla. According to Eusebius ("De martyribus
Palestinoi.", 3) she was condemned to death in the
■eoond jrear of the great persecution (304-06) to-
gether with a Christian named A^^us and waa torn
to pieces in a honible manner by the wild beaeta to
which she was thrown. The present Roman Mai^
tyrology gives the feast of this saint under the date of
19 August. III. The "Martyxofc^um HioonvMU-
uum"^inentknis a HwcIs in emmexion with ft Zori-

mus among the martyrs whose feast was celebrated

on 1 June; these two saints were commemorated at
Antioch. Whether this Thecla was a local saint of
the Oriental metiopelis is not known. IV. A cata-
ocmib of St. ThecU on the Via Ostiensis, not far from
the burial place of St. Paul, is mentioned in the
seventh-century itmeraries to the graves of the Roman
martyrs. A eburch stood on this spot on a hiH over
the catacomb where the body of the saint rested. St.
Thecla must be r^arded as a Roman martyr. Ar^
mellini beheves that he has found the cOTietery ctf St.
Thecla (cf. Marucchi, "Les catacombes romaines",
Rome, 1903, p. 91 sqq.). V. The ManyTOk>gy or
St. Jerome mentions under 31 May (69), in con-
nexion with two martyrs buried on the Via Aurelia, a
nvup of martyrs named Tertulla, Lupus, Justa, and
Thecla. It is very possible that iMsidea the St.
Thecla buried on the Via Ostiensis anotho- Roman
female martyr bearing the same name was buried on
the Via Aurelia. Stiff we have no further account of
this group of martyrs, and just as little of a number of
Roman martyrs, amon^ wnom the name of a Thecla
also occurs, that are given under 20 March in the
present Roman Martyroloey.

VI. Inthe"MartvrologiumHieroimmanum" (68,
78) a long list of the names of Afncan martyrs is
given imder the dates of 10 May, 13 and 14 June^
and (»ch time a Thecla is mentioned. Nothing fur-
ther is known of this saint. In the legend o^ the
twelve brothera and martyrs, Donatus, etc. (cf . Acta
SS., Sept., I. 138-41), the parents of the brothers are
called Boniface and Thecla, and these two are also
given in the present Roman Martyrology as martyrs
undor 30 August. Apart from the piu^ legendanr
Acts just mmtioned nothing is knownof tnem. Vll.
In the "Acts of St. Hermagoras", which are equally
l^endaiy (Baronius, "Martyr. Romanum cum notis
Baronii", Venice, 1609,p.494)aSt.ThecIaof Aquileia
is mentioned together with several other martyrs who
are only known through this legend. Their feast is
observed on 3 September.

Hadcs, Kirduwck. DeuUMaitd*, 1, 175-79.

J. P. KnacH.

Thsft is the secret taking ot uiother's property
against the reasonable will of that other. It is- to be
noted that the word secret is not employed to exclude
the idea of the owner's presence and advertence whilst
the theft is being committed. It is used merely to
ngnify that the crime has been perpetrated without
violence towards him. Not only the taking, but the
keying or the use umustW of what belonas to an^
otMr against his will, is to be considered that. IIub
would happen, for instance, where one unwarrantably
refused to restore what had been entrusted to him as a
pledge or loan or only for safe-keeping. Likewise
where one would manage to ride on the railway with-
out paying any fare. For the notion of theft, the un-
wiUingnees of the owner to part with what is right-
fully his, is essential. If he be content, or if under
some circumstances he can Intimately be presumed
to be satisfied with what is done although perhaps di».
pleased at the manner of its doing, there is no theft
prqperly so called. Moreover his unwillingness must
bereasonable not simply insensate close-fistedness. He
is not justified in declining always and without r^ard
to ocoiditions to assent to the alienation of what be-
longs to him merely because it is his. Thus one in
danger of death from want of food, or suffering any
fcnmof extreme necessity^ may lawfuilv take from aiw
other as much as is required to meet nis present dis-
tress even though the possessor's oppoaition be en-
tirely clear. Neither, therefore, woulahebe bound to
restitution if his fortunes subsequently were notab^
bettered, supposmg that what he had converted to hia
own use was perishable. The reason is that individr
ual ownenhip ttf the goods of this worlds though '

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ocvdiBc to die natunl law, yidda to the itBonca- and
more aacred right oonfeirod by natural law upon
every man to avail himself of sucb thiwts am are necea-
saiy for his own preservation. St. ThcHoaa (U-U,
Q. bcvi, a. 7) deob^es that in auoh atraita what istakco
becomes, because of the dire need ezperienoed, one's
very own, and so cannot be laid to be stolen. Thia
doctrine is sometimea expreaaed 1^ saying that at
Budt a time all things beoome oommon, andtbus one
reduced to suoh nttcr deatitutiiuk only exeniiea hia
ri^t.

The sin of theft is of itself grievous, because it vio-
lates the great virtues of justice and charity. St.
Paul XX CfNT., vi, 10) raumentes it as <hm of the trana-
gressioiiB which bars the offenda from the kingdom of
heaven. Still, as happens with r^ard to otb^ delin-
quNicies, its guilt may often be venial. This is par-
ticularly true when the value of what is filched is in-
oonaiderable, or as the theologians say, is not grave
mattn'. The determinati(Hi of what is grave matter,
whoee taking, namely, is prohibited under pain of mor-
tal sin, is beset with great difficulties ana haa offered
room for widesiweaa difference of opiaion. It is
agreed, however, that a distinction is to be drawn b^
tween relatively and abeolutely grave matter. The
grievousness of th^t seems to depend on the wi^ in
which the purposes which m^e the renwotrng of
property rights obligatory are set at naught, lacae
ends are, firat the preservation of peace and harmony
among individuals, and then the guaranteeing of the
aeeurit/<rf humjm society, as well as the providing an
incentive for each one to pursue an induatrioua
net, A man who steals may bid d^anoe to either or
bo^ of these ends. So far as the first is concerned it
ia obvious that the unjust appropriatiMi of goods to
suoh a value as to destroy this concord and furnish rea-
sonable ground for great sorrow to the owner must be
routed a mortal sm. That amount is clearly not a
constant quantity. It will vary according to the cir-
cumstances of the person in jured as well as of plaee and
time in whii^ commodities nuy be mme or nsB valo-
able. It wiD even take account of the qieoialrela*
tionahip which perchance the thief holds to the one ha
has despoiled, as when children steal from th^ parents.
The sum so ascertained is termed the relativuy grave
matter. Thus the theft of an amount eaual to a
dill's wages from an ordimury artisan would unques-
tionably be a mortal sin. The same thing must b«
said of the talung of an insignificant sum from a be»>
gar. Thec^ogians teach that this method t4 estab-
Bshiug the grievousness of thrft cannot be emi^yed
indefinitely and exclusively. There is an aosofuta
sum which it is alwi^ a mortal nn to take even frmn
the wealthiest person or corporation. Wore this not
so the very fabric of human society would be im-
perilled, the stimulus to labour and entorpriae ex-
tinguished, and the axe laid to the root of that oonfi-
denoe which must accompany human idtereourse.

In the attempt to compute this sum in mon^y theo-
logians are not at one; not ia this suiprising. In the
aettlemmt ot the question we have to rdckon with a
most important factor, that is wiA Uie purchasing
power (A mone^ which is not the same everywhere nor
at all times. Writers on economics tell us that for the
iMt hundred years or so this value has decreased from
thirty to forty per cent. Of course, the lees the value
of money at any given time or in any region the more
of it would be required to constitute a mortal sin <tf
theft, alwavs, however, within Uie limits of tiie win-
eiple already laid down. Oomparisons instituted be>
tweeatbe United States and Europe in the matter of
wages prevailing and cost of living, seem to point un-
mistakably to tm conidusion that money has less pu>
ehasiDg ei4)acity here than abroad. Hence wnere
reputwle moruists assign as absolutely grave mat-

rive to fix the amount-for this oountry as ranging
from ten to fifteen dollars. One of the greatest (H
modern theologians, Palmieri, writing in Europe, |ro-
fesses bis willingness to stand sponsor for the opinion
wfaidi makes the sum twaity dollars. He gives as his
reason the greatfy lessened value of money m our own
time. We may not feel obU^ to accept wis decision,
but it is at any rate an indication <tf the traid of ex-
pert opinion. There is no doubt but that small pil-
lerings perpetrated at different times, whether to the
prejudice of one or of many owners, can eventually
coalesce and reach a sum forbidden under pain of mor-
tal sin. The contrary doctrine was condemned by In-
nocent XI. The reason^ of course, is that the damage
wrought is soiotts. Una coalescence may be brou^t
about by the ^>ecifia intention of the thief in his petty
stealing to ultimately arrive at a conspicuous amount.
When several persons join forces to steal from another
and the loss incuired is notable, then each one con--
tracts the guilt of grievous sin, even though his own
ccmUibution to the wrong-dotng has been out small.
One who hoards the proceeds <tf his petty thefts is
chargeable with mortal sin when the sum accumulated
is grave. Even when he has dif^ioeed of his Ill-got-
ten goods as fast as they were acquired, bis thievings
will stin be heU to coalesce unless there has been a
considerable interval of time between them.

SiATKX, Ifonuoi of i/ortl Tktolon <N«w York, 1008) : Ballbb-
iHt, Opu* thtologieum moraU (Pnts, 1800): OmcoT, fntM*-
Hum thtaloglm mmiUa (Lenviia. ISSB); BufxnoKi. MmeUridtm
Mrato<Hau, UKT).

JOBBFH F. DSUNT.

ThMna (Dwui) o( Itorw, chronicler, d. about
860. Vei7JitUB is known of his life: all that is certain
is tiutt he was assistant Bishop of Trier and was a
warm friend of Walafiid Strabo. These facts are
learned from some letters and verses still in existence.
It cannot be positively determined whether he is iden-
tical with Thegaubert, provost of the Monastery of
St. Cassius at Bonn, who placed the relics of Sts.
Chrysanthus and Daria in the church at MQnstereifel.
He wrote a history of Louis the Pious, "Vita Ludovici
imperatoris", an unsatisfactory narrative written In
the form of seanty amiab. It mgins with St. Arntdf
of Meti, describes the vicissitudes of the brothers of
Louis, and gives a more detailed accoimt of Louis's
reign during the years 814-635. The later narrative
is probably oy anothra- author. Strabo wrote an in-
troduction to the chronicle. The narrative is very
partisan, as the merits of Louis are exalted while the
actions « Lotbair and of a number of bishops, espe:
fllalty of Bisluv Ebo of Bsinis, are ssvsrdy eritidsed.
The best edition of this work is that of Perts in the
" Mon. Oerm. Hist. : Scriptores", II, 586-604. It was
also md>liahed in P. L., CVI, 406-428, and was trans-
lated into Qerman by Jasmimd (Berlm, 1850) and by
Wattenbaoh (Ldpcig, 1889).

Wrtmmm (Qflttiann. 1870); ^traantM, OMcAieUaautftm, 1
" ISU). in.: PonuMr, BtbUellma (Bnrtia. 1896),

pAimicnjs ScsuoBB.

Thaliwr, Augubtin, theologian and historian, b.
at Breelau, 11 April, 1804; d. at CiviUvecchia, 8 Aug.,
1874. He was the son of a shoemaker. As a boy he
was a pupil at the gymnasium of St. Matbias at
&esUu, and studied theology in the same city. To-
getha with his. bnUw Anthfmy he wrote, "Ein-
nkhnug der erawungeoen Ehelosi^dt bei den Gdst-
lioben"^ (1828). At the advice of this brother he
abandoned theology and turned his attention to law,
whidk he studied at Breslau and Halle, and in 1829 he
obtained a decree in law at the latter universitv. He
then received a scholardiip from the Prussian Govern-
ment, which enabled him to make researches in Bel-

tar, six dollars for Italy, eight for Belgium, and from |^am| England, and Fnuiee as to the sources of canon
MTCD to tea for England, it will not be dasmed mm uw. He finalqr went to Rom^ where he settled pe(»

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mBOOitly. Here, under the infiuence of Count Rei-
sach-then reotor of the Propaganda and later cardinal,
the change in his oi}inioiis was completed. In I880
he wrote the "Geechichte d&c geistlichen BildunsBan-
stalten", and in 1836 the "Disquiflitiones criticie , on
the sources of canon law. Soon after this he became a
priest and entered the Oratory of St. I^ulij} Neri. In
the suooeeding years he wrote the folliiwii^ wodks:
"Die neuesten Zust&nde der kath. Kirche in Polen
und Ruasland" (1841): "Die Rackkehr der regier-
enden H&user Braunschweig uad Sachsen zur kath.
Kirehe" (1843); "ZustHnde der kath. Kirche in
Schlesien 1740~S8" (1846); "Kaidinal Frankenberg"
(1850). He was commissioned by Pirn IX, who had
given him a position in the Vatican Library in IBfiO,
to write the "Gesehichte dee Fontifikats Klemens
XIV" (1853; Itidiantnuislation, 1855). Intbbwoiit
he diowed himself an opponent of the Jesuits, with
whom he had been on good terms until 1844, so that
the work was forbidden in the States of the Church.
In 1856 Pius IX appointed Theiner prefect of the
Vatican archives. He now published his valuable
collections of authorities drawn from these treasures:
"Die Fortsetsuog der Annalen dee Baronius" (3 vols.,
1866): " Vetera monumentaHui^arii^ GStoIs- 1S58-
60); ''Pokmie et Uthuanin" (4 vob., 1860-64);
"Slavorum moidionalium" (2 vols^ 1863); "Biber-
norum et Sootorum" (1864); "Codex dominii tem-
poralis ^poetoUca sedis^' (3 vols., 1861-62); "Monu-
menta spectantia ad unionem ecclesiarum Grteote et
Romans" (1872). Both before and during the Vati-
can Council he was in close connexion with the oppo-
nents of Infallibility. Because he communicated to
them tiie order tii buaaness (rf UieCoimoil <rf Trait that
had been kept secret he was deposed from his diniitiea
and offices. Whether he died at peace wiw the
Church is doubtful. His correspondence with the
Old Catholic Professor Johann Friedrich during the
years 1870-73 shows that he had the same views as the
latter; on the other hand Count Hermann Stainlein
asserts that he kftew Theiner during this period as a
loyal Catholic priest. There is no doubt as to his
bigfi scholaiiEdiq) and his Boirieea to histuy. After
his death appeared the wort;, "Acta genuins Cmdiii
Tridentini'' (1874), very imperfectly edited.

OiBiOBB, P. TMrur uitd dit Jumttn (Mumhdm, 187S);
bte MS SaaUiuttin (Loipiii, 1900). 983.

Theism. See God.

Tlulflpte, a titnlar see in Byncene. Tnm an in-

Boription we learn tiiat it was a colony. An import
tant network of Roman roads here branches out, jom-
iag the city to Cilium and Theveete, on the north; tP
Gsisa and Oabes, on the south. In the uxth oentury
Thelepte became the residence of the militacy gov-
ernor of Byzacene. Prooopios (De .£dificiis, VI, 6)
says that the dty was fortified by Justinian. We
have tiie names 01 sevoal biahops: JulianuB, present
at the Council of Carthage in 256; Donatianus, who
assisted at the Conference of Carthage in 411^ he is
said to have held a council in hie episcopal city m 418,
but this is uncertain (Ullemont, "M6mc^es pour
servir i rhist. eccl.'',X, 790-3). Thdepte was the na-
tive place of St. Fulsentiua, Bishop of Ruspe. We
have also the names <x other bishops: Frumentius, ex-
iled by Himeric, 484, after the Conference of Carthage;
Stephen, -preeoit at the Council of Bysaeene, 641.
The nuns of Thelepte may be seen at Medinet eW
Kedima, in Tunisia, a litue to the north of Gafsa.
The Byzantine citadeL in utter rtdns, ooeupiee the
centre of the city. Th^ are also the remaint of
baths, a theatre, and of ten ohurchei recently dis-
covered, one of which had five naves.
DiBHU Rapport tur dma mteaiMu daiu VAfriQM <hi Htrd is
<ircMM« dM minioif aCMNii/latM* (Paria, 1883). IT. 9%-

SiS; Totnotn,
aWyottoAM (Puis, 1

Thmlw^i'ft, a titular see, niftMgan of AniMw in

the Helleepont. There was a town of this name near
tiie mouth of the Thennodon, tJie modem Thome-
Tchai, mentioned by Herodotus (IV, 86) and by most
classical authors. Scylax eaDs it a.GredE town Trtiile
Diodorus (II, 44) makes it an Amaionian foimdation.
Mythokigy made this legkn the native land of these
warrtor^women.

After Mithridatee withdrew his troops from Cy-
sicus, Themisoyra was besi^ed by LuouUus and was
courageously defended by the inhabitants. The
town must nave been destroyed on this occasion, for
neither Mela nor Strabo mentions it, while the latter
treats extensively the country of Thmiscyra, which he
makes the subject of great wlogy. It is, however,
mentioned by Ptolemy (V, vi. 8). It ip not found in
the "Notitiffi cpiscopatuum" nor in the "Oriois
christianus" of Le Quien. It was situated near
the present Therme on the Black Sca, in the sanjak
of Samsoun and the vilayet <rf Tr^iiond. The coun-
try is one of the richest and most beautifid in tibe
world.

Smith, Diet, of Rimum Otaanphih •. v.; PAra-BMHUM,
W9rUi*vA itr Qrime^tekm ESgmmamm, ■. v.; Tmxua. Am»
Uitmtn (Paris, 18S2). Wi.

S. VAiiai.

TbenalKmlam, a titular see in Ruygia Pacatianik
suffira^an of Laodicea. Themisonium was a city ot
Phry^, but near the limits of Pisidia, so that at one
time it was said to be in that province. The inhabi-
tants relate that during an mvasion of the Gauls,
warned by a dream Which they attributed to Uie gods,
Hercules, Apollo, and Hermes, they took refuge wi^
their wives and children in a ^otto or cave tlurty
stadia from their city, and plac«l at the entrance ftv
protection the statues of the three divinities. The
coins of the city show the god, Lycabas Soson. It
may be identified with the village of Kara Eyuk Ba-
lar vilayet of Smyrna.

LeQmen (Oriens christianus, I, 813) menticms the
name of only one bishop of Themisonium. but he
really belongs to Temenothyne. On the otoer hand
(ibid., 821),tbere was a see at Thampeiopolis, with two
bishops: Zosimus, who lived in 451, and John, present
at the Council of Constantinople, 869. These two
sees are certainly one and the same: Thampeiopolis,
mentioned in the "Notitise cpiscopatuum" from the
tenth to the thirteenth century, is no other than
Themisonium. If the earlier "Notitire episcopa*
tuum " says nothing of this see it is probably because it
was united with A^the Come, <A whose bidiope there
is no notice, and which disappeared from the later
"Notitin". To the two bimops mentioned above
we may add Magnus, present at the Council of Seleu-
cia, 359.

Surra, t>iH.efGr.andttom.QMt.,M.v.:'RMiaA.T, Ada Jlwr
(LoBdoa. mia. 130; IDU, rJUOKM mnd BUko9rie$ afPkrvaia
(New Yoik, im), 260, 274, ud purim.

S. PfTRID^S.

Thfoard, Loms-jACQtma. Babon, chemist, b. at
Louptigre, near Nogent-euivSeine, Aube, France, on
4 May, 1777; d. at Paris, 21 Jane, 1857. In 1865 his
native village obtuned the right to add his name, so
theplaceis now known as Louptigre-Th^nard. Whea
quite young he went to Paris, and sought permesion
to work at chemistry with Vauquetin as his master,
it was only by the intercession of the sisters the
great chemist that he was taken into the laboratoiy,
Vauquelin like him being veiy poor. He war unable
to pay the small regular Tee of twen^ france a month.
After three years' work, when he undertook to leetore,
liis provincial accent and appearance told apunst
him, and he made the most earnest efforts to over-
oome these defects. He cut down his meagre cspeoeee
in order to save eno\i^ to go to the theatre and hew
tiie actors. His first or^al memoir was published
in 1799, and for half a centory heeontinned toponr

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THURHSTIB

567

THIOBALD

From ft litha«raphio Portrait

out a flood of otmtributioiu to the scieoce of cbemto-
try, la a aiiigle mimth at the request of the MuuBter
of flie Intoior be invented Th&uud Uue,ji pigment
for Um use of the great Sevres faetoiy. The mm of
tiiis is cobah. He was intimatdy associated in bis
scientific work with G^-Lussac for many years. In
1813 he published his " Treatise on Chemistnr which
for twaity-£ve years had a gtteA vcwue. so that it was
said that nea^ all £un^ learned cnemistiy from

Tb£nard. After
many honoun he
was elected to a
seat in the Acad-
emy of Sciences.
He at onoe set off
for his home to
receive th^ con-
gratulations of his
aged pother. He
had found a copy
c^" The Imitation
of Christ"inlar^
print, that his
Another oould read
without passes.
This he took with
him, and he used
to say that the
finding^ <tf this
bookwith Hslarge
type was one of
bis great discoveries. His work covered so great a
ranse that there is not room here to tell of it. Di-
onde of hydrogen was one of his best-known dis-
ooveriee; he worked on the electrolysis of the oxides at
the same time as Sir Humphry Davy^ discovered
boron, and came near antedating Davy m the isola-
tion of chlorine. Most <^ his family died before him
and his last years were filled with sadness. He was
made a baron by Charles X in 1825 and served in the
le^lature.

PuttenU eulocium* by Saimt Hilubs and Piloqh in CompU*
tendtu dt PAeadtmlt im •aimtm (1887}, 1385 «».

T. CCOMOB Sloams.

Thennesui, a titular suffragan see of Pelusiom in
Augustamuica Prima. Cassiao (Collat., XI, 1-3)
tpves a very exact desoription of the tittle island which
mohidfle vm bisboinio. Its inhabitants were given
eol^ to oommeroe owio^ to the lack of arable land.
The Distw^ of this locality had just died when Cas-
siaa arrived there; and thc^ were about to name a
Bucoeesor. In 4fil Heron, another of its bishops, was
eondemned by the Coimcd of CEbalcedoa for not hail-
ing anathematised the Patriarch Dioscorus (Mansi,
'^neil.coU.",VI,572;VII,52). During the uahth
century tiw Fatiiaroh ai Autioch, Diwymis of Tell
MahTO, landed tbrae (Bar-H^nmis, "ffist. eodes.
I, 300). About 870 the monk Bernard was well re-
ceived there by the inhabitants, who were almost all
QuiiEAians (Tooler and Molinier, " Itinwa hieroeoly-
mitana", I, 313). Thennesus is also mentioned in a
Cwtio "NotitiaepiscQpatuum" (Roug£, "Gtog. anc
de la Basse Egypte", 156). It is to-day Telt-Tenis, at
the extrranity of an island in Z^ake Mensaleh, near the
Sues Canal. There still remain there ruins and tomba
of the Roman era.

Lb Qvism, Onma chrit., 11, 549; Oxun. OtorgU CyprU £>»-
terip. orb. romani (LeiiHis, 1S90), 113; Aaauiauxi, L» gteg. <fa
tSgwr" A r*povt» covU (Psria, 18S8) . 607.

S. Vau^

Theobald, Saimt, b. at Provins in the Frovinoe of
Cbampame, Prance, in 1017; d. at Salapiao In Itafy
80 June, 1066. He was a mfonber of a noble family.
In 1054 without the knowledge (rf his parents he and
his friend Waltw gave themselves to the life of her-
mits at Sussy in the Ardennes, then at Pittlngea (nov
Pettingea) m the Diocese of Trier, a district that

day belongs to the Grand Duo^v of Luxemburg.
Fh>m this place tiie two made a pilgrimage to Coin>
postella in SiHun, and afterwards returned into the
twritory <rf Irier. They made a second pilgrimage to
Rome. As they returned they desired to go to Pales-
tine by way of Venice, but Walter's strength failed
near Salanico in the Diocese of Vicenza. They there-
fore settlea in a solitary place near Salanigo. After
two years Walter died. A large number of disciples
eager for salvation gathered around Theobald, who
severed himself more and more from an earthty things.
Hie bishop ordained him priest. His mother, who
cams to Vint him, did not widi to leave him a^un,
and fed thenceforth under his direction a religious
life.

Shortly before his death he entered the Camaldolese
Order. Numeroua miracles, some occurring before
and some after iiis death, are reported of him. Alex-
ander U (1061-1073) pmnitted the public veneration
of St. Thewald. His veneration spread especially in
It^, France, Belgium, and Luxonbui^. He is the
patron saint of charcoal-burners.

Adta SS.. June, V. S88-608; BibHdhtea hagiogr. lot. (Bmnels,
1898-lBOO), llS»-4; WansBBDiifa, Dtr kk 7«M>6aU (Liurai-
beii, 1870); Auoo. F«« it mint mhmd (Iteiu. 1873).

KunoHS LOfiiiBB.

Theobald (Tedbau>), Archbishop of Canterbury:
d. 18 April, 1161. He was a Norman by descent and
became a Benedictine monk at Bee late in the eleventh
or early in Uie twelfth centu^. In 1127 he was made
|nrk>r, and abbot in 1137. On 28 Dec., 1138, he was
elected archbishop and was consecrated on 8 January
following. He went to Rome for his pallium and took
part in the second Lateran Council. He proved a
wise and capable prelate, devout tn his pnvate life,
charitable, and a lover of learning. During the
civil war he adhered to King Steven, whom he
crowned, though for a time he was at the Empress
Maud's court, and alw^ wwked for Mbs Angevin
succesuon.

In his household he collected many youiu men of
ability, including his successor St. Thomas of Canter-
bury, and he encouraged the formation of scholars
and statesmen of a new type. He was the first to in-
troduce civil law into ^igland, and founded a law
school at Canterbury, inducing the famous jurist
Roger Vacarius to come and lecture there. This in-
troduction of Roman law had important effects on the
fortunes of the common law oi Ensland, and inci-
dentally led to the establishment of Uie Inns of Court
to maintain the national body of law against the
newly introduced code. Theobald suffered many
difficulties owing to the u)pointment of his suffragan
bishop, Henry of Winchester as leicate. Among
these was the appointment of St. WiUiun of Ycnrk as
archbishop of that see, which Theobald felt bound to
owose. Celestine II did not reappoint Henry of
B&ia as legate and finally in 1160, or p>oesibly before,
Theobald was named legate hy Blessed Eugene III,
probably on the recommendation of St. Bernard (Ep.
238).

When the pope summoned the English bishops to a
council at Rams the Idng forbade them to go, where-
upon "Theobald ddBed the king and vrait. Though he
saved the king from excommunication, his property
was confiscated and he was banished. The pope then
put England under interdict, which was disregarded
except m Cantert)ury, and finally the king and arch-
bishop were reconciled in 1148. In 1151 Theobald
held a I^atine council in London. In the foUowing
year, acting on papal authority, he refused to crown
£ustoce, the king s son, and was again compelled to
seek flignt. While in Normandy be reconciled Henry
of Anjou to Stephen, with the result that in 1153 the
Treaty of Wallingford ended the CSvil War. On
St^hen's death Hieobald crowned Henry II, and dur-
ing the rest of his life, though not withouL^mdety tax

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668

the future of the Church, he maintained good relationi
with the Court, eepecially with hit former disd^
Thomas, who had now become chancellor. Be ex-
pressed to John of Salisbury his hope Uiat Thomas
would succeed him. Throughout his pontificate h»
had continual trouble with the monks of Christ-
ehuroh, but in every instance his 'action was jus-
tified finally. He was buried in Canterbury Cathe-
dral, where eighteen years afterwards his body was
found incorrupt.

The CAnmtclM of Oertau op Cantxkbukt, Wiluak of
Malhbsbvst, lULra bb Dioro, Etomr or HmmiroDOW, Gi-
BAUtD* CAHBsms in BotU Sarut, ud m*ny otiwr mamnwX
ehroniolen inoludiac Hoirurrr, dmwielm of tht rwigtu ofSttf^m,
Btnry II, eto. in B. S. (London. 1884-9) ; UateriaU for Ou ffw-
torv ofSt. Tkamat d Btektt in R. 8. (London, 187ft-S5); Mno,
Vila Tluobaldi in P. L., CL., 734; TImbaldi Ccmtinuifuii Epit-
wpi SpiiUUt « Tmtammtnm in P. L., CXCtX, ud CXC: Bn-
iitQTOH. BUIory of Hmry //(London, 1700); LutOAUt, HiMont

8' England (London, 18Iv-W) ; Hoox, Iami af the ArM-M^ of
snfirtery (London, 1800-84); Haut, DotaipUM Cakiwtmi, U
OMidon, 180A): NoROAn, fenatand undo- Mc ^Hfwte Kiitt
CLcwdoo, 1SS7): HoMTisZKi*. Art. Aiof.,*. t,

Edwin Bukton.

Thtoerai^, a form of oivO government m which
Ood himself is reoognized as the h»d. The laws of
the commonwealth are the commandments of God,
and they are promul{^ted and expounded by the
accredited representatives of the invisible u^y,
real or suppmed — generally a priesthood. Thus m
a theocracy civic outieB and functions fonn a purt
of rd|in«i, implying tin absorption of the State by
the C£urch or at least the supremacy of tlw lattCT
over the State. The earliest recorded use ctf the
term "theocracy" is found in Joeephus, who appa-
rently coins it in explaining to Gentile readers the
organisation of the Jewish commonwealth of his
time. Contrasting this with other teams of govern-
ment— monarchies, oligutihies. and repubues — he
adds: "Our legislator [Moses] had no regard to any
of these forms, but he ordained our government to
be what by a strtuned expression, may be tmned a
theocracy [9»KfMTtaw\, by ascribing the power and
authority to God, and by persuading all the people
to have a r^ard to him as the author of all good
things" (Against Apion, book IL 16). In this
connexion Joeephus enters into a long and rather
rambling discussion of the topic, but the entire pas-
sage is mstructive.

The extmt to which the ideals of the Mostuo theo-
cracy woe realized in the history ot the Chosen
People is a matter of controvosy. Many eminent
sc^iolwB are inclined to restrict its sway afanost
exclusively to the post-exilic period, when unques-
tionably the hierocratic rule and the ordinances of
the Priestly Code were more fully carried into effect
than in any of the preceding epochs. Be that as it
may, and waiving critical discussion of the Old-
Testament writings with i^di the sohitkm of 1^
question Is intimately connected, attention mi^ be
called to the fact that a beli^ in . the theocratio
rulMdiip of nations and tribes is, in form more or
less crude, characteristic of the common fund of
Semitic rdigious ideas. The various deities were
considered as having a territorial jurisdiction, fight-
ing for their respective peoples uid defending the
lands in which they dwelled. This is amplv proved
by the extant historic and relwious recoras d the
Assyrians and Babylonians, andthe same idea finds
occadonal expression in the Old Testamoit Itseff
(see. for instance, Judges, xi, 23 sq.; I Kinss, xxvi. 19:
Ruth, i, 16, 10, etc.)- In a passage of the Book of
Juds^, Gideon is represented as refusing to accei>t
the Kingship offered to him by the people after his
victory over the Madianites, in terms implving that
the establishment of a pennanent monarcny would
invdve dislo^ty to the rule U Yafawdi. "I wiU
not rule over you, neither shall my son rule oror you,
but the Lonl Aall role over yaa*' (Judcea^ viU, 28).

More explicit and stronger expression is given to
the same view in the I^lrst Book of Kings in connexion
with the appeal of the people to the aged prophet
Samuel to constitute a king over them efta the
manner of the other natiima. The request is dis-
pleasing to Samuel and to the Lord ffimself, who
commands the prophet to accede to the wishes of
the people that they may be punished for their rejec-
of His kingship. "And Oie Lord said to Samuel:

tioni _ _

Hearken to the voice of the people in ab that they
say to thee. For they have not rejected thee, but
mCj that I should not rei^ over uiem" (I Kings,
viii, 7). Auun in diap. xu Samud, in his finales-
course to the people, reproaches them in similar
words: "you said to me: Nay, but a king shall
reign over us: whereas the Ixmf your God was your
king". And at the call of the prophet the Lmtl
sends thunder and rain as a sign of His displeasure,
"and vou shall know and see that you yourselves
have done a great evil in the sight of the Lord, in
dedring a king over you".

The bearing ctf these passa^ on the' historic
institutMMi of the theocracy vanee in the estimation
ot different scholars aoorading to the date assined
by them to the sources to which the passages b^^.
Wellhansen and his school, chiefly on a priori grounds,
consider them as retouches oS the post-exilic period,
but it is far more probable that they form a part of
a much older tradition, and indicate that a bdief
in the Lind's kinfahip mrer the Chosen People existed
imor to the eetablisament of the earthly monarchy.
At the same time, there is no sufficient wairant for
aasummg on the authority ot dieee texts that the
theocratic rule in Israel came to an end wiUi the
inauguration of the monarchy, as is plain from the
narration of the Lord's covenant with King David
and his descendants (II Kings, vii, 1-17). Accorxling
to the terois of this covenant the earthly monarch
remains under the control of the heavenly King, and
Is constituted His vic^erent and representative.
And this direct dependence of the king on the Lord
for wisdom and guidance is assumed t&ouehout the
historical records of the Hebrew monarwy. The
supnae test of the worthiness of any king to occupy
his exalted position is his fidelity to the Lord and Hia
revealed law. The historical books, and still more
the writings of the prophets, voice the oonstuit bdief
that God CMreisea a qiecial and eflSeient rule over
UnA by blee^i^s, punnhmenta, and ddivennees.
In the post-exilic period the hiei'ocratic rule beeaoie
dMninant feature of the Jewish theocracy, and,
m spite of its limitations and perversions, it pre-
pared, according to the designs of a wise Providence,
the way for the Hew Dispensation — the Kingdom
Heaven so often mMtianed in the Gospels.

Visovaoox, DtaUmnaSn d« 1b EtbU. v.

Jahm F. Dnsoou.

TlMOdard, Saznt, Archbidiop of Narixmne, b. at
Montauban about 840; d. at the same place 1 May,
8^. He seems to have belonged to a noble and
weiUthy funily and to have studied with great seal
both ecdesiastioal and secular learning in his youth:
He gave proof of his education and skitTwhen he was a
subdeaoon at a synod at Toulouse that was called
upon to settle a dispute between the Jews of the plaGe
and Bishop Bernhard. In this way the iwesiding
officer of the synod, Archbishop Sigebod of Nar-
bonne (873-885), came to have so him an ppinion <rf
Theodavd that he made him his archdeacon. In thia
position Theodard distinguished himself by faultleen
mor^, modesty, piety, and charitableness, and «as
"eyes to the buna, feet to the lame, a father to the
poor, and the consoler of all the oppressed". After
Sigebod's death (885) Theodard was elected his 8uc>
cessor, consecrated on 16 August, 885, and in 880
vent to Rome to obtain the pallium from St^en VX.

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Theodnd nudntained with encTQr t&e ri^ti Iris m
and its uftasuw, raaired the davages that th«ee
diooMtB had BufiFered trom the incuraioiw <rf tho Sar-
aoenf, restored the cathedral, and save up his rev-
enues and the treasures of bis churoh for the release
of esptrn Christians. At a later date he was able to
replace the treasures he had used. He died where hs
had lived in the Benedictine Abbey of St. Martin and
was buried there. The abbey bore his name from
845. Xt was latw phindered 1^ the Huguenots; sines
thn an the relies of St. Theodard, excepting a small
TSBUunit, have dnwpeared.

Aett 88., M», liuf-se: ekrittiana, VI (Puff, 17W).

OvTAn. mrfiA. lMaMa«aBtraU&.185r:Siid«d..Fu^

Kluubnb LOmxB.

Etymologioally oonsidarsd thsocFcy

(Ml 91m) siipufies the justification of God. The
tens was faitrodnoed into i^osophy by Leibnis
(q. ▼.), who, in 1710, published a work entitled:
MBS de Th^cte sur hi bont6 de Diau, h libsrtd

de Thomme et rori^ne du mal". Tbe pnrpcss of
the emKf was to ihow that the evS in th» world doca
not eaoBiet wiUi the goodness of Qod, that, indeed,
•lotwiUiBtsndfaig its maur evik, the world is the Imi*
of an jKMsible worlds (see Ommm). The problsm
cnrif (see Evn.) has from earliest times eMTOSsed
the attention of philoeoj^iers. The wett-known
aeeptie Pierre Bsylehad teiied in his "Dietionnaire
historique et eritiqoe" the goodness and omnqxitakos
id God OD aocount of the suMbib enarisMed in
this earthly life. The "ThteiKete^ of LeiOMs was
direeted maii^ against Bayi^ Imitating the exam-
ple crif Ldbnis otW phikisophara bow called thm-
treatisw on the problem t4 evil "tbeodlcaee". As in
a tiiorougb treatment ol the cpintson the psoofs both
of the existence and of the attrSmtee of God cannot
be disreganied, ow entire kaowled^ of God was
nadnaUy broo^^ withm the doraam of tiieediey.
^us tlieodicy came to be qmoinrinoiis with natural
tbeolosy (tkaoloaia nalHndia}, that is, the dq>wt-
mokt of met^myaios wliich psescnts the positive
pmfe tor the emslenoe and attributes ot Qod and
sotves Uiewpoangdiffiettkies. Theodicy, therefore,
may be defined as the snenoe which treats God
Umnigfa ih» exerdse of reason alone. It ii a soienoe
because it iystematieaUy arranges the oonteot of our
knowledge aboat God uod demonstrates, in the strict
mmt of tiie word, tuA ot its im^Mwitiom. Bnt it
wpeals to witare as its only source of procrf, iriwreas
wecdogy sets lorth our knowlsdge of God as drawn
from we eonroas of supernatural rsvetation.

He first and moet important taric of theodicy is to
prove the existawe ^ God. It is of course preeup*
posed that Uie supraasBsiUe can be known and that
the limite of eimerieBoe pare and immediate can be
transeeoded. The justification of this assumptiw
must bo fumiriisd 1^ other branches id fritUoaof^y,

e. g. cfitmolagy and gmeral meti^ihyaios. The nat-
tnrd demonstramlitar of God's etistenoe was always ao>
ceptedbythemajont^crfthdsts. Humeand Kant were
the first to amdcw u the minds of would*be thetsts
aerious doubt on this pomt. Not that these philoeo-
I^ers preeented any solid reason against the long-
tested arguments for the existmce of God, but because
ia their systems a scientific proof of the eidMeaee erf
» BOPODatural being is impossible. New mm of
flsti^diing theism were now sought. The Seotdi
School led by Thomas Reid taught that the fact of
the existence of God is aooepted by us without knowl-
edge of reasons but simpfy by a natural impulse.
Tlut God exists, this sebool said, is one of the chiM
meti^ihysical pnndples that we aooc|)t not because
tbey are evident in themselves or because tiiey can
be Moved, but because oommra sense obUns us to
aoeapi them. In Gflnnaiqr tbo Sohool of JmoU

tMi^ that our reasm is i^le to peroeive the mipnr
sen^lew Jaeobi distingui^ed three facultiee: sense,
reason, and und«6tan£Dg. Just as sense has im-
mediate perception of toe material so has reason
iuanectiate peneptioo of the immaterial, while the
understanding; brings these pereeptjosB to our con-
BoioUBnssa UM imites them to one another (StOckl,
"Gesohichte dsr neueren Pbiloeophie". II, 82 sqq.).
God's existSDoe, l^ien, cannot be proved— Jaeobi, like
Kut, rejected the abet^te value of the principle of
eausamy— it must be felt by the mind. In his
"Emile'', Jean-Jacques Rousseau asserted that when
our understanding ponders over the existence of God
it encounters aothmg but oontradicticns; the impuJses
<tf our hearte, however, are of more value thui the
undentandh^ nid these proclaim deaify to us the
tratln of natural reUgion, e. g., the odstenoe oi Qod,
the inmuMtality of the soul, etc. The same ^eory
was advocated in Germaiqr FWedrioh Schlei^
nmeher (d. 18S4), who sssumed an inner rdigioiu
asnse by means of whvA we feel rehgious truths.
Aeoofding to Sdileiermacher, religiim consists solely
In this mner perception, donnatic doctrines are
UBSssential (9tOokL kw. dt., 199 sqq.). Nearly all
Protestant tbeologluis who have not yet sunken
into atiidsm follow in Sehlnennacber's footst^M.
They general^ teaeh that Uw exiatmoe of God can-
not be demonstrated; osrtainty as to this truth is
on^ fnmkbed us by iuner experimee, feeling, and
peroepticMi.

As is weU known the Modernists also deny the
deraoostntbility «F the eodstenee of God. According
to them we can only know something of God by means
of the vital inunanence, that is, under favourable
ckmmstanoes the need of the Divine dtmnant in our
■uboonseiousness beoomes conscious and arouses that
rel^us feelhig or expnience m which God reveals
4umsdf to us (see McAminm). In condemnation oi
this view the oath i^piinst Modernism fonnulated by
Pius X says: "Deum . . . naturah rationis lumine
per e« qua facta sunt, hoc est per visibilia crsationis
opera, tanquam ransam per dfectus certo cognosd
adeoque dcmcmstrari eUam posse, inofiteor", i. e.,
I dedare that by the natural uAt of reason, God can
be eerttasAy known and therefore His existence dem-
onstrated Uuotwh the things that are made, i. e.,
through tiw vidble works crf^ creation, as the cause is
known (ImN^ its effects.

There is, however, tUXU another class of phtloswhets
who assert that tlw proofs for the existence <N Qod
prneent indeed a fairly Une probability but no
absolute certainty. A number of obscure pomfs,
they say, always r«iafai. In order to overoomft
these dHBouhies there is necessary either an act of
the wfll, a rdigiotts experience, or ihe discernment of
misery o( 1^ world without God, so that finally
the heart makes the decision. This view is main-
tabted. among others, by the noted Ei^ish states-
man ArthurBalfour in his widely read bode "The
Foundatfcms of BeBef" (1895). The opfaiions set
forth in this watk were adopted in France by Brune-
tidie, the editor of the "Revue des deux Mondes".
Many orthodox Protestants express thonseives in
the same maaBcr, as, for fatstanoe, Dr. B. Dennert,
President of Uie Kepler Society, in his work "1st
Gott tot?" (StuttgarL 1908). It must undoubtedly
be conceded that for the percefitiMi of re4igiouB truths
the mental attitude and temper an of great impor-
tance. As the questitms here under consideration
are those Uiat peneteate deeply into practical life
and their solution is not directly evident, the will is
thus able to hold fast to the opposing difiicuhies and
to nevent the und^tanding from attaining to quiet,
objective reflection. But it is false to say that the
undemtanding cannot eliminate every reasonable
doubt as to the existence of God, or that a subjective
inoHnatiao of the heart is n gnaiaDtee of the truth,

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am tlMMMtb then is no trvidenoe Uut it ii band oa

objeetiTQ Imett. Thii latter view would open the
door wide to religiouB aztravapuioe. It ia not,
therefore, an exoees <tf intellectualMm to dunaod that
the truths whioh serve as the latiMial baaiB of faith
shall be strictly proved.

Eten in earlier times tiiere wen thaw who doued
tiiat the enstenoe of God could be proved abeoluiely
bjf the undrntaading alone, and took refuse in Revelft*
taxm. In his "Summa contra Gmtilea" (I, c. xii)
St. Thomas refers to suoh reascwers. At a later
date this opinion was championed by the Nominalists,
William of Occam and Gabriel Biel, as well as by the
Reformm; 'the Jansraiists demanded the special
aid o( grace. In the nineteenth century the Tradi-
tionalista (see TRAnrnoNAUBu) asserted that only
wrbm some vestiges of the original revelation reached
man oculd he deduce with certainty the existence of
God. Dr. J. Kuhn, formnly profeaBU* at TtLbingen,
declares that ^e clear recognition of the existence of
God requires a pure soul unstained by sin. Ontolo-
nsm (q. v.) wait to the other extreme and asserted
the immediate cognition fA God. St. Anaetm offered
an a i^iori pnx^ of the extstenoe of God. This,
however, has oeen always and rightly rejected by the
majority of Catholic philoeo^ers, notwithstanding
the modifications by which Duns Sootus, Leibnis,
and Descartes sought to save it (cf . Dr. Otto Faschen,
"Der ontologische Gottesbeweis in der Scbolastik",
Aachen, 1903; M, Eeser, "Der ontotogiBche Gottesbe>
weis uimI seine Geschicfate", Bonn, 1006). In regard
to the various a posteriim ptoata tat the existenoe ot
God* see the article God. A diqnite has arism <rf
late as to whether there are a number of intxrfe o£
the odstence d God or whether all are not merdy
parts of one and the same pro(rf (cf . Dr. C. Braig,

Gottesbeweis oder Gotteabeweise? ''.Stuttgart, 1888).
It is certain that we always reach God as the cauee,-
the last ground of all existence, and thus ccmstantly
follow as a guide the principle of sufiicient reaacoiv
But ib» Btartinf^dnt o( the individual ]»oofs
variea. St. Thomas caUs them aptly (Summ. theol.,
i Q. ii, a. 3) via, i. e., roads to tne apinvfaenaoo ot
God which aiU open on the same highway.

After demonstrating the existence of Crod, theodicy
investigates the question as to His nature and attn-
butee. The latter are in part abeohite (miuteentia)
in part relative (operaliva). In the first class b^ng
tin infinity, unity, immutability. Mnnipreaeneef and
eternity; to tiie second elaaa the knowlMlpe, vohtion,
and action of God. The action of God mdudee die
CTeation, maintenance, and government of the world,
the co-operation of God with the activity of the eresr
ture, and the working of miracles. The understand-
ing affords us abundant knowledge concerning God,
altnough it allows us but faint glimpsee of His essen-
tial greatness and beauty. For one thing should not
be f orgott^ nam^, Uiat all our oo^tion of God is
incomplete and analogoua, that is, is formed from
notions that we have deduced fnnn created things.
Hence it is that much remains obscure to us, as tor
instance, how God's immutability harmonizee with
His freedom, and how He knows the future. But the
inadequacy <^ our knowledge does not justUy the
aaeertion of the Agnostic that God ia unknowable and
that consequently any attempt such as theodicy
makes to reason about His attributes and our renr
tiona to Him ia foredoomed to failure (see AaNoa-
nciBM).

In tdditiOD W tbe biLliiJAraj^hy uu^si tbe anicle GOD, tbe lot
lowisK workfl Cn^ be iDeiiiigj>rd^ LiLtr, Ttit Great Sniffimi (jjfM'
dtm, la^Z}; Ltiru. Affwitlivutn and IttiiQi^ (N«w York. IBOG);
M'OTrjB, Tht Emtenc-r uf God ihoailaB., And KiJ-isbuTKh, ISOfli;
Waub, Euoi/ pfi iAe Pkilomph^ iff T/'fltf I l^jiiioii. IBrtl) : Fui*T,
JirailAtiMie Tlti^jfift (2dA LODrfod aud EMiLilmrgtj, 3Hf*ij

HoTdTRicm, hrlitvtiifnn VktedKirtM i li'iit'iir^:. rimil-

met^phynta, 2 vols, of TKeoUievi lutiiaalu .^ivl Tuiin, !8^>;
bo^aas*, Th/miogia rutturvtit (Zdlti,. fr^jHyMia, :

<;i>ltfpfM'tm IhoaU, 1899); GtraEBter, I-ir Thr -'-.fe/- <si.,
Muiiater, l9t)Pl; l.cHHigrf^ TKtodvtt {2m\ V i.-.-.ntp,, 1006);

^AYtR, DtT MeoioffurKr fJoilMtmiirir u. rlrr /l.inj-innjnij.f (Mbitii,
IBOl) ; HoLPS*. Om GoittEdnrnw bfi Tkc-nmi ipn A<}utn Atw

'■fptrirrtcr m m^ta-

CONSTANTIN KbMPT.

ThaodoraZ, Pops, from M2 to 649: thedatsofliis
birth is unknown. He was a Cheek of Jerusalem and
the Bon of a bisbc^, Theodore. His dection as popa
was [MtMuptly raMoraied by the Exarch of Ravenna,
pcriwps beoMise he was a Greek, and he was oonsfr-
erated 24 Nov., 642. Engaged throughout all hia
pmtifioate in the struggle against Monothelitism, he
at onoe wrote to the Bysantme Emperor ConBtana II
to infcan him that he could not reo(M;niae Paul aa
Patriarch of Constantinople, because the dqxwiUoo
of his predeoesBor (Pyrrhus) bad not been oanonicaL
He then urged Constans to withdraw tiie Eotheais.
He also wrote to t^ul and to ihtb bishc^ who had
oonseerated him, to imixeae upon Uiem the impoi^
tanoe <tf ■eouring the legal depoaition 6t Z^yrrhus, if ^
aoeeaaon of Paul was to be reoogniied. If Theodme's
vigorous aotk>n ixodueed no result at Constaatt-
nojriej it elsewhwe excited strong opposition to Mono-
thditism. The Bishops of Cyprus, Pakatine, and
Africa expressed their loyal submisnon to his teaeb-
ing in very striking language. Even the deposed
patriarch nnihus reoanteo his herenr befim Theodws
(646), but soon relapeed into his oio cmvs, and was
exocHumunieated by the pope '^48). Meanwhile,
urged by the bishope of Africa, Theodore made an*
ot£er effort to reclaim Paul, but onty succeeded in
drawing from him an express declaration of his bdief
in the doctrine of one Will in oar Lord. This brought
upon him sentmce of exoomraunieation and depoei-
faon from Rome (649). To this Paul replied byW-
baroualy iU^reatm^ the papal moeritiahi (or ni»-
eioB) at Conatantmi^ila. He also prevailed
Constans to ismie a new decree known as the
{Typu»). Thb dooument ordered the BethmU to
taken down, and enjoined that in futnue there was to
be no more disouBBran- on the doctrine of cme or two
Wills or Operaticms. The Tvpe was proniptly ooo-
denmed "by the whole West in general, and spe-
cifically by Theodore's sueeessor (St. Martin I) , but it
ia not certain whether Tlieodwe lived long enmi^ to
anatheraatue it. Tliia energetic pontio, who was
good to the poOT of Rome, and a benefaotor of its
uiurches, was buried ia St. Peter's, 14 May, 649.

LOmt PmdiM^ L 330 aqq.. wL DdcBMnb (Iwa. 188^;

An hlttorfesl sarv«y of the
Flslo to Lcibnii for the «iiat«Bee of '

it of the ptoofi from
iod may ba fmrnd hi tlw

woric of OuntT, Df la cwmatwowM 4« Dim, 1 (Puis, ISU), 73-
434. n, 1-S8., Of value an also: Gsonwald, Otteh. dtr Qett**'
bmMit* im ilMdaUtr Mt tvm Avteanc d«r HoehtehoUttik (Mun-
■tcr, 1907); Danisls, QiMtittMntrHqe «. CAiterfudbu«vM Mr
QfKk. d» OottMbvHwiM Ml XIIL Jahrkundtrt mil h«9oitdm^
BtrtdUidUigwif d»t ArguintnU in Pnalaoian dn fd. Antdm

iiiSirtw imnlw «Mi asthiaoO {PadtrbatB, 1910).

dtr Martin It MiMi, lAm ^ im miHM MMtOt

I (LondoD. 1902), W9 kn.

HoBACK K. Mann.

Theodora n, Pope, son of Pbotiue. His pontift*
eate lasted only twen^ days; neither the date of hia
b&rth nor of his aoeeesion to the papacy ia known; it is
probable that he was pope duriiw December 697. Hft
rdnstated in miod the clerics who had been dwaded
by Stephen (vl) VII, ordered the burning of the ac^
Of resignation which they had been foroed to tender,
and fMmally reoogniaed we validity of the orders
ferred by Pope Formosus. He eaitted Hit bo&r of the
last4iamed pope, which had been thrown mto the
TttMT and oaat adwre by A flood, to be rdniried in 1^

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TSBODOBK

57t

Feter'fl. By hii ooDtompoTary f^todoafd he is odd to
jhsve bocu bdoved by the tUtrgy, to hav« hiiudf toved
and promoted peooe, and to have bem Umptnt^f aaiA
chaste, and charitable to the poor.

FsopOabd, De CKruti trimrnvk. in P. L., CXXXV: Kfuxumm
in DOhmlxb, AusilttM W FtJooriw (Leipuc 18M); JArnL A«-
0M(a,I(Ldl»k. lS8S>:MAim,XiBM(i/tA«iH}p«aMMeMrlv MiA-
AffM (LoodMl. 1910)> *8 KM-

HoBACB E. Mann.

Theodore, sevenU) Archbishop of Canterbury, b.
at Tarsus in Cihcia about 602; a. at Canterbury 19
September, 690; was a monk (probably of the Basilian
Order), but not yet in Holy orders, hving at Home in
667, when Pope Vitalian chose him for the See of
Canterbury in place of Wighard, who had died before
consecration. After receiving orders, Theodore was
consecrated by the pope himself, on 2ft March, 668,
and set out for England, but did not reach Canter-
boiy until May, 669. The new primate found the
EhigUsh Chim^ still sufferiiw from the jealousiei and
bittemees engendered by the long Paschal contro-
versy, only lately settled, and sadly laclung in order
uid or^uiization. The dioceses, cocttenninoiis with
the divisions of the various kingdrans, were of un-
wieldy sise, and many of them were vacant. Theo-
dore, says Bede, at once "visited all the island,
wherever the tribes the Angles inhabited", and wast
everywhere received with reepect .and welcome.
He made appointments to the vacant bishoprics, reg-
ularized the portion of St. Chad, who had not been
duly consecrated, corrected ^1 that was faulty, ii^
stituted theteachmg of music and of sacred andsecular
leuning throughout the country, and had thedistino-
tiou of being, as Bede speeial^ mentionB, "the first,
archbishop whom all the English Church obeyed". In
673 he ocoivf^ed at Hwtfoid liw fitst synod of the
whole province^ an assembly of great importance aa
the forerunner and prototype of future EngUdi
witenMemotea and parhaments. Going later to the
court of the King of Nortiiumbria, which country was
entirdr under the jurisdiction of St. Wilfrid, he
divided it into four dioceses against the will of Wil-
frid^ who appealed to Pope Agatho, The pope's
decision did not acquit Theodore of.arUtrary and
irregular action, although his plan for the subdivisioa
of the Northumbrian diocese was carried out. f'or
the See of Lindisfame Theodore himself consecrated
St. Cuthbert in 685, and in the following year he was
fully reconciled to Wilfrid, who was restored to his
See of York. Thus, before his death, which occurred
five years later, Theodora saw the diocesan syptem of
the English Churoh -fully (ngaaiied under his pri-
inati'**' and metropolitiw authority. Stubbs en)-
j^asizeB the immensely important work done by
Theodore not only in developing a single united ec-
de^astical body out of the heterogeneous Churches
of the several English kingdoms, but in thus realis-
ing a national imity which was not to be attained in
secular mattors for nearly three centuries.

Apart from the epocn-makiDA character of his
twoiltyHMie yearn' episcopate, Theodore was a man
of comnuuiding personality: inclined to be auto-
cratic, but possessed of great ideas, remarkfUile
powers of administration, and intellectual gifts of a
high order, carefully cultivated. IVactically his only
litenuy remains are the collected' decisions in dia<
ciptoazy matters, well known as "The Penitential
of Theodore'*. It was first published compIef£ by
*Wa8aer8chleben in 1851, ana several editions of it
banre beoi printed during the past sixty years.
nModcve was buried in St. Ai^gustine's Moniuterv,
Canterbury, a kmg poetical epitaph, of which Beae
lias preserved only eight venes, being inscribed upon
his tomb.

Bnm, ed. MoasaLT, UUL ScitttietHea Omt, Angt. (Oxford.
187S), 313-315. 287, 2S6-^. «t«.; Baddam akd Btubb*, CtnmeOa
and BcelM. DoammU, III (Oxford, 1871), U4-213;_&n7BM in
IKd. OMit. BUv. (Losdoa, 1SS7>, a-v. naMtnii (T): Mann.

Htm rfHU PppM.1 OoBdoo, l«a).!l, lOi 11, M-M, bta. Wn;
UUL Mauusb., ed. Hamiuton, Dt Ge*t\* nntifiam AnM. I-iU
(London, 1970): BoDnn, VOaS. Wiifridi In Raini, BtMtoriw
y&4Ch.af ha*. I (Londoa. 1879), l-^OB.— For text of
ThMdora's FmOtiMal ud other reputed woi^ aee P. L,j

D. O. HuNTEB-Bl'AIB.

Thaoduv, Bishm of Mopsuestia in CUioia and
eoQkiBiasticalwriter,b.atAntkMh«bout35Q (thus also
keoWn as Thebdore of Antiooh), of wealthy and i»omi-
aent parents; d.

I.-~Acoonihig to ^rrian sources Theodore was the
cousin of the somewhat younger Nestorius (Nestle,
op. cit. in bibliograi^) ; Poo'ohromius, afterwards
Bishop of Apamea, was a brother of Theodore. The
clever and highly gifted youth received the education
in olasaical literature usual to his station and studied
philoeophy and rbetorio in the wIkk^ of the rawwned
pagan rhetcwioian LibanhiB. He here became ao-
quainted with his early friends, St. John Chrysostom
and Maximus, later Bishop of Seleuoia (perhaps as fel-
low-fltudent). Followinff the example of Chiysoetom
(Bocratee, "Hist.eocl."iVl, iii), Theodore renounced a
secular career when about eighteen years old, and de-
voted himsdf to the asoetio life m the school of
Diodonu (Uter Bishop of Tarsus) and Carteriua*
sitoatod near Antioehia. His youthful and too tern-
pcstoous seal soon poBW cold, and, owing Chiefly to the
m«nory <tf Hermione whom he intended to take
as wife, he resolved to return to the world (SoEomen,
"Hist, eccl.", VIU, 2; Hesychius Hieros., "Hist,
eocl." in Manai, "ConeiL", IX, 248). Chryeo*.
tom's grief at this step of his friend was so great that
he adcfressed him two letters or treatises (' AdTheo<
derum Upsum " in P. G., XLVII, 277 sqq.). to recaU
hka to his early nBoiofeion. A Uttle later Theodore did
indeed return to the "<y vine philosophy" of the asoetio-
monastic life. He quickly aequired a great acquaint*
ance with the Holy Saru>tures. Impetuous and restr-
lees (tf oharacter, be had already, when scarcely
twenty yean old (at eighteen aoocvdinc to Leontius,
"Adv, Inoonraptioolas "7 viii, in pTG., LXXXVI,
1364), appUed himself to theological oompositioDs.
His fiial work was the conunentaiy on the Psalms, iq
which hifl eitnoae exegetical tem^oies in the srase
of ttn ahnost exohisivety granunatioo-historieal and
realistic ex^anation of the text is abeady manifest
(see below Theodore's HenuMieutics). Between 383
and 386 he was ordained priest (perhaps t<^ther
with Chrysostom) by his earW^ teaeher (now bishop)
Flavian. Theodore soon displayed a very keen inter-
est in the theotogico-polenueal discussions of the time,
writing and preaehii^ against the OrigeDists. Arians,
Eunomian^AnoUinanBts, mi^iciansr Julian the Apos-
tate, etc. Hislceen and versatile Utorary activity won
him. the name of "Polyhistor" (Sosomen, op. cit.,

VIII, ii). Theodore apparently left Antioch before

393 to join his old teacher Diodorus, who was then
Bishop of Tarsus (Hesychius Hier., op. cit., in Maosi,

IX, 248). Probwly through the influence of Dio-
dfHiis he was named Bishop of Mopsuestia in 392, iE
which capacity he was to labour thirty-six years. In

394 he attaided the Synod of Constantinople, and
during Ha progress preached before the Empexor
TheodosiuB the Great. During the confusion con-
otiiung Chrysostom, Theodore remained faithful to
his early friend («f.CAiry80Stom,"E^p.", cxu,in P. G.,
LII, 668; Latin translation in Facundus, loc. cit.,
VII, 7). Later (about 421) he received hospitably
Julian of Edanum and other Pelagians, and doubtless
aUowed himsdf to be further influenced by their dog-
matie errors. However, he lato^ associated himself
with the eondemnatk« of Pdagjanlsm at a synod in
OKcU (Marius Merc, in P. L.. XLVIU, 1044). He
died in 428, the year in which Nestorius succeeded
to tiu vmoopaX See of Gmstantioi^le. During his
lifetime Ilieodore was always regaraed^iis orthodox

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672

and as a nrominoit eocleBiutioftl aatiior^ and wu eno
oonsulted by distant bishopa on theological questions.

II. WarriNoa. — ^Tbe most oomplete list of the
vritings <d Theodore is given Inr Ebediesu (d. 1318;
MB Aaseiiuuu, <'Bibl. orient/\ ni, 30-36). Aooord*
ing to this the following wows existed in a Syrian
tnukslation. A. Bxegetical Cotammtairin: ^) On the
Old TestunMt: (1) on Qenem, 3 books (Qnek firag-
BDMitB in the Nioei^oraseatene, Leipiig, 1772; ^lian
in Saobau, 1-21): (2) on the FMhns, Sbooks (Greek
fragments in P. G., LXVI^ 648; Latin translation dia-
covered by Mercati, see bibUo^ri^hy; Greek text dis-
covered by Lietimann, but not yet edited, of. ibid.};
iZ) on the twelve Minor FnMAats (eoctant in its «i-
lirety; edited by Mai in F. OjlJCVI, 124-632); (4)
on the First and Seoond Bo^ of Kings, 1 book (lost) ;
(6) on Job, 2 hooka, dediested to St. Cyril of Alex-
andria (<Hify four fragments preserved in F. G., loo,
dt., 697 sq.); (6) on Eooleaiastes, 1 book (tost): (7)
to the four Great Prophets, 4 books (kwt). Asse-
mani adds "Questionee et Respcmsionea in Sacram
Beripturam": the framents mentioned by the Filth
(Eoumoiical Council (M ana, IX, 226) <m the Camtide
of Gantiolee are perhaps taken uom a letter, (b) Ob
the New Testament: (1) on Matthew, 1 hoA. (irae<
menta in P. G.^ LXVI, 705 sqa.) ; (2) on Luke, 1 bocA:
(fn^ents, ibid., 716 BC|q.) ; (3) on John, 1 hock, (frag-
ments, ibid.j 728; Syrian, duraovered and edited by
Chabot, Paris, 1897): (4) on the Acts, 1 book (frag-
ments in P. G^ LXVI, 786 sq.); (6) on all the Gpistlee
of St. Paul (Greek fragments in F. G., LXVL 18»-
968; the Epistles to the OaUtians, ColiMiiana llMSH^
Iraiiansj Pbilonon, Latin editicm by H. B. Oweie,

Cambridge, 1880-82). B. OpMoUa: (1) "De
nunentis^', 1 book (kwt); (2) *'I>e fide", 1 book
("Liber ad baptizatoe", acoopding to Faotmdus, qp.
oH., IX, 3: fragments in Swete, II, 323-27); (3) "De
sacerdotio'', 1 book (lost); (4) "De Spiritu Sanoto",
2 bodes, against the Macedonians (lost) : (5) "De In-
ownatione , 15 bo<^ (cf. Faeundus, IX, 3; Genna"
diua. 12; written at AntkMih about 382-02 against the
ApoUinarione and Eunnnians; Ore^ fragm. m P. G.,
LXVI, 969 aqq.. and Swete, II, 290-312); (6) " Contra
Eunomium", 2 books (one fragment in Faeundna, IX.
8): (7) "Contra dicentes: peoeatum natura mesae", 2
books (cf. Phothis, "Bibl.^' 177); (8) "Contra magt-
cam artem", 2books (cf. Photius, 81); (9)"Ad maa-
achos", 1 book Oost); (10) "Deobsoura locutiane", 1
book (lost); (11) "De po^ectkine openim". 1 bode
(kwt); (12) "ContraanegoriBtas", Sbooks (cf.Faeum
due. III, 6: "De allegoriaet historn") ; (13) " De Assu-
mente et Assumpto", 1 book (kist); (14) "De legi»>
latione", 1 book (lost). Many unidentified frag-
ments are perhaps taken from lost works. The fifteen
books "De mysteriis" or "^nu mystioum", men*
tioned by Assemani (III, 1, 663), are probabb' idoiti-
cal with the "Codex myetieus" cited by Facundus
(III, 2). Coneemiag the "gymbokim fidei" (Fa-
ctukdua. in, 2; LeooUiu, F. G., LXXXVI, 1367), ef.
FritsBohe m P. Q., LXVI, 73 soq. Leonthis Byaant.
("Advere. IncoFT.*', xx, in P. G., LXXXVI, 1868)
■ays, perhaps with ref o-enee to the so-called Neatoiian
Liturgy, that Theodore had abo inteoduoed a new
Litiu^. C. Leitera: Tbem wwe eoDectad in one
volume which is now lost.

III. Thbodobb'b DocTBnfE.— A. Htrmenmitiet
and Canon.— Ab regards tiie Ohl Testament, Theo-
dcm seona to have aeoqsted Flavius JtmapbxifB idea
of inspiration and his canon. He rejected aaimeanoni-
eal the Book of Job, the Cantiole of Canticlea, the
Book of Esdras, and the deutero^anoDical books.
Fran the New Testament he exetsed the Catliolie
Epistles (except I Peter and I John) and the Apoo-
alypse (cf. Leonthis, kic. cit., Ill, 13-17. in P. O.,
LXXXVI, 1365-68). In his explanatran of the Holy
Writ Theodore employs piimanh' the prevaitiiig hia*
torioal and grammatical method <rf the AntiocbaM

•diooL Of an Um Vuiam be reoognised aoify ii, viii,
xlv, and ox as ecmtaiuing direct propheUc reference to
the Meanas; the Canticle oi Canticles was pro-
nounced by him a vulgar nupUal poem. B. Xnwv-
polO0V ana Doctrine of /us^jieofton.— Theodore's doc-
trine oonoeming jusuficati(m gave rise to veiy grave
mu^vings, even if we reject tK© accusations ^ Leo^
tius (kw. cit., 29-37) as exaggerated. According to
Theodore, the sin of Adun rendered himself sad man-
ldndsubjeettodeatb,becauBehewBfl then mutable. But
that iviuoh was the consequence of sin in the case of
Adam is in his deeeendants its cause, so that in conse-
quence <^ mutabiUty all men in some manner or other
am poBonally. Hie object d the Redemption was to
transfer mankind from thn condition of mutabihty
and mortality to the state immutability and inn-
mortality. Tbis happened first in the case <^ CSxrist,
fundamentally by the union witli the Logoe, to a
peater extent at His baptism, and complet^ at His
Resurrection. In mankind this change is effected by
union with Christ. The union b^ms in bfl{>ti8m,
through irtkicb (1) all Jperaonal) sins are r^itted,
(2) the eraee of Cauiat is granted, which leads us to
inunutaoility (unlessneas) and immortality. At the
baptism diddren only this seocmd effect occurs.
That theee ideas show a certain resemUanoe to ihe
fundamental thoughts of FeJagianiBm is not to be de-
Eued; whether,- howeva-, Thwdore influenced Pela-
nua and Cslestius (according to MariTis Mercator,
through the medium of the Syrian Rufimis; P. L.,
XLVni, 110). or wbetho- these influenced Theodore,
ia very difficult to determine. C. ChrialoUtgj/. —
nwodore's Christoloey oMrcised a more direct and
eventful influence on toe doctrine of his (mediate) dia-
eiple Nestorius (q. v.). The oontetoporary polonica
against Arianism and Apollinarianiam led the Anti-
ochenee (Diodorus, Theodore, and Nestorius) to em-
phasise enei^ticfJiy the petfect Divinity and the un-
impaired Humanity of Christ, and to separate as
sharply as possible the two natures. Thus, ia a eet-
mon which he ddiversd at Antiocfa (pahapB the first
as bishop), Theodore vdia&ently attacked the uae of
the term $t»riim, long onployed in ecdeeiastieal
terminology, because Marv was strictly speaUng
Mptmrimt, and only indirectly Smriimt. It was
only by recalling hia words and correcting himself ibtA
Theodore could appease the excitement resulting from
this view (see John of Antioch, "Epist. ad TSeodo-
sium imper." in Facundus Herm., "Pro defensione
teiumeapp.",X,3;P.L.. LXXXVII, 771). It can-
not indeed be dooied that the Antio(»iaae separation
of the natures must result in an improper weycening
of the union in Christ, like Nestorius, Theodore ex-
pressly dedaree that he wished to uphold the unity ci
person in Christ; perhaps they reoognised some dis-
tinction between nature and person, but did not know
exactly what was the distinguishing factor, and there-
fore twed faulty paraphrases and oompariacnis, and
apoke of the two natures in a wvr which, Ukmi
nrict^, presupposed two persons. Thus, according
to Theodore, the human mu>ure of Christ was not onhr
ptm&nlU, bat abo really tmUdnUa, dnce otherwise H&i
actual medom from sin would be the result of Hie
Dhysical union with God, not a merit of Hia frepe will.
The unk>n of the human and Divine nature happens
not Kvr »M€P nor ar* ip4py*mf, but kbt •Mwrfar (at
will), and indeed a tMnrfa in tt^ it is a ffvt4^mm,
wfaidi effects a httra «It iw -rpifttww. Tbe two na>-
turea form a unity, "like man and wife" or "body and
aoul". C(Mi8eqiKntly, aooonUng to Theodore, the
oofHtttmSeeMo momoAm, fundamental^ apeakmg, is
abo lawful.

IV. Ths CoimnuNATiDN OF THB
Thbodohb. — ^While during his lifetime (^>art from
tiie episode at Antioch) Theodore was re^raed as or^
thodox (cf. nieodoret, "Hist, eocl.", V. xxxit; John
of Antiooh, in Faeundua, II, 2), a kma oubny

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faaoBon

raised against him when the Pdujans and Neatorku

appealed to his writiojgB. The fiiBt to nwemt him
as the father of Pelaffiaiusm was Marius Menator in
his woric "Libo- suonotationum in toAw JuUaiii,
Fmf." (about 431J in P. XLVUI, 111). He wm
accused of Neetonanism by Hemhiua of JeruBalem
in his Church Histoiy (about 435). Rabidas of Ed-
essa went so far as to pronounce aoathesna on Thec^
dore. Acting under tne infiuenoe of the latter. St.
Cyril of Alexandria expressed liinuelf in faitfar uaxp
tams concerning Theodore, nmnmp him with Dio-
dorus the "patresNestoriiblarohenmB" ("Ep.lxxiad
Theodoeium imp.", in P. G.. LXXVU, 841-14} ; be wmrl
however, unwilling to condemn Theodore, as he had
died in peace with ihe Churdi. Meinwiule the Nee-
tinian rtrife passed without ain- official artion be-
ing taken by the Church against Theodrae, although
his writings stood in hi^er fayoiir among the Nee-
torians of Edeasa and Nisibis than ihcme of Neetoriufl
himself. The Gen»al Council of Chaloedon seemed
rather to favour Theodore, when it declared his dis-
ciples and admirers, Theodoret and Ibas of Edcesa,
orthodox althou^the latter in his epistle to Maria
had r^eired to Theodoire in tenna oi the hkhest
praise. The Mmiophysitic reaction uainst the Coun-
cil of Chaloedon in the sixth century first succeeded in
bringing Theodore's person and writings under the
ban of the ecclesiastical anathema throng the ill-
famed dispute of the Three Ch^ters. Theodore was
for the mat time condenmed as a heretic by the Em-
peror Justinian in his edict against the Three Chiotets
(544) . Under the influence of in4>erial preesure Pope
vigihus composed (553) at ConstantiiK^le a docu-
ment in which sixty propositions taken from Theo-
dore's writings were aoclared heretical. Finally, at
the Fifth General Synod '(553), at which, however,
Vigilius did not participate, the three Chapters, in-
cluding Theodore's writings and person, were placed
undw anathema. It was only on 8 Deoemb^that
Vi^lius, broken with exile, gave his ^proval to the
decrees of the synod. Axnong the most lealous de-
fenders of Theodore and the Tnree Cha{)ten. besides
Pope Vigilius (until 533), were the African Facundua
of Eermiana ( Pro defensione trium cenitulorum libri
XU", in P. L, LXVU, 527 B<iq.) «^ the tuab^
Paulinus of Aquileia and Vitalia oi Milan.

The mOftt oainpMe edition oi Theodora's wotka n (iven m P.

O., LXVT. 134 Hiq.; b<w »J«a: Qwvni,
«nap{tUh*a.Puih. Tim latin Vmlmi

-. JJIli. V«mvHimf

, . _ . _ J Af eifk fiatmtuu

-JVigb.. CsmbrMjw. IfiSO-SS): SuUn, Thmdoii JbmuMtri
fngiTintatirFuiea (Lsipils, 1S6V}; aiMl ttue msatuitsliD^

J^mUfTK ed. Ah9W in Sp^Lii|gj»»a»«T«»M, I CI 88B) , IM-M.

TauuKon. Ittmnm, XR (|73«)v43S 4094 nrrmcvM.Vf
TKaddbff Iti>ptua4t6i\i rifd tt ttrm^ uSule. TBH; inmrfiitH in
F- O.. UEVl. B Htti.: Swan in Diet. ChriH. Biat„ *, v.i BncHT.
Dtt ««Mt. aiaitdpitnU dM Themier v. TktaOine it Jwftjwig 4tr
m^lfaw. fVauMWHiVM CMuniab, 1S71) : Km, ThtArtm U.

^riKif Afriauau nit Aarndtq (Frwftiuix, lASO): 9U«lt,^D4*

1; 3HHt6: MlWMTL poUiMpMito Amhnatano M Salmi
M (Turia, I8M): of. Awou, tl atHet iHoniiut ddT Atnin-
aSana In Arduiio dMnhifia/ Aal>atitf. V, VI ; ton DqwBthv In
Awttrifon Jamai e/ TKw^oqv. tl (1898), 3'i3-S7; Punn, i>ie
CVW*kv<^ Sutariaa (Kempten, IBIDJ. 9-Ut Tkimiar v.
l6l]llTHMl'l[' FfaanJB, ThtodoT ten M. u. Sstlotiut; Km JfiUeiT-

Cbbtb. BAtm.

Theodore of imaae*, Saint, sumamed Trao
(Tmo), not because he was a youngrecruiL^but be-
cause for a time he belonged to the (yohors Tyronum
(Nillee, Ksl. man., I, 105), called of Amaaea from the
plaoe where he suffraed martyrdom, and Euchaita
mim ttn place, Euchais, to which his body had been
parried, and wh««he was held in such vena^tion that

the oity waa frequently q>oken of as Theodoroedia.
Hia martyrdom aeems to have taken phuw 17 Feb.^
306, undw the Emperors Galeriua Maximian and Max-
imin, fw on this day the Me&ologies give his feast.
The Qreeki and Armenians honour him also on the
first Saturday of Lent, irikile the Bfimsa Martyrol(^
records him on 0 Nov. In the twelfth century hiS
body was transferred to Brindisi, and he is there hon-
oured as patron; hie head is eosbnned at Gaeta. There
are ehunmes bearing his name at Cmstuitinople, Je-
rusalem, Damascus, and other [places of the East, An
ancimt ohuroh of Venice, of which he la titular, is auid
to have been built by Narses. At the foot of the Pal-
atine in Rome is a very ebursb, oiwular in aliue
and dedicated to S. Teodoro, whom the Roman peome
call S. l^yto, which waa made a collegiabe church ny
Felix rV. The people showed tlietr cuniidence i'd th^
awnt by Inin^ng their sick children to his tomple.
His mar^rdom is rfpre^-ni^d in Ihe choir of lli^
cathedral of Chartre£ by thirty^eight ^kse piiintuigA
of the thirteenth oentuiy (Migne, "Diet, i't'ijuogr.",
590). Heis invoked against sUirms. Embleq^s; tem-
ple, torch, crocodile, pyi^ crown uf thornit.

St. Giegory of Nyssa delivored a paneKjnic oo his
feast and gave sevaal data ocmoeming his life and
martyrdom (P. G., XLVI. 741, and Ruinart, S05).
The oldest text of the " Martvrium S. Theodon Tiro-
nis" was published by Delehaye in "Lee l^^wides
pecques des saints muitaires", p. 227, but it is oon-
adered lancely interpoUted (Anal. BoU., XXX,
323). St. Tneodofe is said to have been bom in the
East (Syria or Armenia are mentioned by some writ-
ers). He enlisted in the anay and was sent with his
oonort to winter quarters in Fontus. When the edict
against the Christiuis was issued by theemperors, he
was Imiught before the Court at Amasea and asked to
offer Bacrifioe to the gods. Theodore, however, de-
nied their existence and made a noble profesaion « 1^
beli^ in the Divinity of Jesus Christ. The judgeSr
pretendingpity for his youth, gave him time for re-
flection. Tliis be employed in burning the Temple of
Cybele. He was again taken prisoner, and after
many cruel tonnents was burned at the stake.

liurtMM,U9n«f au3aimta:IHct.o/ ChruL ^iV.;&TAaim, Hti-
ttambtikoH; AansLuin, L$AintdiRoma (Borne, 1887) ; Alubd,
mil. dN vtnSeuU, V Cnrit, IVm, 44; CavTAun, BiiijiM^U,
Mio, FRAiraiB Mnmuir.

Theodore of Gw*, a fifteenth-oentury Greek Hu-
manist and translator of Aristotle, b. at Theesatoniea
earir in the fifteenth eentuir; d. in Southern Itafy in
147s. In 1429 he went to Itah', vdiere he made hia
home, tike nuu^ other learned Greeks who did not
wish to submit to the rule of the Tiuto at Constanti-
nople. He taught Oeek at Siena^ Ferrara, and
Rome. Having foamed Latin from Vietorino da Fel-
tre, he devoted himself to the translaticMi of Aristotle's
works into that language. He was received with fa-
vour at the Court <h Nicholas V, and, althoudi a pro
nounoedAriitotslean. remained on terms of hienddiip
with Canynal Itwinon. llirough the good offioea of
iba cardinal be obtained a small bmefice in the Ab-
ruaii. Hia chief service to the cause of Peripatetio
philosophy mmsisted in his translations, vria oh were
Bupwior both in point of accuracy and in that of style
to the versions in use before his time. He devoted
particular attention to the translation and exposi-
tion of Aristotle's works on natural scirace. In the
oampaigm waged hy Flethon (q. v.) BfSBhM Aintote*
lianiam he oonMbuted his share to tlw defence of Ox
Stagyrite. His influence on the humanistic move-
ment was ocHtsidcrable, owing to Uw suoeess with
which he tau^t Greek language and btoratore at tiie
varioiu seats of learning in Italy. At Ferrara be
founded an academy to ocbet the i^uence of Pla-
tonic aoademy founded tnr BeUion at Florence.

UnSBwaOi AW. ¥rttfMiS%.*r. Moiau, I (New Ymk, 18B3).

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Hwodoreoffitadtum, Saint, aKakmBcbampioit
of the veiieratioQ of images and the last great repre-
BMitative of the unity and independence of the Church
in the East, b. in 769; d. on the Peninsula of Tryphon^
near the intHnontoiy Akiita on 11 November, 826.
He belonged to a very distfaiguidied family wd fike
his two Invthcra, one of whom, Joaeph, became Arbh-
bi^p of Thesealoiiioa, was hi^ify edueated. In 7S1
Theodore entered the monastery of Saoeudion on the
Asiatic side of the Boephorus near Constantinople,
where his unote Plato was abbot. In 787 or 788 Theo-
dore was orduned priest and in 794 sueoeeded his
uncle. He insisted u^n the exact obserrance of the
monasUo rotes. Durmg the Adult»ine here^ dis-
pute (see NiCBraoRTO, Saint), concerning the diTorce
and remarriace of the Emporor Constantine VI, he was
bankhed bj^ Constantine VI to Theasalonica, put re-
turned in triumph after the emperor's overthrow. In
799 he left Saoeudion, which was threatened by the
Arabs, and took charge of the monastery of the Stu-
dium at Constantinople. He gave the Studiom an
exoellent oiganication which was taken as a model by
the entire Bysantine monastic world, nod still exists
on Mount Atbos and in Russian monastieism. He
supplemented the somewhat thewetical rules of St.
Basil by specific r^ulations oonoeming mclpsure,
povOTty, discipline, study, religious servitxa, fasts, and
mafTisJ labour. When the Adulterine heresy dispute
broke out again in 809 he was exiled a second time as
the head of the strictly orthodox church party, but
wasreoalledin811. The administration of the ioono-
elasUc EmpeHff Leo V brought new and man severe
trials. Theodore oouragoously denied the emperor's
r^t to interfere in eccl^astical affairs. He was con-
sequently treated with great cruelty, exiled, and his
monastery filled with iconoclastic monks. Theodore
lived at Metopa in Bithynia from 814, then at Bonita
from 819, and finally at Smyrna. Even in banish-
ment he was the oentral point of the opposition to
Cfesaropapism and loonoclasm. Michael II (820-9)
permitted the exiles to return, but did not annul the
hws at his predecessor. Thus Hieodwe saw himself
compiled to continue the struggle. He did not re-
turn to tiie Studium, and died without having attained
his ideids. In the Rraum Martyrology his feast is
placed Ml 12 NovcEDiber; in the Greek martyrologTCs
on 11 November.

Theodore was a man of praotioal bent aod-never
wrote any theok>gical wotlcs, except a dogmatic tna^
tise on the Toleration of images. Many of his w«do»
are still uninrinted or exist in Old Savonic and Ruk-
aian translations. Besides- several polemics against
the CTemiee of ima^, q>ecial mention sbouU be mad*
of the "Catechesis m^na", and the "Catecfaesis
parva" with their sonorous sermons and oratkns.
His writings on monastic life are: ihe iambic verses on
the monastic offices, his will addressed to the monks,
the "Canones", and the "Posue monasteriales", the
regulations for the monastery and for fite dhuroh sbp-
vioes. His Iqnmns and epigrams show fiery feeling
and a ^gh spirit. He is one of the first m hymn^
writers in productiveness, in a peoiiliarhr creative
tedmic, and in elwmoe of language. 660 letters tes-
tify to bis ascetioafand eccleeiastioo-poiitieal labours.

XCIX; NoM vatnim b^., V, Vin. IX X {R«iw, 1849. 1871 . 1888.
1909); ThMdona Sttiditn. Pana Cateehesu, ed. AnrmAT-To^nARD

Stria. 1891): Biia. hagiogr. Orwea(2aA «d., BnuMla, 190S). 249;
lOHAS, TlModar Km 8tudi»n (Osnabrflflk, 1882); Oawnu,
Theodort ^SMHiim (Loodon, IWSi,

ELEUENB LttFFLEB.

Tbeodorvt, Bishop of Cyrus and theologiaa, b. ai
Antioch in Syria about 393; d. about 457. He says
himself that ms birth was an answer to themayerB<ef
the monk Macedonius ("Hist, rel.", IX; %»t. hcxxi}.
On account of a vow made by his moUMT be was dadi-
OBted from birth to the serviee of God and was
batKight up and educated by the monks Macedonius

aad Peter. At a very earty age he was ordaihed lec-
tor. In thec^c^ he studied chiefly the writingB of
DiodorOfi of Tanus, St. John Chrysostom, and ^^eo-
dore of Mopeuestia. Theodoret y(fig also wdl tduined
In phihMK^hy and literature. He understood Syriac
as wdl as Gre^, but was not acquainted with either
Hebrew- or Latin. When he was twenty-three years
old and boi^ parents were dead, he divided his f<w-
tune among the poor (Epist. cxiri; P. G., UUCXII?,
1316) and became a monk in the monastery of Nicerte
not far from Apamea, where he lived for seven years,
devoting himself to prayer and study. Much against
his will about 423 he was made Bishop of Cyrus. His
diocese included nea^ 800 parishes and was suffrar
gan of Hierapolis. A large number of monastories
and hennitages also belonged to it, yet, notwithstand-
ing all this, there were' many heathen and heretics
within its borders. Theodoret brought many of these
into the Church, among others more than a thousand
Marciomtes. He also destroyed not less than two
hundred copies of the "Diatessaron" of Tatian which
wswe in use in that district ("Haret. fab.", I, xx:
P. G., LXXXIII, 372). He ofton ran great risks in
hl» apostofic journeys and labours; more than once he
suffered ill-US^ from theheathen and was even in dan-
ger of losing his life. His fame as a ptraeher was wide-
spread and his services as a speaker were much sought
for outside of his diocese; he went to Antioch twenty-
six times. Theodoret also exerted himself for the
material welfare of the inhabitants of his diocese.
Without accepting donations (Kpist. Ixxxi) he was
able to buOd many churches, brioges, porticos, aque-
ducts, etc. (Epist. Ixxxi, Locviii, cxxxviu).

Towards the end of 430 Theodoret became involved
in the Nestorian controversy. In conjunction with
John of Antioch he b^ged Nestorius net to reject
the expression Qmrixtn as heretical (Mansi, IV, 1067).
Yet he held firmly with the other Antiochenes to Nes-
torius and to the last refused to recognize that Nes-
torius taught the doctrine of two persons in Christ.
Until the Coun(nI of Chaleedon in 451 he was the
Hteraiy chamfjion of the Antiochene party. In 430 he
published his 'AfwrpomJ' (Confutation) of the Anath-
emas of Cyril to which the latter replied with an
Apology (P. G:,LXXVI, 892 sqq.). At the CouncU of
£j)hesus (4Sl) Theodoret sided with John of Antioch
and Neetorius, and pronounced with them the d^>os^
tion of Cyril and the anathema against him. He was
also a member of the driegation of " OiWtals which
was to lay the cause of Nestorius before the emperor
but was not admitted to the impodal meaeaioe a sec-
ond time (Hirf^Lederq, "Hist, des Cone", 11, i,
362 sqq.). The same year he attoided the synods of
Tarsus and Antiodi, at both of which C^ril was again
deposed and anath^atized. Theodoret after his re-
turn to* Cyrus continued to oppose Cyril by speech
and writing. The symbol ((>eed) that formed the
basis of the reconciliation (e. 433) of John of Antioch
and others with 'Cyril was apparently drawn up by
Theodoret (P. G., LXXXIV, 209 sqt].), who, boi^
ever, did not enter into the agreement himself because
he was not willing to condemn Nestorius as Cyril de-
manded. It was not until about 436 that Theodoret
seema to have become reconciled with John of Anti-
och, without, however, being obliged to a^ree to the
condemnation of Nestorius (Synod, cxlvui and eli;
Epist. clxxvi). The dilute with Cyril broke out
again when in 437 the latter called Diodcrus of Tar-
sus, and Theodore of Mopsuestia the real (HiginatoiB
of the Nestorian heresy. Theodore entered uie lists
in their defence. The bitterness with which these
polemics were carried on is shown both by the letter
and the speech of Theodoret when he learned of the
death in 444 of the Patriarch of Alexandria (Epist.
dxxx).

The einsoopato of Dioseurus, the sucoeasor of CyiH,
wfea a period of much trouble for Theodoni. Okw*.

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tBIOIK»I0

ounis, by (he mediatSon of Eirtyoh«8 and the Infinen-
tial Chmaphiufi, obtained an imperial edict wiUoh
forbade Theodoret to leave his diocese (Epist. Ixxix-
bcxxii). In addition Theodoret was accused of Ne»>
toriamsm (Epist. bmdii-btxxvi) ; in answer to this at*
tack he wrote his meet impwtant polemical wo^
called "Eranistes*'. Theodoret waa also OMuideral
the i»ime mover of tiie condemnation fif Batyobea
by the Patriarch Flavian. In -return Dioseurus ob-
tained an imperial decree in 449 wliereby Theodoret
waa fort>idden to take air^ part in the synod oi Ephe-
BUfl (Robber Coimcil of Epaeeus). At the third see-
sloa of this synod Theodoret was deposed by the
^orts of Dioscurus and ordered by the emperor to re-
enter his iortaex monasttt'y new Apamea. Better
times, however, oome bafon kmg. Theodoret ap-
pealed to Pope Leo wbo declared i&a depoeittoa ia-
vaUd, ukd, as the Emperor Theododna 11 died the
ftAvwing year (450), lie waa allowed to re-enter his
diocese. In the next year^ not iviihstanding the violent
opposition of the Al(MC3ndrm«? partVi Thradoret vas
admitted aa a regullnr ra?[nU:r to tin: Bes;jiou£ of tht
Council of Chalo^in, hut tt'-rfainM front voting. At
the eighUi session (2ti Oct., 4^iJ, be admitted to
full membership after he had agreed to the anal^keoii^
against Nestwms; probably he meant this afreement
only in the sense: in case Nestoriua had reali^ taught
the here^ imputed to him (Manid, VII, 190). It is
not certain whetha* Thtvidorct spent the last years of
hb life in the city of Cyrus, or in the monastery where
he had formerly lived. There still exists a letter writ-
ten by Pope Leo in the period after the Council of
CSialoedon in which he encourages Theodoret to co*

Erate without wavering in ibe Tietwy of CSialaedon
Q., LXXXIII, ISIdsqq.). Thewntmnof Theo-
it i^nat Cynl of Alexandria wore anathanalued
during the troublee that aroae in oonnenmi with the
war of the Three Chapters.

Whitings. — A. Exegetieal. — Theodoret wrote brief
treatises in the form of questions and answers on
passages of the Octateuch, four Books of
and two Books of Paralipomenon (P. G.,
^ 75-858). He wrote commentariw covering
the whole books on: the Psalms (P.G., LXXX, 857-
1998, and LXXXIV, 19-32), written before 438
(Epist. Ixxxii); Canticles (P. G., LXXXI, 27-214);
the Greater Prophets, Darnel and Ezechiel before 436,
laaias and Jeremiaa before 448, of which the commen-
tary on Isaiaa has been lost, excepting some frag-
ments preserved in the "Catena" (q. v.); the Minor
Prophets before 436 (P. O., LXXXf, 495-1988): and
the Epistles of St. Paul, written before 448 (P. O.,
LXXXII, 35-878). B. i4po;(ve(tc.-;"anoanimaf-
fectionum curatio" (Remedy for the' diseases of the
Ore^). twelve books, written before 437, "the last
and |m)Dabl^ also the most complete of the numerous

rlogiea which Greek antiquity has produced" (Bar-
hewer, "Patroloeie", 3rd ed., 1910, p. 327). "De
divina Providentia , ten sermons, probably his best
work, in which he proves the administration of Divine
Providence from the physical, moral, and sodal m-
tems of the worid. C. 2>09mat£(»-PoZemieaI.— "K»*
futatio duodecim Anathematum". against St. Cyril;
it has been preserved in CyxiTa answer (P. G.,
LXXVl, 392 sqq.; Latin by Marios Mercator, P. L.,
XLVIII, 972 sqq.). "De Sancta et vivifica Trini-
tate" (P. G.J LXXV, 1147-90), and "De Inoamar
tione Domim" (ib., 1419-78); these two last men-
tioned treatises have been proved by A. Ehrfaard to
luve been written by Theodoret (see Kbli<^raphy).
"BrgniBtea seu Plymorphos" (P. G., LXXXIII, 27-
330), written in 448 in the form of three dial<^e6 be-
tween an Orthodox (Theodoret) and a beggar (Eur
t^ehes); these dialogues sought to prove that theDi^
Tinity of Christ is (a) unchangeable, (b) unmixed with
trainauity, (c) incapable of suffering. In the fourth
hook the first three are briefly summed up fa qyl-

logisme. "Hsereticamm fabularum oompendhim" in
five books (ib., 33A-556); the first four contain a brief
Bommary of heresiee up to the time of Theodoret, and
the last book contrasts them with Catholic faith and
nnrals.

D. ffirtoricoi.— "Historia Ecclesiastica" (P. G.,
LXXXU/ 881-1280) treats m five books the period
from Xrius up to 429. In this work Theodoret used
Eusebius, Rufinua, Socrates, Sozomenus, Philostor-
gius, aa well as documents long since lost. Aa an ec-
dedastical historian, however, he is inferior to his
predecessors. "Historia rdi^oea" (ib., 1283-1522)
contains the biographies of tlurt^ celebrated ascetioa
or hermits; the treatise "De divma oharitate" forma
the cloee <rf the work.

E. LsMsFi.— "Hieodoret's letters are much value,
boUi for his personal histwy and fw that of his era.
a. P. G., LXXXni. 1173-1494, and Sakk<dion,
"Forty-eight Letters of Theodoret of Cyrus" (Ath-
ens. 1885).

F. Lost WrUings. — "Opus myaticum", in twelve
hooka; "Responsiones ad quffistiones magonunpersa-
rum" (Epist. Ixxxii and cxiii), five "Sermones m lau-
dem S. JoluumiB Chiysostomi", of which the frag-
ments are to be found m Photius, "Bibl.", 273: and
other "Svmones". Von Hamaok ("Texte und Un-
terauchungen", N. F. 6, IV, 1901) assigned the "Rea-
ponsionee ad qusestiones" to Diodorus of Tarsus, but
a Humusoript of the tenth century, edited by Papado-
pulofl Keramens (St. Petersburg, 1895), ascribes the
woric to Theodoret (see A. Ehrhard in "Byzantinische
ZeitBchrift", VII, 1898, 609 Bqq.).

DocrsiWB. — In Hermeneutics Theodoret followed
the prindples ot the Antioohrae sehoc^, but avoided
tiie bias <n Theodore of Mopsuestia. In his Chris-
tology also he followed the terminology of Diodorus
and Theodore, and saw in the teaching of Cyril a re-
vival of Apollinarianism. He would never acknowl-
edge that the teaching of Nestorius presupposed the
acceptance of two persons in Christ or, as Cyril be-
lieved, neceesarily led to it.

TrLLEMONT. AHwPi-r-, XV iriiria, 17(»-iai.;^7-3iO; CiVE,
Ili't. liU,, I lOtfonJ, IHl, ICI.'j Hijq ; CtiLioBB, Auiaur* »ae-

rf.^. X ^PnriK, ]7M-Mi, I iJ: NEisiiBB. Church Hi-itarif, ed.
Ci-AUK, IV ^EdinhiircL, L-i.51- -.T'l, 1-II-J17; Nkwm.*ij^ T^wU

r.i.THiiKJiv.Rij, Ilrr ff,lii/r Th-:-<'!-'-rL. ifM^t-/ Ptm Ciff-i« (2 vols.,
Mi.'Bcuw, l^yQ), in i'yf.i wi. Dir e Kfirli'.i-hr SinnipviM

lifJI Thenlnr mil Mtipxunli.i u. Thm'!./!''! r-;7\ < 'ir'ii - , , . I Miioich,
1^7IS; Sal-tm. Lei enur^-fr .ir I' Frnn-inl.-f rli- Tl.f:">fr.t iii ttevuM
.flfiffnire SrrUi.. VI (Louvain. 1903}, .ml, 741-
7i'i4, {j'0'Li>EiMi'KN!iiKo. Die JCircAmiiMcA. r'fi'V "cf sim

Kurrhaf, Eins Vnlerauchun^ i\rer Q^ntiitn {Yln'.V', , .'^rijiiLT'B,

ThtrtdoTti von Ci/tum als Apolot/ri fVicTinii, 1>I^H). KprnniHii. Di>
Cyriil Bfl-n Alftandrim ragtxfiirifbnx Srhfifl nrpi -rit tub ri'pitm
tvaajtpmija-iwf , fin W^l^ ThftidareU ton Cf/fut (TllhiriKi^n, Ifiw-iJ,
Mitlti, Let •tnitlhinteiti*m(* S, Cvf^Uld' AUKiftfie ^ Ite intqlUt
nrir-'l-ivi lin vatriaT^hal itAntitxht In A«nM iFffitU £itL, VEl
(LouvMn, 1IIC6). £06-M2i BliimiiM, ThfodortH HpOUfi O^iwki^

Chbts, Batir.

Theodoric, Antipopx. See Paschal II, Pope.

ThMdorie (Thtenr) of CharttM, a Platonist
sher of we twdfth century, b. in France at the
ig of the twelfth century; a. at Chartres about
1150. It is probable that he studied at Chartres
under his brother Bernard, at least, we know tliat in
1121 he was head of the school of Chartres. Later, he
seems to have ^ne to Paris and to have taught there,
among his disciples being John of Salisbury. In 1 141
he was teaching once more at Chartres. He wrote a
work on the seven liberal arts entitled "Eptateu-
ehon", a bvatiae "De Sex Di«imi Operibus"Vand »
commentary on "De Inventione Rbetoriea ad Heren-
nium". The first still exists in MS. at Chartres, the
others were published 1884 and 1890. Theodoric was
an ardent bver of the Qasedos, the study of which he
defended against the sect of Obscurantists known as
"Comificlans". He was also interested in the nati>
nd aeienoeB, as is indicated by the fact that he was tin

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TmoDoaio

redpisDt of a L&tin tnuulatioik ttf the "VUtikgiben*'
of Ptolouy made by Hennan the DatmatuD. Ib
tAakmo^hy be admted the PlaUMiio erolanation of
reality and the uHnHrealiatic theory of universals.
He was influenced also by neo-Fytbagorean prineqilea.
NevertheleBs, he did not, as was former^ eontenoed,
go the length of profeesinx explicit pantbeism; he did
not identify Divinity wit£ reality. He did, indeed,
maintain that Divinity is a form of essenoe Ifornui
essendi) in all things; but, as Baumker has shown
(Arohiv f. Geeoh. der Phil, X. 138) we are to under-
stand this pbiase in a tfaeistio sense. For. while it
neoessarily implies the existmoe of a Divine scnne-
thing in all things, it does not imply the identity
of the essence of God with the individual easenoes
oi things. In bis expositioD <^ the first chapters of
Genesis ^De Sex Dienim Operibus) he attempts
to reooncUe the Mosaic account oi dreatkm witii
the Platonic «xplanati<xi of the ongin of the
universe.

Clkbval, Let ieoti* d* Chartnt (Paria, 1888), 16S aqq.: in
WcLV, Hit. of Mvtinal PhiL. tr. Comr (N«W fork. 1900),
188 aqq.i Blomw Id Ankti A GMdk. J*M:. X: Tmm,

William Ttrnma.

Theodorio the OrMt, Kingof the Ostrogoths, b.
A. D. 454 (?)■ d. 26 Aug., 526. He was an iU^timata
son of Theodomir, of the roval Ostrogothic family of
Amali. When ei^t yean old Theodoric was brou^t
as a hostage to the Court of Constantinople. Hera he
learned to comprehend the education given by ancient
civilisation. At eighteen he was allowed to return
home and became the leader of a great horde of his
countrymen, whose increasing numbers drove them to
seek new lands. As Kin^ of the Ostrogoths be was
sometimes an ally, sometimes an enemy, of the em-
perors. The inconsistencies of his policy may prob-
ably be explained by his having as rival another
Tbeodtaic, called StnuM (squint-eyed), who was able
to influence the Court of Constantinople against him.
When Strabo died in 481, Theodoric Uie Great re-
ceived from the Emperor Zeno the titles of patriciua and
mwistor milUuin, and in 484 'was appointed consul.

Theodoric was now compelled to set out with his
own people to conquer new territory. The course to
be pursued was suggested by the Emperor Zeno.
The Ostrogoths were to enwl the usurper Odoaoeri
and thus the emperor thought to be rid of dangerous
nddiboUEB. In 488 Theodoric started on the march
wiu his own people and a large numbw of Rugians.
In 489 he defeated Odoacer on the Noma, lat« at
Verona, and in 400 on the Adige. He then besieged
him in Ravenna and forced him to surrmder in 498.
Theodoric promised Odoacw both life and freedom,
but murderad him at a baoqiwt fearing periiaps that
he might revolt again.

Theodorio*B masteiry at Itai^ bung thuseatablUked,
he at once showed his ai^irepiation of the ancient oui>
ture and political organization of the ^ipir^claim-
ing to be its vioegoroit and rsst«rer m Western
Europe. His efforts in this ct^uwity were faithfully
seconded by his minister Cassiodorus. Proud of
his Gothic nationality, Theodoric, unlike the
earlier barbarian emperors, bdieved it possible to
reconcile Roman and Qemiamc interests. His peo-
ple seemed to him equal to the RcKnans in antiquity
of descent and milittty renown, andrlwxealiwd that
his power rested solely on Gothic prowess. Appar-
ently bis kingdom was a continuation of the Roman
Empire; in r^ty his p(^Ky was in direct and funda-
mental contradiction to the Roman conception, by
which all national individuality was to be lost in the
State as a whole. This theory of government which
sought to suppress nationalities was opposed by Theo-
diMic: he had a profound respect for national ind^
pendcnoe, and had repeatedly taken up arms to main-
tain it.

Anwi^^ bis many schemes was « great project to
combine m one harmonious m'stem, around the diores
of the Mediterranean, all the oonflicting barbarian
nations, and fw this reason he repeatedQr aided the
Prankish king Qovis against the Alamanni ud Visi-
goths. He bsaed his authority to cany out this wide
poUey not on his office as vicegerent of the Eastern
Empevor, but, as he said, on the Uget gentium. The
precise degree of his dependence on the Bysantine
En^Hre is not known: he certainly recognized ita sus-
erainty aad desired to maintain friendly rdations with
Constantinople. Still, the "Vari»" of Cassiodorua,
a ooUectaon of documents of the reign of Theodoric,
shows that he firmly believed the Western Empire to
be continued in his powm. The many intermar-
riages b^een his fsniily and the royal families of

m BftranUf Mnwm

Pauob or

other Germanic kingdoms were undoubtedly intended
to jwepare the w^ for the predominance of his
dynuuty in the West. Yet his supremacy was »
divided one: to the Goths he was tne king; to the
Romans the patrician. Both nations were ruled by
their own laws. The Edicium Theodorid of 512 was
intended to introduce some degree of uniformity into
the criminal law. All Hieodoric's decrees, including
this code, were in their language very conciliatory
towards the Romans: the Roman population was to
oonsidv Gothic supremacy the guarantee ^ its a»-
eurity and fnoqwrity .

In reality Tkeodorie'B reign appeared to brin^ onoe
more a Golden Age to the sorely-tried peninsula.
Enerts in well-bwing were brought from Africa to
h^ restore the cultivation of the waterless country
where the woods bad been cut down; and swatupA
wue drained. Books of ma^o and theatres w&e for-
biddm, edicts wen issued for the protection <rf an-
oiait monumeata. Roman literature once mom
flourished in Italy: its most brilliant representative
was BoethiuB, who was able to combine the lofty-
ideals of Christianity with the digmjty of the ancient
dbiloeophy. While tolerating the Catholic Church,
Theodoric considered himself the protector of Arian-
ism ; aooordingly he sought to intervene diplomatically
in favour of tne Arians who were being persecuted by
Justinian I. Nevertheless he aDowea complete free-
dom to the Catholic Churdi, at least so far a^ dogma
was concerned, though he considered himself mtitled
to i^point a pope, or to act as arbitrator in the schism
between Symmacnus and Laurentius, and in general
to bring any ecclesiaotic to judgment. This same
king who had come to Italy as the emperor's repre-
sentative ^uld not, at the end of his reifpi, have
used such barbarous cruelty in suppressing that
Roman national revolt agunt Gothic rule in whidi
tbs oppoaitiiiMi the Roman Church to Artanlsm led
tbe nope. Outstantinople. and tb# educated kity to

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THEODORIC'S TOMB, RAVENNA, SIXTH CENTURY

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THioixmim

677

THKODOSnrS

unite. The Senate in Ha judidal capacity was or*
dered to try those implicated in this eonspiracyf and
Buethius and bis aged father-in-law, tne Senator
Symmachus, were condemned to death. Theodoric
succumbed to the effects of the bitter conviction that
hifl conci^tory policy had failed^ and from that time
hia health decuned. He was buned in the truly regal
tomb at Ravenna. At a later date excessive teal
prompted the disinterment of the Arian king, but
be continues to Uve in a wonderful l^end, which
assume many forms, as the warrior king of the
heroic E^e of the German people. On stormy nights
the peasants still whisper of Dietrich of Bmie, as
they call Theodoric, riding through the air with hia
wild followers.

CaSUODOKUS. od. MommiT, Varia (Berlin, 18M); MoimnK,
<hl$&li»ek* Studim in JV«um ArcAtt dtr 0«mU«A4/I /Br OUcra
cUuUch4 GfchicSMtuiuU, XIV, XV; Hoookih. /toZy and ktr It^

rader$ (London, 1892 >; ViUMi, Lt inwion* barbarieh* in

Ilalia (NfilMi, 1006); Haotiiank. Qttekiehtt ■ Italim* im Mittd-
aiitr, I (Leipsic 1897); PraiLaoHorTBB, Tluodoriek dtt On*—
(Mmu, 1»i5).

Fbanz Kamfebs.

Theodorus and Theophanes (called Grctpti,
"written upon", ypaTToT), Saints: Theodoras, b.
about 775; d. about S42-43j Theophanes, b. about
778; d. 845. These champions of the venation
of imagea during the second Iconoclastic con-
troversy in the East were brothers and natives
of Jerusalem. Both entered the monastery of
St. ^bas, near Jerusalem, which, at that time
was under the guidance of Michael, later MynceUua
of the Patriarch of Jerusalem. The brothers had
an excellent theological b-aining and were zeal-
ous, strict ascetics. About 812 they entered a mon-
astery at Constantinople, where in opposition to the
Emperor Leo V (813-20) they enen^cally defended
the veneration of imagea, and conaequently wwe
«dled. Under the succeeding emperor, Miohad 11
(820-29), they were brought into the monastery of
Sosthenes on uie Bosphorus. Michael's successor, the
tyrannical and Iconoclastic Theophilos (82&-42),
exiled them again, but recalled them in 836 to the
capital, had them scourged several times, and had
twdve lines of verse cut .into their skin (hence the nick-
name "written upon"). The^ were once more sent
into exile, where Theodorus died, while Theophanes
lived to see the close of the Iconoclastic contro-
versy in 842 during the reign of the Empress Theo-
dora. In this same year he was raised to the Arch-
diocese of Nicsea and administered it until his death.
Theophanes wrote a large number of religious poems,
among them one on his dead brother, but they have
not yet been published (cf. Christ and Paranikas,
"Anthologia graeca carminum christianorum", Leip-
zig, 1781). The brothers are venerated as saints.
In the Greek Church the feast of Theophanes is ob-
served on U October, that of Theodorus on 27 De-
cember. In the Roman Church the feasts of both
are celebrated <m 27 December (Cf. NiUes, "Kalen-
darium manuale utriuaque Eccleeiie", I, 300, 368
sq.).

Vita Thoodori Graptt ia P.O^ CXVI, 053-683; Tmodoba
Cantacdsema. Vila Thtodori H Tiwphanit. ed. Papadopodumh
Kbkauecb in 'KtfoXiim 'I<p*7aAviitTu% vrajtytAtyimt, IV, 186-
223; V, S7ft-09; VaiuA, 8L MieKd U SyncttU «t Im dtux JHtm
Oravli,St. TModon^Bt. TKIophantia Bmu4 ds I'orietU dirttitn,
VI Owl). 313 Ml., 810 sq.

J. P. KiKSCH.

Theodorus Lector, a lector attached to the

Church of St. Sophia of Constantinople in the early
part of the sixth century. At the request of a friend
ne compiled in four books his "Historia Tripartita",
an epitome of the historians Socrates, Sozomen, ana
Theodoret, made up of excerpts from them. An
imperfect copy of this work exists in MS. but it has
never been published; Valeeius used it, attaching per-
haps too much importance to the readings he found
XIV.— 37

in it, in his edition of the above-named historians.
Theodorus also composed a histoi^ in two books iHiiob
carried the narrative of the "Hist. Trip." from the
death of Theodosius II up to the times of Justin I.
This work is unfortunately lost, but two long series
of excerpts are preserved usually bearing the title
'Awit Vuc^^6pt>v KaXXiflTov which, however, ia

spurious (De Boor, "Zeitechrift f. Kirchengesch. ",
VI, 489; Preuschen m "Realenencyk. f. Prot. theol.",
B. v.); quotations also are found in the writings of St.
John of Damascus and the Acts of the Seventh Gen-
eral Council. The history owes its value to the
Bcwtiness of our information conceming the period it
treats rather than to its merits. It is mil of marvel-
lous stories. The only indications of the time when
Theodore Kved are the date at which his history
ended and his speaking of the "holy memory" «
Theodoret — he would hardly have done this after the
"Three Chaptras" controversy.

Dk Boob. op. ctt.,- Pbcuscbbk, ap.eit. (Lnpslg, 1907): Noun
la 7WMffm3W. Quart. (1801), 609 aq.; SAfiSAsm. Db Thtoi.
Ltdon, Tknvhani* vracifnto font* in Commeni. vUl»L JtK§naU,l,
163 Mq.; BABDKNHSWUt-SaAHAN, Paitvlom (St. LottU. 1908).
652. The frasmenta of tbo Hitiory wcra published by VALauvs
And r«print«^Ta P. O.. LXXXVI. For Additioul neerpta to b«
found In Uw writings of Nicarna, and CHARTofHTLAj or Nicm,
MS DnuuMP ia BttL XXIV, 683 aq.

F. J. Bacobus.

Theodofiopolis, a titular metropolitan see of
Thracia Prima. In the beginning the eit^ waa called
Apros, or preferably Aproi: latw in ita hutmy it be>
came known as the (Jolonia Claudia Aprensis (Ptolemy,
"Ciec^;raphia", vol. Ill, cap. xi, p. 7). In the fourth
century, according to AmmianusMarcellinus (XXVII,
iv, 12), it was the principal city of the country
south of Heraclea. The official name of Tbeodo-
sioiwlis, which was given to the city by either Theo-
dosius I, or Theodosius II, was rarely used; it was
ownmonly called Apros. At first suffragan episcoiMd
see of Heraclea in tne European province, Apros had
already in 640 been elevated to an autocephabua
archiepisoopal see (Qelso-, " Ungedruckte . . . Texte
der Notitiffi episcopatuum'*, 535), which title it still
retained in 1170. However in 1179, Romanua sifpis
himself as Metropolitan of Apros, and the "Notitia
episcopatuum" of Manuel I Comnenus, which dates
from this same epoch, also refers to Apros as a metro-
pohtan see (GeUer, op. cit., 587). Tlus see must have
disappeared at the end of the fourteenth oentiuy, or
in the b^inuing of the fifteenth century, for in the
"Notitite subsequent to 1453 no mention of It is to be
found. Le Quien, "Oriens ohristianus", I, 1125-
1128, makesspecial mention of eleven bishops belonging
to tlus see. among whom are Baby las in 458 ; Andreas
in 536; John in 787; Sabbas m 878; and in 1351, Ga*
briel, uie last one known. From 1204, as long as the
city remained in the hands of the Crusaders, Apros
was a Roman archdiocese: in 1244 it was already a
titular archbishopric (Eubel, "Hierarchia cathoUca
medii »vi", I, 94; II, 101). Under the Franks, who
called it Naples, Apros belonged to Theodosius Bra-
nas, the Greek, who had married Agnes, sister of
King Philip Augustus. The Bulgu-iana took the mty
and destroyed it in 1205; later it fell anew under the
sway of the Fhmks and the Gre^ (ViUdiaidouin,
ed. Wailly, 390-91; 403, 413-15, 664) . The exact sit-
uation of Apros IS not known; Tomaschek, "Zur
Kunde der Hsmua-Halbinael", 52, identifiea it with
Kestridje on the Podja-Dore^ aouth of HalEdM»li in
the aanjak of Rodosto.

PrOLBiiT. Gaagraphia, ed. MOllbb, I, 489; PAULT-WtMOWA.
Real-Bnogdaptdit dsr doariadhM AiUrtumrmtmuflia/t, s. T.

S. VailhA.

Theodoaiopolis. See Ebzbbuu, Diocksb or.

Theodotlui I (Flaviub Theodosius), Roman En^
peror.b. in Spain, about 846; d. at Milan. ITJanoanr,

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THEODOnVB

578

896. Theodoeius is one of the soTereigns by uni-
versal consent called Great. He stamped out the
last vestiges of pf^anism, put an md to the Aiian
heresy in the empire, pacified the GoUis. left a fa-
mous example of penitence for a crime, ana reigned as
a just and mighty Catholic emperor. His father, the
Comes Tbeodoaiua, was a distinguished general; both
he and the mother Thermantia were Catholics at a
time when Arianism was at its strongest. Theodo-
ras the sou distinguished himself in the army, waa
ipade Dux of Mcesia, d^eated the Sarmatians (Am-
mianuB Marceliinus^ XSJX, 6); then, when an in-
trigue brought about the disgrace and execution of his
famer (376) he retired to his own property in Spain.
But his reputation was not forgotten. The Emperor
Gratian (375-383) after the death of Valcus (378)
took Theodosius from private life and made him his
fellow-emperor (Aiigustus) for the East (19 Jan., 379).
He was already married to Flacilla, by whom He
had two sons, Arcadius and Honorius (his future suo-
oesaors) and a dauditer Pulcheria. As Augustus he
carried on the Gothio war vigtwously andsuccess-
fnlly. During the year 380 he was able to conclude a
victorious peace with the Goths; on 24 November he
held his trmmph at Constantinople. Meanwhile he
had also repressed the Vandals and Htma. Early in
the same year a severe sickness at Thessalonica tnade
him seek baptism, and he was baptized by the Catholic
Bishop of Theesalonica, Aschohos. Socrates (H.
V, 6) nys tiiat sinoe Theodoahu "waa a Ghristun
from his parents and profemd the fahh of the
moousios " he first assured himself that the bishop was
not an Arian (cf. Sozomen; "H. E.", VII, 4), A great
part of the emperor's activity was now spent in estab-
lishing the Catholic faith and represung Arianism.
In February, 380, he and Gratian published the
famous edict that all their subjects should profess
^e faith of the Bishops of Rome and Alexandria
(Cod. Tbeod., XVI, 1, 2; Soioinen, VII, 4). The
oonventieles (tf the nentics were not to be called
churches.

As soon as he came to Constantinople Hieodoeiiu
began expelling the Arians, who had hitherto been in
possession. Tne Arian bishop, Demophilus, left the
city (Socr., V. 7; Soi.. VII, 5), St. Gregory of Naaian-
rus undertook the aaministration of the diocese. In
January,381. the prefect had ordem to cloee all Arian
chapels in tne city and to expd those who served
them. The same severe measures were ordered
throv^out Theodoeius's dominion, not only against
Arians, but also m the case of Manicluaans and all
other heretics. However Sozomen sa^ that the em-
peror "made severe punishments by his laws, but did
not carrv them out, for he did not wish to punish, but
only to frighten his subjects, that they might think as
he did about Divine things. And he praised those
who were oonvwted of their own accord' (H. E.,VII,
12). In 381 the Second General Council was held at
Constantinople undw his auspices (Socr., V, 8; Soz.,
VII, 7). In 383 heattempted a conference at his cap*
itat between Catholics and Arians, with a view to a
reconciliation; but no result was obtained (Socr., V,
10;Soz.,VII, 12). In the same year Gratian was mur-
dered at Lyons (25 Aug.) and Clemens Maximus
usurped the imperiid tiUe in tilie West (383-388).
Theo<^>sius adcnowledged the usurper on oondition
that he would allow Gratian's brother, Valentinian II,
to reign m Itdy. In 387 Maximus brc^e the eon-
tract and enielled Valentinian, who fled to Theodo-
sius. Theodosius brought him back with an army,
and defeated and executed Maximus at Aquileia.
Valentinian II now reigned in the West till 392. It
was also in 387 that Theodosius showed such toler-
ance in the affair of the statues at Antiooh (see John
Chrtsootou).

Durin^c all his rei^ TheodosiuB took severe itiea»-
msB against the aurviviog remnants oS pftganisro. " In

388 a prefect was sent around Egypt, Syria^ and Asia
Minor for the purpose of destroying tunples and
breaking up paeui associations; it was then that the
Serapeum at Alexandria was destroyed (SoGr.,V, 16).
Libanius wrote a "Lamentation" about Uie destruc-
tion of the fanes of the gods (rtpl rwr Upuw, ed. R.
FoerateTt Bibl. Script. Gr. et Rom. Teubner). In 891
Theodosius refused to allow the Altar of Victory to be
restored in the Roman Senate (cf. Gibbon, "Dedine
and Fall", xxviii). Pa^an sacrifices, omens, and
witchcraft were to be punished as Item fnajeaUu (Cod.
Theod., XVI, X, 10-12). In short his laws put an end
finally to the old cult, at any rate as far as open and
public use is concerned. One of its last acta was a
despairing appeal to the sword, which offers again the
dramatie situation of a field of battle on which t^e re-
ligion of Europe seemed to depend. Ai^bast, the
Prankish tutor of Valentinian II, at least indirectly
caused hia ward's death (Hodfddn, "Italy and her
Invaders", I, 590) and eet up a rhetorician, Eugenius,
in bis stead (15 Mf^i 392). Theodosius hastened to
Italv to avenge this crime. Eugenius, although nom-
inally a Christian, tried to unite the remains of pt^an-
ism m his defence. He set up paean altars again (in-
cluding that of Victory at Rome) , nis soldiers marched
under the standard of Hercules invictus. But near
Aquileia on 6 Sept., 394, once more the Christian
Labanim triumphed over the banner of the ancient
gods; Theodosius entered Rome sole master of the now
finally Christian empire. Further laws enforced the
keeping of Sunday and the disabilities of pagans,
Jews, and heretics. During the greater part cf his
reign Theodosius was in intimate relation with St.
Ambrose. The story of the emperor's worst crime,
the massacre of at least 7000 citizens of Thessalonica
in revenge for a tumult (April, 390); of St. Ambrose's
refusal to allow him to enter the Qiurch; of his ao-
ceptance of ei^ht months of penance, is one of the
memorable incidents of Church history.

Theododus married Galla (daughter of Valentinian
I) after the death of his first wife, and by her had a
daughter, Galla Placidia, the mother of vE^entinian
III. St. Ambrose preached his funeral oration (" De
obitu Thcodosii", P. L.. XVI, 1385). His two sons
Arcadius and Honorius had already been proclaimed
Augustus during his life. Areadius became emperor
of the eastern naif of the empire, Honorius of the
western. The Roman world was never again united.
Theodoshis stands out as the destroyer of heresy wd
paganism, as the last sovereign of the undivided em-
pire. A coin representinj^ him holding the Labarum
with the inscription, Restitntor ReipiMicce, expresses
perfectly his title to remembrance.

Socrates; Soeombn; Zoatifus; lABAmvm; Mniuunn Mabcbi^
UKU8, mad other Churofa biatorwu; C«l«x Theodtmmu*. sd.
MouHBXN (Berlin, 1906); Raubcskn. JahrbOtiur dtr eArittl.
Kirefit unUr dem Kaittr Thtodotiai den Grottm (Ft«ibuii, 1S97) ;
GDLOKKPBNNiNa Ain> Ibiand, D«r Kai»er TkMoitu* d«r (TrotM
(Halle, 1S78)I TiLLEMOMT, HiHain du Bmpnwrt, V.;ScmLLM,
Guch, dtr Tonuchm KaiamnM. 11 (Qotha, 1887): ScaOLna.
Qesch. de* Vnlergana* du ffriecA.-rAm, BtiderUumt (Jenm 1887.-
92); OiBBOif, Dedint and Fall of the Honrn* Bmpirt, ed. BiTRTt
III (LoDdoa. 1897); Oama, OmsL Bomt. tk d*r iVpiU. I (Fnt-
burg, 1901).

AoBUH FoBXBscna.

Theoddlui Tlorentini, b. at Monster, in the
Qrisons, Switseriand, 23 May, 1808; d. at Heiden. in
Appenzell, 15 Feb., 1865. He entesed the Ca{nidun
Franciscan Order, 22 Oct., 1825, was ordained priest in
1830, and appointed novice master, and lectureron phil-
osophy ana theology. In 1838 he became guardian at
Baden; in 1845 superior and parish priest at Chur; in
1857 definitor, and in 1860 vicar-general of the Diocese
of Chur. In the first half of the nineteoith century
the Catholics in Switzerland found themselves in a
lamentable position. In addition to Protestant a^
cendency there was the spirit of unbelief and of false
mysticism. Even the Governments of Catholic can-
tons lent themsdves to the jwrsecution of Ukt Church

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nBODonoii £

and the conventual houses. The unfortunate Sonder-
bund war had broken the power and oonfidence of the
Catholics, and the victorious Radical party forced
upon the country a constitutional league pledged to
toe destruction m CatluiUc intcmsts. In consequence
of his zealous defence of the Church, Father Hieooosiua
was forced to fly to Alsace in 1841. But in August of
the same year he returned, and brought his experi-
ence to on plans for the welfare of the Church
and people. First he founded the Institute of the
Franciscan Sisters of the Holy Cross. In the Ca-
puchin church at Altorf on 16 Oct., 1844, the first
ttaee asiea received the habit of the Third Order of
St. Frands. Their constitutions enjoin upon them
to make themselves all to all m order to win souls to
CSirist and to do nothing which might repel any from
their mode of life. From this foundation grew the
congr^ation of teachii^ sisters, with their mother-
house at Memingen, which has now about 1200
members. Later on Father Theodosius founded the
congregation of Sisters of Mercy at Ingenbohl, which
numbers 5251 sisters in 878 institutions. These con-
gr^tions have been f^roved by the Holy See. Both
are actively engi^ed in educatkmal woriu; they have
foundline asylums, orphanage, kindei%art«ns, poor
schools, boarding-schools for girts, and seminanee for
teachers. Both have in their homes for girls a ■patron-
age, as the French call it, for servant jdrls, factory
workers, shop aseistanta, and others. 'Hie Sisters of
Mercy nave, besides, homes for the poor and sick,
and undertaKe private nursing.

In the meantime Father Theodosius was himself
bu9y as a schoolmaeter. He superintended the
people's schools {YoiktschUlen), which are attended
o>^ othm besides the poor. He promoted continu-
ation schools and was m favour of technical instruc-
tion for apprentices and workmen. He founded anew
the suppre^ed Jesuit College, Maria-Hilf su Schwyz,
where tnere are now more than 400 pupils. It com-
prises a gymnasium, lyceum, and an industrial
school with^ technical and mercantile departments.
To stir up anew Catholic life he engaged m popular
missions and retreats for priests. To provide for
the needs of Catholics in Protestant parts of Switzer-
land be founded the home missions for which he
provided a special fund. The institution of the
amiual conference of the Swiss bishops was largely
due to his cdfforts. To bring Swiss Catholics togetner,
to strengthen Catholic feelmg, and to organize social
works, he founded the Pius %)ciety. For this society
Father Theodosius worked harder than for all else;
it was in connexion with this that he more fuUy
expounded his Christian social ideas. He was very
keen upon the care and inspection of the helpless and
dependent, such as boarded-out children, apprentices,
neglected children, and discharged prisoners. With
re^rdto the labour question Father Theodosius ex-
pressed himself very fully in his speech at Frankfort
in 1863. In demandii^ the Christianizing of indus-
Uy, trade unions, and workmen's credit banks, he
saia: "Formerly monasteries were turned into fac-
t ories, now factories must become monasteries, and the
profits must be shared with the workers". Factories
were established to carry out this idea, but they failed,
owing to a tack of business capacity in the founders.
At Ingoibohl Father Theodosius founded a printing
and book-binding eatablishnient and a sodety for the
distribution of good books. Among his own writings
arethe"LcsendBOf theSaints" mnur volumes. His
spirit was well expressed in the sayii^ of St. August-
ine which on the eve of his death he wrote in the note-
book of a teacher: "In ^ecessariis unitas, in dubiis
libertaa, in omnibus charitas". A favourite maxim
of his was: "Whatever is the need of the time, is God's
Wfll".

Kbahthabn, p. Th*«do*iu* (8L OtU, 1665); Elumsk. P,
ftadorfw (Litam*. IMS): Fcnwa. LtUn u. WMm dm P.

ro imoDiiLr

Thaodotitu (Ingmbohl, 1878): Pluita, P. Thaedottu* (Btrn.
UM); Vmcm, R tkuitlmt MmmtM (Iiuaiibolil. UftT).

FaTBBH CUTBBBSt.

TlModotiMi Ttnton. See Vbbsiohs or ram
Bdub.

TheodotUl <tf Mxtejn, Saint, martyr. On 18
May the Roman Martyrology says: "At Ancyra, in
Galatia, the martyr Saint Theodotus and the saintly
virgins Thecusa, his aunt, Alexandra, Claudia. Faina,
Euphrasia, Matrona, and Julitta", etc. They are
mentioned in all the menolosies, and Theodotus has a
special feast on 7 June (Nilles, "Kal. man.", I, 162,
and II, 583). He is patron of innkeepers. Em-
blems: torches and the sword. According to the Acts
(Acta SS., May, IV, 147) Tlieodotus was a manied
man who kept an inn at Ancyra, the capital of Gala-
tia. He is described as a man very zealous in the per-
formance of his Christian duties, endowed with maiw
virtues, especially charity towards his neighbour. He
brought sinners to repentance and strengtnened many
in their faith during the persecution which TTieoc-
tenus, the ^vemor of the province, was canying on,
about 303, m accordance with the edict of Diodetiui.
Tlte name of a certain Victor is mmtioned as one who
grew weak in his profession Christianity and re-
ceived much encouragement from Tlieodotus. The
governor ordered that all provisions enxised for sale
^ould first be offered to the idols. Tneodotus bid
in stores of goods and his house became a refuge for
the Christians, a hospital for the sick, and a place for
Divine worship. At Malos, about five miles from
Ancyra^ie sought out the body of the martyr, Valras,
and gave it Christian burial. Returning to Ancyra
be found the Christians in great trouble. The seven
viivins mentioned above had been called before the
juices and made a valiant profession of their faith;
they were then sent to a house of debauchery, but pre-
served their purity. Then they were obliged to suffer
cruel torments and were cast into the sea with stones
attached to their bodies. Theodotus succeeded in
rescuii^ the bodies and honourablv burying them.
In consequence he was arrested, and after many suf-
ferings was killed 1^ the sword: bis body was miracu-
lously brought to Malos and there entombed by the
priest Fronto. A chapel was built over the grave, and
the saint was held in great veneration. The legend
is told by Nilus who claims to have been fui eye-wit-
ness to a great part of what he describes. Ruinart
(page 372) places it among his "Acta sinco^ et se*
lecta". Pio Franchi produced a critical edition of the
Acts in "Studi e Testi" (Rome, 1901). He consid-
ered them trustworthy, but later changed his opinion.
Delehaye (Anal. Boll., XXII, 320, and XXIll, 478)
says: "The kernel of the legend is a tale narrated by
Herodotus, while the existence of the hero of the nar-
rative is not vouched for-by any historic document."

BuTLKB, Lit** oftheSaintt: Diet. o/Chrial. Bioo.,lV, 680; Sdm;
QuanalteArifl, XVIII, 28»; Dt Kathi^ik [189A).US; LBCUWcg.
Us MaHuT*. U, VIII <Puia, 1903); Chbvaukb, Bia-BiU.. U,

Francis Misbbhman.

Theodnlf (THEonuuuB, THEonuUK), Bishop of
Orl^ans^ a writer skilled in poetic forms and a learned
theologian, b. in Spain about 760; d. at Angers,
France, 18 Dec., 821. By descent a Goth, he be-
came before 794 a member of the court of Charie-
magne, where he was, next to Alcuin, the most dts-
tinguislied and learned person. Charlemagne granted
him (about 798) the Bishopric of Orleans and several
abbeys. He laboured successfully in his diocese as a
reformer both of the clergy and people, as is shown by
his two Capitularies, one of which has forty-six
chapters; he also encouraged schools. In 798 he was
sent, with Bishop Leidrad of Lyons, as a royal mes-
senger (miuus aomitticus) to the southern part of
France. In his poem, "Versus contra Judices", in
which he oomplauiB of the severity of nanklsh law
and addresses earnest waminip to the iudses. hr

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THlOLOQT

idres an account of his experiencee while on this mis-
aon. Ab a writer on theology he took part in the di8>

Site over tlie term FUioque (the proceasion of the
oly Ghost from the Son as well aa from the Father)
and defended this doctrine at the request of Charle-
magne in the treatise, "De spiritu sancto". He aUo
wrote at the wish oi the emperor, "De Mdine bap-
tisini", a deacripti<Hi of the ceremonies at bq>ti8m.
He is lurthw, apparently, the author of an expouticm
(tf Uw H<dy Maas and of the Creed. Aa regards
language and metre he occupies the first place among
the poets of the Carlovingian era and oiBtin^ished
himself by spirit and skill; particularly interesting are
the letters wtiich he wrote in the form of poemB giving
an animated picture of the life at court. Hia hymn
tor Palm Sunday, "Gloria, laua, et honor" (Anal-
ecta hymoica, L, 160 sq.), came into liturgical use.
He is also known as a patron and lover of art. He
was still in favour at the beginning of the r«gn of
Louis the Pious, but later, being accused of sharii^;
in the conspiracy of King Bemiurd of Italy, was con-
sequently aepoeed in 818 and exiled to Angers.

P.L., CV, 187-380; Man. Germ. Hitt.: Po«tm «w" Carolini, I,
487-581; Badkasd, Thtodutfe Hiqut d'OrUaTu (OrKana, 1860);
CvmiMO. TMcdtOf* (Orltena, 1892): MANmvs, Ouch, dtr laL
Littvatvr On MOMUra, I (Munioh. 1911), 037-43.

Theologle«mittiM. See Faitb; Hoti; Lots;

VlBTUB.

Theology. — ^The subject will be treated under the
several heads of: I. Dogmatic (with its parts, ChriB*
tology and Soteriology) i II. Moxal; III. Pastoral;
IV. lUcetical; V. Mystical.

I. DoQU ATicTHEOLoar.— Dogmatictheology isthat
part of theology which treats of the theoretical truths
of faith concerning God and His works idogmda
fidei), whereas moral theology has for its subject-
matter the practical truths of morality {dogmata
morum). At times, apologetics or fundamental
theology is called "generaf dogmatic theology",
dogmatic theology proper being distinguished from
it as "special dogmatic theology". However,
according to present-day usage, apologetics is
no longer treated as part of dogmatic tbeok^
but has attained the rank of an independent
Bcienoe, being generally regarded as the introduction
to and foundation of dogmatic theology. The
present article shall deal first with those questions
whidi are fundamental to dogmatic theology and
Uien briefly review its historical development due to
the acumen and indefati^Jile industry with which the
theologians of every civilized countrv and of every
eentujy have cultivated and promoted this science.

A. Fundamental Questions. — (1). Definition and
Nature of Dogmatic Theology. — To define dogmatic
theok^, it will be best to start from the generiJ
notion of theology. Considered etymologicidly,
tfieolOfEy (Gr. OtoXayta, i. e. rt/A BeoO \&yot) means
objectively the science treating of God, subjectively,
the scientific knowledge of God and Divine things.
If defined as the science concerning God (doctrina de
Deo), the name of theology apphes as well to the
philosophical knowledge of God, which is cast into
scientific form in natural theology or theodicy. How-
ever, unless theodicy is free from errors, it cannot lay
claim to the name of theology. For this reason,
pagan mythology and pagan doctrines about the gods,
must at once be aet aside as false tfaeolopr. The
theology of heretics also, so far aa it contains grave
errors, must be excluded. In a higher and more .per-
fect sense we call theology that science of God and
Divine things which, objectively, is based on super-
natural revelation, and subjectively, is viewed in the
light of Christian faith. Theology thus broadens out
into Christian doctrine (dodrina fidei) and embraces
not only the particular doctrines of God's existence,
vmeuet, and triune personality, but all the truths

revealed by God. The Patristic era did not, as a
rule, take theology in this wide sense. For the
earher Fathers, strictly limiting the term the<dogy to
doctrine about God, distinguished it from the doc-
trine of His external activity, especi^y from the
Incarnation and Redemption, which they included
under the name of the "Divine economy''. Nfiw, if
Qod is not only the primary object but also the first

Erinciple of Christian theology, then its ultimate end
kewise must be God; that is to say, it must teach,
effect, and promote union with God torough religion.
Consequently, it lies in the veiy essence of UieiHogy
to be the doctrine not only of God and of faith, but
also of religion {doctrina religionie). It is this triple
function which gave rise to the old adage of the
School: Thei^ogia Deum docet, a Deo doeetur, ad Deum
ducU (Theology teaches of God, is taught by God, and
leads to God).

However, neither supernatural theology in general
nor dogmatic theology in particular is sufficiently
specified by its material object or its end, since
natural theology also treats of God and Divine things
and shows that union with God is a religious duty.
What essentialhr distinguishes the two sciences is
the flo-called lorm^ princ^le or formal object.
Supernatural theology considers God and thvine
things solely in the supernatural lig^t of extemid reve-
lation and mtemal faith, analyzes them scientifically,
proves them and penetrates as far as possible into their
meaning. From this it follows that theology com-
prehends all those and only those doctrines which are
to be found in the sources of faith, namely Scripture
and Tradition, and which the infallible C/hurch pro-
poses to us* Now, among these revealed truths there
are many whidi reason, by its own natural power, can
discover, comiH'^iend, aind demonstrate, especially
those that pertain to natural theology and ethics.
These truths, however accessible to unaided reason,
receive a theological colouring only by being at the
same time supematurally revealed and accepted on
the ground of God's infallible authority. The act of
faith being nothing else than the unconditional sur-
render of human reason to the soverei^ authority of
the self-revealing God, it is plain that Catholic theol-
ogy is not a purely philosophical science like mathe-
matics or metaphysics; it must rather, of its very na-
ture be an authontative science, basing its teachings,
especially of the mysteries of faith, on the authonty
of Divine revelation and the infallwle Church estab-
lished by Christ; for it is the Divine mission of the
Church to preserve intact the entire deposit of faith
(deposifum fidei), to preach and explain it authori-
tatively. There are, it is true, many non-Catholics
and even some Catholics who are irritated at secdng
C^atholic theology bow before an external authority.
They take offence at oonciliar decrees, papal decisions
ex caUiedra, the censure of theolodcal opinions,
the index oi forbidden books, the Syllabus, the oath
against Modernism. Yet all these ecclesiastical regu-
lations flow naturally and logically from the formal
principle of Christian theouigy: the existence of
Divine revelation and the right of the Church to de-
mand, in the name of Christ, an unwaveringbelief in
certain truths concerning faitn and mon&ls. To reject
the authority of the Church would be equivalent tn
abandoning supernatural revelation, and contonnina
God himself .who can neither deceive nor be deceive*^
since He is Truth itself, and who speaks through the
mouth of the Church. Consequently, theology as a
science, if it would avoid the danger of error, must ever
remain under the tutelage and guidance of the Church-
To a Catholic, theology without the Church is as
alMurd as theology without God. Dogmatic theo-
logy, then, may be defined as the scientific exposiU<m
of the entire theoretical doctrine concerning Cxod
Himself aad His external activity, based on the doc-
mas of the Church.

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(2) I>ogmatio tlMf^ogy as a Soienoe.— CiHiddei^
that theology depends eesentially on the Church, a
serious difficulty arises at onoe. How, one may ask,
can theol<^ claim to be a science in the genuine
sense of the word? If the aim and result of theolo^
cal investigation is settled in advuice by mi authority
that attributes to itself infaUibiUt^ and will brook no
contradiction, if the line of march m, as it ctearly
mapped out and stricU^f prescribed, how can Uiere be
any que6ti<m of true science or oi scientific freedomT
Are not the dcomatio proofs, supposed to demonstrate
an infal^le &gma, aftw all mere dialectical play,
sham science, reasoning made to order? Prejudice
against Catholic theology, prevalent in the world at
luge, ia beginning to bear fruit; in many countriee
the theok^cal faculties, still existing in the state
universities, are looked upon as so much Useless bal-
last, aul the demand ia being made to rek^te them
to toe episcopal soninariee, where Uuy can no longer
iojuie tne intellectual freedom of tbs pet^le. Tm
downright unfairness of this attitude is obvioua when
(me considers that the universities Enrang up and de-
veloped in the shadow of the Church and of CathoUc
theoToBr; and that, moreover, the exaggeration of
Bcientmc freedom may prove fatal to the profane
Bciencee as weU. Unless it presuppose certain truths,
which can no more be demonstrated than many mys-
teries ni futh, scienee can achieve nothing; and unless
it Tee<»Qi>e the limits that are set to invesugation, the
boastea freedom will degenerate into lawless and
aihitrary anarchy. As the logician starts from no-
tions, the jurbt from legal texts, the historian from
facts, the diemist from material substances as things
which demand no proof in his case, so the theologian
receives his material from the hands of the Church and
deala with it according to the rules which the scientist
cmUn in Ids own brandi.

The view, moreover, that scientific research is ab-
Bolutdy free and independent of all authority is
fanciful' and distorted. To the freedom of science,
the authority of the individual conscience, and of
human society as weU, seta an impassable limit.
Even the civil power would have to exercise its
authority in the form of punishment if a imiyersity
pnkeasor, presuming on the freedom of scientific
tliot^ht and research, should teach openly that bur-
glaiy, murder,' adultery, revolution, and anarchy are
permissible. We ma^ concede that the Catholic
theolo^an, being subject to ecclesiastical authority,
is more closely boimd than the professor of the
secular sciences. Yet the difference is one of degree
only, inasmuch as every science and every inveeti-
gatOT is bound hy the moral and reli^ous duty of
subordination. Some Scholastics, it is true, e. g.
Ourandus and Vasquez, denied to Christian theolorar
a strictly scientific character, on the ground that the
content ctf faith is obscure and incapable of demon-
stration. But their ai^ument does not carry con-
viction. At most it proves that dogmatic science
ifl not of the same kind and order as the profane
sciences. What is essential to any science is not
internal evidence, but merely certainty of its first
IMrinoiides.

Thwe are many profane sciences which borrow
unproved from a superior science their highest prin-
ciples; these are the so-called lemmata, subsidiary
propositions, which serve as premises for further con-
clusions. Ilie theolc^an does the same. He, too,
borrows the first prindples of his science from the
hif^ier knowlec^ of God witiiout proving than.
"Every subaHem suence mppoeea of course in the
superior discipline the power to give a strict demon-
stration of the assumed premises. But all scientific
axioms rest ultimately on metaphysics, and meta-
physics itself is unable to prove strictly all its princi-
^ea; all it can do ia to defend them against attadE.
n ia plain then tiiat ev«iy aoieiiee without exoeptioo

\l TmOLOOT

Teste on axiomB and postulates which, thoudi oertun,
^et admit of no demonstration. The mathemaUdan
IS aware that the existence of geometry, the surest
and most palpable of all sciences, depends entirely
on the soundness of the postulate of parallels. Never-
theless, this very postulate is far from being demon-
strable. In fact, since no convincing proof of it
was forthcoming, th^ has arisen since the time of
Qauaa a more general, non-Euclidean geometry, of
which the Euclidean is only a special caae. Why,
then, should Catholic theology, because of its postu-
lates, lemmata, md mysteries, be denied the name
of a science? Apart from the domain of dognoa
proper, the tbeolc^an may ^proach the numerous
controversial questions and more intricate problems
with the same freedom as is enjoyed by any other
scientist. One thing, however, must never oe lost
nght of. No science is at liberty to upeet theorems
which have been established onoe ana for all; they
must be regarded as unshaken doonas upon whi^
the entire structure is based. Similarly, the articlea
of faith must not be looked upon by the theokwan
as troublesome barriers, but as b«»con-lights uiat
warn the mariner, show him the true course, and
preserve him from shipwreck.

(3) Methods of Dogmatic Theology. — Whereas
other sciences, as, for instancy theodii^, beoin with
proving the existoice oi God, it lies beyond scope
oS theology to discover dermatic truths. The subject-
matter with which the student of .theology has to
deal is offered to him in the deposit of faith and,
reduoEHl to its briefest form, is to be found in the
Catechism. If the theologian is content with deriv-
ing the dogmas from the sources of faith and with
explaining them, he ia occupied with "podtive" the-
ology. Guided by the doctrinal authority <d the
Church, he calls history and criticism to lus aid to
find in Scripture and Tradition the genuine, unalloyed
truth. If to this positive element is joined a polemic
tendency, we have "controversial" theok)gy, which
was carried to its highest perfection in the seventeenth
century by Cardinal BeUarmine. Positive theology
must prove its theses by conclusive arguments drawn
from Scripture and Tradition; hence it is closely re-
lated to exegesis and history. As exegete, the thec^
kwian must first of all accept Uie inspiration of the
Bule as the Word of God. But even when elucida-
ting its meaning, he will always bear in mind the
unanimous interpretation of the Fathers, the her-
meneutical principles of the Church, and the direc-
tions of the Holy See. In his character as historian,
the theolt^ian must not lay aside his belief in the
supernatural origin of Christianity and in the Divine
instituticm of the Church, if he is to give a true and
objective account of tradition, of the history of
dogma, and of patrolr^. For, just as the Bibl^
being the Word of God, was written under the imme-
diate inspiration of the Holy Ghost, so Tradition was,
and is, guided in a special mtumer by God, Who pre-
serves it from being curtailed, mutilated, or falsified.

Consequently, he who from the outset declares the
Bible to be an ordinary book, miracles and prophecies
impossible and old-fashioned, the Church a great in-
stitution for deadening thought, the Fath^ of the
Church pious prattlers, is quite incapable, even from a
purely scientiEo standpoint, of understanding God's
momentous dispensations to mankind. From this
we ma^ conclude how unecclesiastical and at tlio
same time how unscientific are those historians who
prefer to explain the works of the Fathers wiUiout due
regard for ecclesiastical tradition^ which was the
mental environment in which they hved and breathed.
For it is only when we discover the living link which
bound them to the Apostolic Tradition of which they
are witnesses, that we shall understand their writings
and establish the hetowtoxy of some passages, as tot
niBtance, the Qrigenietio apocaUutasia m^a writina

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TBEOLOOT &

of Oneary of Kyasa. When Fiue X, by bis Motu
Fraprio of 1 Sept., 1610, solemnly obliged all prieets to
adhere to these principles, he did more than recall to
our minds the time-hallowed rules of Christian faith;
he freed history and criticism from those baneful ex-
crescences which impeded the growth of true science.

When the dogmatic material with the help of the
historical method has been derived from its sources,
another momentous task awaits the theolc^gian: the
philosophical appreciation, the speculative examina-
tion and elucidation of the material bro^bt to ii^t.
This is the purpose of the "scholastic" method, from
which "scholastic theolor^" takes its name.

The scope of the sch^aetic method is fourfold:
(a) to op^ up completely the content of dogma and
to analyze it by means of dialectics; (b) to establiedi a
loipcal connexion between the various dogmas and to
unite them in a well-knit oystan; (c) to derive new
truths, called "theological e(xicluBtoDs'\ from the
premises by syllogistic reasoning; (d) to find reasons,
analogies, congruous arguments for the d<^mas, but
above all to show that the mysteries of faith, thou^
beyond the reach of reason, are not contrary to its
laws, but can be made acceptable to our intellect.
It is evident that the ultimate purpose of these phit
osopbioal speculations cannot oe to resolve dogma
finally into mere natural truths, or to strip the mys-
teries a! their supernatural character, but to explain
the truths of faitn, to provide for them a philosophi-
cal basis, to bring them nearer to the human mmd.
Faith must ever remain the solid rock-bottom on
which reason builds up, and faith in its turn strives
after understanding (fides qiunens irUeBedum). Hence
the famous axiom of St. Anselm of Canterbury:
Credo vt irUellegam. However highly one may es-
teem_ ihe results of positive theology, one thing is
certain: the scientific diaiacter of dogmatic theology
does not rest bo much on the exactness of its ex^tical
and historical proofs as on the philosophical grasp oi
the content of dogma. But in attempting this ta^,
the theol(^ian cannot look for aid to modem phi-
loBophy with its endless confusion, but to the glorious
past of his own science. What else are the modem
^stems of philosophy, sceptical criticism. Positivism,
nntheism. Monism, etc, than ancient errors cast into
new mouloB? RighUy does Catholic theology cling
to the only true md eternal philosophy of common
sense, which was establi^ed by Divine Providence
in the Socratic School, carried to its highest perfec-
tion by Plato and Aristotle, purified from the minutest
traces of error by the Scholastics of the thirteenth
century.

This is the Aristotelo-echolastic philosophy, which
has guned an ever stronger foothold in ecclesiastical
institutions of learning. Guided by sound peda-
gogical principles, Popes Leo XIII and Pius A offi-
cially prescribed this philosophy as a preparation for
the study of theology, and recommended it as a model
method for the speculative treatment of dogma.
While in his famous EncycUcal "Pascendi" of 8 Sept.,
1007, Pius X praises positive theol<^ and frankly
recognises ite necessity, yet he sounds a note of warn-
ing not to become so absorbed in it as to neglect
smolastic theology, which alone can impart a scien-
tific grasp of dogma. These papal rescripts were
probably inspired by the sad e:q>erience that any
other than Scholastic philosophv, instead of eluci-
dating and clarifying, only fakifies and destroys
dcwma, as is clearly ebown by the history <rf Nrani-
nuism, the philost^y of the Renai8sanee,H«wnegian-
ism, GOntherianistn, and Modernism. The devekq^
ment also of Protestant theolo^, which, entering
into close union with modem philosophy, swayed to
and fro between the extremes of faith and imfaith
and did not even recoil from Pantheism, is a warning
otample fen* the Catholic theologian. This does not
mean that Catholic theology has received no stimu-

2 THIOLOOT

lus whatever fW>m modem philosophy nnoe the days
of Kant (d. 1804). As a matter erf last, the critical
tendency has quickened the critico-historical Mnse of
Catholic theologians in regard to method and
demonstration, has given more breadth and d^otb to
their statement of problems, and has drawn fuUy tl«
value of the "thecnretical doubt" as the startit^-point
of every scientific investigation. All these advances,
as far as th^ marie real prepress, have exerted asahi'i
ieSty influence on theoI<^ also. But they can new!
repair the material damages caused to saired scieiKe, I
when, abandoning St. Thomas Aquinas, it went hand
in hand with Kant and other champions of our age.
But since the Aristotelo-echolastic pnilosopby also is
capable of continual development, thoe is reaaom to
expect for the future a int^resBive iminovanent cf ;
speculative theol(»cy-

Another methodof arriving at the truths of faith ii \
mysticism, which appeals rather to the heart aiMl the
feelings tluui to the mtellect, and sensibly imparts a'
knowledge of Divine things through pious medita-
tion. As long as mysticism keeps in touch with
scholasticism and does not exclude the intellect com-
pletely, it is entitled to existence for the simple reason
that faith lays hold on the whole man, and ptenetrates
his droughts, desires, and sentiments. The g^eatett
mystics, as Hugh of St. Victor, Bernard of Clairyaux, !
and Bonav«iture, were at the same time dJstingaidKd i
Scholastics. A heut that has preserved the faith
and simplicity of its childhood, takes delist eren
now in the writings of Henry Suso (d. 1365). But
whenever mysticism emancipates itself from the guid-
ance of reason and makes light of iht doctrinal
authority of the Church, it readily falls a prey to
Pantheism and pseudo^nysticism, which are the
bane of a31 txm reliotHi. Meister Eckfaart, whom
pr^ositions were ccmdemned by Pope John XXII bt
1329, is a warning example. There is little in the
present trend of thoufdit that would be favourable to
mysticism. Tlie scepticism which has poisoiied the
minds of our generation, the uncontrolled greed for
wealth, the feverish haste in commercial enterprises,
even the dulling habit of reading the daily papers— tl)
these are only too apt to disturb the serene atmos-
phere of D^ne o(mtemplati(Hi, and pIot havoc with
the interior fife, the necessary concutions under
which alone the tender flower of mystical piety can
blossom. Modsmiam claims to possess in its imme*
diate and immanent sense of God a congenial soil for
the powth of mysticism; this soil, howevefj does not
receive its waters from the undefiled fountain-head of
Catholic piety, but from the cisterns Liberal Prot-
estant pseudo-mysticism, which are tainted, eitbcr
confessedly or secretly, by Pantheism.

(4) Relation of Dogmatic Theology to other £>!••
ciplines. — At first, it was a thing altogetho- unknovs
to have different theological branches as indep^dent
sciences. Dermatic theology was the only dncipliiH,
and comprised apologetics, donatio and moral
theology, and canon law. This internal unity vas
also marked external^ by the comprdMonve name of
science <rf faith (ficitiUiafidei), or sacred science (to- I
entia taera). First to assert its independrace mu
canon law, which, together with dogmatic thetdocr,
was the (^ef study in the medieval urdversities. Bat |
since the underlymg principles of canon law, as the '
Divine constitution of the Church, the hierarchy, the
power of ordinations, etc., were at the same time doc-
trines of faith to be proved in dogmatic thetdofy,
there was little danger that the internal oonnegocm
with and dependence on the principal scienee vodd
be broken. Far longer did the umon between dof i
matic and moral thecdogy endure. They wae
treated in the medieval "Books of Sentences" and
theo1<^cal "Summn" as one scienoe. It was not
until the seventeenth eenturv, and thok only fee
practical reaawie, that mtaal Aeology was aepantaJ

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{ramthemainbody of Catholic dogma. Nordid-^
divioMi degoierate into a fonnal aeimration of two
atriotly co-ordinated disciplines. Moral theotogy has
always been conscious that Uie revealed laws of
morality are as much articles of faith as the theoreti-
cal dt^^aa, and that the entire Christian life is based
on the three theological virtues, which are part of the
dogmatic docttine on justification. Hence the su-
perior ruik at dogmatic theology, which ia not <Hily
the centre around iridefa the other diseblines are

grouped, but also the main stem from wliioh they
branch out. But the necessity <rf a further divisiim
of labour as well as the example of non-Catholk
methods led to the indepMident development of other
disciplines: apolo^tics, exegeeia, church history.

The relation existut^tDetwem {^>ok«etic& or funda-
mental theoUwy as it has been called oi late, and
dogmatic ^kwaoisf ia not that of a general to a pa^
ticular aeieooe; it is rather the relatiim of the vestibale
to the temple or of the foimdation to its Rtper*
otrueture. For both the method and the purpose of
demonstration differ totally in the two branches.
Whereae apologetics, intent utxni laying the founda-
tion of the Christian or Catholic religion, uses fais-
toricai and philosoc^cal arguments, dogmatic the-
oktef on the other hand makes use of Seriptura and
IVMition to prove the Divine character of the differ^
ent df^mas. Doubt could onhr exist as to whether
the diseusricoi c4 the sources of faith, the rule of faith,
the Church, the primacy, faith and reascm. bdcmgB to
apologetics or to dogmatic theology, miile a dog-
matic treatment of these important queetions has ita
advantages, yet from the practical stwdpoint and for
reasons peculiar to the subject, they should be sepa-
rated from dogmatic theology and referred to apolo-
getics. The practical reason is that the eodstiDK
dcnominationu differences demand a more thorough
apologetio treatment of these problems; and agam,
the sabiect-matter itself contains nothing else than
the preliminary and fundamental questions of dog-
matic thet^ogy properly so called. A branch of the
greatest importance, ever since the ReformatioD, la
exegesis with its aUied disdplineB, because ihat sci-
ence eatabliahee the meaning of the texts necessary for
the Scriptural ai^ument. As the Biblical sciences
Beeeesaruy suppose the dogma of the inspiration of
the Bible and the Divine institution of the Church,
which alone, through the assistance of the Holy Ghost,
is the rightful owner and authoritative interpreter of
the Bible, it is manifest that e^regesia, though enjoying
full liberty in all other resptectc, must never lose its
connexion with dogmatic theologjr. Not erven church
history, though using the some critical methods as
profane history, is altogedier independent at der-
matic Geology. As its object is to set tcrth the his-
tory of God's kingdom upon earth, it cannot repu-
diate or slight either the Divinity oi Christ or the
Divine foundation of the Church without forfeiting
its claim to be regu^ed as a theolt^cal science. The
same applies to other historic sciences, as the history
oi df^ma, of councils, heresies, patrdcwy, sym-
bolics, and Christian arehsolcwy. Pastoral theolo^,
which embraces litui^, hominetios, and catechetus,
proceeded from, and beare close relationship to, moral
theology; its dependence on d(^matic theology needs,
therefore, no furtha prot^.

The relation between dt^pnatic theology and
philosophy deeerves special attention. To b^pn
with, even when they treat the same subject, as
God and the soul, thne is a fundamental dmoenoe
between the two sdences. For, as was said above,
the formal principles of Uie two are totally different.
But, this fundamental difference must not be ex-
aggerated to the ]x>int of asserting, with Uie Renais-
sanee philosophers and the Modernists, that some-
thing false in philosophy may be tine in theology,
and vice versa. The theory of the "twofold trua"

in theology wad histoiy, wbidh is only a variant <rf
the same false prinekile, is therefore expressly ab-
jured in the anti-Mooernist oath. But no lees fatal
would be the other extreme of identifying theol<^
with philosophy, as was attempted by the Gnostics,
later by Sootus Enugena (d. about 877), Raymona
LuUua (d. 1315), Pioo deUa Mirandola(d. 1463), and
by the modern Rationalists. To counteract this
bold scheme, the Vatican Council (Sees. Ill, can.
iv) w^emnly declared that tiie two sdoiceB differ
essentially not onfy in their cognitive prindi^
(faith, reasm) and their object (dogma, rational
truth), but also in their motive (Divme authority,
evidenoe) and their ultimate end (beatific visi<Hi,
natural knowledge of God). But what is the precise
relation between theae seiencesT The origm and
di^ni^ of revealed theokgy fwbid us to assign to
phitosoj^ a supericff or even a co-ordinate rank.
Ahrmdy Aristotle and Philo oi Akotandria, in det«v-
mining the relation of philosophy to that part ot
met^u^aics which is dmctly concerned witn God,
pronounced philosophy to be the "handmaid" of
natural theology. When _ philosoi^y came into
contact with revelation, this suboroinaticn was sUU
more emphasised and was finally crystallized in the
principle: PkUotop/na eat meiUa thaologua. But
ndther the Church nor the theologians who ip^'ft^d
on this axiom, ever intoided Uier«by to encroach on
the freedom, indejiendence, and di^ty of philoso-
phy, to curtail its ri^ts, or to lower it to the position
of a mere slave of Geology. Their mutual relations
are far more honourable. Theology may be con-
ceived as a queen, philosophy as a noble lady of the
court who poforms for her mistress the most worthy
and valuable 8ervioe& aad without whose assistance
tiie queoi wmdd be left in a very helpless and em-
barrassing positioD. That the Church, in pxamining
the various qrstems, should select the [^oeopJliy
which iiarmmuBed with her own revealed doctrine
and proved itself to be the only troe philoeophy by
acknowledging a personal (jod, the immortality of
the soul, and the moral law, was so natural and ob-
vious that it requured no apology. Such a philosophy,
however, existed among the pagans trf old, and was
carried to an eminent degree of p^ection by Aristotle.

(6) Division and Content of Dogmatic Theology.
— Not oaily for non-Catholiee, but also for CathuK
laymen it may be cS interest to take a brief survey
of the questions and problems generally discussed
in dogmatic Geology.

(a) (3od {De Deo uno A trino).— As God is the
coitial idea around ^ch all theokigy tunuk dog-
matie theok^ most hegjn with the doctrine of Goo,
essentially (me. Whose existence, eesence, and attri-
butes are to be investigated. While the arguments,
strict^ so called, toe the existence of God are given
in i^uksophy or in apologetics, dogmatic theology
insists upon the revealed doctrine that God maj be
known from creation by reason alone, that is, without
external revdaticm or internal illumination by grace.
From this it follows at once that Athosm must be
branded as heresy aad that Agnostician may not
l^ead mitigating drcumstanoea. Nor can Tradi-
tionalism and Ontolc^ism be reconciled with the
dc^pna of the natural knowableness of God. For
if, as the Traditionalists assert, the consciousness of
(rod's existence, found in all races and ages, is due
solely to the oral tradition <A our forefathers and
ultimately to the revelation granted in Paradise,
the knomedge oi God derived ux»n the visible an»-
tfam is at once disoounted. The same must be said
of the OntoIo^iBte, who fancy that our mind enjoys
an intuitive vision of God's essence, and is thus made
certain of His existenoe. Likewise, to assume with
Deecsrtes an inborn idea of God (idea Dei innaia}
is out oi the question; consequently, the knowable-
nesB of Ood tor mm reason, mesns in the last analyiis

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that His existence can be demonRtrated ,m the anti-

Modernist oath prescribed by Pius X expressly
affirms. But this method of airiTing at a knowledge
of God is toilstune; for it must proceed by way of
denying imperfection in God and of ascrilHng to Him
in higher excellence (eminenter) whatever perfections
are found in creatures; nor does the light of reveli^
tion and oi faith elevate our knowled|e to an essen-
tially hi^er plane. Hence all our knowledge of
' God on this earth implies painful defidenoieB which
will not be filled except by the beatiGe vision.

The meti^hysical essence oi God is generally said
to be self-eiostence, which means, however, the fiil-
neas of bein^ (Or. o^om^), and not morely tbe nega*
tion of ori^ (eru a se-^ent nan ab aHo): The so-
ealled positive aseity oS Prof. Sdiell, meaning that
God realises and produoes himself, must be as unoom-
imnusingly rejected as the Pantoeistio ooDfuaion of
mt a M with the impersonal ens wnivenak. The
relation existing between God's easenoe and His
attributes may not be called a real distinction (theoret-
ical Jlealism, Gilbert de LaPorr^), noryetapurely
logical distinction of the mind (Nominalian). inter-
mediary between these two objectionable ractremes
is the Umtal distinction of the Scotists. But the
virtual distinetion of the Thomiste deserves prefer-
ence in every r^;ard, because it alone does not joop'
ardize the sunpheity of the Divine Being. If eelf-
existence is the fuiraamental attribute of God, both
the attributes of being and of operation must j»x>ceed
from it as &om their root. The first class mchidee
infinity, simplicity, sulwtantiality, onmipotenoe.
immutability, eternity, and immensity; to the second
categoiy belong omniscience and the Divine will.
Hemes, many theologians distinguish from both
these categories the so-called moral attribute:
veracity, fidelity^ wisdom, sanctity, bounty, beauty,
mercy, and justice. Monotheism is best treated m
connexion with God's simplicity and unity. The
most difficult problems are those which concern
God's kwnriedge, eopecialfy His foreknowledge of
free future actiraiB. For it is here that both ThtKnists
and Molinists throw out their anchors to gain a
secure hold for their respective systms of grace, the
former for their preemotio physica, the latter fox their
Kientia media. In treating of the Divine will, theolo-
gians insist on God'e freedom in His external activity,
and when discussing the problem of evil, they prove
that God can intend sin iwither as an end nor as a
means to an end, but morely pennits it for reasons
both holy and wise. While sune theokwane usb
this chapter to treat of God's salvifie will and tihe
allied questions of predestination and refffobatkm,
others refer these subjects to the chapter on grace.

Being the comer-stone of the Christian religion, the
doctrine of the Trinity is thoroudily and extensively
discussed, all the more because the Liberal theology
ol the Protestants has relwsed into the ancient error
of the Antitrinitarians, The dogma ci God's three-
fold personality, traces of which may be found in the
Old Testament, can be conclusivdtv proved from the
New Testament and Tradition. The combat whicii
the Fathers waged against Monarchianiam, Sabel-
lianism, and Subordinationism (Anus, Maoedonius)
aids considerably in shedding light on the mystery.
Great importance attaches to the logoe-doctrine of
St. John; but aa to its relation to the logos of the
Stoio Neoplatomsts, the Jewish Philoniui^ and the
early Fathera, many points are still in an unsettled
condition. The reason why there are tJiree Penons
is the twofold procession inunanent in the Godhead:
the procession of the Son from the Father by genera-
tion, and the procession of the Holy Ghost from both
the Father and the Son by ajjiration. In view of the
Greek schism, the dogmatic justification of the addi-
tion of the Fuioque in the Creed must be scientifically
wtabKihed. A phikMophioal understanding of the

dogbia of the Trinity was attempted by the Fatiten^

ei^^tsiaUy by St. Augustine. The most important
result was the cognition that the Divine generation
must be concaved as a spiritual procession from the
intellect, and the Divine spiration as a procession
from the will or from love. Active and passive
goia-ation, together with active and pwsive rouation,
fead to the doctrine of the foiir relations, <h which,
bowevtf, only three constitute persons, to wit, active
and passive generation (Fatho', Son), and passive
spiration (Holy Ghost). The reason why active
spiration does not result in a distinct (fourUi) person,
is because it is one and the same common function
of the Father and the Son. The philosophy of this
mystery includes also ib» doctrine of the IMvine
OTt^ierues, noUcms, a^anpriationB, wad nusedons.
Finally, with tlie docteme of cureuminsession. whidi
Bummaiina the whole theQk)gy of the Trinity, the
treatment of this dogma is brought to a fiUing cmi-
ehision.

(b) Creation (De Deo creante}. — ^The first act of
God 8 external activity is creation. The theologian
investigates both the activity itself and tbe work
produ(%d. With regard to the former, the interest
centres in creation out of notiiing, around which, as
along the circumference of a drcle, are grouped a
number of secondary truths: God's plan <» the uni-
verse, the relation between the Trinity and creaticm,
the freedom of the Creator, the creation in time, the
impossibility oi oommunicating the creative power
to any creature. These momentous truths not
only perfect and purify the theistic idea of God,
they alio give the death-blow to heretical Dualism
(God, matter) and to the Protean variations <A Pan-
theism. As the bc^pnning of the world suppoeea
creation out of nothing, so its continuation supposes
Divine conservation, which is nothing less than a
continued creation. However, God's creative activ-
ity is not ther^y exhausted. It enters into ev&y
action (d the creature, whether necessary or free.
What is the nature of God's univerral co-operation
with free, rational b^ngs? On this question Tho-
mists and MoIinistB differ widely. The former regard
the Divine activity aa a previous, the latter as a
simultaneous, concursus. According to Molinism, it
is only by concdving the concursus as simultaneous
that true freedom in the creature can be secured,
and that the essential holiness of the Creator can be
maintained, the fact of ain notwithstanding. The
crowning aclueTement of God's oeative activity is
His providence and universid govanmentj wbidi
aims at the realization of Uie lutimate end d the
universe, God's glory through His creatures.

The work produced by creation is divided into
three kingdoms, rising in tiers one above another:
world; man; angel. To this triad correspond dog-
matic oosmolf^, anthnq>oloKy, an^elology. In dis-
euanng^ the first of thes^ the theologian must be satis-
fied 'inth general outhnes, e. g. of the Creator's
activity described in the faexaoneron. Anthropol<^
is men thoroughly treated, because man, the micro-
oosm, b the centre of creation. Revelation tells us
many thmgs about man's nature, his origin and the
unity of the human race, the spirituality and immor-
tality of the soul, the relation of soul and body, the
origm of individual souls. Above all, it tells us of
Biu>ematural grace with which man was adorned and
wmeh was intended to be a permanent pooocaMon
of the human race. The discussion of man s original
state must be preceded by a theory oi the n^>er^
natural order without which the nature of origmal
sin oould not be imderstood. But original sin, the
wilful repudiation of the supernatural state, is one

the most important chapters. Its existence must
be carefully proved from the sources of faith; its
nature, the mode of its transmission, its effects^ must
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the angela runa in many reapecta paraHe] to that of
mankind: the angeb aJso were endowed with both
sanctifying ^oe and high natural excellenoes; some
cf them rose in rebellion against God, and were thrust
into hell as demons. While the devil and his angels
are inimical to the human race, the faithful angels
have been appointed to exercise the office erf
guardians over mankind.

(c) Redemption (De Deo Redemptore). — As the
fall ot man was followed redemption, so the
(^pter on creation is immediately f olK>wea by that
on redranpticm. Its three miun divisions: Christolonr,
Soteriology, Mariology, must ever remain in the
clfMest connexion. [For the first of these three (Chris-
tolopy) see I. a. below, immediately following sub-
section B. History.]

(i) Soteriology. — Soteriology is the doctrine of the
work of the Redeemer. As in Ghristology the leading
idea is the Hypostatic Union, so here the main idea is
the natural mediatorship of Christ. After having dis-
posed of ^e preliminary questions oonceming the ^oa-
sibilitr, opportuneness, and necessity of redemption,
as well as of those regarding the predestination <h
Christ, Uie next subject to occupy our attention is the
work of redemption itself. This work reaches its
climax in the vicarious satisfaction of Christ on the
cross, and is crowned by His descent into limbo and
His ascension into heaven. From a speculative
Btandpoint, a thorough and eomprehennve theory of
8atisuu!ti<Hi remains still a pious desideratum, tbou^
promising attempts have often been made from
the d^a of Anselm down to the present time.
It will be necessarr to blend into one noble whole the
hidden elements oi truth contained in the old patristic
theory of ransom, the juridical conc^tion of St.
Ansdm, and the ethical theory of atonement. The
Redeemer's activity as Mediator stands out most
prominently in His triple office of high priest, prophet,
and king, which is continued, after the ascension of
Christ, in the priesthood ^d the teaching and pastoral
office of the Church. The central position is occu-
pied by the high-priesthood of Chnst, which mani-
fests the death on the cross as the true sacrifice of pro-
pitiation, and proves the Redeemer to be a true pnest.

(ii) Mariology, or the doctrine of the Mother of
Goid, cannot be separated either from the person or
from Uie work of the Redeemer and therefore haa
Uie deepest connexion with both Christolfwy and
Soteriology. Here the central idea is the Divine
Maternity, unce this is at once the source of Mary's
unsp^kaole dignity and of her surpassing fulness of
grace. Just as the H^^static Union of the Divinity
and humanity of Chnat stands or falls with the truth
of the Divine Maternity, so too ia this same mater-
nity the foundation of^all q>ecial privileges whidi
were accorded to Maiy on account of Christ's dig-
nity. These singular privileges are four: her Immac-
ulate Conception, personal freedom from sin, per-

Eetual vindnity,. and her bodily Assumption into
eaven. For the three former we have doctrinal de-
cisions of the Church, which are final. However,
though Mary's bodily Assumption has not yet been
solemnly declared an article m faith, nevertheleas tiie
Church haa praetiealbr demonstrated aucb to be her
belief by cdmrating from the earliest times the feast
of the Assumption of the Mother of God. Two more
privileges are connected with Mary's dignity: her
q)edal mediatorship between the Redeemer and the
redeemed and her exclusive right to hyperdulia. Of
course, it is clear that the mediatorship of Mary is
entirely subordinate to that of Her Divine Son and
derives its whole efficacy and power thm&om. In
Qxda the better to understand the volae and impor-
tance of Mary's peculiar right to such veneration, it
will be well to consider, by way of contrast, the dulia
paid to the saints and, again, uie doctrine concerning
the Tenevation paid to reUcf and images. For the

most part, dogmatic theologians pr^er to treat these
tatter subjects under eediatology, together with tb»
Onnmunioo of Saints.

(iii) Graoe {De gratia). — The Christian idea ci
grace ia based entirely upon the supernatural order.
A distinction is made between actual and sanctifying
grace^ according' as there is question of a supematuru
activity or merely the state of sanctification. But
the crucial point in the whole doctrine of grace lies
in the justification <rf the sinner, because, after all,
the aim and object (rf actual graoe is either to 1^
the foundation for the graoe of Justification when
the latter is absent, or to preserve the grace of justi-
fication in the soul that already possesses it. The
three qualities of actual gKoe are of the utmost
importance: its necessity, its gratuitousness, and
its universality. Although on the one hand we must
avoid the exaggeration of the Reformers, and of the
followers of Baius and Jansenlus, who denied the
oa{»ibiIity (rf unaided nature altogether in moral
action, yet, on the othw hamL tfieologiana a
that falten man is quite incwable, without the
of God's grace, of either fumUlng the whole natt
law or Of resisting all strong temptations. But
actual grace is absolutely necessary for each and
every salutary act, since all such acts bear a causal
relation towards the supernatural end of man. The
heretical doctrines of Pela^anism and Semipela-
giaoiBm are refuted by the Church's doctiinal fleci-
sions based upon Holy Scripture and Tradition.
From the supernatural character of grace flows its
second quality: gratuitousness. So enturely gratui-
tous is grace that no natural merit, no positive capa-
bility or preparation for it on the part of nature,
nor even any purefy natural petition, is able to move
God to give us actual grace. The umvnraali^ of
grace rests fundamentalhr upcm the absolute univer>
sality of God's salvific wiu, whic^ in rmrd to adults,
simiuy means His antecedent wul to dnMbute suffi-
cient grace to each and every p«wn, whether he be
already justified or in the state of sin, whether he be
Christian or heathen, believer or iimdel. But the
salvific will, in as far as it is consequent and deals out

J'ust retribirtion, is no longer umv^sal, but particular,
or the reason that tmhr those who pCTsevent in
justice, enter heavoi, whereas the wicked are con-
demned to hell. The question of the predestination
of the blessed and the reprobation ol the damned is
admittedly one of the most difficult prt^lems with
which theology has to deal, and its solution is wrapped
in impenetrable mystery. The same may be said
of the relation existing between grace and the hberty
of the human will. It would be cutting the Gordian
knot rather than loosing it, were one to deny the
efficacy of grace, as did Pelagian ism, or again, foUow-
ing the error of Jansenism, deaay the liberty of tiie
wUl. The difficulty is rather in determining just
how the acknowledged efficacy ol graoe is to be recon-
ciled with human n«edom. For centuries Tbomists
and Molinists, Augustinians and Congruists have
been toiling to clear up the matter. And while the
system of ^race known as syncretic haa endeavoured
to harmcHuse the principke <rf Hiomiam and MoUn-
ism, It haa served but to double the diffieuhieB instead
of eliminating them.

The secondpart of the doctrine on graoe has to do
with sanctifying grace, which produces the state of
habitual holiness and justice. Preparatory to
receiving this grace, the soul underooea a certain
preliminary process^ which is begun t>y theological
faith, the "beginning, root and foundation of all
Juatineation", and is completed and pofeeted by
other supernatural dispoaitiona, aueh as contritiott,
hope, love. The Protestant conception of justifying
faith as a mere fiducial faith is quite as much at
variance with revelation as ia the aUafide$ doctrine.
Catholics also differ from Protestants, in wplahiing

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the essence of juatification itself. While Catholic
dogma declares that justification consists in a true
blottingH3ut of sin and in an interior sanctification of
the Boul, Protestantism would have it to be merely
an external cloaking <A msa which still remain, and
a mere imputation to the rinner ot God's or Christ's
justioe. Aecording to Catholic teaching, the fo>

fiveneas <it tan and the sanctification of the soul are
ut two moments of one and the same act of justifi-
cation, since the blotting-out of original and mortal
sin is accomplished by the very fact of the infusion
of sanctifying grace. Although we may^ to a certain
extfflit, underatand the nature oi grace m itself, and
may define it philo8(q)hica]^ as a pwmauent oualitv
of the soul, an infused habit, an accidental ana anal-
ogous particq>ation of the Divine nature, yet its
true nature may be more easily understood from a
consideration of its so-called formal effects produced
in the soul. These are: sanctity, purity, beauty,
frienibhip with God, adopted sonship. Sanctifying
naoe is accompanied by additional gifts, viz., the
Uuree theological virtues, the infused moral virtues,
the seven ^ts of Hts Holy Ghost, and the peawmal
izulwellii^ of the Ho^ Ghost in the soul (rf uie justi*
fied. This latter it is that crowns and completes the
whole process of justification. We must also men-
tion three qualities special to justification or sanctify-
ing grace: its ■ uncertainty, its inequality, and the
possibility of its being lost. All of them are dia^
metrically opposed to the Protestant conception,
which anerts the absolute certainty of Justification^
its complete equality, and the impossuiility of its
being lost. Finally, the fruits ctf justification are
treated. Theee ripen under the beneficent influence
sanctifying grace, which enables man to acquire
merit throu^ his good works, that is to say, super-
natural merit for heaven. The doctrine on grace is
concluded with the proof of the existence, the condi-
tions, and the objects of merit.

(iv) Sacraments {De aaerammtia). — This section
is divided into two parts: the treatise on the sacraF
moitB in genenl and that on the sacramoitB in
particular. After haying defined exactly what is
meant by the Christian sacraments, and what is
meant by the sacrament of nature and the Jewish
rite ctf circumcision as it prevailed in pre-Christian
times, the next important step is to prove the exist-
ence of the seven sacraments as instituted by Christ.
The essence of a sacrament requires three things; an
outward, visible sign, i. e. the matter and foim of the
sacrament; interior graoe; and institution by Christ.
In the difficult problem as to whether Christ himself
determined the matter and form of each sacrament
specifically or only generically, the solution must
be sought throi^ dogmatic and historical investiga-
tions. Special importence attaches to the causality
of the sacraments, and an efficacy ex opere operato
is attributed to thesu. Theologians dispute as to
the nature of this causality, i. e. whethw it is physical
or metety moral. In the case of each sacrament,
regard must be had to two persons, the recipient ana
the minister. The objective efficacy of a sacr&m^t
is wholly ind^>endent of the personal sanctity or the
individiud faith ot the minister. The only requisite
is that he who confers the sacrament intend to do
what the Church does. As regards the recipient of a
sacrament, a distinction must be made between
valid and worthy reception; the conditions differ with
the various sacraments. But since Ute free will is
required for validity, it is evident that no one can be
forced to receive a sacrament.

Furthermore, as regards the sacraments in particu-
lar, the conclusions reached with reference to the
sacraments in general of course hold good. Thus,
in the case of t£e first two sacraments, oaptism and
. oonfirmation, we must prove in detail the existence
of tlie three requiutes mentimed above, as well as

the diepositiMi of both the minister and the redpiuit.
The question whether their reception is absolutely
necessary or only of precept must also be examined.
More than ordinaiy Care is called for in the discussion
of the Eucharist, which is not only a sacrament, but
also the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass. Everything
centres of course around the dogma of the Real
Presence of Christ under the appearances of bread
and wine. His presence there is effected by means
of the transubstantiation of the Eucharistic elonents
and lasts as long as the accidents of bread and wine
remain incorrupt. The dopna of the totality of the
Real Presence means that m each individual species
the whole Christ, flesh and blood, body and soul,
Divini^ and humanity, is really present. The
Holy Eucharist is, of course, a great mystery, one
that rivals that of the Holy Trinity and of the Hypo-
static Union. It presents to us a truth utter& at
variance with the testimony of our senses, Mting
us, as it does, to assent to the continued existence o7
the Eucharistic species without their subject, a sort
of spiritual existence, imconfined by space, yetc^a
human bo^y, and, again, ^e simultaneous presence of
Christ in many different places. The sacramental
character of the Eucharist is established by the pres-
ence of the three essential elements. The outward
sign consists in the Eucharistic forms of bread and
wme and the words of consecration. Its institution
by Christ is guaranteed both by the promise of Christ
and by the words of institution at the Last Supper.
Finally, the interior effects of grace are produced
hr the worthy reception of Holy Communion. As
Christ is wholly present in each species, the receptitm
ti the Eucharist under one n>ecie8 is sufficient to
obtain fully all the fruits of the sacrament. Hence
the chalice need not be conununicated to the laity,
though at times the Church has so allowed it to be,
but not in any sense as though such were necessary.
Not everyone is capable of pronouncing the words of
consecration with sacramental effect, but only duly
ordained bishoiw and priests; for to them akme did
Christ communicate the power of transubstantiaticm
in the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass. A distinct phase
of the Eucharist is its sacrificial character. This
is proved not only from the oldest Faf hers and the
Utur^cal practice of the early Christian Church,
but also from certain prophecies of the Old Testa-
ment and from the Gospel narrative of the Last Sup-
per. To find the physical essence of the Sacrifice
of the Mass, we must consider its essential dependence
on, and relation to, the bloody sacrifice of the Cross;
for the Mass is a commemoratiim the latter, its
representation, its renewal, and its applicaticm. This
intrinsically relative character of the sacrifice of the
Mass does not in the least destroy or lessen the uni-
versality and oneness of the sacrifice on the Cross,
but rather presupposes it; likewise the intrinsic
propriety of the Mass is shown precisely in this,
that it neither effects nor claims to effect anything
else than the application of the fruits of the sacrifice
of the Cross to the individual, and this in a sacrificial
manner. The essence of the sacrifice is general^
thought to consist neither in the Offertory nor in the
Communion of the celebrant, but in the double
consecration. Widely divergent are the views erf
the theologians as to the metaphysical essence of the
sacrifice of the Mass* that is to say, as to the question
how far the idea of a real sacrifice is verified in the
double consecration. A concurrence of opinion on
this point is all the more difficult owing to the fact
that the very idea of sacrifice is involved in no little
obscurity. As regards the causality of the sacrifice
of the Mass, it has all the effects of a true sacrifice:
adoratiouj thanksgiving, impetration, atonement.
Most of its effects are ex open operaio, while aran*
depend on the co-operation the participants.
The Baeramokt of Fenance presiqpposeatheChurch'a

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Siwer to fot^ve mutt a power clewly indicated in
e Bible in we woroa with which Christ instituted
this sacrament (John, xx, 23). Moreover, this power
is abundantly attested both by the patristic oelief
in the Church's power of the Keys and by the history
of the ancient penitential e^atem. As at the time of
Montanum and Novatianism it was a question of
vindicating the universality of this power, so nowar
days it is a matter of defending its absolute neoesBity
and its jiulicial form against the attacks <rf Pro tee-
taatism. These three qualities manifest at the same
time the intoinmc nature and the essence of the Sacra-
ment Penance, llie imiversality of the power
to forgive sins means that all gins without exception,
supposing, of course, contrition for the same, can be
remitted m this sacrament. Owing to its absolute
necessity and its judicial form, however, the Bacr&>
ment rwUy becomes a tribunal of penance in which
the poutent is at once plaintiff, defendant, and wit-
ness, while the priest acta as judge. The matter of
the sacrament conaists in the three acta of the peni-
tent: ccoitrition, confession, and satisfaction, while
the priestly absolution is its form. To act as judee
in the Sacrament of Penance, the confessor neeas
more than priestly ordination: he must also have

C' irisdiction, which may be restricted more or less
y the eccwsiastieal auperima. As the validity ctf
thia sacrament, unlike that of the others, depends
essentially on the worthiness of its reocmtion, ^reat
attention must be paid to the acts of the pemtent.
Meet important of all is contrition with the purpose
of amendment, cwtaining, as it does, the virtue of

genanoe. The opinion, held by many of the early
cbolaatics, that perfect contrition _ is required for
the validity of the absolution, is quite irreconcilable
with tbe ex opere operaio efficacy (rf tike sacrament;
for sorrow, q>rin^ng from the motive of perfect
love, suffices of itself to free the sinner from all guilt,

auite antecedent to, and apart from, the sacrament,
lough not indeed without a certain relation to it.
According to the mind of the Council of Trent, imper-
fect contriticm (attrition), even when actuated by
the fear of bell, is sufficient for the validity of the
sacrament, though we should, of course, strive to
call in noDlra motives. Therefore the addition of a
formal caritas iniiialU to attrition, as the Contri-
tionists of to-day demand for the validity of absolu-
tion, is superfluous, at least so far as validity is
concerned. The contrite confession, which is the
second act of the penitent, manifests the interior
sorrow and the readmess to do penance by a visible,
outward sign, the matter of the sacrament. Since
the Reformers rejected the Sacrament of Penance,
great care must be bestowed upon the Biblical and
patristic proof of its existence and its neceesitjr.
The required satisfaction, the third act of the peni-
tent, is fulfilled in the penances (prayers, fasting,
alms) which, according to the present custom oi
the Church, are imposed by the confessor immediately
before the absolution. Tne actual fulfilment of sucn
penances is not essential to the validity of the sacra-
ment, but belongs rather to its integrity. The
Church's extra-sacramental remission of punishment
due to sin 'is called indulgence. This power of
eranting indulgences, both for the living and the
dead, is included in the power of the Keys committed
to the Church by Christ.

Extreme Unction may be considered as the com-
plement of the Sacrament of Penance, inasmudi as
it can take the place of the latter in case sacramental
confesrion is impossible to one who is unoonscious
and dangerously ill.

While the five sacraments of which we have treated
BO far were instituted for the welfare of the individual,
the last two. Holy Orders and Matrimony, aim rather
at the welHiei^ of human society in general. The
Sacrament of Ho^ Orders is ocanposed c£ Tsiious

grades, of which those of bishop, priest, and deaooB
are certainly a sacramental nature, whereas that
of subdeacon and the four minor orders are most
probably due to ecclesiastical institution. The
decision depends on whether or no the presentati(m
of the inslxuments is essential for the vaUdity of
ordination. In the case of the subdiaconate ana the
minor orders this preaoitation indeed occurs, but
without the simultaneous imposition of hands. The
common opinion prevalent to-day holds that the
impositiw oi hands, together with the invocation
of the Holy Gh(»t, is the sole matter and form of
this sacrament. And since this latter obtains only
in the case of the consecration of a bishop, priest,
or deacon, the conclusion is drawn that only the
three hierarchical grades or orders confer ex operg
opertUo the sacramental grace, the sacramental char-
acter, and the ccnresponding powers. The ordinaiy
ministw (tf all orders, even those of a non-saeramentai
character, is the bishop. But the pope may del^ate
an ordinary priest to ordain a subdeacon, lector,
exorcist, acolyte, or ostiarius. Beginning with the
subdiaconate, which was not raised to the rank of a
major order until the Middle Ages, ceUbacy and the
recitation of the Breviary arc of obligation.

Three disciplines treat the Sacrament of Matri*
mcnqr: dogmatic theidogy, moral Uieology, and eanon
law. Dogmatic theokwy leads the way, and proves
from the sources of faith not merely the sacramental
nature of Christian marriage, but also its essential
unity and indissolubility. In the case of a oim-
summated marriage between Christians the marria^
bond is absolutely indissoluble; but wh^ there is
ouestion of a consummated marriage between pagans
tne bond may be dnsolved if one of the parties is
converted to the Faith, and if the other conditions
of what is known as the "Pauline Privilege" are
fulfilled. The bond ct a non-ccmsummated marriage
between Christians may be dissolved in two cases:
when one of the parties concerned makes the solemn
profession religious vows, or when the pope, for
weighty reasons, dissolves such a marriage. Fi-
nal^, the grounds of the Church's power to establish
diriment impedimenta are discussedT and thoroughly
proved.

(v) Eschatolf^ (De nwfssfmis). — The final trea-
tise of dc^^atic theology has to do with the four last
things. According as we consider either the indi-
vidual or mankind in general, there is seen to be a
double consummation of all things. For the indi-
vidual the last things are death and the particular
judgment, to which corresponds, as his final state and
condition, either heaven or hell. The consummation
of the_ human race on doomsday will be^ preceded
by certain indications of the impending* disaster,
right after which will occur the resurrection of the
dead and the general jud^ent. As for the opinion
that there wiU be a glorious reign of Christ upon
earth for a thousand years previous to the final end
of all things, suffice it to remark that there is not the
slightest foundation for it in revelation, and even a
moderate form of Chiliasm must be rejected as
untenable.

DdGuiibn uid Nature: Eumf, SitJeituno in die katholiat^
nogtnatik (2ad ed.. TQhiriRcri, l&m); .Schiladmh. D« tiuebigia
rniintim (Frdburg, isai); HuvTP^i- Ontfiaw ttf Doffmatio
Thtalasnf, I, fljcnlcm. IbM); 1 uq.; WnABUi itn BrAinnnL#
A JfiHwal V CoUutlb: TheohavBiutd m SeJierbtn'M DcimiSL
1 (LBBjagt UB9)> I ■qq.: vak Nooht, Dm fimiibut rrrtlaiumM
ntmim ^JUt dimna (and ed., Ainrterc3»Tn,_ iflni: PccCTmitu,
lit odAofcH dogmaU wnimrmin. buqmnilie ihraliMica n/nfra
JroAntulu (Rooifl, Iflll); PoRLiL, a«d: H\a Kamcatilii^.
Smciuh and AUrOMiai, tr. Pbktcm, (St. Loui». 1011), rip. 1-14:
ScnBUBN. Die M^Mmsn dtr Chriiierttam* <3m cd-, Frflburg,
8cRa.ni ia Kircheilrjilttn. b. v. Tktoloeit. — tVom the
AnBticAD itaiidpoint: Haii- !n.ti-oductiart ia DoSinaiis Theoioav
<Npw York, IWT).

tint Wiuentt^ditt CTtblann, 1800); Skaiq, Freihml ^

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588

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WUmmlm/t (4Ui ed., Ft«tbiirs. 1800): Pntm. Vemmit'
fiWflWflw ronanau. Aw* Wiatetudufl u. KathoKnamuu (Vtenin,
Mfi): DcwAT, fMiiwil ifir IPiMuuciM (loubniek. 1910):
F6a»rB«, ^vtoriUI v. Frtiheit [K«mpten, 1910}^ Cor&ums,

(ColocM. 1911).— About the B&ti-Modenilat oath of. Rkinholo,
£)«r A>iliiiio<fam<«(«nirf u. dU Frnhnl dtr WtMimaehafi (Vienna,
1911); Baur, Klarhnt u. IPoArAmf. Eiiu Erklarung det AtUi-
modanUtmMdt (Freibuis, 1911); Maxx, Dtr Bid widtr dm
ifMcmMonw «. dit OttdtidiUfenditmo Ctiim. IBll): Mac»-
BAon, Dtr Bid vidtr dm ModemiamM* {Colocoe, 1911); Vbb-
wKYBiir, PhiU»aphim u. TketJagit m MitMalttT. DU kialitrUehen
Varatinatfunem Jr« MnNmat/irniafiiuA (Bonn, IHIH.
The Met|ii>dii: t>E Smcpr, Primripea df lii rriligui hirlarigum

tsrwnlm MttKodt u. Gtrefi'iMffrliHuitiiiiit: I5r.h D>t.. ]jeiptig,
190Si)>— Od tbe Scbldutic nkFthuii lI. Kr-ErixiCK, Throlai/ir drr
Vanmt, V (Snd ed., MDiv^U-r, IhT-l), 1 tq,; Wolit-, Vredr, ut
^djuTiiM; Short Studin in Earlg Vrtrk Fhilatophy and iu

MtlAode, I. Ji {Freibur«, 1909-llt. Un Neancholftxtiuain cT.
TauhOi fl riniUKimeiifi] dtt ptiificre lomirlicir tSi?na, lS71iir
BnimnR, L'itade la S/rnsmf thiatr^ignr dt Si. Thamaa {FH-
bowi, 10)^' [>B I ;i'r^r,^,^;..-'i.jn a la piabtojfMw nA>>
MpIoSi^ (Loiivain. 1'm.il i. - - 11 iry to linan nm; BiflffO*-
fKlj/>, ZAtMni jj'^ri/jTiJrricii.^i fiA i '^I'l.iJiicWlenJwieum. (Niple^
ISn); Srai&n, T'ftoniaK-i'eniam {'in-i «d., Puaerimra, 189$);
OaHCIA, l^T^sets rcAoAMKnim, 1> -(IgeiAfmu-, rfvaluuKerm d
■AtU a Jmhiu Z>>um ScMd crpofHt||i)tr (Qimrawy:, 1910}, —
PmixliMUi: Ditun Thoma* (nnr?&H, ISTS) ; /nArbu^A /Or
PhUim^if u, HMkcfJ^M r^MkctV, ^ Commfr; (PacLeriMTn.

1887 Ij PAilowpAiJicfe* Jairburh Otr tr'QrrraacKUaiMJl (Fulds,

1888 ]: AcBUK IhmntgCo fFriboucit, IMf3 1; Rone nJo^co-

|ai(£t|iu (Louvaja, 18D4 ); mru^lii ili FtltMnfia nm-iehr^aniiea

{FIdRW, H»8 J: rifnfiii lami-'la (Mjiijrtti, 1900 — 1. — On

rf. ^AKISBSAtr, digr/M lie U\ rif apintuetle (J vols,.

«L in?); Idsu. M t/'vm-iFt (i iJi'ru [Aiu^rt. 1900);
,i'«lliw*«(iqu» (Pwis, 19031; Irtrw,;

iBkH, Ii'MoI myafiqui (Pari?, IW.*!); Inru, l^^/air* rrIrairr>Jiiuiir«
ie la vie STiiritueilr (Amfm, IWJfil ; PfJi.-iMiJi, flr" GrtirM-d'oTnijen
Wit ed.., Parin, IWKi-), tr. Vukke ^iwiTii, Ui« (irofra uf fnieriar
Pn'tt'r (I^ndoii, III 10) ; Zxjik, liirtfiihru.nij in die ehriallidra
jrHiliit (P?id(!r1jom, IStP^J); ShaRPE, Muftktfin: Itr Tnu Naiurt
And Va!ut '[Londai;, 19101.

dtr Thaitagit (FrrahuiTf, IH.'M-tUl; WiimtMriiLuia, Enei/iilitpadU
dfr hitholiti^rn Tltfl'V'f (Luoil^hut, 1874)-; Riun, R-nr^klo^die
V. MiihsdtTaai' dn ThfolagI* (Frpibqrjr, |ft92): KniFi. jcirv-
klapSdie dtt lhtplOfl\*chtA WU*tMf3«ifi nt^i/t M^tiadmUh^r <2ni\
eil., Fri'iKiuigi 11*1(1); NiwMa't;. Idro of a L'nirmil]j H^iri'Jan,
Ifiaai; CuMENS., D' Sch(ihiii!iC'in/n SKu'mtia PhUM^pliunn ear
rAmlftftir aTin/(nfn ^MOn/itFr IS.^.Tl ; Kstjd, Wixnm ft. tHitubm
{and pd,, M^Tnt, Catubciv, WimjFicti u. IFiMen (SUi ed.,

rywburit, 1()11>: WtLLMiNS, i!ft,-hichic dm Idealiuaui (3 voU,,.
QniAeViCk, 19081: HeiTT. hi'U-riyuf. »itT tt4 roppofl*

enlrt /a FfiUMtvhtl « la Fvi dt /J. r .1 Rt. T^airtaa lT«t!s.
tWIB). Di™b» and CfialKnlsr I'l.m.r. <'firUl]ich-halhtiiiifA9
Dogmalik in Die KuUar dtr Gtgciiioarl by Hi.^.v'EUEsa (Ixiipjilg,
1909), I. IV, 2, p, 37 sqq.; Hettinoer, rimofAi/, or LetUri to a
Younij Theologian, tr. Stetoa (St. Louii, 1902) ; Hoqan, Cluneal
atudim (Philadelphia, 1896); Scannbll, TIm Prital'a Sludin
(London, 190S).

B. History of Dogrnalic Theology. — The imi)0»-
iDg edifice of Catholic theology has been reared
not by individual nations and men, but rather by the
combined efTorts of all nations and the theologians
of every centiuy. Nothing could be more at variance
wi^ Uie .essential cbtuttcter of theology than an
oideavour to set upon it the stamp of nationaUsm:
like the Catholic Church itself, theology must ever
be international. In the history of dogmatic theol-
ogy, as in the history of the Church, three periods
may be distinguished: (1) the patristic; (2) the
medieval; (3) the modem.

(1) The Patristic Period (about a. d. 100-800).—
The Great Fathers of the Church and the ecclesiasti-
cal writers o[ the first 800 years rendered important
services by their positive demoDstration and their
speculative treatment of dt^natic truth. It is. the
Fathers who are honoured oy the Church as her
principal theologians, excelling as they did in purity
of faith, sanctity of Ufe, and fulness of wisdom,
virtues which are not always to be found in those
who are known simply as ecclesiastical writers, Ter-
tullian (b. about 160), who died a Montanist, and
Oi^n (d, 254), who showed a marked leaning towards
Hefienism, strayed far from the path truth. But
even some of the Fathers, e. g. St. Cyprian (d. 258)
and St. Gregory of Nyasa, went astray on individual
points; the former in regard to the baptism of hmtics,
the latter in the matter of apocatastasia. It was

not so much in the catechetical schools of Alaandria,
Antioeh, and Edessa as in the struma with the
gr>.>at heresies of the age that patristic theology dei^
oped. This serves to explam the character of the
patristic hterature, which is apologetical and polem-
ical, parenetical and ascetic, with a wealth of exeget-
ical wisdom on every page; for the roots of theology
are in the Bible, especially in the (Gospels and in
the Epistles of St. Paul. Although it was not the
intention of the Fathers to give a methodical and
nrstematic treatise of theology, nevertheless ao
thoroughly did they handle the great dogmas from
the positive, speculative, and apologetic standpoint
that they laid the permanent foundations for the
centuries to follow. Quite justly does Mfthler call
attention to the fact that all modes of treatment
may be found in the writings of the Apostolic Fathers:
the apologetic style is represented by the letter of
Dio^etus and the letters of St. Ignatius; the dog-
matic in pseudo-Barnabas ' the moral, in the Pastor
of Hermaa; canon law, in the letter of St. Clement of
Rome; church history, in the Acts of the martyrdom
of Polycarp and Ignatma. Owing to the unexpected
recovery of lost manuscripts we may add: the litur-
gical style, in the Didacne; the catechetical, in the
'Proof of the Apostolic Preaching" by St. Iremeus.

Although the different epochs <h the patriatie
age overlap each other, it may be a«d in general
that the apologetic atjrle predominated in the first
epoch up to (jonstantine the Great, while in the
second epoch, that ia to say up to the time of Charle-
magne, dogmatic literature prevailed. We can here
only trace in the most general outlines this theologi-
cal activity, leaving to patrology the diecussion of
the literary details.

When the Christian writers entered the lists against
paganism and Judaism, a double task awaited them:
they had to explain the principal truths of natural
religion, such as God, the soul, creation, immortality,
and freedom of the will; at the same time they had
to defend the chief mysteries of the Clhriatian faith,
as the Trinity, Incarnation, etc., and had to prove
their sublimity, beauty, and conformity to reason.
The band of loyal champions who fought against
pagan Polytheism and idolatry is very laj^: Justin,
Athenagoras, Tatian, Theophilus of Antioch. Her-
mtas, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Ori^en,
Cypriwi^ Minucius Felix, Commodianus, Amobius,
Lactantius, Prudcntius, Firmiciua Matemus, Guee-
bius of Casaaxesi, Atfaanasius, Gregory of Nazianzus,
Cyril of Alexandria, Nilus, Theodoret, OrosiuBi and
Augustine, The most eminent writers in the strug-
gle against Judaism were: Justin, Tertullian^ ^ppcH-
ytus, Cyprian, Athanasius^ Gregory of N^naa,
Epiphanius, Chrj-sostom, Cynl of Alexandria, Indore
of Seville. The attacks of the Fathers were not,
of course, aimed at the Israchtic religion of the Old
Testament, which was a revealed religion, but at the
obstinacy of those Jews who, clin^ng to the dead
letter of the Law, refused to recognize the prophetic
spirit of the Old Testament.

But far greater profit resulted from conflict with the
heresies of the first eight centuries. As the flint,
when it is struck by the steel, ^ves off huninons
sparks, so did dogma, in its clash with heretical teach-
ing, shed a new and wonderfully brilliant light. As
the errors were legion, it was natural that in the
course of the centuries all the principal dogmas were,
one by one, treated in monographs which established
their truth and provided them with a philosophical
basis. The struggle of the Fathers against Gnoetj-
cimn, Manichteism, and Priscillianism served not only
to bring into clearer light the essence of God, crea^
tion, the problem of evil; it moreover secured the true
principles of faith and the Church's authority against
heretical aberrations. In the mighty ttru^^ against
Monarchianimn, Sabelfianism, and^Arianuni an oi>-

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portanity was afforded to the Fathers and the oecu-
menical counoils to eetabliab thetruemeatungof the
dogma of the Trinity, to secure it on all aides and to
draw out, by speculation, its genuine import. When
the contest with Eunomianism broke out, Uie fires of
theological and philosophical criticism purged the
doctrine of God and our knowled^ of^Him, both
earthly and heavenly. Of world-wide interest were
the Christological disputes, which, b^inning with the
rise of ApoUinarianism, reached their climax in Nea-
toriaaiam, Monophysitism, and Monotbelitima, and
were revived once more in Adoptionism. In this long
and bitter strife, the doctrine oi Christ's person, of the
Incarnation, and Redemption, and in connexion here-
with Marioiogy also, was pUced on a sure and per-
manent foundatioD, from which the Church has never
varied a hair's breadth in later ages. Hie following
may be mentioned as the Eastern Champions in tiaa
scienti&c dispute on the Trinity and Chnstolc^: the

Seat Alexandrines, Clement, <>igen, and Dulymus
e Blind; the heroic Athanasius and the three C^h
padocians (Basil, Gregory of Nauanzus, and Gregory
of Nyssa) ; Cyril of Alexandria and Leontius of Byzan-
tium; finally, Maximus the Confessor and John
Damascene. In the West the leaders were: Tertul-
Uan, Cyprian, Hilary of Poitiers, Ambrose, Augustine,
Jerome, Fulgentius of Ruspe, and the two popes,
Leo I and Gn^OTv I. As the contest with Pelagian-
ism and Semi-pelagianism purified the donnas of
grace and liberty, providence and predeetioatioo,
original sin and the condition of our first parents in
Paradise, so in like manner the contests with the
Donatists brought out more clearly and strongly the
doctrine of the sacraments (b^tism), the hierardiical
constitution of the Churchy her magisterium, or teach-
ing authority, and her infallibiutr. In all these
Btn^gles it was Augustine who ever led with indomi-
table courage, and next to him cameOptatus of Mileve
and a long Ime of devoted disciples. The last contest
was decided by the Second Council of Nicffia (787) ; it
was in this struggle that, under the leadership of St.
John Damascene, the communion of saints, the invo-
cation of the saints, the veneration of relics and holy
images were placed on a scientific basis.

It may be seen from this brief outline that the dog-
matic teachings of the Fathers are a collection of
monographs rather than a ^stematic exposition.
But the Fathers broke the ground and furnished the
material for erecting the system afterwards. In the
case of some of them there are evident signs of an at-
tonpt to synthesize dogma into a complete and or-
gamc whole. Irenaus (Adv. hmr., III-V) shows
traces of this tendency; the well-known trilogy of
Ckment (tf Alexandria (a. 217) marks an advance in
the same direction; but the most eucceesful effort in
Christian antiquity to ssrstematixe the principal dog-
mas of faith was made by Origen in his work "De
principiis", which is unfortunately disfigured by seri-
ous errors. His work against Celsua, on the other
hand, is a classic in apologetics and of lastii^ value.
Gr^^ry of Nyssa (d. 394), skilled in matters philo-
CH^faic^ and of much the same bent of mind as
Ongen, endeavoured in his "Large Catedietieal
IVeatise" (Kiyo»KaT«xw"^ifthas) to correlate in a
Ivood tynthetio view Uie fundamental dogmas of the
Trinity, the Incamaticm, and the Sacraments. In the
same manner, though somewhat fr^mentarily,
Hilary (d. 366) developed in his valuable work
"De Tnnitate" the principal truths of Chris-
tianity. The catechetical instructions of St. Cyril
of Jerusalem (d. 386), especially his five mysta-
n^ioal treatises, on the Apostles' Creed and the three
Sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation, and the Ho^
£ucbanst, contam an almost complete dogmatic
treatise. St. Epiphuiius (d. 496), in his two works
"Ancoratua" and "Panarium", auned at a oomplete
doffuatic tveatise, and St. Ambrose (d. 397) m his

chief works: "De fide", "De Spiritu 8.", "De in-
oamatione", "De mysteriis", "De poKutaitia",
treated the main poiata of di^ma masterfully and in

classic Latinity, though without any attempt at a
unifying synthesis. In regard to the Trimty and
Cbristology, St. Cyril of Alexandria (d. 444) is even
to-day a model for dogmatic theolo^ans. Thou^
all the writings of St. Augustine (d. 430) are an in*
exhaustible mine, yet be has written one or two works,
as the "De fide et symbolo" and the "Enchiridium",
which may justly be called compendia of dogmatic
and moral theology. Unsurpassed is his q)eculative
work "De Trinitate". His disciple Fulgentius of
Ruepe (d. 533) wrote an extensive and thorough ooi^
fession of faith under the title, "De fide ad Petrum,
seu regula rcctffi fidei a veritable traasuie fw the
theologians of bis day.

Towards the end of the Patristic Age Isidore of
Seville (d. 636) in the West and John Damascene
<b. ab. 700) in the East paved the way for a system-
atic treatment of dogmatic theology. FoUowing
closely the teachings of St. Augustine and St. Qrc^^cffy
the Great, St. Isidore proposed to collect all the writ-
ings of the earlier Fathers and to hand them down as a
precious inheritance to posterity. The results of this
undertaking were the "Libri III sententianimaeude
summo bono". Tajus of Saragossa (650) had the
same end in view in his "Libri V sententiarum".
The work of St. John Damascene (d. after 754) was
crowned with still greater success; for not only did he
gather the teachings and views of the Greek Fathers,
but by reducing them to a systematic whole he
deserves to be called the first and the onlv scholastic
among the Greeks. His main work, which is divided
into tDree parts, is entitled: "Fons scientie" (virv^
YMikredit), because it was intended to be the source, not
merely of theoh^, but of philosophy and Chundi
history as well. The third or theological part, known
as "Expositio fidei orthodoxffi" {tKStait t% ApdoU^
irttrreut), is an excellent combination of positive and
scholastic theology, and aims at thoroughness both in
establishing and in elucidating the truth. Greek
theology has never gone beyond St. John Damascene,
a standstill caused principally by the Fhotian schism
(869). The only Gteek prior to him who had pro-
duced a complete system of theology was Pseudo-
Dionyaius the Areopuite. in the fifth century; but he
was more popular in t£e West, at least from the eighth
century on, than in the East. Althou^ he openly
wove into the genuine Catholic system- neo-Platomc
thoughts and phrases, neverthuees he enjoyed an
unparalleled reputation among the greatest Scholastics
of the Middle Ages because he was supposed to have
been a disciple « the Apostles. For aSi that, Sobola»<
ticism did not take its guidance from St. John Damas-
cene or Pseudo-Dionysius, but from St. Augustine,
the greatest of the Fathers. Augustinian Oioujsht
runs like a golden thread through the whole progress
of Western philosophy and theology. It was Au-
gustine who led everywhere, who tJways pointed out
the right path, and from whom all schools sought
direction. Even the heretics tried to bolster up their
errors with the strength of his reputation. To^qr hk
greatness is recogmzed and appreciated more and
more, as specialized research goes more deeply into
bis works and brines to view his genius. As scheeben
remarks, "Itwouldbe easy tocompilefromhiswritings
a rich system of d<^matic theology." We cannot
help admiring the skill with which he ever kept God.
as the beginnine and end of all things, in the central
position, even w-here he was compelled to depart from
earlier opinions which he had found to be untentdijie.
The £ngush-«peaking world may well be proud of Uie
Venerable Bede (d. 735), a contemporarv of St. John
Damascene. Owiog to his unusually solid education
in theology, his extensive knowledge of the Bible and
of the Fathtts <d the Chmrcb, he is tite,link vriiioh

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Joins the patristic with the medieval history of
theol<M3r.

(2) The Middle Ages (800-1600).— The beginningB
of Scholasticism may be traced back to the days of
Ghajlemagne (d. 814). Thence it progressed in ever-
quickening development to the imie of Ansehn of
Canterbury, Bernard of Clairvaux, and Pet» ihe
Lombard, and onward to its full growth in the Middle
Ages (first epoch, 800-1200). The most brilliant
poiod of Sonolasiicism embraces about 100 years
(seoond epoch, 1200-1300), and with it are connected
the names of Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus,
B<maventure, Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus.
Prom the beginning of the fourteenth century, owins
to the predominance of Nominalism and to the sad
condition of the Church, ScbolasUdam began to de-
cline (third epoch, 1300-1500).

(a) First Epoch : Bwinning and Progress of Scho-
lasticism (800-1200) .—In the first half of this epoch,
up to the time of St. Anadm of Canterbury, the
theologians were more conoenwd with preserving than
with developing the tr^isuree stored up in the writings
of the Fathers. The sacred science was cultivated
nowhere with greater industry than in the cathedral
and monastic schools, founded and fostered by Charle-
magne. The earUest signs of a new thought appeared
in the ninth century during the discussions reutive to
the Last Supper (Paschasius Radb«rtus, Ratramnus.
Rabanus Maunis). These speculations were carried
to a greater depth in the second Eucharistic contro-
versy against Berengarius of Tours (d. 1088), (Lan-
franc, Guitmund, Alger, Hugh of Lances, etc.).
Unfortunately, the only systematic theologian of this
time, ScotuB Eriugena (d. after 870), was an avowed
Puitheist^ so that the name of "Father of ScholasU-
ei8m"wfaioh smne would give him, is wholly unmerited.
But the one who fully deserves this title is St. An-
selm of Canterbury (a. 1100). For he was the first to
bring a sharp logic to bear upon the principal dogmas
of Cnristianity, the first to unfold and explain their
meaning in every detail, and to draw up a scientific
plan for the stately edifice of dogmatic theology.
Taking the substance of his doctrine from Augustine,
St. Anselm^ as a philosopher, was not so much a dis-
ciple of Aristotle as of Plato, in whose maBbeaily daar-
kwues he had be^ thoroughly schooled. Another
pillar of the Church was St. Bernard of Clairvaux
(d. 1153), the "Father of Mysticism". Though for
the most part the author of ascetic works with a
mystical tendency, he used the weapons of scientific
theol(^ against Abelard's Rationaiisro and the ex-
aggerated Realism of Gilbert de La Porr^. It is upon
the doctrine of Anselm and Bernard that the Scholas*
tics of succeeding generations took tiieir stand, and it
was their spirit which lived in the theological efforts
of the TTniversity of Paris. Less imMninent, yet note-
worthy, are: Ruprecht of Deuts, William of Tliieny,
Gaufndus, and others.

The first attempts at a theological system rosy be
seen in the so-called " Books of Sentences collections
and interpretations of quotations from tne Fathers,
more especial^ of St. Augustine. One of the earliest
of these bofucs is the "Sununs sentoitianim'* of
Huc^ at St. \5ctor (1141). His works are diarao*
tensed tfazou^out by a close adherence to St. Augus-
tine and. accwding to the verdict of Scheeben, may
even yet nerve as' guides for beginners in the theology
of St. Augustine. Lees praise is due to the similar
work of Robert Pulleyn (d. 1146), who is careless in
arranging the matter and confuses the various ques-
tions of which he treats. Peter the Lombard,
called the "Magister Sententianmi" (d. 1164). on
the otho* hand, stands far above them aD. What
Gratian had done for canon law the Lombard did
for dogmatic and moral theology. With imtiring
industry he sifted and explained and paraphrased tiie
Datristic lore in his "Libri IV sententianim", and

the anangeotoit which he adopted was^ in sptte of
the lacuna, ao exo^lent that up to the sixteenth
century his work was the standard text-book of
theology. The work of interpreting tMs master-
piece began as early as the thirteenth century, and
there wss no theol(^ian of note in the Middle Ages
who did not write a commentary on the Sentences
of the Lombard. Htmdreds of these commenteriea
are still resting, unprinted, beneath the dust of the
hbraries. No other work exerted such a powerful
influence on the devel<^mait d scholastic toeology.
Neither the analogous work of his disciple, Peta of
Poitiers (d. 1205), nor the important "Summa
aurea" of William of Auxerre (d. after 1230) super-
seded the Lombard's "Sentences". Along with
Alain oS Lille (d. 1208), William of Auvergne (d.
1248), who died as Ardibishop of Paris, OMerves
special mention. Though preferring the free, un-
scholastic method of an earlier age, he yet uiows
hinudf at once an anginal pfailoBopluv and a pro-
found theologian. Inasmuch as in his numerous
monographs on the Trinity, the Incarnation, the
Sacraments, etc., he took into account the anti-Chri^
tian attacks of the Arabian exponents of Aristotelean-
ism, he is, as it were, the connecting link betwera
this age and the most brilliant epoch of the thirteenth
century.

(b) Second ^3och: Scholasticum at its Zenith
(1200-1300).— This period of Scholasticism was
marked not only by the appearance of the "Theolog-
ical Summse", but also by the building of the great
Gothic cathedrals, which bear a sort erf affinity to
the lofty -structxu^ of Scholasticism. (Cf. Emil
Michael, S. J., "Geschichte des deutschen Volkes
vom 13. Jahrh. bis sum Ausgang des Mittelalters",
V, Freiburg, lOll, 15 Bq.)_ Another characteristic
feature was the fact that in the thirteenth ooitury
the champions of Scholasticism were to be found in
the ^at religious orders c£ the FnndscaDs and
Donunicana, beside whom worked the Augustinians,
Carmelites, and Servites. This brilliant p^od is
ushered in by two masterminds: the one a Francis-
can, Alexander of Hales (d. ^ut 1245), the other
a Dominican, Albert the Great (d. 1280). The
"Summa theotogia" tit Alexander of Hales, the
largest and most compr^ensive work of its kind, is
distinguished by its deep and mature speculation,
though flavoured with Platonimo. The arrangement
of the subjects treated reminds one erf the method in
vogue to-oay. An intellectual pant not merely in
matters philosophical and theological, but in the
natural sciences as well, was Albert the Great. It
was he who made the first attempt to present the
entire i^ilosopl^ of Aristotle in its true form and
to plaoie it at the service of Catholic theok}gy--an
unaertddng of far^vaching consequraoee. The
logic of Aristotle had indeed been rendered into
Latin by Boethius and had been used in the schools
since the end of the sixth century; but the physics
and met^hysics of the Stagirite were made known
to the Western world only through the Arabian
I^iilosophers of the tJiirteaith century, uid then in
such a way that AristoUe's docti^ne seemed to clash
with the Christian rellipon. Thu fact explains why
his works were prohibited by the Synod Paris,
in 1210, and again by a Bull of Gregory IX in 1231.
But after the Scholastics, led by Albert the Great,
had gone over the faulty Latm translation once
more, had reconstructed the genuine doctrine of
Aristotle and rec(wuxed tlie fundamental soundness
of his principles, uiey no longer besit^ed to take,
with the ^^praval of the Chur«h, the puan philoeo-
pher as their guide in the speculative stoc^ of dogma.

Two other representatives of the great orders an
the gigantic figures of Bonaventure 1274) and of
Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274), who maik tiie bi^iest
damlf^ment of Sdidaatie tJiecdogy. St. DooWBa-

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ture, the "Seraphic Doctor", clear^ follows in the
footsteps of Alexander of Hales, his fellow-rdiKioUs
and predecessor, but surp&aaes him in depth of
mysboism and oleamess of diction. Unlike the
other Scholastics of this period, he did not write a
theological "Summa", but amply made up for it
by his "Commentary on the Staitences", as well as
by hifl famous "Broviloquium", a "caricet of pearls",
which, brief as a compendium, is nothing less than a
condensal Summa. Alexander of Hales and Bonar
venture are the reaX repreaentatlTea of the old Fran-
ciscan Schools, from which the later School of Duna
Scotus essentially differed. Yet it is not Bonaven-
ture, but Thomas Aquinas, who has ever been
honoured as the "Prmce of Scholasticism". St.
Thomas holds the same rank among the theologians
as does St. Augustine among the Fathers of the
Church. Possessed of angelic rather than human
knowledge, the "Doctor angelicus" is distinguished
not only for the wealth, deptn, and trutii aS hu ideas
and for his systematic expoeitbn of them, but also
for the versatility oS his genius, which embraced all
branches of human knowledge. For dogmatic
theoIo(CT' his most important work is the "Summa
theologica". Experience has shown that, as faithful
adherence to St. Thomas means progress, so a depar-
ture from his teachings invariably orings with it a
decline of Catholic theol(wy. It seems providential,
th^efore, that Leo XIII m his Gn^chcal "JEberta
Patris" (1S79) restored the study of the Scholastics,
especially of St. Thomas, in aJl higher Cathohc schools,
a measure which was again ^phasized by Pope
Pius X. The fears preralent in some circles that
by the restoration of Scholastic studies the results of
modem thought would be forced back to the anti-

auated viewpoint of the thirteenth century are
lown to be groimdlesa by the fact that both popes,
while insisting on the acquisition of the "wisoom of
St. Thomas", yet emphatically disclaim any inten-
tkm to revive uie unscientific notions of th6 Middle
Ages. It would be folly to ignore the progress of
seven centuries, and, moreover, the Reformation,
Jansenism, and the philosophies since Kant have
originated theological problems which St. Thomas
in his time could not foresee. Nevertheless, it is a
convincing proof of the logical accural and compre-
hensiveness of the Thomistic system that it contains
at Irast the principles necessary for the refutation
(rf mddem errors.

B^ore the brilliancy of the genius of St. Thomas
even great theologians of this period wane into stars
of the second and third magnitude. Still, Richard of
Middleton (d. 1300), whose clearness of thought and
hicidity of exposition recall the master mind of
Aquinas, is a classical representative of the Francis-
can School. Among the Servites, Henry of Ghent
(d. 1293), a disciple of Albert the Great, deserves
mention; his style is original and rhetorical, his
judgments are independent, his treatment of the
doctrine on God attests the profound thinker. In
the footsteps of St. Thomas followed his pupil Peter
of Tarentaise, who later became Pope Innocent V
(d. 1276), and Uhic of Strasburg (d. 1277), whose
name is little known, thou^ his unprinted "Sumina"
was held in high esteem m the Middle Affes. The
famous General of the Augustinians, .£aidius of
Rome (d. 1316), a scion of the noble family of the
Colonna, while differing in some details from the
teaching of St. Thomas yet in the mdin adhered to
Us system. In his own order his writii^ were
considered as classics. But the attempt of the
Ai^iustinian Gavardus m the sevenlemth cesktury to
create a distinctly "j^dian School" proved a
failure. On the other nand, adversaries of St.
Thomas sprang up even in his lifetime. The first
attack came from England and was led by William
de la Mare, of Oxford (d. 1285). Speaking broadly.

1 THKOLOOT

English scholars, famous for their originality, J^yed
no mean part in the intellectual life oS the Himlle
^ea. Bemg more of an empirical and practical
than of an aprioristic and theoretical b^tofmind,
they enriched science with a new element. Their
predilection for the natural sciences is also the out-
come of this practical sense. Like the links of an
unbroken cham follow the names of Bede, Alcuin,
Alfred (Aniens), Alexander of Neckham, Alexander
of Hales, Robert Grosseteste, Adam of Marsh, John
BasingBtoke, Robot Kilwardby, John Fecham,
Roger Bacon, Duns Scotus, Occam. Kuno Fischer
is right when he says: "Wnen travelling along the
great hi^way of history, we may traverse the whole
m the middle ages down to Bacon at Verulam with-
out leaving England for a moment" ("fYands
Bacon", Heidelberg, 1904, p. 4).

This peculiar English ^irit was embodied in the
famous Duns Scotus (1266-130S). While in point
of alnlity he bdoi^ to the golden age ctf scholasti-
cism, yet his bold and virulent criticism <tf the Tho-
mistic ^rstem was to a great extent res^nsible for
its dedme. Scotus cannot be linked with the old
Franciscan school; he is rather the founder of the
new Scotistic School, which deviated from the
theology of Alexander of Hales and Booaventure
not so much in matters of faith and morals as in
the Efpeculatire treatm^t of dogma- Greater still
is his lyppoatiau to the fundamental standpoint
of Thomas Aquinas. St. Thomas likens the syston
of theolc^ and phUcmphy to the animal organism,
in which the vivifying soul permeates all the mem-
bers, holds th^ together, and shapes them into

Eerfect unity. In Scotus's own words, on the other
and, the order of things is rather symtwlifed by the
plant, the root shooting forth branches and twigs
which have an innate tendency to grow away from
the Stan. This fundamental difference also sheds
light on the peculiarities of Scotus's system as ap'
posed to lliomism: his formalism in the doctrine
of God and the Trinity, his loose conception of the
Hypostatic Union, his relaxation of the bonds imitin|;
the sacraments with the humanity of Christ, bra
explanation of transubstantiation as an adductire
substitution, his emphasis on the supremacy of the
will, and so on. Though it cannot oe demed that
Scotism preserved theou^cal studies from a one-
sided development and even won a signal victory
over Thomism by its doctrine concerning the Immac-
ulate Conception, it is nevertheless evident that the
essential service it rendered to Catholic theology in
the long run was to bring out, by the clash of argu-
ments, the enduring solidity of toe Thomistic struc-
ture. No one can fail to admire in St. Thomas the
perspicuity of thought and the lucidity of diction,
as contrasted with the abstruse and mystifying con-
ceptions of his critic. In later centuries not a few
Franciscans of a calmer judgment, among them
Constantine Samanus (1589) and John of Rada
(1599), set about minimizing or even reconciling the
doctrhial diffCTences of the two masters.

(c) Third Epoch: Gradual Decline of Scholasti-
cism (1300-1500).— The death of Duns Scotus (d.
1308) marks the close of the golden era of the Scholas-
tic system. What the following period accomplished
in constructive work consisted chiefly in preserving,
reproducing, and digesting the results of former
ages. But simultaneously with this commendable
labour we encounter elements of disintegration, due
partly to the Fraticelli's wrong conception of mysti-
cism, partly to the aberrations and superficiality of
Ntnmnalism, partly to the distressing conflict between
Church and State (Philip the Fan-, Louis of BSvaria,
theExUeat Avignon). Apartfromthefanaticalenthu-
siasts who were leaning towards heresy, the devekq>-
mrait and nu>id spread m Nominalism must be ascribed
to two piq>iu of Duna Scotus: the E^chman Peter

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Aurai^ <d. 1321) and the EndiBbnuu William
Occam (d. 1347). In union with Marsilius of Padua
and John of Jandun, Occam used Nominalism for
the avowed pumose of undermining the unity of the
Church. In this atmo^here flourished realism
and opposition to the primacy of the pope, until it
reached its climax in the false |irineiple: " dondlium
Bupra Pflfuim", which wasprrached from the hous^
tops up to the time of the Ootmcils of Constance and
Basle. Itris only fair to state that it was the pressing
needs of the times more than anything else which
led some great men, as Pierre d'AiUy (d. 1425) and
Gersou (d. 1429), to embrace a doctrine which thev
abandoned as soon as the papal schism was healea.
To. understand the ori^ of the errors of Wyclif,
HusB, and Luther, the history of Nominalism must be
studied. For what Luthv knew as Scholasticism was
only the degenerated form which Nominalism presents.
Even the more prominent Nominalists of the close
of the Middle Ages, as the general of the Aupustin-
iaiUL Gregory of Rimini (d. 1359), and Gabriel Biel
(d. 1495), who has been called the "lastScholasUc",
did not escape the misfortune of falling into grievous
errors. Nominalistic subtleties, coupled with an
austere pseudo-Augustinism of the ultrar^igoristic
Wjie, made Gregory of Rimini the precursor of
Bajanism and Jansenism. Gabriel Biel, thouj^
ranking among the better Nominalists and combining
solidity of doctrine with a spirit of loyalty to the
Church, yet exerted a baneful influence on his con-
temporaries, both by his unduly enthusiastic praise
of Occam and by the manner in which be commented
on Occam's writings.

Tile order which suffered least damage &nn Nomi-
nalism, was tliat of St. Dominic, for, with the
possible exception of Durand ^ St. Pou9am (d. 1332)
and Holkot ^d. 1349), its members were as a rule
loyal to their great fellow-religious St. Thomas.
Most prominent among them during the first half
of the fourteenth century were: Hcrvfflus de Nedellec
(d. 1323), a valiant opponent of Scotus; John of
Paris (d. 1306); Peter of Palude (d. 1342); and
espetMl^ Raynerius of Pisa (d. 1348), v/ho wrote an
alphabeticiU summary of the doctrine of St. Thomas
wiiich even to-day is useful. A prominent figure
in the fifteenth centuir is St. Antonine of Florence
(d. 1450), distinguishea by his industry as a compile-
and by his versatility as an -author; by his "Summa
Theologiffi ' ' he did excellent service for positive theol-
cny. A powerful champion of Thomism was John
Ca^reolus (d. 1444), the "Prince of Thomista"
(vrincept TiumUtarum). Using the very words of
Bt. Thomas, he refuted, in his adamantine "Clypeiu
Thomistarum", the adversaries oS Thomism m a
masterW and convincing manner. It was only in
the ear^ part of the sixteenth century that commen-
taries on the "Summa Theologica" of St. Thomas
began to appear, among the first to undertake this
work being Cardinal Cajetan of Vio (d. 1537) and
Konrad Edllin (d. 1536). The philosophical "Sum-
ma contra Gentes" foimd a masterly commentator
in Francis of Ferrara (d. 1528).

Far less united ihan the Dominicans were the
Franciscans, who partfy favoured Nominalism, partly
adhered to pure Scotism. Among the latter the
following arft worthy of note: Francis Mayronis (d.
1327); John of Colonia; Peter of Aquila (d. about
1370), who as abbreviatoT of Scotus was called Scotel-
luB (httle Scotus); NicoUus de Ort>elIis (ca. 1460);
and above all Lichetua (d. 1^), the famous commen-
tator of Scotus. William of Vorrilong (about 1400),
Stephen Brulefer (d. 1485), and Nicholas of Niise
(d. 1509) bdong to a third class which is character-
ized by the tendency to closer contact with St. Bona-
venture. A similar want of harmony and unity is
disoemibie in ihe schools of the other orders. Wnile
the Augustmiana James of Viterira (d. 1308) and

Thomas of Strasbui^i (d. 1357) attached theinselvea

to .^;idius of Rome, thereby approaching closer to
St. Thomas, Gregory of Rimim, mentioned td>ove,
championed an undisguised Nominalism. Alphon-
sus Va^as of Toledo (d. 1366), on the other hand,
was an advocate of Thomism m its strictest form.
Am(Hig the Carmelites also, divei^encies tit doctrine
mpeared. Gerard of Bologna (d. 1317) was a staunch
Th(nnist, while his brother in religion John Bacon-
thorp (d. 1346) delighted in trifling controversies
against the Thomists. Drifting; now with Nominal-
ism, now with Scotism, this original genius endeav-
oured, though without success, to found a new school
in his order. Generally speaking, however, the later
Carmelites were enthusiastic followers of St. Thomas,
llie Order of the Carthusians produced in the fif-
teenth century a prominent ma many-sided theolo-
gian in the person of Dionvsius Ryckel (d. 1471),
sumamed "the Carthusian , a descendant of the
Leevis family, who set up his chair in Roermond
(Holland), from his pen we possess valuable
commentaries on Holy Writ, Pseudo-Dionysius,
Peter the Lombard, and St. Thomas. He was
equally ctmversant with mysticism and scholasticism.
AUxart the Crest, Henrr of Ghent^ and Dionvsius
form a brilfiant constellation which shed imdying
lustre on the German theology of ihe Middle A(^.

Leaving the monasteries and turning our attration
to the secular clergy, we encounter men who, in spite
of many defects, are not without merit in oofpadatic
theology. The first to deserve mention is the
Englif^nan Thomas Bradwardine (d. 1340), the
foremost mathematician of his day and Archbi^op <rf
Canterbury. His work "De causa Dei contiB
Fela^anos" evinces a mathematical mind and an
unwonted depth of thought. Unfortunately it is
marred by an unbending, sombre rigorism, and this
to such an extent that the Calvinistic Angucans of a
later century pubhshed it in defence of their own
teachings. The Irish Bishop Richard Radulphus of
Armagh (d. 1360), in his controversy with the Arme-
nians, also fell into dogmatic inaccuracies, which
paved the way for the errors of Wyclif. We may
note in pasung that the learned Carmelite Thomas
Netter (d. 1^), sunuuned Waldensis, must be
r»arded as the ablest controversialist against the
\^clifitee and Hussites. The great Cardinal Nich-
olas of Cusa (d. 1404) stands out prominently as
the inaugurator of a new speculative system in dog-
matic theolc^; but his doctrine is in many respects
open to criticism. A thorough treatise on the Church
was written by John Torquemada (d. 1468), and a
similar work by St. John Capistran (d. 1456). A
marvel of learning, and already acknowledged as
such by his contemporaries, was Alphonsus Toetatus
(d. 1454), the equal of Nicholas of Lyra (d. 1341)
in Scriptural learning. He merits a place in the
history of dt^matic theolc^, inasmuch as he inter-
spersed his excellent commentaries on the Scriptures
with dogmatic treatises, and in his work "Quinque
paradoxa" gave to the world a fine treatise on
Christology and Mariolocy.

As was to be expecteoT mysticism went astray in
this period and d^enerated into sham pietism. A
striking example of this is the anonymous "German
Theology", edited by Martin Luther. This work
must, however, not be ccmfounded with the "German
TheoI(^" of the pious bishop Berthold of Chiemaee
(d. 15^), which, directed agwist the Reformers,
is imbued with the genuine spirit of the Catbcdic
Church.

(3) Modmi Times (1600-1900).— As during the
Patnstio Period the rise of heresies was the occasion
of the development of dogmatic theology in the
Churdi, so the manifold errors of the Renaissance
and cHf the Reformation brought about a more aocu-
rate definition of impfivtant artidea of faith. Along

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other Hnes abo both these morenuots prodooed
nod effects. While in the pniod ct the Renaiasanoe
the revival c£ classical studies gave new yi^ur to
exegeoB and jDatroIogy, the Reformation stimulated
the universitiefl which had remained Catholic,
espedally in Spain (Salamanca, Alcali, Coimbra)
and in tne Netherlands (Louvain), to put forth an
enthusiastic activity in intellectual research. Spain,
which had fallen oebind diu^ the Middle AgeSj.
now came boldly to the front. The Sorbonne of
Paris r^^ained its lost prestige only towards the end
<tf the sixteenth oentury. Among the religious orders
the newly-founded Society of Jesus probably con-
tributed most to the revival and growth of theology.
Scheeben distinguishes five epochs in this period.

(a) First Epoch: . Preparation (ifiOO-1670).— It
was only by a slow process that Catholic theolwy
rose from the depths into which it had fallen. 'Toe
rise <rf the Reformation (1517) had inflicted serious
wounds on the Church, and the defection of so many
priests deprived her <A the natural resources on which
the study of theology necessarily depends. Never-
theless tne list of the loyal contains many brilliant
names, and the ctmtroversial works of those times
inehuie mare than <»ie valuable monograph. It
was but natural that the wh<^ lit«ature of this
period should bear an apol<^tical and controversial
character and should deal with those subjects which
bad been attacked moat bitterly: the rule and sources
of faith, the Church, grace, the sacraments, especially
the holy Eucharist. Numerous defenders of the
faith arose in the very country which had given birth
to the Reformation: John Ek:k (d. 1543), Cochlteus
(d. 1S52), Staphylus (d. 1564), James of Hoog-
straet (d. 1527), John Cropper (d. 1559), Albert
Pighius (d. 1542), Cardinal Hoeius (d. 1579), Martin
Cromer (d. 1589), and Peter Canisius (d. 1597).
The last-named gave to the Catholics not only his
world-renowned catechism, but also a most valuable
Mariol<^. With pride and enthusiasm we look
upon England, where the two noble martyrs John
Fuber, Bishop of Rochester (d. 1535), and Thomas
More (d. 1535) championed the cause ot the Catholic
faith with th«r poi, whoe Cardinal Pole (d. 1568),
Stephen Gardiner (d. 1555), and Cardinal William
Alien (d- 1594), men who combined refinement with
a solid educaticm, placed their learning at the service
of the persecuted Church, while the Jesuit Nicholas
Saunders wrote one of the beet treatises on the
Church. In Belgium the professors of the Universitv
ci Louvain opened new paths for the study of tbeol-
ogy; foremost amoiu them ware: Ruardus Tapper
(d. 1559), John Driedo (d. 1535), Jodocus Ravesteyn
(d. 1570), John Hessels (d. 1566), John Molanus
(d. 1585), and Garetius (d. 1571). To the lasN
named we owe an excellent treatise on the holy Eu-
charist. In France James Merlin, Christopher Chef-
ontaines (d. 1595), and Gilbert Genebrard (d. 1597)
rendered great services to dogmatic theology. Syl-
vester Pierias (d. 1523), Ambrose Catharmus (d.
1553), and Cardinal Seripandus are the boast of
Italy. But, above all other countries, Spain is dis-
tinguished by a veritable galaxy of brilliant names:
AlMionsus of Castro (d. 1558), Michael de Medina
(d. 1578), Peter de Soto (d. 1563). Some of their
works have remained classics up to our own times,
as "De natura et gratia" (Voiice, 1547) of Dominic
- libriXT-'- ~- • -

Soto; "De iustificatione libri XV (Venice, 1546) of
Andrew Vega; "De lods theologicis" (Salamanca,
1663) of Melchior Cano.

(b) Second Epoch: Late Scholasticism at its
Hei^t (1570>1660).— Even in the preceding epoch
the sessions of the CouncU of Trent (1545-1563) had
exerted a beneficial influence on the character and
extent of dtwmatic literature. After the close of
the council there spraog up everywhere a new life
and a marvellous activity in tbewgy which recalls
?av.— 38

tbe best days of the Patristic Era and of Scbolastioism
but surpasses both by the wealth and variety of its
literary productions. We are not here concerned
with the industry displayed in Biblical and excgetical
research. But the achievements of controveri^al,
positive, and scholastic theology deserve a passing
notice.

(i) Controversial theology was carried to the
highest perfection by Cardinal Bellarmine (d. 1621).
There is no other theologian who has defended almost
the whole of Catholic theology against the attacks
of the Reformers with such clearness and convincing
taree. Other theologians remarkable for their
masterly defence of the Catholic Faith were the
Spanish Jesuit Gr^ry of Valencia (d. 1603) and his
pupils Adam Tanner (d. 1635) and James Gretser
(d. 1625), who taudttt in the University of Ingol-
stadt. To the Englishman Thomas Sti^leton (d.
1598) we owe a work, unsurpassed even in our days,
on the material and formal principle of Protestantism.
Cardinal du Perron (d. 1618) (A France successfully
entered the arena against James I of England and
Philip Momay, and wrote a splendid treatise on the
holy Eucharist. The eloquent pupit orator Bossuet
(d. 1^27) wielded his pen in routing Protestantism
mm the standpoint of oistory . The " Pnescriptiones
Catholicse", a voluminous work of the Italian Gra-
vina (7 vob.^ Naples, 1610-39), possesses enduring
value. Martm Becanus (d. 1624), a Belgian Jesuit,
published his handy and well-known "ManuaJe
controversianmi". In Holland the defence of
religion was carried on by the two learned brothers
Adnan (d. 1669) and Peter de Walemburg (d. 1675),
both auxilian^ bishops of Cok>gne and both contro-
versialists, who easily ranked amon^ the best. Even
the distant East was represented m the two Gredc
converts, Peter Anudius (d. 1640) and Leo Allotius
(d. 1669).

(ii) The development of positive theology went
hand in hand with the pro^^ of research mto the
Patristic Era and into the history of dogma. These
studies were especially cultivated in France and
Belgium. A number of scholars, thoroughly versed
in history, published in excellent monographs the
results of tneir investigations into the nistory of
particular dogmas. Morinus (d. 1659) made the
Sacrament of I^enance the subject of special study;
Isaac Habert (d. 1668), the doctrine of the Greek
Fathers on grace; Hallier (d. 1659), the Sacrament of
Holy orders; Gamier (d. 1681), Pelagtanism; De-
champs (d. 1701), Jansenism; Tricassinus (d. 1681),
St. Augustine's doctrine on grace. Unfortunatel^t
among the highly gifted representatives of this
histoncoKlogmatical school were to be found men who
deviated more or less scciously from the imchangeable
teachings of the Catholic Church, as Baius, Jansenius
the Younger, Launoy, de Marca, Dupin, and others.
Though Nicole and Amauld were Jansenists, yet
their monumental work on the Eucharist, "Petp&-
tuit^ de la foi" (Paris, 1669-74), has not yet lost its
value. But there are two men, the Jesuit Petavius
(d. 1647) and the Oratorian Louis Thomassin (d.
1696), who by their epoch-making works: "Dog-
mata theologica", placed positive theology on a new
basis without disr^arding the speculative element.

(iii) So great was the enthusiasm with which the
religious orders fostered scholastic theology and
brpui^t it to perfection that the golden era ftf the
thirteenth century seemed to have once more re-
turned. It was no mere chance that St. Thomas and
St. Bonaventure were just then proclaimed Doctors
of the Church, the first by Pius V, the other by
Sixtus V. By these papu acts the two greatest
luminaries of the past were proposed to the theolo-
gians as models to oe zealously imitated. Thomism.
guarded and cherished by the Dominicans, provea
anew its full vitality. At the head of the Tliomistie

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moranent was Bafiez (d. 1604), the first andgreatest
opponent of the Jesuit Molina (d. 1600). He wrote
a vdtuable commentary on the theological "Summa"
of St. lliomaB, which, combined with a similar work
by Bartholomew Medina (d. 1681), forms a har-
monious whole. Under the leadership of Bafiez a
group iA scholarly Dominicans took up the defence
of the Tbomistie doctrine on grace: Alvarez (d.
1635), de Lemos (d. X629). Ledesma (d. 1616),
MassouU^ (d. 1706), Reginaldua (d. 1676), Nasarius
(d. 1646), John a St. Thoma (d. 1644), Xantes
Mariales (d. 1660), Gonet (d. 1681), Goudin (d.
1695), Contenson (d. 1674), and others. However,
the most scholarly, profound, and comprehensive
work of the Thomistic school did not come from the
Dominicans, but fnnn the' Carmelites of Salamanca;
it is the invaluable "Cursus Salmanticensis" (Sala^
manca, 1631-1712) in 15 folios, a mumlficent com-
mentary on the "Summa" of St. Thomas. The
names of the authors of this immortal work have
unfortimately not been handed down to posterity.
Outside the Dominican Order, also, Thomism had
many zealous and learned friends; the Benedictine
Atohonsus Curiel (d. 1609), Francis Zumel (d. 1607),
Joim Puteanun (d. 1623), and the Irisbmui Ai^ustine
Gibbon (d. 1676), who li^ured in Spain and at
Erfurt in Germany. The Catholic imiversitieB were
active in the interest of Thomism. At Louvun
William Estius (d. 1613) wrote an excellent commen-
tary on the "Liber Sententiarum" of Peter the Lom-
bard, which was permeated with the spirit of St.
Tliomas, while his colleagues WiKers and Francis
ftflvius (d. 1649) explained the theological "Sunmia"
(H the master himself. In the Sorbonne Thomiam
was worthily represented by men like Gammach^
(d. 1625), Andrew Duval (d. 1037), tmd especially
by the ingenious Nicholas Ysambert (d. 1624). The
Ijniversi'h^ of Salzburg also furnished an able work
in the "Tneologia scholastica" of Augustine Reding,
who held the chair of theology in that university
from 1645 to 1658, and died as Abbot ttf Etnatedeln
in 1602.

The Franciscans of this epoch in no wise abandoned
their doctrinal t>ppoBition to the school of St. Thomas,
but steadily continued publishing commentaries on
Peter the Lombard, which throughout breathe the
genuine spirit of Scotism. It was especially Irish
Franciscans who promoted the theolt^cal activity
of their order, as Mauritius Hibemicus (d. 1603),
Anthony Hickay (Hiqmeus, d. 1641), Hugh Cavellus,
and John Ponce (Pontius, d. 1660). The following
Italians and Belgians also deserve to be motioned:
FVancis de Herrers (about 1590), Angelas Vulpes
(d. 1647), PhiUp Fabri (d. 1630), Bosco (d. 1684),
and Cardinal Brancatus de Laurea (d. 1693). Scotis-
tic manuals for use in schools were publifQied about
1580 by Cardinal Samanus and by William Herincx,
this latter acting under the direction of the Francis-
cans. The Capuchins, on the other hand, adhered
to St. Etonaventure, as, e. g., Peter Trigos (d. 1693),
Joseph Zamora (d. 1649), Gaudentius of Brescia
(d. 1672), Marcus a Baudunio (d. 1673), and others.

But there can be no question that Scholastic theol-
ogy owes most of its classical works to the Society
orjesus, which substantially adhered to the "Summa '
of St. Thomas, yet at the same time made use of a
certain eclectic freedom which seemed to be warranted
hy the circumstances of the times. Molina (d.
1600) was the first Jesuit to write a commentary on
the theological "Summa" of St. Thomas. He was
followed by Cardinal Toletus (d. 1596) and by
Grep>ry of Valencia (d. 1603), mentioned above as
a distinguished controversialiBt. A brilliant group
in the Sodety of Jesus are the Spaniards Francis
Suanz, Gabriel Vasquez, and Didacus Ruiz. Suarez
(d. 1617), the most prominent among them, ie also
the foremost theok^ian that the Society of Jeeta

has produced. His renown is due not oair to the
fertiuty and the wealth of his litenuy producticau,
but also to his "ideamess, moderation, depth, and
circumspection" (Scheeben). He truly deserves
the title of "Doctor eximius" which Benedict XIV
gave him. In his college G^riel Vasquez (d.
1604) Suarez found a critic both sub*£ and sevore,
who combined positive knowledge with depth of
i^teculation. Didacus Ruiz (d. 1632) wrote masterity
woriis on God and the Trinity, subjects which were
also thoroughly treated by Christopher Gilles (d.
1608). Harruabal (d. 1608), Ferdinand Bastkia,
(d. about 1609), Valentine Hence, and others are
names which will forever be linked with tiie history
of Molinism. During the succeeding period James
Grsoiado (d. 1632), John FrE^iosituB (d. 1634),
Caspar Hurtado (d. 1646), and AnUwny Perei (d.
1^4) won fame by their commentaries on St. Thomas.
But, while devoting themselves to scientific Teeearcb*
the Jesuits never forgot the need of instruction.
Excellent, often voluminous, manuals were written
hy Arriaga (d. 1667), Martin Esparza (d. 1670),
Francis Amicus (d. 1651), Martm Becanus (d. 1626),
Adam Tanner (d. 1632), and finally by Sylvester
Maurua (d. 1687), who is not onfy remark-
able for clearness, but alao distinguished as »
philosopher. Hand in hand with this matt:
generu and comprehensive literature went im-
portant monographs, embodying special studitifl
on certain dogmatic questions. Entering the UsU*

T'nst Baius and his followers, Martinez de Ripalda
1648) wrote the best work on the supernatural
order. ToLeonardLe8siu8(d.l623)weoweeomebeau-
tiful tMatises on God and His attributes, .^gidiiui
Coninck (d. 1633) made the Trinity, the IncamaUon.
and the sacraments the subject of special studieu.
Cardinal John de Lugo (d. 1660), noted for his men-
tal acumen and highly esteemed as a moralist, wrote
on the virtue of fatth and the Sacraments of Penanoe
and the Eucharist. Claude Tiphanus (d. 1641)
is the author of a classical monograph on the notions
of personality and hypostasis. Caidinal PaUavicini
(d. 1667), known as the historiographer of the Council
^ Trent, won repute as a dogmatic theologian
several of his writings.

(c) Third Epoch; Further Activity and Gradual
Decline of Scholasticism (1660-1760).— While the
creative and constructive work of the previous ^kk^
still continued, though with languishing vitality,
and ushered in a second spring of dogmatic literature,
other currents of thougnt set in which gradually
prepared the way for the decline of Catholic theology.
Cartesianism in philosophy, Gallicsnism, and Jansen-
ism were sapping the strength of the sacred science.
There was scarcely a country or nation that was not
infected with the false spirit of the age. Ita^ alcMke
remained immune and preserved its ancient purity
and orthodoxy in matters theological.

One might have expected that, if anywh^e at all,
theolc^ would be securely sheltered within the
schools of the old religious orders. Yet even some of
these succumbed to the evil influences of the times,
losing little by little their pristine firmness ana
vigour. Nevertheless, it is to them that almost all
the theolofdcal literature of this period and the
revival of Scholasticism are due. A product <rf the
Tbomistie school, widely used and well adapted to
the needs of the time, was the standard work of the
Dominican BiUuart (d. 1757), which wiUi exceptioDal
skill and taste explains and defends the llKiinistic
system in scholastic form. The dogmatic theology
of Cardinal Gotti, however, rivals, if tt does not sur-
pass, Billuart's work, both as r^ards the substance
and the soundness of its contents. Other HuxnisfeB
produced valuable monographs: Drouin on the
sacraments and Bernard de Rubeis (d. 1775) on
original sin. More edeotio in tiirir adberoioe to

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lIuHQiam' were tbeCardinab Celestine 8foiidnto

(d. 1096) and Aguirre (d. 1699); the lattar*B work
"TheoI<^ of St. Anaelm" in three volumea is replete
with deep thought. Among the Franciscans Claud-
ius Frawen (d. 1680) issued his el^ant "ScotuB
academicus", a counterpart to the Thomistic theol-
ogy of BiUiurt. Of the Scotistic School we also
mention Gabriel Boyvin, Krisper (d. 1721), and Kick
(d. 1769). Euttbius Axaaxt (d. 1775), the foremost
theoloffaii in Germany, also represented a better
type, combining sound conservatism with due regard
for modem demands. The Society of Jesus still
preserved something of its former vigour and activity.
Simmonet, Ulloa (d. about 1723), and Marin were the
authors of voluminous scholastic works. But now
the didactical and pedagcwical interests began to
assert themselves, and called for numerous text-
books of theology. We mention Platel (d. 1681),
Antoine (d. 1743), Fichler (d. 1736), Sardagna (d.
1775), Grber, Monschein (d. 1769), and Gwier.
But both as regards matter and form all these text-
books were surpassed hy the "Theologia Wircebur-
gensia", which the Jesuits of WUrzbui^ published in
1769-71. In addition to the old religious orders,
we meet during this period the new school of Augus-
tinians, who based their theology on the system of
Gregory of Rimini rather than on that of .£gidiu0
of Rome. Because of the stress they laid on the
rigoiistic element in St. Augustine's doctrine on
grace, they were for a time suspected of Baianism
and Janseniam, but were cleared of this suspicion bjy^
Benedict XIV. To this school belonged the .schol-
arly Lupus (d. 1681) at Louvain and Cardinal Noris
(d. 1701), distinguished for his subtle intellect. But
its best work on dogmatic theolo^ came from the
pen of Lawrence Bertl (d. 1766). His feUow-workwB
m the same field were BelleUl (d. 1742) and Bertieri.
The French Oratory, falling from its lofty eminence,
was buried in Jansenism, as the names of Quesne!,
Lebrun, and Juenin sufficiently indicate.

The Sorbonne of Paris, developing the germs of
Jansenism and Gallicanism, ceased to keep abreast
<rf the time. Abstaractii^ howeyw, from this fact,
theology owes w(Hks of great merit to men like Lom's
Habert (d. 1718), du Hamel (d. 1706), L'Herminier,
Witasse (d. 1716). Creditable exceptions were
Louis Abelly (d. 1691) and Martin Grandin, who
distineuished themselves hy^ their loyalty to the
Churdi. The same encomium must be said cS
Honoratus Toumely (d. 1729), whose "PrtBlectiones
dogmatioffi" are numbered among the best theol(^cal
text-books. A staunch opponent of Jansemsm, he
would certainly have chaOraged Gallicanism, had
not the law ot the realm prevented bim. For the
rest, the Church depended almost exclusivdy on
Italy in its scientific combat against the pernicious
errors of the time. There had gathered a chosen
band of scholars who ooorageously fought for the

Eurity of the faith and the rights (A the papacy.
1 the front rank against Jansenism stood the Jesuits
Dominic Viva (d. 1726), La Fontaine (d. 1728),
Alticozzi (d. 1777), and Faure (d. 1779). Gallicanism
and Josephinism were hard pressed by the theologians
of the Society of Jesus, especially by Zaccaria (d.
1795), Muzzarelli (d. 1749), Bolgeni (d. 1811),
Roncaglia, and others. The Jesuits were ably
seconded by the Doraimcans Orsi (d. 1761) and
Mamachi (d. 1792) . Another champion in this
struggle was Cardinal Gerdil (d. 1802). Partiv to
this ei}och belongs the fruitful activity ^ St. Alphon-
8US Liguori (d. 1787), whose popular luther than
scientific writings enei^etically opposed the baneful
spirit of the time.

(d) Fourth Epoch: Decay of Catholic Theology
(1760-1840). — Many circumstances, both from with-
in and from without, contributed towards the further
decadence of tfaeolc^ which had ab-eady began in

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tiw {n«oeding epoch. In EVanoe it was the etid

powerful influence of Jansenism and GaUicanism,
in the German Empire the spread of Josephinism
and Febronianism that sapped the vitality of ortho-
dox theology. The suppression of the Society of
Jesus by Clement XIV m 1773 deprived theology of
its ablest representatives. To these factors must be
added the ^aral^sing influence of the "Enhghten-
ment" which, rising through English Deism, was
swelled by Firendi Encyclopedism and finally deluged
an European countries. The French Revolution
and the military expeditions of Ni^>oleon all through
Europe were not without evil consequences. The
false philosophy of the time (Kant, Schelling, Fichte,
Hegel, Cousin, Comte, etc.), by which even many
theologians were misled, engendered not only an
undi^utsed contempt for Scholasticism and even
for St. Thomas, but also fostered a aballow ooncep-
tion of Christianity, the supernatmtd character itf
which was obscured by Rationalism. True, theq}irit
of former centuries was still alive in Italy, but the
unfavourable circumstances of the times Impeded
its growth and development. In France the Revolu-
tion and the continual campaigns paraljrzed or stifled
all productive activity. De Lamennais (d. 1854),
the Dinning of whose career had hdd out promisee
of themghest order, turned from the truth and led
others astray. The Cathohcs of England groaned
undev political depression and rehgious intolerance.
Spain had become barren. Germany suffered from
the mildew of "Enlightemoent". No matter how
mildly one may judge the aberrations of Wessenberg
(1774-1860), Vicar^^eneral of Constance, who had
absorbed the false ideas of his age, it is certain l^at
the movement b^un b^ him marked a decadence in
matters both ecclesiastical and scientific. But the
poorer the productions of the theologians the greater
their pride. They deepised the old theok^ians,
whom they could neither read nor understand.
Among the few works of a better sort were the manuals
of Wiest (1791), KlUpfel (1789), Dobmayer (1807),
and Brenner (1826). The ex-Jesuit Benedict Stat^
tier (d. 1797) tried to apply to d«ma the philoeo[Ay
of Christian Wolff, Zlmmo- (1802)^ even that ^
Sohelling. The only^ work which, joining soundness
with a loyal Cathohc spirit, marked a return to the
old traditions of the Scnool was the dogmatic theol-
ogy of Liebermann (d. 1844), who taught at Stras-
burg and Mainz: it appeared in the years 1819-28
and went through many editions. But even Lieber-
mann was not abk to .conceal his dislike for the
SdwlasticB. The renewed attempt erf Hermes (d.
1831) <rf Bonn to treat CathoUo theology m a Kantian
spirit was no less fatal than that of Gflnt^er (d. 1868)
in Vienna, who souf^t to unravel the mysteries <rf
Christianity by means of a modem Gnosis and to
resolve them into purely natural truths. If positive
and speculative theok)gy were ever to be regenorated,
it was by a return to the source of its vitality, -tiie
^orious traditions of the past.

' (e) Fifth Epoch : Re8t<H%ticai of Docmado TheokMnr
(1840-1900).— ;The reawakening <tf the CatfadSe
life in the forties natunJly brought with it a revival
of Catholic theology. Germany especially, where
the decline had gone farthest, showed signs of a
remarkable regeneration and vigorous health. The
external impulse was given by Joseph Gdrres (d.
1848); the ''loud shouter in the fraV'. When the
Prussian Government imprisoned Archbishop von
Droste-Vischarinic of Colo^ on accfumt of the stand
he bad taken in the question of mixed marriages, the
fiery wpeals of GSrres began to fill the hearts of the
Cathoucs, even outside of Germany, with unwonted
courage. The German theologians heard the call
and once more applied themselves to the work which
was theirs. D&llmger (d. 1890) developed Churdi
hist(»7, and Mfthler sdTimoed patir^ogy and «ym-

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bolum. Both poutive and n)eculstiTe theolosy
reoeived a new lease of life, the former through Klee
(d. 1S40), the latter through Staudenmeier (dT 1856).
At the same time men like Kleutgen (d. 1883),
Werner (d. 1888), and StSckl (d. 1895) earned for
the den)isedSchouuticiBm a new place of honour by
their thorou^ historical and aystematic vritingB.
In France and Belgium the d<^atic theology of
Cardinal GouBset (d. 1866) of Reune and the writings
of Biabop Malou of Bruges (d. 1865) exerted great
influence. In North America the works of Arch-
bishop Kenrick (d. 1863) did untold good. Cardinal
Camille Massella (d. 1900) is to be ranked among
the North American theologians, as he wrote his
do^atic works while occupying the chair of theology
at Woodstock C(dl^Ee, Maiyliuid. In England the
neat Cardinals Wiseman (d. 1865), Manning (d.
1892), and Newman (d. 1890) became by their works
and deeds powerful agents in the revival of Catholic
life and in the advance of Catholic theology.

In Italy, where the better traditions had never
been foivotten, far-seeing men like Sanseverino (d.
1866), liberatore (d. 1892), and Tongiorgi (d. 1865)
set to work to restore Scholastic ptiilosopiiy, beciuise
it was found to be the most effective weapon against
the OTors of the time, i. e. traditionalism and ontolo-
gism, which had a numerous following among Catfa-
t^c acholars m Italy, France, and Belgium. The

ftioneer work in poutive theology fcH to the lot of the
amous Jesiut Perrone (d. 1876) m Rome. His works
on dogmatic theology, scattered throughout the
Cathohc world^ freed theolo^ of the miasmas which
had infected it. Under his leadership a brilliant
phalanx of theok>gians, as- PasaagUa (d. 1887),
Schrader (d. 1875), Cardinal Franselin (d. 1886),
Falmieri (d. 1009), and others, continued the work so
baj^ily b^un and reasserted the right of the specu-
lative element in the domain of theology. Emment
amon^ the Dominicans was Cardinal ZigUara, an
inspinng teacho* and fertile author. Taua from
Rome, the centre of Catholicism, where students
from all coimtries foregathned, new life went forth
and permeated all nations. Germany, where Baader
(d. 1841), Gunther, and Frohschammer (d. 1893)
continued to spread their errors, shared in the general
uplift and produced a number of prominent theolo-
giaiu, as Kuhn (d. 1887), Berime (d. 1881), Dieringer
(d. 1876), Oswald (d. 1903). KnoU (d. 1863), Den-
anger (d. 1883), V. Sch&zler (d. 1880), Bemanl
Jungmann (d. 1895), Heinrich (d. 1891). and others.
But Germany's greatest theologian at tois time was
Joeeph Scheeben (d. 1888), a man of remaiicable
talent for speculation. In the midst of this univa«al
reawakening the Vatican Council was held (1870),
and the Encyclical of Pope Leo XIII on the value or
Scholastic, especially Thomistic, philosophy and
theology was issued (1879). Both these events
became landmarks in the history of dogmatic theol-
ogy. An oiergetic activity was put forth in every
branch of sacred science and is still maintained.
Even though, consulting the needs of the time and
the hostile situation, theologians cultivate most
assiduously historical studies, such as Church history.
Christian archeology, history of dogma, and history
of reli^on, yet signs are not wantinfj that, side bv
side with positive theology. Scholasticism also wiU
enter upon a new era of progress. History shows that
periods <^ progress in theokigy always follow in the
wake of great oecumenical councils. After the first
Council of Nicffia (325) came the great period of the
Fathers; after the Fourth Lateran Council (1215)
the wonderful age of mature Scholasticism; and after
the Council of Trent (1545-63) the activity of later
Scholasticism. It is not too much to hope that the
Vatican Council, which had to be adjourned indefi-
nite^ after a few general sessionB. will be followed
by a similar periodof ptogrtm and splendour.

No eritM Ustofy of Cstholio docnu hu m jwt bMD vrittao.
In senml ef. Lifnttt, Coup fmU $ur rMtfoAv <U la TIMofia
doenati^M (Louvain, 1861). Ample mkterial is nvea in: Pohb>
vix.AppaTatut mum' (3 vob., VeBWe, 1003-06): Du Pin, IfomOU
BMiodtigue det auUwaeeetitiaaiimie* (11 vols., Paris, 1680-1714);
Ovt>jii,CointnmtaTiut lU Mriptorthu ecdthattieia (3 vola., Leip-
sig, 1722); Cave. Saiptonm ecoUnaatieoruwi Uttoria lif-
raria (2iul «d., Oiford, 1740-^; Fabkicius, BibUotkta latma
media et infima alati* (S Ttds., Hikmburc, 1734 — ) ; Cxilueb, B%»-
toire oMrate dtt Avteurt nerH tt eeeUnattim4t (2nd 19 vols..
Puis, IS5S-70); Smith akd Wack, t>ia. ChriM. Biog., Mickads.
Bwarapki* tmiMraeUe andmuu tt modtm* (2iid ed., 4S rob..
P«m, 1842-65); Wbrnsb, OMchiehU der apologtHKhm uitd poU-
niteKen LiUratur der e/iritU. Reliaum (6 voU., SobkffhMiMD.
1861—); Cahuza, SvUa FUoeofiadei PadritD<itUirideaaChima4
in imenoUd di San Tommaaa (N^los, 1868); WtUMANli,
Gfek%diu dim Ideaiinnv (2ad ed.,Z vols., Brunswick, 1008).
An inTAlnable work of nfer«nca ia Hurteb, t/ommdaUr. Wiut
legnrd to the aevetml oountriea of. Tahnbb, BibUetheea Britlami
eo-Hibemica tu de teriptorHnu, oim in Anotia, Scotia M H&tmin
ad Mtc xviii inittum ftonurwU (London, 1748) ; Diet. Nat, Biag,
The MAinueTS published: Bittoire liUirairt de In Frmue (12
vols.. Puis, 1733-63), whioh wu continued by the hranrVT na
Fkakcs (20 voEb., Puis, 1814-1006) ; Mauuchklli. GU eerHtari

Italia (2 vols., Breeoia, 1753-63); TnuBOACHi. iS(«na <MZa
LeOtratura tiaiiana (13 vols., Modena, 1771-82) ; KROUBACBn,
OettAitAte der bvjonA'nMc&en LiUratvr (2nd ed.. Munich, 1S97);
WtuQHT, A Short HiUory <4 Syriae IMeroivte (London, 1894) ;
Chabot, Corptu fmptorum ChrittianoTKm oriinUilivm (Puis,
1903 — With reyara to various religious orders of. ZinoM^
SAUEE, Hiataria m litenma Ordinii S. Benedidi (4 vols., Aus»-
burg, 1754) ; TAaBiN, Hittoire litUraire de la Congrtffalion de Satnt-
Mawrt (BrusBelii, 1770); Wadoiko, Seriptorea Ordirut Minoram

eld ed., 2 vols.. Rome, 1805); db Martiqnt, La SeobuH^ue el
traditimt franeiteainet (Paris, 1888); Pbldbr, Oeeehiehte der
HruastucAq/UtcAm Sttidien m FranJiiekaneronten (Freibuic
1004); Quinp Ecbabd, Serijitorte Ordinie Pradteatomm (2 vols..
Puis, 1719-21); Rbichkst, Monumonla Ordini* Pratr^m /V»-
dieatoruM kieloriea (Rome. 1896 — }; db Viujbbb. Bibliolheoa,
Carmelitana notie eritiae et diuertalionibue Uluatrata (2 vols..
Orleans. 1752) ; i>k Visca. Bibtiolheea teriptorun Ordinie deter'
cimtit (2nd ed., Colm, 1656); Ooovaertb, Dietiannairt U»>
bibiioffraphimie dee ieriiaiiu, artieiet tt eatanl* de Ordre da
Prtwumtri (2 vols., Biusaels, 1809-1907): Winter. Die PrO-
monttratenttr det It. Jahrhunderte (BerUn, 1865); OaaiNOKS,
BibliUheca Augnetiniana hiitoriea, eritiea tt chronologiea (Insot-
stadt, 1768): Sodtbwell, BMiotheea eerijitorutn Saeielat** Jem
(Rome, 1076); Sommbrvoobu £t6lM)(U(n(< de la CoMpamie de
Jitua (9 vols., Brussels and Paris, 1890-1900). The hiatoriea
of doKToa b^ ScRWAifB, Habmack, Tixebont, etc., may also be
oonsult«d with profit.

With regard to the neelal literature of the Patristio Period, of.
Ebrbard, Die aUehrxettidte Littratur u. ihre Er/oriehvng teU
1880 (2 vols., 1894-1000): Donaldbon, A Cnfuul Hitiory ci
Chrittum lAitnUure and Doctrine from the Death of the ApoelUe ta
the Nieene Council (3 Tola.. London. 1865-66); RiCBABoaoN, Tha
Anienieene Father: A BiUiagraphical Syturpei* (Buffalo. 1887);
Cbuttwell, a Literary Bietory oj BaAy Chrielianify (2 vola.,
London, 1893): Scboeneuann. Bibtiothtca hUtoTieo4iaeraria
Pittrum lattnoruma TerttiUianoutmiead Gregorium M. tt leidonan
£fuiiaZmam (2 vola.. LeipslB, 1792-94) ;HARif ACE, Geeehiehte dot
altehriiaiehen Literatitr bit Eueebiat (3 vols., Leipsig, 1893-1904) ;
MOrler, Patroloffie (Ratiabon, 1840); MtONK-SBVEBTBE, Di^
tionnaire de PalraloBie (4 vols., Paria, 1851-55): Nirscbl, £<«hr^
bueh dor Patroiooit v. Patrittik (3 vols., MaiiuE, 1881-85): Alzoo,
Grvndriu der Patiotonie (4th ed., Freiburg. 1888): FBsaLSB-
JoNOHANN, iTntiivtione* Patrdogia (2 vols., Innsbruck, 1890-
1806); Bardbnbeweb. QiechiehUderaiUnrddidtenLiteratitr.l~ll

£«iburK. 1902-03): Idbh, PatroUtgio Qtrd ed., Freiburg. 1910);
U8CHEK. GrvndTite der Pairoloffie (3rd ed., FrejbuTK, 1910);
BrAcKL, Geeehiehte der ehrittl, PhUoeophia tar Zeit derKirehen-
titer (Mains, 1891). Of great importaooe are aleo: A. Habhack
c. C. ScBhidt. TVoito u. UrUertuehimotn no- Geeehiehte der alt-
thriell. Lileralur (Leipsis, 1882 — ); Robinsok, TexU and SUtdiaa
(Cambridge, 1891— n Hbmmer-Lejat, T^xtee tt DoammOt
(Paria. 1904—).

With nmxd to the Middle Agei ef. eapedally SoHBUair,
Doffmatik,l (Freiburg, 1873) 423 sqq.; Orabwann, OMcfcufcte
der eehotattichen Meihodt. I, II (Freiburg. 1909-11); Ipbm fat
BrCHBERaEB, KinMidut Handltasikon, a. v. Sehetaetik: Bio-
BABDT. AtbtiitM MaffKue, eein Leben «. eeine Werkt (Ratisbotu
1857): Wermer, Z>er JU. Thomat von Aiptin (3 vols., Ratiabon,
1858—); Bach, Die Dogmenaeeehiehte dee UitielaUcn vom dtriet^
lopiaeAen Stanapunkt (2 vols., Vienna, 187^-75); Swlhb, Z>at
eommee de tkMoaie (Paria, 1871). With regard to tbe oniverritlM
cf. BuLAca, Bittoria Vnitertitatie /\irm«n*i( (Paria, 1665-73);
DBNirui, DU VnittrtiiOien dee MitielaUtrt. 1 (Boriin, 1885);
Denifle and Chatbuik, Chartularium UniMreUatie AriaiM-
tif (4 vols., Paris. 1889-07); Rajbbvall, The Unittreitim at
BvTope in the UiddU Agee (Oxford, 1895) ; Febr, La PaeaUl 4*
ThtQlo(iie de Parie et eee Doetevre Ue plue eUibrte, 1: Moym-dm
(4 vols.. Paris, 1894-97); Robert, Let Sealee ttreneeignemmtdelm
ThMoffie pendant la prenuira moiHt du XII- liide (Paria. 1000) ;
Michael, CeichiehU dee deuleehm Voikei torn S. Jahrh, Mt aiMa
Autgang dee MOOaUert, II, [11 (Freiburg, 1899-1908); Bbbrt.
Aagemei7U,-0taehiehU der Littratur det MiOeUttrt im Abends
tande (3 vols., I,eipsig. 1874-87). With regard to BchoIaaOe
phikMophv. of. HATTaBAU^fTutofre de la I^iotophit tcol
a vola., Parta, 1872); ox wouf, Bietory of Medtttal Phib
tr. Corm (London, 1909); STflcEL, Gteekiehti der PhiL-.^ .
dee Uittel^len (3 vota.. Maiai. 1864-06); BIuiOB In Am Jtirf-
ter dtr Oagmman BDnmaM, I (Le^Mft IVm, Si DBMtna

Digitized by

Google

TBIOLOOY &

AXD Ehble, Arekit filr Liltnlur- u. KMttnott^ieht4 <7 Tola.,
BeriiD Mid FrriboTf. 1886-1900} ; BXimn and toh Hkbtunq,
A<tMV> «ur nOimiAU 4m MOMdfn (MOasUr, 1S91— ).
On tayMcwa ef. Pxcoxa, OttekieUe der dtuUelun Mylik im
UUtOaltt (3 vol!., Leipiig. 1B74-93); LANoKNBKsa, QutUen w.
jPortcftuniTm itir OeKkichje der deuUehm Myitik (l>i»ic. 1B04) ;
Rust, Lot AfytifffM diwiru (4 toIb., Pftris, 1896—); Dxlackoix.
Btvdn dKMmrt et d* pneholoeU du MyatieUiM (Paris, 1908).

On modern times cf. Gilww, Bihl. Diet. Eng. Calh.; Fehbt,
Ln Facultt dt TMologie de Pttrit ei ««t Iteeteun let plu» etMre*:
It, £po«u« modtnu (3 vols.. Puis, 190(M>4}; LAKKmn. Vortri-
dmtinisch* ThMiogm (tM R«/ormatioiuatUeU«r$ (Barlia, 18&8);
Webnkr, Praru Suaret u. dit Se&«Ia<(tJt ^ Wrten JahrhuTiderU
(2 vols., Ratiabon, 1860); Tdbh, OueftjcAte dar 7AwI(vi«
DnOMAIsnd sMt dm* 7Vt«nfir Konail Mt Jbr Otvmwarl (2ikI «d.,
lUtitibon, 1889) ; for tha time of " Enli^twiineitt" in particular, cf.
RoscH, Oai religiSit Ltben in HoheiuolUm unter dern Bir^flutt
dt* WesimbtrgianUmMt (Freiburg, 1908); Idem, Ein neuer
Hiaorikerd*r At^klOrung (Freiburg. 1910); against him, Mrbklk,
DU kaiMiaiAt Btvrteiluna d«* AufkUninaKtitaiUr* (WuriburK,
1909);Idk»i. Die kirehliche Aufklaruna im kalholischen DeutseK-
land (WfiraburK, 1910); SXaiifiij.x8, Wittmtehaft u. Glaubein da-
kirddidtm Avjiianinff (Tfibin^n. 1910); Idem. UntM**en*e/ia/l-
liehkeit u. Unalaubt in dtt kireUichm AvfklOruno (TUbin^u.
1911); HETniroES, Thomtu ton Aquin v. dw ntropdiacke Civili-
tation (WQrsburg, 1880); Wkhofbr, Die gntUof ActMpuiv im
An»ehlit*t an die Thomu-Sntyl^ika Leaf a XIII (1S97) ; db Okoot,
Lfto XIII w. d<r M. Tkoma* (1897) ; BlLUMT, £a OMUgU caOut-
Uqm M XIX' ^ida (Paria. 1904).

J. PaBut.

I. a. Christologt. — ChriatolOTy ia that part of
theol<wy which deals with Our Lora Jesus Chnst. In
itg fulTextent it ra^iiHises the doctzines conceming
both the person of Christ and His works; but in the
present article we shall limit ourselves to a considera-
tion tA the perstm of Christ. Here again we shall
not infringe on the domain of the historian and
Old-Testament theologian, who present their respec-
tive contributions under the headings Jesus Cbrist,
and Mbssias; hence the theology of the Person of
Jesus Christ, considered in thelightof tbeNew Testa-
ment or from the Christian point of view, is the
pr^« subject of the present article.

'n>e person of Jesus Christ is the Second Person of
the Most Holy Trinity, the Son or the Word of the
Father, Who "was incarnate by the Holy Ghost of
the Virun Ma^ and was made man. " These mys-
teries, though foretold in the Old Testament, were
fully reveled in the New, and cleaily developed in
Chnstian Traditicm and theology. Hence we shall
have to study our subject under triple aspect of
the Old Testammt, the New Testament, and Chris-
tian Tradition.

(A) Old Testament. — From what has been said we
understand that the Old Testament is not conaidered
here from the viewpoint of the Jewish scribe, but of
the Christian theolo^an. Jesus Christ Himself
was the firat to use it in this way hy His repeated
appeal to the Messianic passa^s of the prophetic
wntinffi. The Apostles saw m these prophecies
many argimients in favour of the claims and the
teachings of Jesus Christ; the Evaneelists, too, are
familiar with them, thou^ they appeal less frequently
to tiiem than the patnstic writers do. Even the
Fathers either state the prophetic aif;ument only in

Stusni terms or they quote single prophecies; but
ey thus prepare the way^ for the deeper inught
into the hi^rical perspective of the Messianic pr&
dictions which began to prevail in the ei^teenth and
nineteenth centuries. Leaving the statement of
the historical development of the Messianic prophe-
cies to the writer of the article Messias, we shall
briefly call attention to the prophetic predictions of
the genealo^ of Christ^ of His birth. His infancy.
His names. His offices. His public life. His sufferings,
and His glory.

(1) Refearences to Uie human genealogy of the
Messias are quite numerous in the Old Testament:
He is represented as the seed of the woman, the eon
of Sem, the son of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the
son of David, the prince of pastors, the offspring of
the marrow of the high cedar (Qen., iii, 1-19; ix,
18-27; xii, X-fl; xvii, 1-9; xviii, 17-19; xjdi, ld-18;

r7 THIOLOOT

xrvi, 1-5; xxvii, l-15j Num., ndv, 15-19; II Kinfj^
vii, 1-16: 1 Par., xvu, 1-17; Jer., xxiii, 1-8; xxxiii,
14-26; Exeeh., xvii). The Royal Psabnist extols
the Divine genealon' of the future Messias in the
words: "The Lord nath said to me; Thou art my
son, this d^ have I begotten thee" (Ps. ii, 7).

(2) The Prophets frequently speak of the birth of
the expected Christ. They locate its place in Beth-
lehem of Juda (Mich., V, 2-14), th^ determine its
time by the passing oi the sceptre from Juda (Gen
xlix, 8-12), by the seventy weeks of Daniel (ix, 22-
27), and by the "little while" mentioned in the
Book of Aggeus (ii, 1-10). The Old-Testament
seers know abo that the Messias will be bom of a
Virgin Mother (Is., vii, 1-17), and that His appear-
ance, at least His public appearance^ will be preceded
by a precursor (Is., xl, 1-11; Mai., iv, 6-6).

(3) Certain events connected with the infancy of
the Messias have been deemed important enough
to be the subject of prophetic pre^ction. Among
these are the adoration of the Mara (Ps. Ixxxi, 1-17),
the slauditer of the innocents (Jer., xxxi, 1&-26),
and the flight into Egypt (Osee, xi, 1-7). It is true
that in the case of these prophecies, as it happens in
the case of many others, their fulfilment is their
clearest commentary; but this does not undo the fact
that the events were really predicted.

(4) Perhaps there is less need of insisting on the
predictions of the better known Messianic names and
titles, seeing that they involve less obscurity. Thus
in the prophecies of Zacharias the Messias is called
the Orient, or, according to the Hebrew text, the
"bud" (iii; vi, 9-15), in the Book of Daniel He is the
Son of Man (vii), in the Prophecy of Malachias He ia
the Angel of the Testament (ii, 17; iii, 6), in the
writings of Isaias He is the Saviour (h, 1; til, 12; bdi),
the Servant of the Lord (xlix, 1), the Emmanuel (viii,
1-10), the Prince of peace (ix, 1-7).

(5) The Messianic ofhces are considered in a ^n-
eral way in the latter part of Isaias (bd) ;_ in particu-
lar, the Messias is considered as prophet in tne Book
of Deuteronomy (xviii, 9-22) ; as king in the Canticle
of Anna (I Kin^, ii, 1-10) and in the royal song of
the Psalmist (xliv); as priest in the sacerdotal tyjte
Melchisedech (Gen., xiv. 14-20) and in the Psalmist's
words "apriest forever" (cix) ; as Goel, or Avenger, in
the second part of Isaias (Ixiii, 1-6) ; as mediator of the
New Testament, under the form of a covenant of the
people (Is., xlii, 1; xliii, 13), and of the light of the
Gentiles (Is., xlix).

(6) As to the public life of the MessiaSj Isaias gives
us a general idea of the fulness of the Spirit investiiu
tiie Anointed (xi, 1-16), and of the Messianic work
(Iv). The Psalmist presents a picture of the Good
Shepherd (xxii); Isaias summarizes the Messianic
miracles (xxxv)- Zacharias exclahns, "Rejoice greatly,
O daughter of Sion", thus predictinfj Christ's solemn
entrance into Jerusalem; the Psalmist refers to this
same event when he mentions the praise out of the
mouth of infants (viii). To return once more to the
Book of Isuas, the prophet foretella the rejection of
the Messias through a league with death (xxvii) ; the
Psalmist alludes to the same mystery where he speaks
of the stone which the builders rejected (cxvii).

(7) Need we say that the sufferings of the Messias
were fully predicted by the prophets of the Old Testa-
ment? The general idea of the Messianic victim is
presented in the context of the words "sacrifice and
oblation thou wouldst not" (Ps. xxxix); in the paes-
a^ banning with the resolve "Let us put wood on
ins bread" (Jer., xi), and in the sacrifice described by
the prophet Malachias (i). Besides, the series of the
particular events which constitute the history of
Christ's Passion has been described by the prophets
with a remarkable minuteness: the Psalmist refers to
His betrayal in the words " the man of my peace . . .
supplanted me" (xl), and Zacharias knows of the

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508

TEBOLOGT

"thirty pieces of silver" (xi); the Psalmist praying in
the anguish of his soul is a type of Ctirist in His
agony (Ps. liv) ; His capture is foretold in the words

may be found represented
words "unjust witnesses have risen up against me,
and ini()uity hath lied to itself" (Ps. xxvi); His flagel-
lation is portrayed in the description of the man of
sorrows (Is.,lii, ISj liii, 12) and the words "scourges
were gathered together upon me" (Ps. xxxiv); the
betrayer's evil lot is pictured in the imprecations of
Psalm cviii; the crucinxion is referred to in the pasa-
ages "What are these wounds in the midst of thy
bands?" (Zach., xiu), "Let us condemn himtoamost
■bameful death'* (Wisd., ii), and "They have di» my
hands and my feet" (Pa. xxi); the mtraculouB dark-
ness occurs in 'Amos, viii; the gall and vinegar are
spoken of in Ps. Ixviii; the jiierced heart of Christ is
foreshadowed in Zach., xii. The sacrifice of Isaac
(Gen., xxi, 1-14), the scapegoat (Lev., xvi, 1-28), the
ashes of purification (Num., xix. 1-10), and the
brazen serpent (Num., xxi, 4-9) hold a prominent

Slace among the types prefiguring the suffering
fessias. The third chapter of lamentations is justly
considered as the dirge of our buried Redeemer.

(8) Finally, the glory of the Messias has been fore-
told by the Prophets of the Old Testament. The con-
text of such phrases as "I have risen because the
Lord hath protected me" (Ps. iii), "My flesh shall
rest in hope (Ps. xv), "On the third day he will raise
us up" (Oaee, v, 16, vi, 3), "O death, I wiU be thy
death" (Osce, xiii, 6-15a), and "I know that my Re-
deemer Uveth" (Job, xix, 23-;27) referred the devout
Jewish worshipper to something more than a merely
earthly restoration, the fulfilment of which began to
be realized in the Resurrection of Christ. This mys-
tery is also implied, at least t^ically, in the fu-at
fruits of the harvest (Lev., xxiii, 9-14) and the de-
livery of Jonas from the belly of the fish (Jon., ii).
Nor is the Resurrection of the Messias the only ele-
ment of Christ's glory predicted by the Prophets.
Ps. Ixvii refers to the Ascension; Joel, ii, 28-32, to the
comiM of the Paraclete; Is., Ix, to the call of the Gen-
tiles; Mich., iv, 1-7, to the conversion of the Syna-
gogue; Dan., iij 27-47, to the kingdom of the Messias
as compu%d with the kingdom of the world. Other
characteristics of the Messianic kingdom are %ypi&ed
by the tabernacle (Ex., xxv, 8-9; xxix, 43; xl, 33-36;
Num., ix, 15-23), the mercy-eeat (Ex., xxv, 17-22;
Ps, Ixxix, 1), Aaron the high priest (Exm, xxviii, 1 ; xxx,
1; 10; Num., xvi, 39-40), the manna (Ex., xvi, 1-15;
Ps. Ixxvii, 24-25), and the rock of Horeb (Ex., xvii,
6-7; Num., xx, 10-11: Ps. civ, 41). A Canticle of
thanksgivii^ for the Messianio boiefita is found in
Is.jXii.

The Books of the Old Testament are not the only
source from which the Christian theologian may learn
the Messianic ideas of pre-Christian Jewry. The
Sibjrlline oracles, the Book of Enoch, the Book of
Jubilees, the Psalms of Solomon, the Ascensio Movsia,
the Revelation of Daruch, the Fourth Book of Esdras,
and several Talmudic and Rabbinic writings are rich
depositories of pre-Christian- views concerning the ex-
pected Messias. Not that all of these works were
written before the coming of Clmst : but, though par-
tially post-Christian in their authonnm, they preserve
a picture of the Jewish world of thought, dating back,
at least in its outline, centuries before the coming of
Christ.

(B) New Testament. — Some modem writers tell us
that there are two Christs, as it were, the Messias of
faith and the Jesus of history. They regard the
Lord and Christ, Whom God exalted hy raisinK Him
from the dead, as the subject of Christian faith; and
Jesus of Nasareth, the preacher and wmkec of mur-
adea, as tiie theme of the historian. Th^ assure ua

that it is quite impossible to persuade even the least
experienced critic that Jesus' tat^t, in formal terms
and at one and the same time, the Christology cS
Paul, that of John, and the doctrines of Nictea, of
Ephesu^ and of Chalcedon. Otherwise the history of
the first Christian centuries appears to tJiese writers
to be quite inconceivable. The Fourth GcMpel is said
to lack the data which underlie the definitions of the
first oecumenical councils and to supply testimony
that is not a supplement, but a corrective, of the por-
trait of Jeeus drawn by the Synoptics. These two
accounts of the Christ are represented as mutually
exclusive: if Jesus spoke and acted as He speaks and
acta in the Synoptic Gospels, then He cannot have
nwken and acted as He is reported by St. John. We
mall here briefly review the Christology of St. I^ul.
of the Catholic Epistles, of the Fourm Gospel, ana
the Synoptics. Thus we shall give the reader a com-
plete ChriatoloKi' of the New Testament and at the
same time the data necessary to control the conten-
tions of the Modernists. The Christology will not,
however^ be complete in the sense that it extends to all
the details concerning Jesus Christ taught in the New
Testament, but in the sense that it gives His essential
characteristics taught in the whole of the New
Testament.

(1) Pauline Christology. — St. Paul insists on the
truth of Christ's real humanity and Divinity, in spite
of the fact that at first sight the reader is confronted
with three objects in the Apostle's writings: God, the
human world, and the Mediator. But thai the
latter is both Divine and human, both God and man.

(a) Christ's Humanity in the Pauline l^istles. —
The expressions "form of a servant 'I, "in h^it found
as a man", "in the likeness of sinful flesh" (PhU., ii, 7;
Rom., viii, 3) may seem to impair the real humanity
of Clhrist in the Pauline teaching. But in reality
they only describe a mode of being or hint at the
presence of a higher nature in Christ not seen by the
senses, or they contrast Christ's human nature with
the nature of that sinful race to whidi it bekmga.
On the other hand the Apostle plaii^y spwdcs of Our
Lord manifested in the flesh (I iSm., iii, 16), as
possessing a body of flesh (Col., i, 22), as bang
"made of a woman" (Gal., iv, 4), as being bom ^
the seed of David according to the flesh (Rom., i, 3)^
as belonging according to the flesh to the race of
Israel (Rom., ix. 5) . As a Jew, Jesus Christ was bon
under the IjEw (Gal., iv, 4). The Apostle dwelU with
emphasis on Our Lord's reai share in our physical
human weakness (II Cor., xiii, 4), on His hfe of
suffering (Heb.. v, 8) reaching its climax in tbt
Passion (ibid., i, 5; Phil„ iii 10; Col., i, 24). Only
in two respects did Our Lora's humanity differ from
the rest of^ men: first in its entire sinlessness (II Cor.,
V, 21: Gal., ii, 17; Rom., viii, 3); secondly, in the
fact that Our Lord was the second Adam, representing
the whole human race (Rom., v, 12-21; I Cor., xv,
45-49).

(b) Christ's Divinity in the Pauline Epistles. — •
According to St. Paul, the superiority of the Christian
revelation over all other Divine manifestations, and
the perfection of the New Covenant with its sacrifice
and priesthood, are derived from the fact that
Christ is the Son of God (Heb., i, 1 sq.; v, 5 aq.;

ii, 5 sq.; Rom., i, 3; Gal., iv, 4; Eph., nr, 13; Coi.,
i, 12 sq.; ii, 9 sq.; etc.). The Apostle underrtanda
by the expression "Son of God" not a merely moral
dignity, or a merely external relation to God which
began in time, but an eternal and immanent relation
of Christ to the Father. He contrasts Christ with,
and finds Him superior to, Aaron and his successors,
Moses and the Prophets (Heb., v, 4; x, 11; vii, 1-22:

iii, 1-^; i, 1). He raises Christ above the choirs <»
angels, and makes Him their Lord 'and Master
(Heb., i, 3: 14: ii, 2-8), and seats Him as heir <rf all
thiiHPi at the rtg^t hand (d the Father (Heb., i, 2-3;

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Qtlt IT, 14; Eph., i, 20-21). If St. Paul is obUged
to use the terms ''fonn of God", "image' of God",
when he speaks of Christ's Divinity, in order to show
the personal distinction between the Eternal Father
and the Divine Son (Phil., ii, 6; Col., i, 15), Christ is
not merely the image and ^ory of God (I Cor., xi,
7), but also the first-bom before any created beinga
<Col., i, IS), in Whom, and by Whom, and for Whom
all thiDgs were made (Cel., i, 16),in Whom the fulness
of the Godhead reaides vnth that actual reality whidi
we attach to the presence of the material bodies
perc^tible and measurable through the organs of
OUT senses (Col., ii. 9), in a word, "who is over all
thhigs, God ble^ea for ever" (Rom., ix, 5).

(2) Christology of the Catholic Epistles.— The
Epistles of St. John will be considered together with
the other writings of the same Apostle in the next
paragraph. Vnaa the present neadinf^ we shall
bri^ indicate Uie views concerning Chnst held by
the Apostles St. James, St. Peter, and St. Jude.

(a) The Epistle of St. James.— The mainly
practical scope of the Epistle of St. James does not
lead us to expect that Our Lord's Divinity would be
formally expressed in it as a doctrine of faith. This
doctrine is, however, implied in the language of the
inspired writer. He professes to stand m the same
relation to Jesus Christ as to God, being the servant of
both (i, 1): he applies the same term to the God (tf
the Old Testament as to Jesus Christ Qiasaim).
Jesus Christ is both the sovereign judge and mdepen-
dentlaw^ver, who can save andean destroy (iv, 12);
thefaith in Jesus Christ is faith in theLord of Glory (li.

1) . The language of St. James would be exaggerated
and overstramed on anv other supposition than the
writer's firm belief in tne Divinity of Jesus Christ.

(b) Belief of St. Peter.— St. Peter presents himself
as the servant and the i^^Ib of •^^UB Christ (I Pet.,
i, 1: II Petj, i, 1), who was predicted by the Prophets
of the Old Testament in such a way that the Prophets
themselves were Christ's own servants, heralds, and
organs (I Pet., i, 10-11). It is the pre-existent Christ
who moidds the utterances of Intiel's Prophets to

froclaim their anticipations of His advent. St.
eter had witnessed the 0.ory Jesus in the Trans-
figuration (II Pet., i, 16); he appears to take pleasure
HI multiplying His titles: Jesus Our Lord (II Pet., i.

2) , our Lord Jesus Christ (ibid., i, 14, 16), the Lord
and Saviour (ibid., iii, 2), our Lord and Saviour
Jesus Christ (ibid., i, 1), Whose power is Divine
(ibid., i, 3), throiwi whose promises Christians are
made partakers of the nature of God (ibid., L 4).
Throui^out his Epistle, therefore, St. Peter
feel8.a8itwere,andimpliestheDivinity of Jesus Christ.

(c) Epistle of St. Jude. — St. Jude, too, introduces
himself as the servant of Jesus Christ, through union
with whom Christians are kept in a life of faith and
holiness (1); Christ is our only Lord and Saviour (4),
Who punished Israel in the wilderness and the rebel
angels (5), Who will come to judgment surrounded bv
myriads of saints (1^ and to Whom Christians loot
for the mercy which He will show Uiem at His coming
(21), the issue of which will be life everlasting. Can
a mer^ human Christ be the subject of this language?

(3) Johannean Christology. — If there were nothmg
else in the New Testament to prove the Divinity of
Christ, the first fourteen verses in the Fourth Gospel
would suffice to convince a beUever in the Bible of
that doema. Now the doctrine of this prologue is
the fundamental idea of the whole Johannean theol-
ogy. The Word made flesh is the same with the
Word Who was in the beranning, on the one hand,
and with the man Jesus Christ, the subject of the
Fourth Gospel, on the other. The whole Gospel is
a history of tne Eternal Word dwelling in human
nature among men.

The teachmg of the Fourtii Gospel is also found
in the Johannean^* Epistles. In his very opening

wofds the writer telto his readen ihat the Word of

life has become manifest and that the Apostles had
seen and heard and handled the Word incarnate.
The denial of the Son implies the loss of the Father
(I John, ii, 23), and "whosoever shall confess that
Jesus is the Son of God, God abideth in him and he
in God" (ibid., iv^ 15). Towards the end of the
Epistle the writer is stUl more emphatic: "And we
know that the Son (rf God is come: and he hath

g'ven us understanding tiaX we may know the true
od, and may be in his true Son. This is the true
God and life eternal" (ibid., v, 20).

According to the Apocalypse, Qurist is the first and
the last, the alpha and the omeg^ the eternal and the
almigfily ri, P; x-xi, 6; xxii, 13). He is the king of kings
andl'Tij ijf [kihIs (xix, 16), the lord of the unseen
world (xii, 10; xiii, 8), the centre of the court of
heaven (v, 6) ; He receives the adoration of the highest
angels (v, 8}^ and, as the object of that uninterrupted
worship (v, V2), He is associated with the Father
(V, 13; xvii, 14),

Ci) Cliristokijiy of the Synoptists. — There is a real
difference bcL\w lai the first three Evangelists and St.
John in their respective representations of our Lord.
The truth presented by tiiese writers may be the
same, but they view it from different standpoints.
The three Synoptists set forth the humanity of Christ
in its obedience to the law, in its power over nature,
and in its tenderness for the weak and afflicted; the
fourth Gospel sets fm^h the life of Christ not in any
of the aspects which belong to it as human, but as
being the adequate expression of the glory of the
Divine Person, manifested to men under a visible
form. But in spite of this difference^ the Synoi^tista
by their su^estive implication practically anticipate
the teaching of the Fourth Gospel. This suggestion
is implied, nist, in the Synoptic use of the title Son of
God as applied to Jesus Cbist. Jesus is the Son of
God, not merely in an ethical or theocratic sense, not
merely as one among many sons, but He is the only,
the well-beloved Son of the Father, so that His eon-
ship is unshu^d by any other, and is absolute^
umque (Matt,, iii, 17; xvii, 6; zxii, 41: cf. iv, 3, o;
Luke, iv, 3, 9) ; it is derived from the fact that the
Holy Ghost was to come upon Mary, and the power
of the Most High was to overshadow her (Luke, i, 35).
A^in, the Synoptists imply Christ's Divinity in their
history of His nativity and its accompanying circum-
stances: He is conceived of the Holy Ghost (Luke, 1,
35), and His mother knows that all generations shall
call her blessed, because the mighty one had done

Saat Uiings unto her (I«ke, i, 48). EIisid>eth calls
ary bleraed among women, blesses the fruit of her
womb, and marvels that she herself should be visited
by the mother of her Lord (Luke, i, 42-43). Gabriel
greets Our Lady as full of grace, and blessed among
women; her Son will be great. He will be called the
Son of the Most High, and of His kingdom there will
be no end (Luke, i, 28, 32). As new-bom infant,
Christ is adored by the shepherds and the Magi, rep-
resentatives of the Jewish and the Gentile world.
Simeon sees in the child his Lord's salvation, the !^t
of the Gentiles, and the pride and glory of his people
Israel (Luke, ii, 30-32). These accounts hardly fit in
with the limits of a merely human child, but they
become intelligible in the light of the Fourth Gdap^.

The Synoptists agree with the teaching of the
Fourih Gospel concerning the person of Jesus Christ
not merely m their use of the term Son qf God and in
ihsir accounts of Qirist'a birth with its surrounding
details bui also in their narratives of Our Lord's doc-
trine, life, and work. The very term Son^of Mant
which they often apply to Christ, is used in such a
way that it shows in Jesus Christ a self-consciousness
for which vhe human element is not something pri-
mary, but something secondary and superinduced.
Often Christ is simply called Stm (Matt., xi, 27:

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xxrili, 20), and eorre^ndingly He never calls the
Father "our" Father, but '^my" Father (Matt.,
zviii, 10, ig, 35f xx, 23; xxvi, 53). At Hie baptism
and transfiguration He receivee witness from heaven
to His Divine Sonship; the Prophets of the Old Testa^
ment are not rivals, out servants in comparison with
Him (Matt., xxi, 34); henee the tiUe Son of Man
fanpUes a nature to which Christ's humanity was an
accessory. Again, Christ claims the power to forgive
sins and supports His claim by miracles (Matt., ix,
2-6; Luke, v, 20, 24); He maists on faith in Himself
(Matt., xvi, 16, 17), He inserts His name in the
baptismal formula between that of the Father and the
Holy Ghost (Matt., xxviii, 19), He alone knows the
Father and is known by the Father alone (Matt., n,
27), He institutes the sacrament of the Holy Eucha^
rut (Matt., xxvi, 26;Mark, xiv, 22; Luke, xxii, 19), He
suffers and dies only to rise again the third day
(Matt., XX, 19; Mark, x, 34; Luke, xvm, 33), He
ascends into Heaven, but declares that He will be
among us till the end of the world (Matt., xxviii, 20).

Need we add that Christ's claims to the most ex-
alted dignitv of His person are unmistakably clear in
the eschatou^cal discourses of the Synoptists? He
is the Lord of the material wid moral universe; as
supreme la^ver He revises all other legislation; as
final judge He determines the fate of all. Blot the
Fourth Gospel out of the Canon of the New Testa-
mentj and you still have in the Synoptic Gospels the
identical doctrine concerning the person of Jesus
Christ which we now draw out of the Four Gospels;
some points of the doctrine might be less clearly
stated than they are now, but they would remain sub-
stantially the same.

(C) CAristtdnTradt(«m.--BiblicalCbrutol<:^8hows
that one and the same Jesus C%rist is both God
and man. While Christian tradition has alwa^
maintained this triple thesui that Jesus Christ is
truly man, that He is truly God, and that the God-
man, Jesus Christ, is one and the same person, the
heretical or erroneous tenets of various rehgious lead-
ers have forced the Church to insist more expressly
now on the one, now on another element of her
Christok^. A clasedfied list of the principal errors
and of the sulnequent ecclesiasticat utterances will
dbow the historical development of the Church's doc-
trine with sufficient clearness. The reader will find
a more lengthy account of the principal heresies md
councils under their respective neadings.

(1) Humanity of Christ. — The true humanity of
Jesus Christ was denied even in the earliest ages of
the Church. The Dooetist Marcion and the Friacil-
Uanists ^ant to Jesus only an apparent body; the
Valentinians, a body brou|^t down from Heaven.
The followers of Apollinans deny either that Jesus
had any human sotu at all, or that He possessed the
h^her part of the human soul; they maintain that the
Word supplies either the whole soul in Christ, or at
least its hieher faculties. In more recent times it is
not so much Christ's true humanity as His real man-
hood that is denied. According to Kant, the Chris-
tian creed deals with the ideal, not with the historieal
Jesus; according to Jacobi, it worships Jesus not as
an historical person, but as a religious ideal; accord-
ing to Ficbte there exists an absolute unity between
God and man, and Jesus was the first to see and teach
it; according to Schelling, the incarnation is an
eternal fact, which happened to reach in Jesus its
highest point; according to H^I, Christ is not the
actual incarnation of God in Jesus of Nasareth, but
the Y™bol of God's incarnation in humanity at lai^.
Finally, certain recent Catholic writers distinguish
between the Christ of histoiy and the Christ of faith,
thus destroying in the Christ of faith His historical
reality. The New Syllabus (Prpposit. 29 sq.) and the
Encyclical "Pascendi domiiuci gr^s" may be con-
sulted on these erroTB.

(2) The Divinity of Christ.— Even in ApostoHo
imes the Church regarded a denial of Christ's Di-

times

vinity as emmently anti-Christian (I John, ii,
22-23; iv, 3; II John, 7). The early martyrs,
the most ancient Fathers^ and the first
ecclesiastical litur^ee agree m their profession
of Christ's Divinitv. Still, ihe Ebionites, the
Theodotians. the Artemonites, and the Photi-
nians looked upon Qnist eithn: as a mere man,
though singularty enlii^tened by Divine wisdom;
or as the appearance of an seon emanating from
the Divine Beins according to the Gnostic theory; or
again as a manifestation of the Divine Being such as
theTheistic and Pantheistic Sabellians and Patripaa-
sians admitted; or, finally, as the incarnate Word
indeed, but the Word conceived aftw the Arian man-
ner as a creature mediating; between God and die
world, at least not essentialW identical with the
Father and the Holy Ghost. Though the definitions
of Nice and of the subsequent councils, especially of
the Fourth Later an, deal directly with the docmne
concerning the Most Holy Trinity, still they abo
teach that the Word is consubstantial with the
Father and the Hohr Ghost, and thus establish Uie
Divinity of Jesus Christ, the Word incarnate. In
more recent times, our earliest Rationalists endeav-
oured to avoid the problem of Jesus Christ; they had
little to say of him, while they made St. Paul the
founder of uie Churcit. But the historical Christ was
too impressive a figure to be long neglected. It is all
the more to be resetted that in recent times a prac-
tical denial of Christ's Divinity is not confined to the
Socinians and such writers as Ewald and Schleier-
macher. Others who profess to be believing Chri»-
tians see in Christ the perfect revelation of God, the
true head and lord of tne human race, but, after al^
th^ end with Pilato's words, "Behold, the man".

w Hypostatic Union. — His human nature and Hie
Divine nature are in Jesus Christ united hypostati-
cally, i. e. imited in the hypostaas or the person of the
Word. This dogma too has found bitter opjMnents
from the earliest times of the (I^urch. Nestorius and
his followers admitted in Chrut one moral person, as a
human society forms one moral person : but this moral
person results from the union of two |}03rMcal persons,
just aa tiiere are two natures in Christ. These two
persons are united, not physically, but morally, by
means of grace. The heresy of Nestorius was con-
demned by Celestine I in the Roman Synod of A. D.
430 and by the (Council of Ephesus, a. d. 431; the
Catholic doctrine was again insisted on in the Council
of Chalcedon and tjie second Council of Constanti-
nople. It follows that the INvine and the humaa
nature are phyucally united in Christ. Hie Mono-
physites, therefore, believed that in this physical
tuuon either the human nature was absorbed by the
Divine, according to the views of Eutvches; or that
the Divine nature was absorbed by tne human; or,
again, that out of the physical union of the two re-
sulted a third nature by a kind of physical mixture, aa
it were, or at least by means of their physical com-
position. The true Catholic doctrine was upheld by
Pope Leo the Great, the Council of Chalcedon, and
the Fifth (Ecumenical Council, A. D. 553. ThetwelfUi
canon of the last-named council excludes also the
view that Christ's moral life developed gradual^, at-
taining its completion only after the Resurrection.
The Adoptionists renewed Nestorianism in part be-
cause ^ey considered the Word as the natural Son of
God, and the man Christ as a servant or an adopted
son of God, thus granting its own personality to
Christ's human nature. This opinion was rejected by
Pope Adrian I, the Synod of Ratidxin, a. d. 782, the
Council of Frankfort (794), and by Leo HI m the
Roman Synod (799). There is no need to point out
that the human nature of Christ is not united with
Umb Word, according to ih» Sodnian and ratirwwHrtie

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viem. Donur ihoira how wideqmad amooc Pro^
estantt these views are, since there is hwdly a
Fiotestant theologian of note who refuses its own per-
flCHiality to the human nature of Christ. Among
CathoboB, BemQrer and GOnther reintroduced a mod-
ified Nestorianism; but they were oensored by the
Congregation of the Index (17 April, 1755) and by
Pope Pius IX (15 Jan., 1857). The Monophyaite
hmqr was rouwed by the MfxioUielite^ adioittiiig
wSy one will in Quist and thus contradicting the
teaching of Fot>ee Martin I and Agatho and of the
Sixth uknunenical Council. Both the schismatic
Greeks and the Reformers of the sixteenth oentury
wished to retain tixe traditional doctrine concerning
the Word Incarnate; but even the earUeet followers of
the Reformers fell into exrore involving both the
Nestorian and the Monophysite hneaies. The Ubi-
quitaiiana, fat ouunple, find the essenoe of the Incar-
nation not in Uie assumption of human nature by Uie
Word, but in the divinisation of human nature by
sharing the properties of the Divine nature. The
subsequent Protestant theolt^ane drifted away far-
ther etill from the views of Christian tradition; Christ
for them was Ihe sage of Nazareth, perhaps even the
greatest of the Prophets, whose Biblical record, half
myth and half hisUuy, is nothing but the expression of
a popular idea of human perfecUon. The CathoUc
wnten whose views w«re derogatory either to the hi»-
torkial diaracter of the Bibli<»l account of the life a(
Oirist or to his prerogatives as the God-man have
been censured in the new Syllabus and the Encyclical
" Pasoendi dominici gregis' .

For Chri8tol(^ cfHisult the following: —
pBtristio Works: ATHANAflnis, Gkcoort Nauansds, Oreo-
OBT or Nt88A, Basil, EpiPHANirB wrote eapedklly agftinat the
followm of Ariua tutd Apollin&riB; Ctbh. or Alsxandbia,
pBOCurs, LBONTins BrsANTtNus, ANABTAanm Swaita, £ttu>>
am or AuEXAi(t>BiA. Pbtek Chbtbolooub, FnLOKimin.
opposing the Nentonsoa uad Mooophyiiitea; Sophronius,
MAxium. John DAHAScBini, tb* MonotoelitM; PAVUitm or
Aqdilsia, Btkbridb, Aunmr, AaOBAwm, tlw Adoptkmlata.
See P. 0, ud P. L.

S<^I*atio Writers: 9r. THOUAa, Summa IhtoL, III, QQ.
Idxm, Svmma emtra oentw, IV, ixrii-lv; In III Smt«nt.; Ofl
tmitaU, QQ. xx, xxis; ComjMnd. ihtoL, QQ. oxrut^cozUi; Optue^

op lil

FoHtive TheoIoKiaoa: pBTAvma, ThtoL dogmaL, TV, 1-2;
Thohassin, Dt Inarm., dogm. lAeoI., til, IV.

ItMent Writers: Fhaniblim, D« Verba Inearn. (Rome, 1874);
Kinrromf, TAwtaoM d»r Vorteit, III (MQneter, 1873); Juno-
MAiOf. Dt Verbo Incamaio (lUtubon, 1S72): Hitbtce, THm-
togia doamatica. II, tract, vii (Innsbnick, 1882); SrBMTBtrr.
Pr^aetioTUt dogmatiea dt V«H>o ineamaUi <3 vola., lonsbmok,
1882) ; LiDDON, Thi Divinits o/ Our LenJ (London, 1886) ; Maas,
ChriM in Typ* and Propheey (2 vols.. New York, 1893-^);
LxptN, Jitut UeiiU H PUtdeDieu (Paris, 1904). See also recent
worka od the life of Chriet, end the prioeiiMtt oonunentariea on
thflBi^lkialpuMcesotoliiithiBArtielfc

For all other ^tuta ol dofBMttia thaaloiy m UbBosnvhjr M the
and o( thia seotion (I.).

A. J. Maas.

II. Moral Thboloot. — Moral Uieolo^ is a branch
of theology, the science of God and Divine things.
The distmcUcm between natural and sup^atural
theolc^ rests on a striid foundation. Natural
theology is the science of God HimseU^ in as fta* as
the h\iman mind can by its own ^orts reach a
definite conclusion e^ut God and His nature: it is
always designated by the adjective natural. Theol-
ogy, without any further modification, is invariably
understood to mean supernatural theology, that is,
the science of God and Divine thin^, in as far as it
ia based on supernatural Revelation. Its subject-
matter onbraoea not on^ God and His essencfc but
also His aetiona and His works of salvation and tlie
guidance by which we are led to God, our super-
batural en<L Consequently, it extends much farther
than natural tbeol<^; for, though the latter informs
us of God's essence and attributes, yet it can tell us
nothing about His free works en salvation. The
knmrtodcs of all these truths is necessary for every

maa, at leait in its broad out^nes, and is aoqinied
by Christian faith. But this is not yet a science.
The s(»ence of theologv demands that the knowledge
won through faith, oe deepened, expanded, and
strengthened, so that the articles of ftuth be under-
stood and defended by their reasons and be, together
with Uieir conclusions, arranged systematically.

The entire field of theology proper is divid»i into
dogmatie and moral tiiecdc^, which differ in subjeet-
mattOT and m metiiod. Di^pmatic theology has as ita
end the scientific discussion and establiahmwit of the
doctrines of faith, moral theology of the moral pre-
cepts. The precepts of Christian morals are also part
of the doctrines of faith, for they were announced or
confirmed by Divine Revelation. The subject-mat-
ter of (logmatic theologv is those doctrines which
serve to enridi the knowied^ necessary or conven*
ietkt tot man, whose desbnatlon is supernatural.
Mnal theokmr, oa the oiber hand, is limited to those
dootiines wfaun discuss the relations of man and his
free actions to God and his supernatural end, and
propoee the means instituted by God for the attain-
ment o£ that end. Consequently, dogmatic and
moral theology are two closely related parts of uni-
versal theolc«y. Inasmuch as a considerable num-
ber of individual doctrines may be claimed by either
disoq^ine, no sharp line of demarcation can be drawn
between the Bubjeet4natter ot do^ma and morals. In
actual practice^ however, a division and limitation
must be made in accordance with jn-actical needs. Of
a eimi}ar nature is the relation between moral theology
and ethics. The subject-matter of natural morals or
ethics, as contained m the Decalogue, has been in-
cluded in positive, Divine Revelation, and hence has
passed into moral theol(^. Nevertheless, the argu-
mentative processes differ in the two sciences, and for
this reason a latge portion of the matter is disr^Earded
in moral theology and referred to ethics. For in-
stance, the r^utation of the false systems of the
modem ethioists is generally treated under ethics,
especially because these systems are refuted by argu-
ments drawn not so much from faith^ as from reason.
Only in as far as moral theokigy requirea a defence
revealed doctrines, does it concern itself with false
^tems. HowevOT, it must discuss the various re-
quirements of the natural law, not only because this
law has been confirmed and defined by positive reve-
lation, but also because every violation of it entails a
disturbance oS Uie supernatural moral order, the
treatment of which is an essential part oi ipwal
theology.

The field oi moral theok^, its omitents, and the
bouodaries whieh separate it from kindred subjects,
may be briefly indicated as follows: moral theology
includes everythii^ relating to man's free actions and
the last, or supreme, end to oe attained through them,
as far as we know the same by Divine Revelation; in
other words, it includes the supernatural end, the
rule, or norm, of the moral order, human actions as
mdOf tiieir harmony or di^iarmony with the laws of
the moral otder, tiuar consequmcee, the Divine aids
for their r^t performance. A detailed treatment of
these subjects may be foumi in the second part irf St.
Thomas's "Summa theok^ca", a work still un-
rivalled as a treatise of moral theology.

The position of moral theology in universal theol-
ogy is briefly sketehed by St. Thomas in the "Summa
theol.", I, Q. i, a. 7 and Q. ii in the proemium and
in the prologus of I-II; likewise by Fr. Su4rez in the
mroenuum Si his eommentaries on the I-II d St.
Thomas. Tlie subjectrmatter of the entire sec<md
part of the "Summa theol." is, man as a free absent.
''Man was made after the image of God, by his mtet*
lect, his free will, and a certain power to act of his own
accord. Hence, after we have spoken of the pattern,
vis. God, sod of those things which proceeded from
Hia Divine power according to His will, we must now

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torn cm sttmtion to His image, that is, man, inaa-
mu<^ as he also is the principle of his actiona in virtue
of his free will and his power over his own actions."
He includes all this in theology, not only because it is
viewed as the object of positive Divine Revelation
(I, Q. i, a. 3), but also because God always is the
principal object, for "theology treats all things in
their relation to God, either in as far as they are God
Himself or are directed towards God as their oiifpi or
last end" (I, Q. i, a. 7). "Since it is the chief aun of
theology to cooununicate the knowledge of God, not
only asHe is in Himself but also as thebeginning and
end of all things and particularly of rational creatures
. . . , we shall speak first of God, secondly of the tetv*
dency <A the rational creature towards God", etc.
(I, Q. ii, proem.). These words point out the scope
and the subject-matter of the mond part of theoloKy.
SuAres, who pr^pianthr calls this tendency of we
creaturea towuds God "the return of the creatures to
God", shows that there is no contradiction in deaf-
nating man created after the image of God, endowed
with reason and free will and exercising these facul-
ties, as the object of moral theology, and God as the
object of entire theology. "If we are asked to name
the proximate object i» moral tbeolMy, we shall un-
doubtedly Bay that it is man as a free agent, who
seeks his bwpiness by his free actions; but if we are
asked in what respect this object must be treated
ehiefly, we shall answer that this must be done with
respect to God as his last end."

A detailed account of the wide range of moral
theology may be found in the analytical index oi
Pars Secunda of St. Thomas's "Summa theolc^ca".
We must confine ourselves to & brief summary. The
first question treats of man's last end, eternal happi-
ness. Its nature and possession. Then follows an ex-
amination of human acts in themselves and then- vari-
ous subdivisions^, of voluntary and involuntary acts,
of the moreX upnghtneas or malice of both intenor and
exterior acts and their consequences; the passions in
geaeeel and in particular; the habits or permanent

rlities of the human soul^ and the general questions
ut virtues, vices, and sins. Untur this last title,
while enquiring into the causes of sin, the authOT
embodies the doctrine on original sin and its oonse*
quences. This portion might, however, be with e<iual
nght assigned to dogmatic theol<^ in the stricter
tneaning of the word. Although St. Thomas r^ards
sin chiefly as a transgression of the law, and in par-
ticuW of the "lex setema" (Q- ii? »• 6), still he places
the chapters on the laws after the section on sin;
because on, a free human act like any other faumaa
act, is first discussed from the standpdnt of its sub-
jective principles, viz. knowledge, will, and the ten-
dency of the will; only after this are the human
actions viewed with regard to their objective or ex-
terior principles, and the exterior principle, by which
human actions are judged not merely as human, but
as moral actions, either morally good or morally bad,
is the Law. Since morality is conceived by him as
Bupematund mwality, which exceeds the nature and
the faculties of man, Divine grace, the other ex-
terior principle of man's morally good actions, is dis-
cussed after the law. In the exordium to Q. xc, St.
Thomas states his division briefly as follows: "The
exterior principle which moves us to good actions is
God; He instructs us by EUs law and aids us with His
grace. Hence we shw speak first of the law, sec-
ondly of grace."

The following volume is wholly devoted to tiie
roedal questions, in the order given by St. Thomas in
tne |»ologue: "After a curscsy iflance at the virtues,
vices, and the moral principles in general, it is incum-
bent on us to consider the various points in detail.
Moral discussions, if satisfied with generalities, are of
little value, because actions touch particular, indi-
Tidual tbii^. When there is question of morals, we

may ocHudder individual actions in two wavs: one, by
examining the matter, t. e., by diseussin^ tne differmt
virtues and vices; anotb«', by inquiring mto the vari-
ous avocations of individuals and their states <mF l^e."
St. Thomas then goes on to discuss the whole range of
moral theology from both these standpoints, fvst,
he closely scrutinizes the various virtues, keeping in
view the Divine aids, and the sins and vioee oppwed
to the respective virtues. He examines first the three
Divine vulues which are vrboHy supernatural wad
embrace the vast fidd of charitv and its actual prao-
tioe; then he passes to the eardmal virtues with th^
auxihaiy and alHed virtues. The volume conchidea
with a discussion of the particular states of fife in the
Chureh of God, including those which suppose an
extraordinary, Divine guidance. This last part,
therefore, discusses subjects which specifieal^ belong
to mystical or asoetical theology, such as pra^eoy
and extraordinary modes of prayer, but above all the
active and the contemplative ufe, Christiaiipeifeiy
tion, and the religious state in the Church. The omh
tents of a modem work on moral theology, as, for
instance, that of Slater (London, 1900), are: Human
acts, conscience, law, sin, the virtues of faith, hope,
chanty; the precepts of the Decalogue, including a
roecia] treatise on justice; the commandments of the
Church; duties attached to particular states or ofikws:
the sacraments, in so far as their administraticn ana
reception are a means of moral reform and rectitude;
ecclesiastical laws and penalties, only in so far as they
affect conscience; these laws forming properly the
subject-matter of canon law, in so far as they govern
and relate the Church as an or^nisation. its mem-
bership, ministry, the relations oetween nierardiy.
clergy, rehgious orders, laity, or (tf spiritual and
temporal authority.

One circumstance must not be overlooked. Moral
theology considers free human actions only in their
relation to the supreme order, and to the last and
highest end, not in their relation to the proximate
ends which man may and must pursue, as for instance
political, social, economical. Economics, politics,
social Bcioioe are s^arate fields (rf science, not sub-
divisions of mwal science. Nevertheless, theee special
sciences must also be guided by morals, and must
subordinate their specific principles to those of moral
theology, at least so far as not to clash with the latter.
Man IB one being, and all his actions must finally
lead him to his last and highest end. Therefore,
various proximate ends must not turn him from
this end, but must be made subservient to it and its
attainment. Hence moral theology sarvey^ all the
individual relations of man ana passes judgment
on political, economical, social questitms, not with
nfSfird to their bearings on politics and economy, but
with regard to their influence u[>on a moral life.
This is also the reason why there is hudly another
science that touches other spheres so cloeely as does
moral theology, and why its sphere is more extensive
than that ofany other. This is true inasmuch as
mor^ theology bas the ^inently praetioal 8C<^ of
instructing and forming spiritual directors and ocm-
fesBor^ who must be familiar with human condittons
SB their relation to the moral law, and advise peawma
in every state and situation.

The manner in which moral theology treats its
subject-matter, must be, as in theology generally,
chiefly positive, that is, drawing from Revelation
and theological sources. Starting from this positive
foundation, reason also cornea into pla^ quite extm-
aively, especially since the whole subject-matter of
natural ethics has been raised to the level of taper-
natural morals. It is true reason must be illumined
by supernatural fMUi, but when illumined its duty
is to expldn, prove, and defmd most at the prindplw
of moral theology.

Trom what has been said it is manifest that tb*

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chief source ol moral theology is Sacred Scripture and
Tradition together with the teachings of the Church.
However, the following points must be observed
regarding the Old Testament. Not all precepts
contain^ in it are universally valid, as many belong
to the ritual and special law of the Jews. These
statutes never obliged the non-Jewish world and
have simply been abrogated by the New Covenant,
Bo that now the ritual observances proper are illicit.
The Decalogue; however, with the sole ohaiue in
the law enjoimnx the celebration ot the Sabbath,
has passed mto tb<e New Covenant a positive Divine
conumation of the natural law, and now constitutes
the principal subject matter of Christian morality.
Moreover, we must remember that the Old Covenant
did not stand ^n the high moral level to which Christ
etevated the New Covenant. Jesus Himself mentions
ihines which were permitted to the Jews "on account
of the hardness of their hearts", but against which
He applied again the law at first imposed b^ God.
Hence, not everything that was tolerated in the
Old Testament and its writings, is tolerated now:
on the contrary, many of the usages s^proved and
established there would be counter to Christian per-
fection as counselled by Christ. With these limita-
tions the writings of the Old Testament are sources
of moral theology, containing examples of and exhor-
tations to heroic virtues, from which the Christian
moralUrt^ folk>winE in the footsteps of Christ imd His
Apostles, may well draw superb models of sanctity.

Apart from Sacred Scripture, the Church Tecog/aaea
also Tradition as a source of revealed truths, and
hence of Christian morals. It has assiuned a con-
crete shape chiefly in the writings of the Fathers.
Furthermore, the decisions of the Church must be
r^arded as a source, since they are based on Holy
\^t and Tradition; Uiey are the proximate source
(A moral theology, because they contain the final
judgment about the meaniiK of Sacred Scri^ure
as well as the teachings of the Fathers. These
include the long list of condemned propoBitknis,
which must be considered as dancer signals along
the boundary between lawful and illicit, not only
when the condemnation has been pronounced by
virtue of the highest Apostolic authority, but also
when the congr^tion mstituted by the pope has
issued a genera^ doctrinal decinon in questkms
bearing on morals. What Pius IX wrote oonceming
the meetings of scholars in Munich in the year 1863
may idso be applied here: "Since there is question
of that subjection which binds all Catholics in con-
science who desire to advance the interests of the
Chin-ch by devoting themselves to the roeculative
sciences; let the members of this assembly recall
that it is not sufficient for Catholic scholars to acc^t
and esteem the ^ove-menticuied dosmas, but that
they are also obliged to submit to the deciaiwis ci
the pE4)al congreeationB aa wejl as to those teachings
whi^ are, by the constant and universal consent
of Catholics, so held as theological truths and certain
oonclusiona that the opposite opinion even when not
heretical, still deserves some theological censure."
If this is true of the dogmatic doctrines in the strict
sense of the word, we might say that it is still more
true of moral questions, because for them not only
absolute and mfallibly certain, but also morally
certsm decisions must be accounted as obUgatory
norms.

The words of Pius IX just quoted, point to another
source of theological doctrines, and hence of morals,
vis., the universal teachings of the Catholic schools.
For these are the channels by which the Catholic
doctrines on faith and morals must be transmitted
without error, and which have consequently the
nature of a source. From the unanimous doctrine
d the Catholic Bchods follows naturally the convio-
tion of the nnirerBal Church. But sinoe it is a dof - -

03 TBIOLOOT

matic ivindple Uiat the whole Church cannot err
in matten w fattii and morale iha consent ^ ib»
yarious Catholic schools niust offer the guarantee Ot
infaOibilitT in these questions.. '

Moral tbeologyt to be complete in every respect,
must accompltsn m moral questions what dogmatic
theology does in questions pertaining to dogma. The
latt^ nas to explain clearly the truths of faith and
prove them to be such; it must also, as far as possible,
show their accordance with reason, defend tbem
against objections, trace their connexion wHh other
truths, and, by means of theohwical argumentation,
deduce further truths. Moral theology must follow
the same processive questions of morals. — It is evi-
dent that this cannot be done in all branches of moral
theology in such a way as to exhaust the subject,
except by a series of mon<^aphs. It would take
volumes to sketch but the beauty and the harmony
of God's dispositions, which transcend the natural
law, but which God enacted in order to elevate man
to a higher plane and to lead him to his supernatural
end in a future life — and yet all this is mbraced in
the subject of supnuatural morals. Nor is moral .
theology confined to the exposition of those duties
and virtues which cannot be shirked if man wishes
to attain his last end: it includes all virtues, even
those which mark the neight of Christian perfection,
and their practice, not only in the ordinary degree,
but also in the ascetical and mystical life. Hene&
it is entirely correct to designate asoeticiam ana
mysticism as parts oi Christian moral theology,
thoi^ ordinarily they are treated as distinct sciences.

The task of the moral theologian is by no means
completed when he has explained the questions indi-
cated. Moral theolc^, in more than one respect, is
essentially a practical scirace. Ite instructions must
extend to moral character, moral behaviour, the com-
pletion and issue of moral aspirations, ao tnat it can
offer a d^nito norm for the eomplrac sitnatioos <tf
human life. For this purpose, it must examine the in-
dividual cases which arise and determine the limits
and the gravity of the obligation in each. Particu-
larly those whose office and position in the Qiun^
demand the cultivation of theological science, and
who are called to be the teachers and counsell<M^
must find in it a practical guide. As jurisprudence
must eniAle the future judgie and lawyer to admin-
ister justice in individual eases, so must moral tlu^
olc^ emJjle the spiritual director or confessor to de-
cide matters of conscience in varied cases of every-day
Ufe; to wei^ the violations of the natural law m the
balance of Divine instice; it must enable the spiritual
guide to distinguish correctly and to advise otners as
to what is sin and what is not, what is counselled and
what not, what is good and what is better; it must
provide a scientific training for the shepherd of the
flock, 80 that he can direct aU to a life of duty and
virtue, warn them against sin and danger, lead from
good to better those who are endowed wiui necessary
G^t and m<»al power, raise up and strengthen those
who have fallen from the moral level. Many of these
tasks are assigned to the collateral science of pastoral
theology; but this also treats a special part of the
duties of moral theolc^, and falls, therefore, witJiin
the scope of moral theology •in its widest sense. The
purely theoretical and speculative treatment of tlw
mora! questions must be supplemented bv casuistry.
Whether this should be done separately, that is,
whether the subject matter should oe taken caauisti-
cally before or after its theoretical treatment, or
whether the method should be at the same time both
theoretical and casuistic^, is tmimportant for the
matter itself; the practical feasibility will decide this
point, while for written wwks on moral theoto^ the
special aim ot the author will determine it. How-
ever, be who teaches or writes moral theology for the
traimng <tf Catht^ pmma, would not da-QUl justiotk

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604

TDOLOOT

to the end at which he must aim, if he did not imite
the casuistical with the theoretical and speculative
element.

What has been said, so far, suf&oiently outlines the
ooDO^ of moral tiieology in its widest sense. Our
next task is to follow up its actual f onuation and
derreb^Hnent.

M<n«l theology, correctly understood, means the
science of supenutturally revealed morals. Hence,
thej cannot speak of moral theology who reject super-
natural Revelation; the most they can do is to dis-
course on natural ethics. But to distinguish between
mwal theok^ and ethics is sooner or hter to admit
& science ctf euiios without God and religion. That
this contains an essential contradiction, is phun to
er^one who analyzes the ideas of moral rectitude
and moral perversion, or the concept of an absolute
duty whicdi forces itself with uiirelenting persistency
on all who have attained the use of reason. Without
God, an absolute duty is inconceivable, because there
is nobody to impose obligation. I cannot oblige my-
self, because I cannot be my own superior; still less
can I oblwe the whole human race, and yet I fed
myself obliged to many things, and cannot but feel
myself absolutely obliged as man, and hence cannot
but regard all those who share hiunaa nature with me
as obbged likewise. It is jilain then that this obli^
tion must proceed from a hi^er being who is superior
to all men, not only to those who live at present, but to
tJl who have been and will be, nay, in a certain sense
even to those who are merely possible. This superior
behig is tiie Lord of all, God. It is also plun that
although this Supreme law^^rer can be known by
natural reason, neither He nor His law can be suffi-
ciently known without a revelation on His part.
Hence it is that moral theology, the study oi this
Divine law is actually cultivated only by those who
faithfully cling to a Divine Revelation, and by the
sects which sever their connexion with the Church,
oi^ as long as they retain the belief in a super-
natural Revelation tbroi^ Jesus Quist.

Wherever Protestantism has thrown this belief ov^
board, there the study moral tbeolc^ as a science
has Buflfered shipwreck. To-day it would be merely
lost labour to look for an advancement of it on the
part of a noo-Catholic denomination. In the seven-
teenth and e^teenth centuries there were still men
to be found who made an attempt at it. J. A. Dor-
ner states in Herzog. "Real-Encyklopfidie", IV, 364
Bqq. (s. V. "£tbik'*)> that inrominent Protestant
writers upholding "theological morals" have grown
very scarce since the eighteenth century. However,
this is not quite oorreot. Of those who still cling to a
positive Protestantism, we may name Martensen,
who recently entered tne lists with deep conviction
for "Christian Ethics"; the same, though in his own
peculiar manner, is done by Lemme in his "Chriat-
uche Ethik" (1905) ; both attribute to it a scope wider
and objeotivcjy other than that of natural etoics. A
few names from the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turies may here suffice: Hugo Grotius (d. 1646),
Pufendorf (d. 1694), and Christian Thomasius (d.
1728), all see the dinerence between theological and
natural morals in that the former is also positive, i. e.
Divinely revealed, but with the same subject matter
as the latter. Tbia last assertion could spring only
£H»n the Protestant view which has staked its all on
the "fidee fiducialis"; but it can hardly acknowlcd^ a
range of duties widened by Christ and Christianity.
Other writers oS a "theologia moralis" based on ttus
"fides fiducialis", are Buddeus, Chr. A. Crusius, and
Jerem. Fr. Reuse. A l<^cal result of Kantianism
was the denial of the very possibility of moral the-
ok^, since Kant had made autonomous reason the
only source of obligation. On this point Dcnner says
(locoit.): "It is true tiiat the autonomy and tbeautoo-
nugr of the moral being Bepantes nunals and

ligjion"; he would have been nearer the mark, had he
said: "they destroy all morals". Generally speaking
the modem Liberal Protestants hardly Vnovf any
other than autonomous morals; even when they do
epeek of ' ' religious ' ' morals, th^ find its last explana-
tion in man, religion, and God or Divine Revelation
being taken in their Modernistic sense, that is Bid>-
iective notions of whose objective value we have no
knowledge and no certainty.

This bein^ the ca^ there remains only one ques-
tion to be discussed: What has been the actual devel-
opmert and method of moral theology in the Church?
and here we must first of all remember that the
Church is not an educaticmal institution or a school
for the advancement of the sciences. True, she
esteems and promotes the sciences, sspecially the-
ology, and scientific schools are founded by her; but
this 18 not her only, or even her chief task. She is the
authoritative institution, founded by Christ for the
salvation of mankind; she speaks with power and
authority to the whole human race, to all nations, to
all classes of society, to every_ age, communicates to
them the doctrine (tf salvation unadulterated and
offers them her aids. It is her mission to urge upon
educated and uneducated persons alike the accept-
ance of truth, without r^ard to its scientific study
and establishment. After this has been accepted on
faith, she also promotes and urges, according to times
and circumstances, the scientific mvestigation of the
truth, but she retains supervision over it and stands
above all scientific awirations and labours. As a re-
sult, we see the subject matter of moral theology,
though laid down and positively communicated bjr the
Church, treated differently by ecduiastioal writers
acowding to the requirements ctf times and circum-
stances.

In the first years of the early Church, when the Di-
vine seed, nourished by the blood of the martyrs, was
seen to sprout in spite of the chilling frosts of pcrsc-
cution, when, to the amazement of tne hostile world,
it grew into a mighty tree of hravoily plantation,
there was hard^^isure for the scientific study of
Christian doctnne. Hence morals were at first
treated in a i>opular, parenetic form. Throughout the
Patristic period, hardly any other method for moral
questions was m vogue, tnou^ this method mig^t
consist now in a concise exposition, now in a more de-
tailed discussion of individual virtues and duties.
One of the earliest works of Christian tradition, if not
the earliest after the Sacred Scripture, the "Didache"
or "Teaching (A the Apostles", is chiefiy of a moral-
theofoj^oal nature. It is hardly more than a code of
laws, an enlarged decalogue, to which are added the
principal duties arising from the Divine institution of
the means of salvation and from the Apostolic institu-
tions of a common worship-^in this respect valuable
for dogmatic theology in ita narrow sense. The
"Pastor" of Hermas, composed a Uttle later, is of a
moral character^ that is, it contains an aacetical ex-
hortation to Christian morality and to serious penance
if one should have relapsed into sin.

liiere exists a long series of occasional writings
bearing on moral theology, from the first period of
the Cmistian era; their purpose was either to recom-
mend a certain virtue, or to exhort the faithful in
general for certain times and circumstances. Thus,
from Tertulliau (d. about 240) we have: "De spec-
taculis", "De idololatria", "De corona militis",
"De patientia", "De oratione", "De pcenitentia",
"Ad uxorem", not to take into consideration the
works which he wrote after his defection to Monta-
nism and which are indeed of interest for the history of
Christian morals, but cannot serve as guides in it.
Of Origen (d. 254) we still possess two minor works
which Dear on our question, vis., "Demartyrio",
parenetic in character, and "De oratione", mmnl
and dogmatio in content; the latter meets the objefv

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THKOLOQT 6

tkau vriach are advanced w rather rdterated even
to-day againat the efficacy of prayer. Oeoamonal
writings and moncwraphs are offered to ua in the
precious works of St. Cyprian (d. 258); among the
former must be numbered: "De mortahtate'' and
"De martyrio", in a certain sense also "De lapus".
though it bean rather a disciplinary and judicial
character: to the latter class belong: "De habitu
virpnum". "De oratione", "De opere et eleemoOT-
nis , "De bono patientiK", and "De zelo et livore .
A clearer title to be classed among moral-theological
books seems to belong to an earher work, the "P^da-
BOgoa'* Qement of Alexandria (d. about 217).
It is a detailed account of a genuine Christian's
duly lifoi which ordinary and every-day actions
are measured by the standard ot supematoml moral-
ity. The same author touches upon Christian
morals also in his oth^ woiks, particularly in the
"Stromata"; but this work is principally written from
the apologetic standpoint^ since it was intended to
vindicate the entire Christian doctrine, both faith
and morals, against pagan and Jewish philosophies.

In subsequent years, when the persecutions ceased,
and patristic literature began to flourish, we find not
only eMRetical writinip and apologtea written to
d^end Christian doctrine against various heresies,
but also numerous moral-theological works, princi-
paUy sermons, homilies, and monographs. First
of these are the orations of St. Gr^^ry of Nazianms
(d. 391), of St. Gregory of Nyssa (d. 395), of St.
John CluysostoEt (d. 406), of St. Augustine (d. 430).
and above all the "Catecheses" (5 St. Cyril of
Jerusalem (d. 386). Of St. John Chrysostom we
have "De sacerdotio": of St. Augustine, "Confes-
mones", "SoUIoquia", "De cathechisandis rudibus",
"De patientia", "De continentia", "Debono con-
iugali , "De adulterinis coniugiis", "De sancta
vi^initate", "De bono viduitatis , "De mendacio",
"De cura pro mortuis ^renda", so that the titles
alone suffice to dvc an intimation of the wealth of
subjects discussed with no less unction than original-
ity and depth of thought. A separate treatment of
the supernatural mcnnlity of Christians was at-
tempted by St. Ambrose (d. 397) in his books "De
(^ciis",a vroA which, imitating Cicero's "De offi-
ciis", forms a Christian counte^)art of the pagan's
pure^ natural discussions. A work of an entirely
different stamp and of lai|^r proportions is the
"Expositio in Job, seu morahum ub. XXV", of Gre-
gory the Great (d. 604). It is not a systeihatic arrange-
ment of the various Christian duties, but a collection
of moral instructions and exhortations based on the
Book ^ Job: Alzog (Handbudi der Fatrologie, 92)
calls it a "fairly complete repertory of morals".
More ^tematic is his work ''^De cura pastorali".
which was intended primarily for the pastor and
which is considered even to^u^ a claasieBl work in
pastoral theology.

Having broadly outlined the general pn^resa of
moral theology during the Patristic era proper,
we must supplement it oy detailing the development

a very epecial branch of moral theology and its
practical application. For moral theology must
necessarily assume a peculiar form when its purpose
is restricted to the aamimstration of the Sacrament
of Penance. The chief result to be attained was a
clear notion of the various sins and their species, of
their relative grievousness and importance, and of
the penance to be imposed for them. In order to
ensure uniform procedure, it was necessary for
ecclesiastical superiors to lay down more detailed
directions; this they did either of their own accord
or in answer to inquiries. Writings of this kind are
the pastoral or canonical letters of St. Cyprian, St.
Peter of Alexandria, St. Basil of Cappadocia, and St.
Gregory of Nyssa; the decretals and synodal lettos
of a numbw m popeOf as Sizieiufl, Innocent, CelsBtine,

6 moLoov

Leo I, etc.; eancnu ot several cecumenical oooneili.
These decrees were collected at an early date and
used by the bishops and priests as a norm in di>
tinguiahing sins and in imposing ecclesiastical pen-
ance for them.

The ascendancy of the so-caUed "poiitential
hooka" dated txma the seventh oentuiy. whoi a
change took place in the praotice of eedeaiastical
penance. Till then it had been a time-honoured law
ID the Church that the three capital crimes: apostasy,
murder, and adultery, vrete to be atoned for by an
accurately determined penance, which was public
at least for public sins. This atonement, which
consisted chiefly in severe fasts and pubhc, humiliat-
ing practices, was accompanied by various religious
eeremonies under liie s^t suparision of the Church;
it included four distinct stations or classes of peni-
tents and at times lasted from fifteen to twenty
years. At an early poriod, howeverj the capital
sins mentioned above were divided mto sections,
according as the circumstances were either aggravat-
ing or attenuating, and a correspondingly longer or
shorter period of penance was set down for them.
When in the course of centuries, entire nations,
uncivilized and dominated by fierce passions, were
received into the bosom of the Church, and when,
as a result, heinous crimes be^ to multiply, many
offences, akin to those mentioned above, were' in-
cluded among sins which were subject to canonical
penances, while for others, especially for secret
sins, the priest determined the penance, its duration
and mode, by the canons. The seventh century
brought with it a relaxation, not indeed in canonical
penance, but in the ecclesiastical control; on the
other hand, there was an increase in the number of
crimes which demanded a fixed poiance if discipline
was to be maintained; besides, many hereditary
rights of a particular nature, which had led to a
certain mitigation of the universal norm of penance,
had to be taken into consideration; substitutes and
so-called redempHonea, which consisted in pecu-
niaiT donations to the poor or to public utilities,
nadually i^ed entrance and vtwue; all this neces-
sitated the drawii^ up of comprehensive lists of the
various crimes and m the penances to be imposed
for them, so that a certain uniformity among con-
fessors might be reached as to the treatment
penitents and the administration of the sacraments.

There appeared a number of "penitential books".
Some of them, bearing the sanction of the Church,
closely followed the ancient canonical decrees of the
praes and the councils, and tlie approved statutes
of St. Basil, St. Gr^ry of Nyssa, and othera; others
were merely private works, which, recommended
b^ the renown of their authtns, found a wide circula-
tion, others again went too far in their decisions and
hence constramed ecclesiastical superiors either to
reprehend or c<mdemn them. A more detailed
account these worios wUl be found m another
article.

These books were not written for a scientific, but
for a practical, juridical ptuix»e. Nor do they mark
an advance in the science of moral theology ^ut rather
a standing-still, nay, even a decadence. Those cen-
turies of migrations, of social and political upheavals,
offered a soil little adapted for a successful cultiva^
tion of the sciences, and though in the ninth century
a fresh attempt was made to raise seientific studies to
a higher level, still the work of the subsequent cen-
turies consisted rather in collecting and renewing
treasures of former centuries than in adding to them.
This is true of moral-theological questions, no less
than of other scientific branches. From this stagna-
tion theology in general and moral theology in par-
ticidar rose ^aia to new life towards the end of the
twelfth and the beginnii^ of the thirteenth centuiy.
A new cuzrent <tf hwthy devdo|mient was notioeaue

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in moral theolosy and that ia two direotions: one in
new strength infuaed into the practice of the con-
fessors, the other in renewed vigour given to the
speculative portion.

With the gradual dying out of the public penancea,
the "penitential books" lost Uteir importance more
and more. The confessors grew less concerned about
the exact mea£ure of penances than about the essen-
tial object of the sacrament, which is the reconcilia-
tion of the sinner with God. Besides, the "peniten-
tial books" were by far too defective for teachin^g
confessors how to judge about the various sins, their
consequences and remedies. In order to meet this
need, St. Raymond of Penafort wrote towards the year
1235 the " Summa de poenitentiaet matrimonio ". Like
his famous collection of decretals, it is a repertory of
canons on various matters, i. e. important passages
from the Fathers, councils, and papal decisions. More
immediately adapted for actual use was the "Summa
de cosibus conscientiie", which was written about
1317 by an unknown member of the Order of St.
fVancis at Asti in Upper Italy, and which is, there-
fore, known as "Summa Astensana" or "Summa A»-
tensis". Its eight books cover the whole subject
matter of moral theology and the canonical decrees,
both indispensable for the pastor and confessor;
Book I, the Divine commandments; II, virtues and
vices; III, oontracta and wills; IV-VI, sacraments,
except matrimony; VII, eccleoastical oensures; VIII,
matrimony. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries
produced a number of similar summcB for ccmfessors;
all of them, however, discarded the arrangement in
books and chapters, and adopted the alphabetical
order. Then value is, of course, widely different.
The following are the most important and most popu-
lar among them: The "Sununa confessorum" of the
' Dominican Johannes of Freiburg (d. 1314), which was
published a few years previous to tJie "Summa Ab-
ten^''^ its high reputation and wide circulation was
due to its revision by another member of the Domini-
can Order, Bartholomseus of Pisa (d. 1347), who ar-
ranged it alphabetically and supplemented its ca-
nomcal parts; it is commonly known as the "Summa
Pisana . Triis work served as the foundation for the
"Summa angelica", a clear and concise treatise,
composed about 1476 by the fVandscui Angehis
Gertetus, called "Ai^us a Clavaaio" after his native
city, Chiavasso. Its great popularity is attested by
the fact that it went through at least thirty-one edt-
tions from 1476 to 1520. A like popularity was en-
joyed by the "Summa caauum" of the Franciscan,
J. B. Trovamala, which appeared a few years later
(1484) and, after being revised by the author himself,
in 1495, bore the title of "Summa rosella". One of
the last and most renowned of these aumma was prob-
ably the "Summa Silvestrina" of the Dominican Sil-
vester Frierias (d. 1523), after which moral theology
be^n to be treated in a different manner. The
summae here mentioned, being exclusively written for
the practical use of confesBors, did not spurn the more
elementary form; but they represented the results of a
thorou^, scientific study, which produced not only
writings of this kind, but also other systematic works
of a profound scholarship.

The twelfth century witnessed a busy activity in
speculative theology, which centred about the cathe-
dral and monastic schools. These produced men like
Hu^ and Richard of St. Victor, ana especially Hugh's

gupil, Peter the Lombard, called the Master of the
entences, who flourished in the cathedral school of
Paris towards the middle of the century, and whose
"Libri sententiarum" served for sever^ centuries aa
the standard text-book in theological lecture-halls.
In those days, however, when oangerous heresies
against the fundamental dogmas and mysteries of the
Ouistian faith began to appear, the moral part of the
Christian docteine received acant treatment; Peter the

Lombard incidental^ discuases a few moral questions,
as e. g., about sin, while speaking of creation and the
original state of man, or more in i^articular, while
treating of original sin. Other questions, e. g., about
the freedom of our actions and the nature of human
actions in general, are answered in the doctrine on
Christ, where he discusses the knowledge and the will
of Christ. Even the renowned commentator of the
"Sentences", Alexander of Hales, O. Min., does not
yet seriouslY ent^ into Christian morals. The work
of constructii^; moral theology as a speculative science
was at last undertaken and completed by that great
luminary of theology, St. Thomas of Aqum. to wlioee
"Summa theologica^* we referred above. Aside from
this masterpiece, of which the second part and portions
of the third pertain to morals, there are several minor
works extant which bear a moral and ascetical char-
acter; the last-named branch was cultivated with
extraordinary skill by St. Bonaventure of the Fran-
ciscan Order, though he did not equal the systematic
genius of St. Thomas.

This and the subsequent centuries produced a num-
ber of prominent theologians, some of whom con-
tested various doctrines of Aquinas, as Duns Scotus
and his adhercDts, while others followed in his foot-
steps and wrote commentaries on his works, as ^gi-
dius Roman us and Ca^reolus. Nevertheless, purdy
moral-thecdi^cal quest ions were rarely made the sub-
ject of controversy during this time; a new eppdi in
the method of moral theology did not dawn until after
the Council of Trent. However, there are two ex-
tremely fertile writers of the fifteenth century who not
only exerted a powerful influence on the advancement
of theology but raised the standard of practical life.
They are Dionysius the Carthusian and St. Antoni-
nus, Bishop of Florence. The former is well known
for his ascetical woiks, while Ihe latter devoted him-
self to the pmctice of the confessional and the ordinary
work of the pastor. His "Summa theologica" be-
longs specially to our subject. It wrait through sev-
ere editions, and A. Ballerini's revision of it, which
appeared in 1740 at Florence, contains four folios.
The third volume treats chiefly of ecclesiastical law;
it discusses at great length the legal position of the
Church and its penal code. A few chapters of the
first volume are devoted to the psychological side <tf
man and his actions. The remainder ch the whole
work is a commentary, from the purely moral stand-
point, on the second j)art of St. Thomas's "Summa
theolwica", to which it constantly refers. It is not a
mere theoretical explanation, but is so replete with
juridical and casuistical details that it may be called
an inexhaustible fountain for manuals of casuistry.
How highly the practical wisdom of Antoninus was
esteemed even during his lifetime, ia attested by the
Surname " Antoninus constliorum ' , Antoninus oi good
counsel, given to him in the Roman Breviary.

A new life was breathed into the Catholic Church
by the Council of Trent. Reformation of morals
gave a fresh impetus to theological science. These
had ^adufdly fallen from the high level to which they
had nsen at the time of St. Thomas; the desire of solid
advancement had frequently given place to seeking
after clever argumcntationB on unimportant ques-
tions. The sixteenth century witnessed a complete
change. Even before the coimcil convened, there
were eminent scholars of a serious turn of mind as
Thomas of Vio (usually called Cajetanus), Victoria,
and the two Sotos, all men whose solid knowledge of
theologyproved of immense benefit to the Council
itself. Their example was followed by a long series
of excellent scholars, especially Dominicans and mem-
bers of the newly-founded Society of Jesus. It was
above all the qrstematic side of moral theology Tiintib
was now taken up with renewed zeal. In former cen-
turies, Peter the Lombard's "Sentences" had been
the univosal text-book, and more prominoit tfaeo*

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logical works of subsequent ages professed to be noth-
ing else than commentaries upon them; henceforth,
however, the "Summa theologica" of St. Thomas was
followed as guide in theology and a large number <d
the best theol(^od works, written aftor the Gounoil
of IVent, were entitled "Gommentarii in Summam
Sti. Thome". The natural result was a more extenr
Bive treatment of moral questions, since these con-
Btituted by far the hu^est portion of St. Thomas's
"Summa . Amom; the earliest classical works of
this kind is the '"Commentariorum theologicorum
tomi quattuor" of Gregory of Valentia (q. v.). It is
well thought out and shows great accuracy; vols. Ill
and IV «mtain the ezplwatkm (tf the "Prima
Secundae" and the "Secunda Secunds" of St.
Thomas. This work was succeeded, at the end of the
sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth cen-
tury, by a number of similar commentaries; among
them stand out most prominently those of Gabriel
V^uez, Lessius, Sudrez, Becauus, and the works of
Thomas Sanchez "In decalogum as well as "Con-
silia moralia", which are more casuistical in their
method; the commentaries irf Dominic Bdnes. which
had appeared some time before; and those (tf Medina
(see Medina, Babtholomew; Probabiusm).

Prominent among all those mentioned is Francis
Su^z, S.J., in whose voluminous works the principal

auestions of the "Secunda" of St. Thomas are
eveloped with great accuracy and a wealth of
positive knowledge. Almost every question is
searchingly examined, and brought nearer its final
solution; the most varied opinions of former theo-
higians are extensively discussed, subjected to a
close scrutiny, and the final decision is given with
great circtmispection, moderation, and modesty.
A large folio treats the fundamental questions of
moral theology in gener^: (1) De fine et beatitudine;
(2) De voluntario et involuntario^ et de actibus
humams; (3) De bonitate et malitia humanorum
actuum; (4) De passionibus et vitiis. Another
volume treats of "Laws"j several folio vcJumes are
devoted to treatises which do indeed belong to
morals, but which are inseparablv connected with
other strictljr dogmatic questions about God and His
attributes, viz., "De gratia divina"; they are to-day
assigned everj^here to dogma proper; a third series

S'ves the entire doctrine of tne sacraments (with
le exception of matrimony) from their d<^matic
and moral side. Not all of the various virtues were
examined by Suirez; besides the treatise on_ the
theological virtues, we possess only that on the virtue
of religion. But if any of Su&rez's works may be
called classical it is the last-named, which discusses
in four volumes the whole subject "De religione".
Within the whole range of "religio", incluoing its
notion and relative position, its various acts and
praetioes, as prayers, vows, oaths, etc., the sina
against it, there can hardly be fotind a dogmatic or
casuistic question that has not been either solved
or whose solution has not at least been attempted.
Of the last two volumes one treats of relupous orders
in general, the other of the "Institute" oTthe Society
of Jesus.

In the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth
century, there appeared a number of similar, though
coneiser, wotIes which tnat moral-theoloeiad ques-
tions as a part of universal theology with the genuine
mirit of Scholastic science. There are those of
Tanner, Coninck, Platel, Gotti, BiUuart, and many
others, the mere enumeration of whom would lead
us too far afield. We must, however, mention one
to whom nobody can deny the honour of having
advanced both speculative and practical theology,
and eQ>eciaUy practical morals, John de Lugo.
Endowed with uncommon, qwculative goiius and
clear, practical judgment, be in many instances
pointed out entirely new paths towards the solution

of moral questions. Speaking of his moral theolonr,
St. Alpfaonsua e^lee him "by all odds leader after
St. Thomas". The works that have come down to
uB are: "De fide", "Do incainatione", "Dejustitia
et jure", "De sacramentis", via., "ue sacramentis
in genere", "De baptismo et eueharistia". and "De
litentia". It is above all the volume "De
litentia" which, through its sixteenth disputation,
become the classical handbook for casuistical
moral theology and particularly for the ^>ecific
distinction of sins; to the same subject belong the
posthumous "Re^wnsa moralia", a oollection of
answers given by de Lugo in complicated cases of
Gonaciwce. This is not the place to point out his
eminence as a dogmatist; suffice it to say that many
far^eaching questions receive original sohititHia,
which, though not tmiversally accepted, have yet
shed considerable light on these subjects.

The method which Lugo applies to moral theolo^-
cal questions, may well oe called mixed, that is, it
is both Euecutative and casuistical. Such works
of a mixea character now grow common, they treat
the whole subject-matter of moral theology, in as
far as it is serviceable for the confessor and tlw
pastor, in this mixed mann^, though they insist
more on casuistry than did Lugo. A type of this
kind is the "Theologia moralis of Paul Laymann
(d. 1635); in this eat^ory may also be numbered
the "TheolcMpa decalogalis" and "Theologia sacra-
mentalis" of Sporer (d. 1683), the "Comerentiw"
of Elbel (d. 1756), and the "Theologia moralis" of
Renter (d. 1762). Almost numberless are the
manuals for confessors, written in a simple casubtical
form, though even these justify their conclusions
by internal reasons after l^timatizing them by an
appeal to external authority. They are not unfre-
quently the fruit of thorough, q>ecuJative knowledge
and extensive reading. One of the most solid is
probably the "Manuale confessariorum et poeniten-
tium" oif Azpilcueta (1494-1586), the great isanonist,
commonly known as "Doctor Navarrus"; further-
more, the "Inatructio saeerdotum" or "Summa
casuum conscientisB" of Cardinal Tolet (d. 1506),
which was highly recommended by St. Francis of
Sales. One other work must also be mentioned,
viz., the so-called "Medulla theolo^fe moralis" of
Hermann Busenbaum (d. 1688), which has become
famous on account of its very extensive use (forty
editions in less than twenty years during the lifetime
of the author) and the number of its commentators.
Among these are included Claude Lamax, whose
moral theology is considered as one of the most
valuable of the eighteenth century, and St. Alphonsus
Liguori, with whom, however, an entirely new
epoch of moral theology commences.

Before entering upon this new phase, let us glance
at the development of the so-called systems of
morals and the controversies which sprang up among
Catholic scholars, as well as at the casuistical method
of treating moral theology in general. For it is
precisely the casuistry oT morfd theology around
which these controversies centre, and which has
experienced severe attacks in our own day. These
attacks were for the most part confined to Germany.
The champions of the adversaries are J. B. Hirscher
(d. 1865), Ddllii^er, Reusch, and a group of Catholic
scholars who, in the years 1901 ana 190u, demanded
a "reform of Cathohc moral theology", tbouah all
were not moved by the same spirit. In Hirscher it
was the zeal for a supposedly good cause, though he
was implicated in theological errors; DOllinger and
Heuscb attempted to cover their defection from the
Church and their refusal to acknowledge the papal
infallibility by holding up to the ridicule of the world
ecdemastical conditions and affairs which they
thou^t militated against that initallibility; the latest
phase of this opposition is mainly the remit of mls-

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underatandings. In order to elutadate Uie accuse
lions brought against casuistry, we use the wholly
unjustifiable criticism which fiUrscher launched
against Scholastic theology in general in his work of
1832, "On the Relation between the Gospel and
llieological Scholasticism"; it is quoted approvingly
by D^Jinger and Reuscb (Moralstreitigkeiten, 13
sqq.):—

(1) "Instead of penetrating into the spirit which
makes virtue what it is and underlies everything
that is good in this world, in other words, instead of
beginning with the one indivisible nature of all
goodness, they begin with the material of the various
moral precepts and prohibitions without adverting
to where these originate, on what foundation they
rest, and what is their life^ving i>rinciple." This
means that Scholastics and casuists know only
individual things, see nothing universal and unifoftn
in the virtues and duties.

(2) "Instead of deriving these precepts and pro-
hibitions from the one, mdividual essence of all
goodness and thereby creating certainty in the
moral judgments of their audience, they, rejecting
principles, string 'shalt' to 'shalt', provide them
with mnumerable statutes and clauses, confuse and
oppress the hearer by the overflowing measure of
duties, hfdf-duties, non-duties." In other words,
the Scholastics oppress and confuse by an unneces-
sary multiplication of duties and non-dutira.

(3) "It is more in accordance with the spirit of
Mosaism than with that of Christianity when
Christian morality is treated less as a doctrine of
virtues than of laws and duties, and when by adding
commandment to commandment, prohibition to
prohibition, it gives us a full and shalien measure^ of
moral rules instead of building up on the Christian
spirit, deriving everything from it and pointing out
all particular virtues in its light. Or bn^y,
casuistry promotes esd^or sanctimoniouaness with-
out the interior spirit,

(4) "Those who treat morals from tJie standpomt
of casuistry, assign an important part to the da-
tinetion between grave and light laws, grave and
light duties, serious and slight trans^resfnons. mortal
and venial sins. . . . Now, the distinction between
grievous and venial sins is not without a solid foun-
dation, and if it is chiefly based on the different qual-
ities of the will, and if, besides, the various degrees of
goodness and malice are measured by the presence,
e. g., of a purely good and strong will, of one leas
pure and less strong, of a weak, inert, impure, mali*
cious, perverted willl then nobock will raise his voice
against it. But it is wholly different when the dis-
tinction between mortal and venial sins is taken
objectively, and based on the gravity and lightness
of the commandments. . . Such a distmction between
mortal and venial sins, founded on the material
differences of the commandments and the prohibi-
tions, is a source of torment and uudety for many.
. . . True moraJity candot be advanced tlirough
such an anxiety. .-. . The mass of the people will
derive only this one profit from such a method:
many will refrain from what is forbidden under pain
of mortal sin and will do what is commanded under
the same penalty but they will care little for what is
commanded or forbidden under pain of venial sin
only; on the contrary they will seek a compensation
in the latter for what they sacrificed to the grave
commandments. But can we call the fives of such
men Christian?" In other words, casuistry falsifies
the consciences by distinguishing objectively between
mortal and venial sins, leads to a contempt of the
latter, and renders a genuindy CSirisUan lue impoa-
sible.

It is not difficult to refute all these accusations.
One glance at the " Sum ma theolt^ca" of St. Thomas
will prove how inoorrect is the first charge thab

Scholasticism and ouuistty know only mdividt^
good acta and individual virtues, without inouiring
mto the foundation common to all virtues. Before
treating the individual virtues and the individual
duties, St. Thomas gives us a whole volume of dis-
cussions of a general nature, of which we may note
the profound speculations on the last end, the good-
ness and malice of human actions, the etenial law.

The second accusation, that the Scholastic casuis-
try confuses the mind by its mass of duties and
non-duties, can only mean that the Scholastic casuis-
try sets these up arbitrarily and contrary to truth.
Tne complaint can only refer to those works and
lectures which aim at the instruction of the clergy,
pastors, and confessors. The reader or hearer who
IB confused or oppressed by this "mass of duties
etc/' ahows 1^ this very fact that he has not the
talent neoesBory for the office of confessor or ^iritual
guide, that he should therefore choose another Toca-
tion.

The third charge, directed against Judaical hypoo-
ri^ which neglects the fosterii^ of the interior life,
is refuted by every work on casuistry, however
meagre, for every one of them states most emphati-
cally that, without the state of grace and a good
intentioUj all external works, no matter how difncult
and heroic, are valueless in the sight of God. Can
the necessity of the internal spirit be brought out
more clearly? And even if, in some cases, the
external fulfilment of a certain work is laid down
as the minimum demanded by God or the Church,
without which the CSiristian would incur eternal
damnation, yet this is not banishing the internal
spirit, but designating the external fuffilment as the
low-water mark of morality.

Lastly, the fourth charge springs from a very grave
theological error. There can be no doubt that, in
judging the heinousness of sin and in distinguishing
between mortal and venial sins, the. subjective
element must be taken into consideration. How-
ever, every ccanpendium erf moral theology, no matter
how casuistical, meets this requirement. Every
manual distinguishes sins which arise from ignorance,
weakness, malice, without, however, labelling all
sins of weakness as venial sins, or all sins of malice
as mortal sins; for there are surely minor acts of
malice which cannot be said to cause the death of
the soul. Every manual also takes cognizance of
sins which are committed without sufficient deliber-
ation, knowled^, or freedom: all these, even thougjh
the matter be grave, are counted as venial sins.
On the other huid, every manual recognizes venial
and grievous torn which are such by the gravity of
the matter alone. Or who would, abstractinjS from
everything else, put a jocose lie on a par with the
denial of faith? But even in these sins, mortal
or venial according to their object, the casuists 1^
stress on the personal dispositions in which the sin
was actually committed. Hence, their universal
principle: the result of a subjectively erroneous con-
science may be that an action which is in itself only
venial, becomes a mortal sin, and vice versa, that an
action which is in itself mortally sinful, that is, con-
stitutes a grave violation of the moral law, may be
only a venial sin. Nevertheless, all theolf^tans,
also casuists, consider a correct conscience a gr^t
boon and hence endeavour, by their casuistic di»<
eusaions, to contribute towaras the formation at
correct consciences, so that the subjective estimate
of the morality of certain actions may coincide, as
far as possible, with objective ncmn of moraUty.

When, lastly, various opponents of the casuistical
method object that the moralist occupies himself
exclusively with sins and their analyras, with the
"dark side" of human life, let them remember that
it is physically impossible to say everything in one
breath, that, just aa in many other arts sod sdaioes,

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tt divuion of labour may also be advantageous for

the science oi moral theology, that the particular
purpose of manuals and lectures may be umited to
the education of skilled confessors and that this
purpose may very well be fulfilled by centring
attention on the dark side of human life. Neverthe-
less, it must be graoted that this cannot be the only
purpose ot moral theology: a thorough discussion or
all Christian virtues and the means ofacquiring them
is indiefpensable. If at any time this part of moral
theology should be pushed to the background, moral
theology would become ono-sided and would need a
revision, not by cutting down casuistry, but bv devot-
ing more time and energy to the doctrine of virtues
in their scientific, parenetical* and asoetical aspect.
. In aU these Inwu^ of moral theok)gy, a great
advance was noticeable at the time oi theCouncil of
Trent. That more stress was laid on casuistry in
particular, finds its emlanation in the ^wing
Frequency of sacramental confession. This la freelv
conceded by our adversaries. Dollinger and Reuscn
say (op. cit., 19 sqq.): "The fact that casuistry
underwent a further development after the sixteentn
century, is connected with further changes in the
penitential diseipliiie. From that time on the
custom iwevailea of approaching the confessional
more frequently, regularly before Communion, ctf
confessing not only grievous, but also venial sins,
and of asking the oonfessor's advice for all troubles
of the ^iritual life, so that the confessor became
more and more a spiritual father and ^ide." The
ooofeesor needed this schooling and scientific trun-
tng, whidi alone could enable him to give correct
fiecisions in complex cases of human life, to form a
correct estimate of moral goodness or defect^ duty
or violation duty, virtue or vice. Now, it was
inevitable that the confessor should meet cases where
the existence or exact measure of the obligation
remained obscure even after careful examination,
where the moralist was therefore confronted by the
question what tiw final decision in these cases should
be: whether one was obliged to consider oneself
bound when the duty was obscure and doubtful,
or how one could remove this doubt and arrive at
the definite conclusion that there was no strict obli-
gation. That t^e former could not be the case, but
that an obligation, to exist, must first be proved,
had always oeen known and bad been variously
expressed in practical rules: "In dubiis benigniora
aequenda", "odiosa sunt restringenda", etc. The
bane principle, however, for solving such dubious
cases and attaming the certitude necessary for the
morality of an action was not always kept clearly
in view. To establish this universal principle, was
equivalent to establishing a moral system ; and the
various systems were distinguished by the principle
to which each adhered.

The history of Probabiliam is ^ven under this title,
suffice it to say hm that from the middle of the
sevmteenth century when the violent discuMion oi
^is question begins, the development of moral
theolorar coincides with that of Probabilism and of
other Ftotwbilistic systems; although these systems
touch onlv a small portion of morals and of moral
truths and nothing is farther from the truth than the
opinion, bo wide-spread among the adversaries of
Catholic morala, thai Probabilism gave a new sh^>e
and a new spirit to the whole of moral theology.
Probabilism ajod the other systems of morals are con-
cealed only about cases which are objectivelv doubt-
ful; hence they abstract entirely from the wide sphere
of certain, establidied truths. Now, the latter class
is by far Uie larger in moral theology also; were it not
80, numan reason would be in a sorry plight, and
Divine providence would have bestowed little care on
the ooblest of its visible creatures and on their huh-
OTt soodi, even in Uw siqieraatural order, in iHiicn a
XIV.— 39

fuU measure ttf gifts and graces was showered apoo
those ransomed in Qirist. The certain and un-
doubted port ion includes all the fundamental ques-
tions (tf Christian morals: it comprises those principlee
of the moral order by Wnich the relations of man to
himself, to God, to his neighbour, and to the various
communities are regulated; it embraces the doctrine
of the last end <rf man and of tiie supwnatural means
of attaining this end. There is only a comparatively
small number of objectively obscure and doubtful
laws or duties that api>eal to Probabilism or Anti-
probabilism for a decision. However, as has been
said, since the middle of the seventeenth century, the
interest of moral theologians centred in the question
about Probabilism or Antiprobabilism.

Just as far from the truth is the second opinion of
tiie adversaries ctf Probabilism, viz., that this syst^
induces people to evade the laws and hardens them
into callousness. On the contrary, to moot the ques-
tion of Probabilism at all. was the sign of a severely
conscientious soul. He wno proposes the question at
all knows and confesses by that very fact: first, that
it is not lawful to act with a doubtful conscience, that
he who performs an action without being firmly con-
vinced of its bdnc allowed, commits sin in the sight
of God; secondly, Uiat a law, above all the IMvine law,
obliges us to take cognisance of it and tbat, tha«fore,
whenever doubts arise about the probable existence
of an obligation we must apply sufficient care in order
to arrive at certainty, so that a frivolous disegard of
reasonable doubts is in itself a sin against the submis-
sion due to God. In spite cS all this, it may happen
that all our pains and inquiries do not lead us to cer-
tainty, that solid reasons are found both for and
against the existence of an diligation: under these
circumstances, a conscientious man will naturally ask
whether he must consider himself bound by 'the law or
whether he can, by further reflections — reflex princi-
ples, as the^ are called — come to the plain concIusi<xi
that there » no d>ligation either to do or to omit the
act in queatitm. Were we obliged to consider omv
selves bound in every doubt, the result, obvious)^,
would be an intolerable severity. But since before
pa^orming an action the final vardict of our con-
science must be free from doubt, th« necessity
removing in one way or another such doubts as may
have arisen, is self-evident.

At first there was a lack of clearness with re^rd to
Probabilism and .^he questions connected with it.
Conflicting definitfons at opinitHi, iHrobability. and
certitude, could not but cause oraifusion. When
works on moral theology and practical manuals began
to multiply, it was inevitable that some individuals
should take the word "probable" in too wide or in too
lax a sense, although there can be no doubt that in
itself it means "something acceptable to reason", in
other words, since reason can accept nothing unless it
has the appearance of truth, "something oased on
reascHis which generally lead to the truth". H^ce'it
is that opinions were actually advanced and spread as
practicable which were little in accord with the de-
mands of the Christian Faith, and which brought down
upon them the censure of tne Holy See. We refer
particularly to the theses condemned by Alexander
VII on 24 Sept., 1065, and on 18 March, 1666, and by
Innocent XI on 2 March, 1679. It is not Probabilism
that must be made responsible for them, but the
vararies oi a few Probabilists.

As a result of these condemnations, scnne theolo-
gians thought themselves obliged to oppose the sys-
tem itself and to side with ProoabiUoriam. Previous
to this turn of affairs, the Jansenists had been the most
pronounced adversaries of Probabilism. But they, too,
had received a setback when Innocent X condemned
(31 May, 1653) in the " Augustinus" of Janseniua, then
recmtly deceased, the proposition: "Just men, with
the strnicth now at th^ disposal, cannot keep eet-

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tain commandments of God. even if they viah and
endeavour to do bo: besides, tney are without the help
of grace which might make it possible for them was
taken from the work and r^ected as heretical and
blasphemous. Now Probabilism was least reconcil-
able with this Jansenistie thesis, which could be main-
tained the easier, the stricter the moral obUgations
laid upon man's conscience were and the severer the
system proclanned as solely Justified was. Conse-
quently, the adherents of the Jansemstie doetrine en-
aeavoured to attack Probabilism, to throw suspicion
on it as an innovation, to represent-it even as leading
to sin. The exaggerations of a few Probabiliats who
went too far in their laxity, gave an opportunity to
the Jansenists to attack the ^^stem, ana soon a num-
ber fli soholan, notably among the Dominicana.
abandoned Probabilism, which th^ bad defended till
then, attacked it and stood up for Probabiliorism;
some Jesuits also opposed ProI»biIism. But by far,
the majority of the Jesuit writers as welt as a vast
number of other orders and of the secular clergy,
adhered to ProbabiKsm. An entire century was taken
up with this controvert, which probably has not its
equal in the history of Catholic theolopr.

fVirtunately, the works on either siae of this con-
troversy were not popular writing. Nevertheless,
exaggerated theories caused a glarmg inequality and
much confusion in the administration of the Sacra*
ment of Penance and in the guidance of souls. This
seems to have been the case particularlv in France
and Italy; Germaiiy probabry suffered less from
Rigorism. Hence it was a blessing of Divine Provi-
dence that there arose a man in the middle of the
eighteenth century, who again insisted on a gentler
and milder practice, and who, owing to the eminent
sanctity which he combined with solid learning, and
which raised him soon after his death to the honour of
the altar, received the ecclesiastical amnt>bation of his
doctrine, thereby definitively establuiiing tbe milder
practice in moral theology.

This man is Alphonsus Maria Lisuori, who died in
17S7 at the age of 91, was beatified m 1816, canonized
in 1839, and declared Doctor Ecclesis in 1871. In
his youth Liguori had been imbued with the stricter
principles of moral theology; but, as he himself con-
fesses, the experience which a missionary life extend-
ing over fifteen years gave him, and careful study,
brought him to a realization of their falseness and evil
consequences. Chiefly for the yeunger members oi
the i^gious congregation which owed its «datenee to
his fervent seat, he woHced out a manual of moni
theology, basing it on the widely used "Medulla" of
the Jesuit Hermann Busenbaum, whose theses he sub-
jected to a thorough examination, confirmed by in-
ternal reasons and external authority, illustrated by
adverse opinions, and here and there modified The
work, entu-ely ProbabiHstic in its principles, was first
published in 1748. Received with universal applause
and lauded even by popes, it went through its second
edition tn 17^; edition after edition then followed,
nearly every one showing the revising hand of the
author; the last, ninth, edition, published during the
lifetime of the saint, appeared in 1785. After his
beatification and canonization his "Theologia mora-
lis" found an even wider circulation. Not only were
various editions arranged, but it afanost seemed as
though the further growth of moral theology would be
restricted to a reiteration "and to compendious revi-
rions of the works of St. Alphonsus. An excellent
critical edition of the "Theologia moralia Sti. Al-
phonsi" is that of L^nard Gaud^ C.SS.R. (Rome,
1905). who has verified all the quotations in the work
and illustrated it with scholarly annotations.

No future work on practical moral theology can
pass without ample references to the writings of St.
Alphonsus. Hence it would be unpoesible to gain a
clear insist into the present state of moral theologv

0 TBaOtOOT

and its devd(H>ment without being more or less con-
versant with the system of the saint, as narrated in the
article Probabilism. llie controversy, whidi is still
being wa^ about Probabilism and ^uiprobabilism,
has no significance unless the latter oversteps the
limits set to it by St. Alphonsus and merges into
Probabiliorimi. Homrer, tJiough the controversy
has not yet been abandoned tneoreticalhr, sUU in
every-day practice it is doubtful if there is any one
who follows other rules in deciding doubtful cases
than those of Probi^ilism. This ascendancy of the
milder school in moral, theology over the more rigor-
ous gained new impetus when Alphonsus was canon-
ized and when the Church pointed oiit in particular
that Divine Providence had raised him up as a bul-
waric against the errcm of Jansenism, and that by his
numerous writings he had blazed a more rdiable patti
which the guides of souls mig^t safely follow amid the
conflicting opinions either too lax or too strict. Dur-
ing his lifetime the saint was forced to enter several
literary disputes on account of his works on moral
theolo^; his chief adversaries were Ctmeina and
Patuzzi, both of the Dominican Order, and cham*
pions of Probabiliorism.

The last decades of the ei^tteenth century maj
well be called a period ctf general decadence as far as
the sacred sciences, moral theol<^ included, are c<m-
cemed. The frivolous spirit of tne Frendi Encyclo-
pedists had infected, as it were, the whole of Europe.
The Revolution, which was its offspring, choked all
scientific life. A few words about tne state of moral
theology during this period may suffice. Italy was
torn asunder by the dispute about Rigorism and a
milder practicej in France, R»orism had reooved the
full rights of citizenship through the Jansenistie mor^
ment and held its own till late in the nineteenth cen*
tut^: Germany was swayed by a spirit of shallowness
which threatened to cuslod^e Christian mor^ by
rationalistic and natural principles. The "genenu
seminaries" which Joeeph II established m tiie
Austrian states, engaged professcne who did not bhiah
to advance heretical doctrines and to exclude Chris-
tian self-restraint from the catalogue of moral obliga-
tions. Other German institutions, too, offo^ their
chairs of theology to professors who had imbibed the
ideas of "enli^tcnment", neglected to insist on
Catholic doctrmes of faith and. putting aside the
supernatural life, sought the end and aim of educa-
tion in a merely natural morality. But in the second
decade of the nineteenth century the fVeneh Revolu-
tion had spent itself, quiet had anin followed tiie
turmoil, the political restoration of Kurope had been
begun. A reiteration also of the ecclesiastical spirit
and learning was also inaugurated and the gradual
rise of moral theology became noticeable. Apart
from the purely ascetical side, there are three divistons
in which this new life was plainly visible: eateduam,
popular instruction, pastoral wotv.

Thou^ it is the purpose td catechetical teaching to
instruct the faithful in the entire range Christum
religion, in the doctrines faith no less than in those
of morals, yet the former may also be conceived and
discu^ed with reflect te the duties and the way by
which man is destmed to obtain his lost eod.^ Hence,
the catechetical treatment of religiouB quesUons may
be regarded as a portion of moral theology. During
the period of "enlightenment", this branch had been
dsRmded to a'sballow mOTalising along nAtoral lines.
But ihat.it rose again in the course of the pastoentury
to a lucid explanation of the sum-total of tne Oiristian
doctrine, is attested by numerous excdlent worita,
both catechisms and extensive discusaionB. To these
may be added the more thorou|^ manuals of Chris-
tian doctrine intended for ht^er schools, in i^cb the
apologetical and moral portions of reUnous instrmy
tion are treated scienttficallv and adapted to the needft
of the time. Hun is notning, however, which pn-

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vents us from placinz these writingB m the seocmd of
the above-meDtioned olaaaes, since their aim is the
iostniction of the Chnstian people, diough princi-
pally the educated laymen. It u true these works
Moag exclusively, even less than the catechetical,
to moral theology, sinoe their subject'^nattOT embraces
the whcde of the Christiui doctrine, vet the morally
destractive tendencies <^ Atheism and the new mmtu
questions brouRht forward by the conditions of our
times, impressed upon writers the importance of moral
iostniction in manuals of Catholic faith. Hie last
deotdes in particular prove that this side of theology
has been well taken care of. Various questions bear-
ing on Chiistian morals were extensively treated in
mon(^;raphs, as e. g., the social question, the signifi-
cance of mmey, the Church's doctrine on usury, the
woman question, etc. To quote sii^e works or to
enter on the different subjects in detail would exceed
the limits of this article.

The third line along which we noted an advance
was called the pastoral, that is, instruction which has
as its specif aim the education and aid of pastors
and eomessors. That this instruction is necessarily,
thou^ not exclusively, casuistic, was moitionea
above. The scarcity of priests, ^riiicb was keen^
felt in many places, occasioned a lack of time
eaiy for an aU-round scientific education of the candi-
dates for the priesthood . This circumstance explains
why scientific manuals of moral theology, for decades,
were merely casuistic compendia, containing indeed
the gist of scientific investigations, but lacking in
scientific argumentation. The correctness of eccle-
nastical doctrine had been insured and facilitated by
the approbation with which the Church distinguished
the works of St. Alphonsus. Hence, many of these
compendia are nothing else than recapitiuations of
St. Alphonsus's "Theolt^a moralis", or, if following
a plan of their own, betray on every page that their
auUiors had it always ready at hand. Two works
may here find mention which enjoyed a wider circula-
tion than any other book on moral theology and
which are frequently used even to-day: the Scavini'a
"Theol(^ja moralis universa", and the shorter
"Compendium theologis moralis" hy Jean-Piene
Gury, togetbiN with the numerous revinons whidi
uipeared m France, Germany, Ita^, Spain, and
Nor^ America.

We must not, however, deoeiveourselves by conclud-
ing that, owing to the ecclesiastical approbaticm of St.
A$honsus and his moral writii^js, moral theolocr
is now settled forever and, so to speak, CTTstaUised.
Hot does this approbation assure us that all mdividual
Questions have been solved correctly, and therefore
the discussion of certain moral questions remains
still open. The Apostolic See itself, or rather the
Sacred Penitentiary, when asked, "Whether a pro-
feeaor of moral theology mav quietly follow and teach
the opinions which St. AJphonsua Liguori teaches
in his Moral Theolof^", gave indeed an affirmative
answer on 5 July, 1831: it added, however, "but those
must not be reprehended who defend oth« opinions
supported by the authority of reliable doctors".
He who would conclude the guarantee of absolute
correctness from the ecclefflastical approbation of
the saint's works, would make the Church contradict
herself. St. Thomas of Aquin was at least as solemnly
approved for the whole field of theology as St. Alphon-
sus for moral theology. Yet, e. g, on the subject 'i>f
the efficacy of grace, which enters deeply into morals,
St. Thomas and St. Alphonsus defend whollv contra-
dictory opinions; both cannot be right, ana so may
be freely discussed. The same may be said of other

rJons. In our own days, Antonio Ballerini
e all made a simple use of this freedom of dis-
cuasion, first in his annotations to Gury's "Compen-
dium", thai in hn "(^us theologicum morale",
viiidi was recast and edited after his deattt by Doni-

nic Pafanieri. It rendered an eminoit Miviee to
casuistry; for though we cannot f4>prove ot every-
thing, yet the authority of various opinions has been
careiully sifted and fully discussed.

Lately, attempts have oeen made to develop moral
theolray aloi^ other tinea. The reformers assert
that we casuistical method has chcdced evm^ other
and that it must give place to a more scientifio,
systematic treatment. It is evident that a merely
casuistical treatment does not come up to the demanda
of moral theology, and as a matter of fact, during
the last decades, the qieculative element was more
and more insisted on even in works chiefly casuistic.
Whether the one or the other element should prevail,
must be determined according to the proximate aim
which the work intends to satisfy. If thwe is ques-
tion (rf a purely scientifio explanation of moral
theology which does not intend to exceed tiie limits
of speculation, thm the casuistical element is without
doubt speculative, systematic discussion of the
questions belonging to moral theology; casuistiy
then serves only to illustrate the theoretical explana-
tions. But if there is question of a manual which is
intended for the practical needs of a pastor and
confessor and for their education, then the solid,
scientific portion of general moral-theolo^cal que»-
tions must be supplemented by an extensive caBui»<

Sr. Nav, when time and leisure are wanting to
d ample theoretical explanations to an extensive
casuistical drill, we should not criticise him who
would under these circumstances insist on the latter
at the enwnse of the framer; it is the more necessary
in actual practice.

8I.4TEH. A Short Bitlorv of Moral Theoton (New York, 1009);
BouQciuxtH. TheolagUi Moni/u JundamejUalia. (3rd ed.. Bnifn,
1903), Jntrodtiotio; Boccmboni, ComtMniar. d» natura thtclogia
mcfraii* (Rome, 1910); Schuitt, Zur C«*eh. dt* ProbabilUmvt
(1904); MAtnsACR, DU kalhot. Moral, ihre Methodm, Orundtatu
wtd AufgiAm <.2aA ed. 1902); METErauo, Die kath. Moral aU
Anifaldaett (Snd ed. 1902); KRAwimKi, BtTtUilunff dat Stw
diun dtr luUh. Moralihtoloeit (2nd. ed. 1898); Oebiox, Die wia-
—ntehafOitlu Moral und t'Ar* L«hrmeiM (1910).

Ana. LuncuHL.

in. Pastorai. TBBOLOGT,Uie science of the care irf
souls. This article will ^ve the definition of pastoral
theology, its relations to other theological sciences,
its history, sources, and contents.

A. Dennition. — Pastoral theology is a branch of
practical theolo^; it is essentially a practical science.
All branches of tneology, whether theoretical or prao-
ticalr purpose in one way or another to make prieets
"the ministers of Christ, and the dispensers of the
mysteries of God" (I Cor., iv, 1). Pastoral theology
presupposes other various branches \ accepts the apolo-
getic, dogmatic, exegetic, moral, juridical, ascetical,
Qturpcal, and other conclusions reached by the eccle-
siastical student, and scientifically applies theae vari-
ous conclusions to the priestly mmistiy.

6. Relation to Other TkeologUal Sciences.-^
Donatio Uieoloe)^ establidieB the Chiin^ as the de-
positorr ot revealed truth and syatCTaatises the do-
posit of faith which Christ entrusted to His Church to
hand down to all generations; pastoral theology
teaches the priest his part in this work of Cathouo
and Christian tradition of revealed truth. Moral
theology explains the laws of God and of the Church,
the means of grace and hindrances thereto; pastoral
theology teaches the practical bearing of these lam,
means, and hindrances upon the diuly life of the

Eiest, atone and in touch with his people. Canon
w collects, correlates, and co-ordinates the laws of
the Church; pastoral theology apptiea those laws to
the care of souls. In brief, pastoral theology begina
where the other theological sciences leave off; takes
the results of them all and makes these results effect-
ive for the salvation of souls through the ministry of
the priest hood eetabtished by Christ.
0. Hittory.^Tht name pastoral thecAjfor is new;

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tbe aoieoce is as old as the Church itself, as ^tpeara
- from the ma&ifold instructions giveu by Jesus to His
Apostles for the care of souls (Matt., 6 soq.; Mark,
Ti, Ssqq.; Luke, ix, 3 sqq.: x,48qq.;xxii,35)andfrom
the pBstoral letters of St. Paul uio the very detailed
instructions they give to Timothr and to Titus in
re^ai^ to the sacred ministry. Tne writings of the
Fathers, from the Apostolic age onward, are replete
with pastoral instruction. St. Ignatius of Antioch
{a. d. 110 (Hamack)] scatters such advice throughout
nis epistles — see, for instance, "Ad Mi^esios" (Har-
nack^s ed., "Patres apostolici", II, 29). The lettersof
St. Cyprian (a. d. 248) sre, many of them, eitherwhoUy
or in part written about the care of souls (cf. P. L., lY.
194 sg.) — "Qui AnUstites in eeclesia eluendi?"
"Qualis esse debeat vita sacndotum? " etc Bis " De
lapsis" (P. L., IV, 477) is a classic among pastoral
instructions. St. Gregory Naziansen (a. n. 389), ex-
plaining his fli^t to Pontus, tells his idtas of the
pastor of souls m "Oratio apologetica de fuga sua", a
work sometimes called "De sacerdotio" (P. G.,

regere'

Other landmarks in the history <tf pastoral theokwy
are St. Ambrose, "De officiis ministrwiun'' (P. L.,
XVI, 25): St. John Chrysostom, "De sacerdotio"
(P. G., XLVIII, 623); St. Isidore of SevUle, "De in-
Btitutione clericorum", " De institutiooibus monacho-
nim", "De regulis clericorum" (P. L., LXXXIV, 25,
45. 77); St. Bernard's letters and treatises "De c<m-
aklaratione", "De moribm episMnorum "De con-
versione ad dericos" (P. L., CLXXXII, 727, 809,
833). The great classic among patristic works on the
care of souls is "Reguls pastoratis liber" (P. h.,
LXXVII, 13), written by St. Gregory the Great
(c. A. D. 590) to John, Bishop of Ravenna.

During the Middle A^es, there was not vet a sepa-
rated and systematized science of pastoral theol<^.
Scholasticism did not recognize this science apart frcHU
other branches ctf theology. Dogma and moral were
so taught as to include Uie application of their conclu-
sions to Uie care of Boujs. Still, even then writings of
the great Doctors of the Church were at times purely
rastoral; such were the "Opuscula", 17-20, of St.
Thomas Aquinas; St. Bonaventure's "De sex alis

Antcndnus,

Bishop <^ ITorence. At the same time, writers on
mystical theology (see V. Mtsticai. Tbboloot) have
often entered into the domain pastoral theology.
Not until the period of the Countar-Ref<Hiuation did
the science of pastoral theolc^ take its present sys-
tematized form. During the latter half of the fif-
teenth century, in certain places, pastoral duties were
very much ne^eoted. By the dawn oi the nxteenth
oentuiv the care of souls was to many priests and not
a few bishops a lost or a nevra^^cquued art, with the
result that the laity were ready to throw off what was
deemed to be a useless clerical yoke. In such places, a
reform of the clergy was sorely needed. The Council
of Trent set itself to bring about a true reformation of
the priesthood. Catholic bishops and theologians fol-
lowed the lead of the council. The result was the
treataient of the oare of souls as a aeamco by itadf .
During the foUowiiu: centuries ai true rrform and of
battle with false reform, the most scientific treatises
on pastoral duties and ngfats were written. John U
Avila, Louis of Granada, Peter de Soto, Claude le Jay
(Institutiones practicffi), Neumayr (Vir apostoUcus),
Possevin (Praxis cur© pastoralis), Segneri, Olier,
Molina, Toledo (De instructione sacerdotum),
Cardinal Cajetan, St. Charles Borromeo (Instructio
M8tonun)| the wtnks of St. Francis de Sales, of
Rodriguei, dl Scaramelli — such are a few of the
~ *~ime treatises that did much to lUumiiie and to

strengthen the pastors of the Couttter-RefwmatiMi.
In 1759 St. Alphonsus Liguori issued his neat pas-
toral theology, "Homo ^xistolicuB". He epito-
mised the ccmclusions reached by himin his "Moral
Theoloor", ^^lUed these concIusioiM maotioaily to
the wmk oi hearing oonfessiMis, and added four u>-
pendices bearing m)eoifioslly upon such pastoral duties
as the direction of souls, the assistance of the dying,
the examination ol those to be ordained priests, ana
the duties oi confessors and pastms in regaxd to their
own as well as their Bock's sanc'ification. This work,
together with the legidation of Benedict XIV in the
matter of diocesan synods, gave a great impetus to the
sdenoe tj£ pastoral theology.

D. <Sowves.— Traditimi and Hdy Writ, in so far
as they portray the ideal Priest, Teaeher, and Pastor,
and hand down to us His ideas for the care of souls,
are the first sources of pastoral theology. As evidence
of Tradition the decrees of general councils are of the
lughest moment. Next come pontifical Constitu-
tions— BuUb, Briefs, and Motu Proprios; decrees of
Roman Congregations: the works cited in Sanford-
Drum, op. cit. below ; the various sources do^natic
and moral theology and of oanon law, in so far as
th«y bear direct^ or indirectly upon the care of
souls. Decrees cn various provincial councils and
diocesan synods together with pastoral letters of
archbishops and bishops are also among the sources
whence pastoral theology draws. For ecclesiastical
I^pslation, one must follow the "Acta ApostoUcn
Sedis", a monthly ofiSciid bulletin published m Rome;
the promulgation o£ laws, authentic interpretations,
decisions and rescripts of the Roman Curia is now
effected ijm facto by publication in this periodical.
For past decisions, the various decreia aiUhentica of
different Roman Congregations must be consulted.
Such are "Thesaurus resolutionum Sacne Congrcga-
tionis ConciUi", from 1718 CRome); "Decreta authen-
tica Connegationis Sacrorum Rituum" (Rome,
1898); "Decreta authentica sacne C<nigr«ationis
Indulgentiis Sacrisque Reliquiis PneposiUe , from
1668 to 1882 (Ratisbon); Pallottini, '^Collectio om-
nium decretorum Sacrai Congregationis Concilii"
(Rome, 1868); Bixarri, "Collectanea Sacrss Congre-
gationis Episooporum et R^ularium" (Rome, 1863,
1885); "Collectanea Sacra Congr^ationis de Pro-
piwaiida Fide" (Rome, 1893, 1907). A handy
refmace work in this matter is Ferraris, "Prompta

usefuL For the pastoral care of rehgious communi-
ties, necessary infwmation may be obtained from
Vermeersch, ''De religiosis et missionariis supple-
menta et monumesita*\^together with the periodical
supplements thereto (Bruges, 1904 — ), and Dom
Basticai, "Cosutitution de XIII sur les instituta
i Tceux amplsB et leor relations aveo les autorit^s
diooSsaines" (Bruges), a work which has been trans-
lated into l^gliab by Lanslots (Pustet, New York).
Periodicals giving current direction and information
as to the care <» souls are: "Acta SanctK Sedis"
(Rome, from 1865), now discontinued; "Analecta
juris pontificii" (Rome, 1833; Paris, 1869), replaced

1889); "The Irish Ecclesiastical Record" (Dublin,
1865); "Nouvelle Revue Thfok^que" (Toumai,
1869);"TheologischpraktischeQuartal8chrift" (Lina);
"Zeitscbrift fOr katholiBche Theologie" (Innsbnu^

1877).

E. Conimtt. — From the days when St. Gregory
the Great wrote his classic "R^uhe pastoralis liber",
the duties that make for the care ot souls have been ■
ocmveniently divided into those <A the teacho*, of
the ministar of tb» sacred nQrsUries, and of the

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■hepberd; pastoral theology puipoees to imi>art
the knowleidge of these dutiee and oi the treatise
known as "pastoral medicine", the medical knowl-
edge requisite for the propv care of souls.

Under the head d teacher are treated the duiTf <^
teaching, the qualities of the teacher, his training,
the models of teaching left us by the Fathers ana
Doctors of the Church^ as well as by^ distinguished
preachers and catechists, and the occasions and forma
ot instruction suited for the various needs of Uie
faithful, young and okL literate and illiterate. Tiie
Council oi Trent, in we fifth session, lays down a
twofold duty (rf the teacher, to preach on Sundays
and festivab, and to give catechetical instruction to
children and to others who have need of such instruc-
tion. Benedict XIV, in his Constitution, "Etsi
Minime", calls special attention to this latter most
important duty. Pius X, in his Encyclical on the
teaching of Christian doctrine (15 April, 1905),
insists <mceagain on the paramount need of catechetical
instniotion. AH parish priests, and all others to
whran the care of souls is committed, must teach the
catechism to their youi^ girls and boys for the
ffiiace cf one hour on all Sundays and holy days (rf
tne year without exception, and must explam to
them what one is bound to believe and practise in
order to be saved. These children shall, at stated
times during Kich year, be prepared by more extended
instruction for the' Sacraments of Penance and Con-
firmation. Duly instruction during Lent, and even
after Etater, wifi make the young children of both
sexes ready iot their first Holy Communion. More-
over, an hour every Sunday and holy day shall be
devoted to the catechetical instruction of adults. This
lesson in catediism, in plain and simple lanj^uage,
is to be gii^en over and above the Sunday homily on
the Gospel and the chiMren's instruction m Christian
doctrine.

As minister of the sacred mysterfes, the priest
must not only know the nature of the sacraments,
80 far as dogmatic theolf^ explains it, besides what
is needed for their valid ^ministration, as taught in
moral theology, but must also possess such additional .
knowledge as may eerve him in his spiritual minis-
trations—€or instaooe, in attending the sick, in ad-
visisf; what is lawful or unlawful in critical o^rations,
especudly in such as may affect childbirth; in direct-
ing others, when necessary, how to baptize the unborn
child; in deciding whether to confer extreme unction
or other sacraments in cases of apparent death, etc.

Finally, as pastor, a variety of duties have to be
mastered, which keep growing and varying in number
constantly with the complicated conditions of modem
life, especially wherever there is a tendency to mass
people together in large cities, or wherever migraticm
to and fro causes frequent diange. This, perhaps,
is the main part of pastoral theoI<^. The organiza*
tion of parishes; the maintenance of a church and
odier institutions that grow up around it; the manage-
ment of pariah schools; the formation of societies
for men and women, young and old; the vast number
of social works into which a priest in a modem citjr is
^ost necessarily drawn— all these points furnish
material for instructirat, which, as the fruit <tf expe-
rience, can rarely be conveyed through books. Usu-
aJIy the priest acquires sufficient knowledge of all
these things from prudent directors as he goes through
his seminary course, or from his own experience
under a competent pastor; but gradually an extensive
literature on these subjects has accumulated during
the past half century, and it is the systematization of
such writings that constitutes pastoral theology.

The ohicf suthoritiea down to tho time of Sr. Alphonbdb, Hmu
apottotieuK (1 760) , have ftlraftdy been mentioned in the body of the
nrticle. Sinoe (17fiB) htm appeared the PaMorml ThtoUigiM ot
Goux>wrra-WiiDnuifK (Ratisbon. 1836); Ambbsobk (I860);
Staho (New Yoric, 1897); Schdub (Milwai^ee. 1906); Albisbti
(Rome, 1001-1904); Pon (Hontrriewi, 1»1»: Nboiutb, mL
Da Am, 7ir ApMltiinu (SohaffliMisen. 1868); BauxBa, ad.

LnuxTTBL, lftheimftmaiu$ (TMban Im Br., 1905) ; Znnnn,
iiMawMe pmOta tetdinam (VkHma, 1840); Fbaminbtti,
Paritk FHtM ibmmalt BnUM, /Vsxit ean/PMorw (Faeoso,
1890): BausBB, S%e Pariah Pnttt on Dviu (New York); Khieo,
Wi—na^aft dw St^MUOuna (Freiburg im Br.). For qneetiou
on paatorU medieine, the foUowins works are of om: Eschbacb,
DitpMOitmM vlivtMogiec-UuotogiM (Rome, ISOl); Amtonclu,
D* eemtntti xmpoUnHa tt tttritiUUit rdale ad tuairimmium
(Bome, 1990): DcBBXTm-FKuuND. La tMetooit moral* tt lea
(0MIKW MMdMote (Paria, 1884); Sdbblbd, La maraU 4km aei
mfporUa^lmwUdieimAUrhaQitiM (Pari*. 1B97): FcuUtnl Mtdir
em» by drdas (Freiburg im Ebr,, 1878): vox Oltebs (FMburg
im Br., 1881): CAraLLHamr (Aachen, 1901) ; O'Mallet and
Walsh (New York, 1997); SaifraD-DBtm (Neir York, 1905):
AmomLU (Hona, 1909).

Wai;t£B Drum.

Abcetical Tecboloot. — Ascetics, as a branch of
theoli^, may be briefly defined as the scientific expo-
sition 01 Christian asceticism. Asceticism (dtf-n^ti,
i*KfXw)j taken in its literal signification, means a
polishme, a smoothing or refining. The Greeks used
the word to designate the exercises of the athletes,
wherry the powers dormant in the body were de-
veloped and the body itself was trained to its full
natural beauty. The end for which these gymnastic
exercises were tmdertaken was the laurel-wreath be-
stowed on the victor in the public games. Now the
life of the Christian is, as Christ assures us, a struggle
for the kingdom of heaven (Matt., xij 12). To give
his readers an object-lesson of this spiritual battle and
moral endeavour, St. Paul, who had been trained in
the Greek fashion, uses the picture of the Greek pen-
tathlon (I Cor., ix, 24). The exercises to be assumed
in this combat t^d to develop and strengthen the
moral stamina, while their aim is Christian perfection
leading up to man's ultimate end, union with <3cod.
Human nature having been weakened by origina] sin
and ever inclining toward what is evil, this end cannot
be reached except at the price of overcoming, with
God's grace, many and senous obstacles. The moral
ateuggte them consists first of sW. in attacking and re-
movmg the olMtacles, that is the evil concupiscences
(concupiscence of the fledi, concupiscence of the eyes,
and pnde of life), which effects of original sin serve to
tiy and test man (Trid., Sess. V, De peccato originali).
This first duty is called by the Apostie Paul the putting
off of "the oU man" (Eph., iv, 22). The second
duty, in the words of the same Apostle, is to "put on
the new man" according to the image of God (Eph.,
iv, 24), The new man is Christ. It is our duty then
to strive to become like unto Christ, seeing that He is
"the way, and the truth, and the life" (John, xiv, 6),
but this endeavour is based on the supernatural ovAfS
and, therefore, cannot be accomplished without Di-
vine grace. Its foundation is laid in baptism,
whereby we are adopted as sons of God through the
impartmg of sanctifying grace. Thenceforth, it must
be pufected by the supernatural virtues, the gifts of
the Hol^ Ghost, ana actual grace. Since, then,
ascetics is the systematic treatise of the striving after
Christian perfection, it may be defined as the scientific
guide to the acquisition of Christian perfection, which
consists in expressiiig within ourselves, with the help
of Divine grace, the image of Christ, by practising the
Christian virtues, and applying the means given for
overcoming the obstacles. Let us subject the varioua
elements of this definition to a closer examination.

A. Nature of Christian Perfection.— 0) To began
with, we must reject the faue conception of the
Protestants who fancy that Christian perfection, as
understood by Cathohcs, is essentially nwative ascet-
icism (cf. Seboiv in Herzog-Hauck, "Realencyklo-
p&die fUr prot. Theolo^e", III, 138), and that the
correct notion of asceticism was dleK^vered by the
Reformers. There can be no doubt as to the Catholic
position, if we but hearken to the clear voices of St.
Thomas and St. Bonaventure. For these masters of
Catholic theology, who never tired of repeatii^ that
the ideal <A asceticism upheld by them was the ideal
of the CatboUc past, of the Fathers, of ^^a^ Himself,

3Qle

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onpbatically state that bodily asoeUeiflm has not ad
absolute, but only a relative, value. St. lliomaB
calls it a "means to an end", to be used with discre-
tion. St. Bonaventure si^ that bodily austerities
"prepare, foster, and preserve perfection" (ad per-
fec tionem prsparans et ipsam promovms et conser-
vans; "Apolog. paupenim", V, c. viii). In pnxtf of
his thesis, he shows that to put ao abedute value on
bodUy asceticism would leaatoManichsism. > He also
points to Christ, the ideal of Christian p^ection, who
was less aust«« in fasting than John the Baptist, and
to the founders of religious orders, who prescribed
fewer ascetic exercises for their communities than
they themselves practised (cf. J. Zahn, "VoUkom-
menheitsideal" in "Moralprobleme'V Freibui|^ 19H,

S. 126 sqti.). On the other hand, Catholics ao not
eny the miportance of ascetic practices for acquiring;
Christian perfection. Considering the actual condi-
tion of human nature, they declare these necessary for
the removal of obstacles and for the Uberation of
man's moral forces, thus claiming tor asceticism a
positive character. A like value is put upon those
exercises which restrain and ^de the powers of the
soul. Consequently, Cathohcs actually fulfil and
always have fulfilled what Hamack sets down as a
demand of the Gospel and what he preten<b to have
looked for in vain among Catholics; for they do "wage
battle against mammon, care, and seliishness, and
practise that charity which loves to serve and to sac-
rifice itself" (Harnack, "Essence of Christianity").
The Catholic ideal, then, is b^ no means oonfinra to
the negative elemmt of asceticism, but is M a posi-
tive nature.

(2) The essence of Christian perfection is love. St.
Hiomas (Opusc. de perfectione christ., c. ii) calls that
perfect which is comormable to its end (^uod allingit
ad finem ejus). Now, the end of man is God, and
what unites him, even on earth, most closely with
God is love (I Cor., vi, 17; I John, iv, 16). AU the
other virtues are subservient to love or are its natural
prerequisites, as faith and hope. Love seizes man's
whole soul (intellect, will), sanctifi^ it, and fuses new
life into it. Love lives in all things and all things live
in bve and through love. Love imparts to all
things the right measure and directs them all to the
last end. "Love is thus the principle of unity, no
toatter how diversified are the particular states, voca-
tions, and labours. There are many provinces, but
they constitute one realm. The organs are many, but
the organism is one" (Zabn, 1. c, p. 146). Love has,
therefore, rightly been called ' the bond of perfec-
tion" (Col., iii, 14) and the fulfilment of the law
(Rom., xiii, 8). That Christian perfection consists
in love has ever be^ the teaching of Catholic asceti-
eal writers. A few testimonies m^ suffice. Writine
to the Corinthians, Clement of Rome says (Ep. 1
Cor., xlix, 1): "It was love that made all the elect
perfect; without love nothing is acceptable to God"
»F iyd^v iTt>M6$iiiffv» rdwrei ol ^xXeirroI nd 0toO, Kxa.
dydrifi oMiw tAapurrAw irrtw tv (fey; Funk, "Patr.
apost.", p. 163). The "Epistle of Barnabas" inmsts
that the way of light is " the love of him who created
us" {Artmr-fyreit t6v « to(V«""«; Fuok, 1. c, p. 91), "a
love of our neighbour that does not even spare our
own life" (iyair^w tAf v\riffiop aov Mp tV ^x^'
«ou), and it affirms that perfection is nothing else than
"love and joy over the good works which testify to
justice" (iyi'Tif tOippoainti koX (tyoXXwiowt Ifr/ttw 6vau-
(xn/Mjt itoffTvpUL). St. Ignatius never wearies in his
lettrav of proposing faith as the light and love as
the way, love being the end and aim of faith ("Ad
Ephes.", ix, xiv; "AdPhilad.", ix; "AdSmym.", vi).
According to the "Didache", love of God and of one's
neighbour is the beginningof the "way of life" (c. i),
and in the "Epistle to Diognetus" active love is
called the fruit of belief in Christ. The "Pastor" of
^mas aeknoiriedeeB the same ideal iriwn he aeto

down "a life for God" (f^ t$ $^) as the sum-^otal of
human existence. To these Apostolic Fathers may
be added St. Ambrose (De fuga eaeculi, c. iv, 17; c. vi,
35-36) and St. Augustine, who regards perfect justice
as tantamount to perfect love. Both St. Thomas
and St. Bonaventure speak the same language, and
^eir authority is so orerpowering that the aseeticai
writers of all subsequent centimesnave faithfuUy fol-
lowed in their footsteps (cf. Lutz, "Die kirchl. Lehre
von den evang. Rftten", Paderbom, 1907, pp. 26-99).

However, thoiigh perfection is ewentially love, it is
not true that any degree of love is sufficient to consti-
tute moral perfection. The ethical perfection of the
Christian consists in the perfection of love, which re-
quires such a disposition " that we can act with speed
and ease even though many obstacles obstruct our
path" (Mutz, "Christl. Ascetik", 2nd ed., Paderbom,
1909); But this dispontion of the soul supposes that
the passions have been subdued; for it is the result a
laborious struggle, in which the moral virtues,
steeled by love, lorce back and quell the evil inclina-
tions and habits, supplanting them by good inclina-
tions and habits. Cmly then has it really become "a
man's second nature, as it were, to prove his love of
God at certain times and under certain circum-
stances, to practise virtue and, as far as human
nature may, to preserve his soul even from the
sUghtest taints" (Mutz, 1. c, p. 43) . Owing to the
weakness of human nature and the presence of the
evil concupiscence (fomes peeeaH: Trid., Sess. VI,
can. xxiii), a perfection that would exclude every de-
fect cannot be attained in this life without a special
privily (cf. Prov., xx, 9; Eccl., vii, 21; James, iii,
S). Lil newise, perfection, on this side of the grave, will
never reach such a degree that further growth is
impossible, as is clear from the mind of the Church
and the nature of our present existence (stcdus vur) ; in
other words, our perfection will always be relative.
As St. Bernard says: "An unflagging zeal for advanc-
ing and a continual struggle for perfection is tta^
perfection" (Indefessus profieiendi studium et iugb
conatus ad perfectionem, perfectio reputatur; "Ep.
ccliv ad Abbatem Guarinum"). Since perfection con-
sists in love, it is not the privilege of one particular
state, but may be, and has as a fact been, attained m
every state of life (cf. Perfection, Christian and
Reuoiods). Conseouently it would be wrong to
identify perfection with the so^ialled state of perfec-
tion and the observance of the evangelical counsels.
As St. Thomas rightly observes, there are perfect
men outside the refi^ous orders and imperfect
men within them (Summatheol., II-II, Q. dxxxiv, a.4).
True it is that the conditions for realizing the ideal of a
Christian life are, generally speaking, more favour-
able in the religious state than in the secular avoca-
tions. But not all are called to the religious life, nor
would all find in it their contentment (cf. CouNSBia,
Evangelical) . To sum up, the end is the same, the
means are different. This sufficiently answers Har-
nack's objection (Essence of Christianity) that Che
Church conuders the perfect imitation of Christ pos-
sible only for the monks, while she accounts the life of
a (^^hristian in the world as barely sufficient for the
attainment of the last end.

(3) The ideal, to which the Christian should con-
form and towards which he should strive with all his
powers both natural and supernatural, is Jesua
Oirist. His justice should be our justice. Our whole
life should be so penetrated by Christ that we beccme
Christians in the full sense of the word ("until Christ
be formed in you" ; Gal., iv, 19) . That Christ is the
supreme model and pattern of the Christian life is

f roved from Scripture, as e.g. from John, xiii, 15, and
Peter, ii, 21, where imitation of Christ is directly
recommended, and from John, viii, 12, where Christ is
called "the light of the world". Cf. also Rom., viu.
29, GaL, ii. ao, FhiL, iii, 8, and Heb., i, 3, when tbe

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Apoetle eoAcie the eauellent knowledge of JesuB Cbriflt,

for whom he has suffered the loss of all thingB, count-
ing them but as dung, that he may gain Chnat. Of
the numerous testimoniee of the Fathers we only
quote that of St. Augustine, who says: "Finis ergo
noeter perfectio nostra ease debet: perfectio nostra
Christua" (P. U, XXXVI, 628; of. also "In Esalm.'',
26, 2. in P. L.J XXXVI, 662). In Christ there is no
shadow, nothing onennded. His Divinity guarantees
the pant]r of the model; His humanity, by which He
became similar to us, makes the model attractive.
But this |}icture of Christ, unmarred by addition or
omission, is to be found only in the CathoUc Church
and, owing to her indriectibility, will always continue
there in its ideal «tate. For the same reason, tho
Church alone can give us the guarantee that the ideal
of the Quistian life will always ronain pure and un-
adulterated, and will not be idenUfied with <m» par-
tienlar state or with a subordinate virtue (cf. Zahn,
L e., p. 124). An unprejudiced examination proves
ibat the ideal (rf Catholic life has been preserved in all
its puri^ throu^ the centuries and tnat the Chtm;h
has never failed to correct the false touches with
which individuab mijcht have sought to disfigure its
umtained beauty. The individual features and the
fierii colours for outlining the living picture of Christ
are doived from the sources of Revelation and the
doctrioal decisions of the Church. Theee tell us
about the internal sanctity of Christ (John,!, 14;Col.,
ii, 9; Heb., i, 9; etc.) . His life overflowing with grace,
of whose fulness we have all received (Jolm, i, 16), His
Ufe of prayer (Mark, i, 21j 35; iii, 1; Luke, v, 16; vi,
12: ix, 18; etc.), His devotion to His heavenly Father
(Matt., TO, 26; John, iv, 34; v, 30; viii, 26, 29), His
mtercourse with men (Matt., ix, 10; cf. I CTor., ix^ 22),
His spirit of unselfishness and sacrifice, His patience
and meekness, and, finally, His asceticism asrevealed
in his fastings (Matt., iv, 2; vi, IS).

B. Dangers of the AtcetiaU Life. — The second
task of asoetieal theology is to point out the dangers
which may firustrate the atbunment oi Christian pw-
fection and to indicate the means by which they can
be avoided successfully. The first daneer to be
noticed is evil concupiscence. A second danger lies
in the allumnents of the visible creation, which
oeoupy man's heart to the exclusion of the hi^est
good: to the same class belong the entioemeots o! the
aniFui, corrupt world (I John, v, 19), that is, those
men who prtanulgate vicious and ungodly doctrines
and thereby dim or deny man's sublime destiny, or
who by perverting ethical concepts and by settti^ a
bad example give a false tendency to man's sensuality.
llunUy, ascetics acquaints us not only with the
mdBce of the devil, lest we should fall a prey to his •
cunning wiles, but also with his weakness, lest we
riHRildlose heart. Finally, not satined with indicat-
ing the general means to oe used for waging a victo-
rious combat, ascetics offers us particular remedies
for special temptatifms (cf. Muti, "Ascetik", 2nded.(
p. I(j7 sqq.).

C. M«jn» for Raduing th« Christian Ideal. —
(1) Pray^,aboveall,initsBtricternieaning,isameans
of attaining p^ection; q>eoial devotions approved
by tiie Church and the sacramental means of sanc-
tification have a special reference to the striving
siter perfection (frequent confession and commu-
nion). Ascetics proves the necessity of prayer (II
Cor., iii, 5) and teaches the mode of inaying with
Hiiritual profit; it justifies vooal prayers and teadies
the sxi of meditating according to the various methods
of St. Peter of Alcantara, of St. Ignatius, and other
saints, especially the "tree modi orandi" of St.
Ignatius. An important place is assigned to the
examination of conscience, and justly so, because
aacetioal Ufe wanee or waxes with its neglect or careful
iMfonnanoe. Without this resular practice, a
Oionpai^ purification of the sou and progress in

spiritual life are ont of the question. It centres the

searchlight of the interior vision on eveiy single
action: all sins, whether committed with full con-
sciousness or only half voluntarily, even the negli-
gences which, though not sinful, lessen the perfection
of the act, all are carefully scrutinized ipeccala.
offmaionu, riegUgeniug; cf. "Exercitia spintualia
<H St. Igpatius, ed. P. Roothaan, p. 3). Ascetics
distingtiisbes a twofold examination of conscience:
one geno^ (examen generate), the other special
(examen partindare), giving at the same time direc-
tions how both kinds may be made profitable by
means of certain practical and psvchological aids.
In the general examination we recall all the faults of
one day; in the particular, on the contrary, we focus
our attention on one moffB defect and mark its fre*
^uency, or (m one virtue to augment the number of
its acts.

Ascetics encourages visits to the Blessed Sacra^
ment {vieitaiio aanctiatimi), a practice meant espe-
cially to nourish and strengthen the divine virtues of
faith, hope, and charity. It also inculcates tlie vene-
ration of^tne saints, whose virtuous lives should spur
us on to imitation. It isplain that imitation cannot
mean an exact copying. What ascetics pr(qx)6e8 as the
most natural metlu)d of imitation is the removal or
at least the lessening of the contrast existing betweoft
'our own lives and the lives of the saints, the perfect-
ing, as far as is possible, of our virtues, with due
regard to our personal disposition and the surroimd-
ing circumstances of time and place. On the other
hand, the observation that some saints are more to
be aomired than imitated must not lead us into the
mistake of letting our works be weighted with the
ballast of human comfort and ease, so that we at last
look with suspicion on every heroic act, as tlu)ugh it
were something that transcended our own energy
and could not be reconciled with the present cir-
cumstances. Such a suspicion would be justified only
if the heroic act could not at all be made to har^
monise with the preceding development of our
interior life. Christian ascetics must not overlook
the Blessed Mother of God; tor she is, after Christ,
our most sublime ideal. No one has received grace
in such fubiees, no one has co-operated with grace so
faithfully as she. It is for this reason that the Church
praises her as the Mirror of Justice {speculum jusli-
tia). The mere thought of her transcendent purity
suffices to repel the uluring charms of sin and to
inspire pleasure in ^e wonderful lustre of virtue.

(2) delf-Draial is the second means which ascetics
teaches us (cf. Matt., xvi, 24-25). Without it the
combat between spirit and flesh, which are contrary
to each other (Rom., vii, 23; I Cor., ix, 27; Gal., v,
17), will not lead to tne victory of the spirit (Imitatb
Christi, 1, xxv). How far self-denial should extend
is clear from the actual condition of human nature
after the fall of Adam. The inclination to sin domi-
nates both the will and Uie lower appetites; not only
the intellect^ but also the outer and the inner senses
are made subservient to this evil propensity. Hence,
self-denial and self-control must extend to all these
faculties. Ascetics reduces self-denial to exterior
and interior mortification: exterior mortification is
the mortification of sensuality and the senses; interior
mortification consists in tne purification of the
faculties of the soul (memory, imagination, intellect,
will) and the mastoing ot the passions. However,
the tenn "mortificatioir* must not be taken to mean
the stunting of the "strong, full, healthy" ^hell} Ufe;
what it aims at is that the sensual passions do not
gain the upper hand over the will. It is precisely
through taming the passions by means of mortifica-
tion and self-denial that life and energy are strength-
ened and freed from cumbersome shackles. But
while the masters of asceticism recognize the necessity
of nuvtifioation and aelf-denial uid are far bun

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616

deemiag it "crimma] to ftseume vohmtary sufferinipB"
(Seeberg), they are just as far from advocatmg
the BO-<»Jled "non-sensual" tendency, which, looking
upon the body and its life as a necessaiy eviL proposes
to avert its noxious effects by wilful weakening or
even mutilation (cf. Schneider, "GAttlicbe AVeltord-
nung u. rd^onskiBe 8ittUdikeit"| Vaderhom, 1900,
p. 537). On the other hand. Catholics will never
b^rimd the gospel of "healthy seiiauality", which
is only a pretty-sounding titte, invented to cloak
unrestricted concupiscence.

Special attention is devoted to the mastering of
the passions, because it is with them above all else
that the moral combat must be waged most relent-
lessly. Scholastic philosophy enumerates the following
passions: love, hatred, desire, horror, sadness,
nc^, despair, boldness, fear, anger. Startiz^ from
the Christian idea that the passions (pattiona,
as understood by St. Thomas) are inherent in human
nature, ascetics affirms that they are neither sick-
nesses, as the Stoics, the Reformers, and Kant
maintain, nor yet harmless, as was asserted by the
Humanists ana Rousseau, who denied original sin.
On the contrary, it insists that in themselves they are
indifferrait, t^t th^ may be empkqred for mod and
for evil, and that th^ receive a moral character
only by the use to which the will puts them. It is ,
the putpose of ascetics to i>oint out the ways and '
means by which these passions can be tamed and
masto^, so that, instead of goading the will to sin,
they are rather turned into welcome aUies for the
accomplishment of good. And since the paaaonB
are inordinate in as far as they turn to illicit things
or exceed liie neeessaiy bounds in those things which
are lidt, ascetics teadies us how to render them
innocuous by averting or restraining them, or by
turning them to loftier purposes.

. (3) Labour, also, is subsCTvient to the striving after
pi^ection. Untiring labour runs counter to our
corrupt nature, which loves ease and comfort. Hence
labour, if well-ordered^ persistent, and purposeful,
implies self-denial. This is the reason why the Cath-
olic Church has always looked upon labour, both
manual and mental, as an ascetic means of no small
vahie (cf. Cassian, "De instit. coenob.", X, 24; St.
Benedict, Rule, xlviii, li; Basil, "Reg. fusius tract."
C-xxxvii, 1-3; "Reg. brevius tract.", c. Ixxii; Origen,
"Contra Celsum", I, 28). St. Basil is even of the
opinion that pie^ and avoidance of labour are
irreconcilable in the Christian ideal of life (cf. Maus-
bach, "Die Ethik des hi. Augustinus", 1909, p. 264).

(4) Suffering, too, is an integral ocmstituent of the
Christian ideal and pertains consequently to ascetics.
But its real value appears only when seen in the light
of faith, which teaches us that suffering makes us
like unto Christ, we being the members <n the mystic
body of which He is the head (I Peter, ii, 21), that
suffering is the channel of grace which heals (sanai),
preserves (oonMrml), and tests (pFotof). finally,
ascetics teaches us how to turn sunerings into ehan*
nels of heavenly grace.

(5) The Virtues are subjected to a thorou^ dl»>
cussion. As is proved in dogmatic theology, our
soul receives in justification supernatural Tiabita,
not only the three Divine, but also the moral virtues
(Trid., Sesa. VI,Deiuatit.,c.vi; Cat. Rom., p. 2, e. 2,
n. 51). These supernatural powers {tfirtuies mfuaaj
are joined to tiie natural faculties or the acquired
virtues (tnrfutei aogumte), constituting with than
one joindple of actiw. It is the task of ascetics
to show how the virtues, taking into account the
obstacles and means mentioned, can be reduced
to practice in the actual life of the Christian, so that
love be perfected and the image of Christ receive
perfect shape in us. Conformable to the Brief of
Leo Xin, "Testem benevolenti»" of 22 Jan..
ISBOf ascetics insists that the so^aDed "passive"

virtues (meekness, humiUty, obedience, patienee)
must never be set aside in favour <rf the "active"
virtues (devotion to duty, scientific activity, social
and civilizing labour) ; for this would be tantamount
to denying that Christ is the perpetual modd.
Rather, both kinds must be harmoniously j<xned in
ihe life of the Christian. True imitation of C^uist
is never a brake, nor doee it bhmt the initiative in
any field of human endeavour. On the oontfuy,
the practice of the passive virtues is a support and
aid to true activity. Besides, it not rarely happens
that the passive virtues reveal a bi^er degree of
moral energy than the active. The Brief itself
refers us to Matt., xxi, 29: Rom., viii, 29; Gal.,
24; Phil., ii, 8; Heb., xiii, 8 (cf. also Zahn, L e.,
166 sqq.).

D. ApplieaiieH tf the M«m» in the Three Degnee
of ChriBtian PerfeetUm. — Imitation of Christ is
the duty of all who strive after perfection.
It Ues in the very nature of this formation after the
image of Christ that the process is gradual and must
follow the laws of moral eneigy; for moral perfection
is the terminus of a laborious journey, toe crown
of a bard-fought battle. Ascetics divides those who
strive after perfection into three groups : the beginnecs,
the advanced, the perfect; and correepondinily sets
down three stages or ways of Christian penection:
the puraative way, the illuminative way, the unitive
way. The means stated above are applied with
more or less diversity according to the sta^ which
the Christian has reached. In the purgative way,
when the appetites and inordinate passions still
possess considerable stroigth, mortification and sdf-
denial are to be praetised more extensiv^. For
the seeds of the spiritual life will not sprout unless
the tares and thistles have first been weeded out.
In the illuminative way, when the mists of passim
have been lifted to a ^reat extent, meditation and
the practice of virtues m imitation of Christ are to
be insisted on. During the last stage, the unithre
way, the soul must be confirmed and perfected in
conformity with God's will ("And Ilive, nownot I;
but Christ liveth in me": Gal,, ii, 20). Can must,
however, be taken not to mistake these lAiee Btam
for wholly separate portions of the striving aner
virtue and perfection. Even in the second and the
third stages there occur at times violmt straggles,
while the joy of being united with God may some>
times be granted in the initial stue as an induoement
for further advance (cf. Muts, "Assetik," Skid ed.,
94 sq.).

E. RehtUm of A$cetict to Moral Theolotif and
Mysiicim. — All these disciplines are coneetned
with the Christian hfe and its last end in the next
world; but they differ, though not totalfy, in their
mode of treatment. AscetiuJ theology, which has
been separated from moral theok)^ and mysticina,
has for its subject-matter the strivu^ alter Christian
perfection; it uiows how Christian pmection may be
atttuned by earnestly exercising and sciiooling the
will, using the specified means both to avoid the
dangers and allurements of sin and to practise virtue
with greater intensity. Moral theology, on the other
hand, is the doctrine of the duties^ and in discussing
the virtues is satisfied with a scientific exposition.
Mysticism treats essentially of "union wiui God"
and of the extraordinary, so-called mystic prayer.
Thou^ also thoee phenomena which are accident*!
to m^ticism, such as ecstasy, vision, revelation, faJQ
withm its scope, yet they are by no means essratial
to the mystic life (cf . Zahn, "EinfQhnmg in diechrisU.
Mystik' , Paderbom, 1908). It is true that mysti*
cism includes also matter of ascetics, such as the
endeavour of purification, vocal prayer, ete.; but this
is done because these e«rcises are looked upon as
preparatory to the mystical life and must not dc dw-
earded evw in its h^[hest stage. Neverthelsai, the

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mystiMkl life fe not nMnly a fai|^ decree of tin »>

oetical Ufe, but differs from it essentially, Uie mystioal
life being a special grace panted to the Chrirtiao
without any immediate ment on bis part.

F. Historical Develojrment of Aaeeticiam. —
(1) Holy Writ abounds in i>ractical instructions for
the life of Christian perfection. Christ himself has
drawn ita outlines both as to ita negative and positive
requirements. His imitation is the supreme law
(John, viii, 12; xii, 26), charity the first otanmand-'
ment (Matt., xxii, 36-38; John, xv, 17): the ri^t
intention is tnat which imparts value to the ext«ior
works (Matt., v-vii), while self-denial and the
oaiTyinjE of the cross are the conditions for His dis-
eipleship (Matt., z, 38; xvi, 24; Mark, viii, 34; Luke,
ix, 23; xiv, 27). Both by His own example (Matt.,
iv, 2) and His exhortations (Matt., xvii, 20; Mark,
iz, 28) Qirist recommended fasting. He inculcated
stwriety, watchfulness, and prayer (Matt^xxiv, 42:
XXV, 13; zxvi, 41; Mark, xiii, 37; xiv, 37). He pointed
to poverty as a means of gaininB the kingdom of
heaven (Matt., vi, 19; xiii, 22; Luke, vi, 20; viii, 14;
xii, 33 ; etc.) and oounselled the rich youth to relinquish
everything and to follow Him (Matt., xix, 21). That
this was a counsel and not a strict etaxmuid, given
in view of the particular attachment ot the youth
to tlie things of this world, is shown by Uie very fact
Uiat the Master had twice said "keep the command-
mCTts", and that he recommended the renunciation
of all earthly goods only on the renewed inquiry
after tfa« means that lead toperfcction (cf. Lutz, I.e.,
against the IVotestants Th. Zahn, Bern, Weiss,
Lenmie, and others). Celibacy for Cod's sake was
praised by Quist as worthv oS a cpedal heavuily
reward (Matt., xix, 12). Yet mam^ ia not ocm-
demned, but me weeds, "All men take not this word,
but they to whom it is given", imply that it is the
wdinary state; celibat^ for God's sake being merely a
counsel. Indirectly, Christ also commended volim-
tary obedience as a means for attaining the most
intunate union with God (Matt., xviii, 4; xx^ 22, 26).
What Christ had outlined in his teachings the
Aportlee continued to devdop. It is en>ecially in
St. Paul that we find the two elements of Christian
asceticism brought out in well-defined terms: morti-
fication of inordinate desires as the negative element
(Rom., vi, 8, 13: II Cor., iv. 16; GaT, v, 24; Col,
III, 5), umon with God in all our thoughts, words,
and deeds (I Cor., x, 31 ; Gal., vi, 14; Col., iu, 3-17),
and active love of God and our neighbour (Rom.,
viii, 35; I Cor., xiii, 3) as the positive element.

(2) FaUien and Doeton of the Church.— With Bo\y
Writ as a basis, the Fathers and Doctors of the
Church explained particular features of the Christian
life in a more coherent and detailed manner. The
Apostolic Fathm called the love of God and man the
flun of Christian life, which, animating all virtues
with its vital rays, inspires contempt of the world,
beneficence, immaculate purity, and Belf-aacnfice.
The "Duiacbe" (q. v.), which was intended to serve
aa a manual for catechumenB, Hbaa deecribes the way
of life: "Firs^ Uiou shalt love God, who created
thee; seconcUy, thou shalt love thy neighbour as thy-
e^; whatever thou wisheat that it should not be
done to thee, do not to others." Followii^ probably
the "Didaohe", the so-caUed "Epistle of Bamabas'S
written at the end of the second century, represents
the Christian life under the figure of the two ways,
that of light and that of darkneea. Two Epistles,
whidi putixvt to oome from the pen of St. Cwment^
but were uobaUy written in the third century,
exalt the life of vir^pnity, if grounded on tJie love of
God and accompanied by the corresponding works,
as heavenly, divine, and angelic. We also mention
St. Ignatius of Antiooh, of whose letters St. Polycarp
mm that th^ contain "faith and patience and all
edification in the Lord", and the "Pastor" of Hermaa,

7 nOOIMV

who in the twelve oommandmenta inculcates simpUo-
ity, tnitikfuIneflB, chaatity, meekness, patimce, oon-
tinmoe, eonfidoioe in God, and perpetual struggle
against ooncupiscrace. With the third century
the works on Christian asceticism begin to show a
more scientific character. In the writings of Clement
of Alexandria and Gregory the Great ("Moral.",
XXXIU, c. xxvii; cf. also Cassian, "ColL", IX, XV)
there may be observed traces of the threefold degree
which was afterwards sy^matically developed by
DionyeiuB the Areopu^te. In his "Stoomata
Clement sets forth the mil beauty and grandeur of
"true philoeophy". It is particularly remarkable
that this authOT delineates, even in its details, what
is now known as ethical culture, and that he endeav-
ours to harmonize it with the example ^ven by Christ.
The life of the Christian is to be ruled in all things by
temperance. Following out this idea, he discusses
in a casuistic (<am food and drink, drees and love
of finoy, bodily exercises and social conduct. Beg^n-
nin^ with the fourtii century, a twofold line of thought
ia diBcanible in the works on Christian life : one specu-
lative, laving stress on the union of the soul with God,
the Absolute Truth and Goodness; the othear practical,
aiming fxincipally at instruction in the practice w
the Christian virtues. The speculative donent
prevailed in the mystical school, which owes its sys-
tematic development to Pseudo-Dionysius and which
reached its highest perfection in the fourteenth
century. The practical element was emphasized
in the ascetical school with St. Augustine as its chief
representative, in whoee footstepe followed Gr^niy
the Great and St. Bernard.

It may suffice to detail the iwincipal points on
which the writers prior to the medieval-echolaatie
period dwelt in th^ instructions. On prayer we
nave the works of Macarius the Egyptian (d. 385)
and of Tertullian (d. after 220), who suimlemented
his treatise on prayer in general by an explanation of
the Lord's Prayer. To these two must be added
Cyprian of Carthage (d, 258), who wrote "De ora^
tione dominica", and St. Chrysratom (d. 407).
Penance and the spirit of penance were treated by
Tertullian (De pcenitentui), Chr^sostom {"ue
OfHUpunctione cordis", "De poenitentia"), and Cyrfl
ai Jerusalem (d. 386) in nis second catechetical
instruction. That the life of Uie Christian is a waiw
fare is amply illustrated in St. Augustine's (d. 430)
"De agone christiano" uid in his "Confessions".
Chastity and virfpnity were treated by Methodius of
Olympus (d. 311) iu his "Convivium", a work in
which ten virgins, discussinfc virgjinity, demonstrate
the mcffal superiority of Chnstiamty over the ethical
tenets of pagan plulosophy. The same subject is
discussed by the following Fath^: (>prian (d. 258) ;
Gregory of Nyssa (d. 394) in his "De virginitate"-:
Ambroee (d. 397), the indefatigable eulogist and
champion of the vii^jnal life; Jerome in his " Adversus
Helvidium de virgmitate" and "Ad Eustachium";
Chrysostom (d. ^7) in bis "De virginitate", who,
though «rtoUing virginity as a heavenly life, yet
reoonunends it only as a counsel; Augustine in his
-works "De continentia", "De vii^mitate", " De bono
viduitatis".

On patience we have the works of Cyprian, August-
ine, and Tertullian's "De jHitientia , in whi(£ he
ap^ks of this virtue as an invalid might speak of
health to console himself. Chrysostom's "De jejunio
et eleemoeyna" discusses fasting. Almaziving and
good w(wks are encouraged in (>prian'fi " De opere et
eleono^raia" and in Ai^ustine's "De fide et operi-
bus". The value of labour is explained in " De opere
monachorum" by St. Augustine. Nor are treatises
on the different states of life wanting. Thus St.
Augustine's "De bono coniugali" treats of the mar-
ried8tate;his"DebcmoviauitatiB" of widowhood. A
frequent aid>ieet was the priesthood. Gregory of

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Naaiaiuus, in his "I^ fuga", treats the digoi^
and responaibUibr of the priesthood; Chryaostcnn^i
"De sacerdotio''^ «alt8 the sublimity of this state
with surpassiDg excellrace: St. Ambrose in hu "De
officiis", while speaking of the four cardinal virtues,
admonishes the clerics that their lives should be an
illustrious example; St. Jerome's "Epistola ad Nepo-
tianum" discusses the daneers to which priests are
exposed; finally, the "Regula pastoralis" of Gregory
the Great inculcates the prudence indispensable to
the pastor in his dealings with difftfent claases of
men. Of prime importance for the monastic Hfe was
the work *'De institutis coen<Aiorum" of Cassian.
But the standard work from the eighth to the thir-
teenth centiuy was the Rule of St. Benedict, which
found numerous commentators. Of the saint or
rather hia Rule St. Bernard says: "Ipse dux noster,
rpse magister et l^er noster eat" (Serm; in Nat. 8.
Bened., o. 2). Illustrations of the practice of Chris-
tian virtues in general were the "E:q>08itio in beatum
Job" of Gr^ory the Great and the "Collationes
Patrum" of Casuan, in which the various elements (rf
Christian perfection were discussed in the term at
dialogues.

(3) The Medieval-Scholastic Period.— The tran-
sition period up to the twelfth century exhibits
DO i^Kcially noteworthy advance in ascetical litera-
ture. To the endeavour to father and preserve the
teachings of tlie Fathers we owe Alcuin's "De virtu-
tibus et vitiis". But when in the twelfth century
speculative theology was celebrating its triumphs,
mystical and ascetical theology, too, showed a
h^thy activity. The results of the former could not
but benefit the latter by placing Christian morality on
a scientific basis and throwing ascetical theology itself
into a scientific form. The pioneers in this field were
St. Bernard fd. 1156) and Hugh and Richard of St.
Victor. St. Bernard, the greatest mystical theolo-
gian of the twelfth century, also holds a prominent
place among ascetical writers, so that Hamack calls
turn the "religious genius" of the twelfth century.
The basic idea of his works, especially prominent m
his treatise "De ^tia et Ubero arbitno , is that the
life of the Christian should be a copy of the life of
Jeaus. Like Clement of Alexandria, he, too, 1^
down precepts for the r^ulatton of the neeessiues of
life, as food and dress, and for the implanting of
God's love in man's heart, which would sanctify all
things ("Apologia", "De pnecepto et dispensa^
tione"). Many are the steps by which love ascends
till it reaches its perfection in the love for God's sake.
Among his ascetical writings are: "Liber de diligendo
Deo", "Tractatus de gr^bus hmnilitatifl et bu-
pnbin", "De moribus et officio epucoponim",
'Senno de conversione ad cl^cos", "liber de con-
sideratione".

Frequent allusions to St. Augustine and Greg(»y
the Great are scattered through the pages of Hugh of
St. Victor (d. 1141), so much so that he earned the
distinction of being called a second Augustine by his
contemporaries. He was undoubtedly the first to
give to ascetical theology a more or less definite,
scientific character. The ever-recurring thane of his
works is love. But what he aimed at above all in his
writings was to lay bare the paydiological bearings of
mystical and ascetic^ theology. Noteworthy lure his
works: "De vanitate mundi"i "De laude caritatis",
"De modo orandi", "De meditatione". His pupil,
Richard of St. Victor (d. 1173), though more ingeni-
ous and systematic, is yet less intent upon practical
utility, except in his work "De exterminatione mali
et promotione boni". The great theologians fA tiie
thirteentii century, who were no leas famous for their
scholastic "Sumnue" than for their ascetical and
mystical writings, brought ascetical teachhw to its
pmection and gave it the definite shape it nas re-
tained aa a staiuard for all future ttoes. No other

eppdi furnishes sudi oonvnacing uoof that tne
scieaice and true piety are ratiier a luip than a hin-
drance to each other. Albert the Great, the iUuatri-
ous teacher of the great Thomas, who was the first to
join Aristoteleao phfloeophy with theology and to
make philosophy the handmaid oi theology, was at
the same time the author (d excellent woiks on
ascetics and mjrsticism, as, e. g., "De adhm<endo
Deo", the ripest fruit of his mystic genius, and
"Paradisus aninuB", which was conceivea along more
practical lines. To St. Thomas we owe the ascetic
work "De pnfeetione vite ^iritualis"; in it he ex-
plains the essence of Christian perfection so hicidly
that his line of aivumentation may even in our days
serve as a model. His other works, too, contam
ample matoia! d value both for ascetics nod tor
m\^icism.

The Seraphic Doctor, St. BonaventureL*' treats (rf
mystic theoloQ'", to use the wosds of Leo JCIH, "in a
manner so pmed that the unanimous opinion ai the
meet expert theologians regards him as the prince of
n^stic theologians". Of his au^entie works the fol-
lowing deserve to be mentioned: "De perfectione
evan^lica", "Collationes de septem donis Spiritus
sancti", "Incendium amoris", "Soliloquium", "Lig-
num vitffl", "De pneparatione ad Missam", "Apw-
<%ia pauperum". From the pen of David of Augs-
burg, a contemporary of these great masters, we have
an ascetic instruction for novices in his book entitled
"De exterioris et intaioria hominis compositione".
He leads the reader along the three well-known ways,
purgative, illuminative, and unitive, purposing to
make the reader a spiritual man. By severely Saei~
phning the faculties of the soul and subordinating the
nesh to the n)irit, man must restore the original
order, so that he may not only do what is good, l»it
likewise do it with ease. There remains to be men-
tioned the "Summa de vitiis et virtutibus" of Per-
aldus (d. c. 1270). The fourteenth century is chai^
acterized throu^out by its mystical tendencies.
Among the works which thia period produced, Henry
SuBo's "Booklet of Eternal Wisdom'' deserves special
mention on account of its highly practical value.
Pre-eminent in the fifteenth century were Gerson,
Dioi^us the Carthusian, and the author the
"Imitation of Christ". Relinquishing the ideals of
the mystic writers of the fourteenth century, Gerstm
attached himself again to the ^reat scholastic writer^
thus avoiding the vagaries which had become alsxm-
ingly frequent among the mystics. Hia "Considera^
tiones de theologia mystica" shows that he belongs
to the practical school of asceticism. Dionysius the
Carthusian is esteemed as a hi^y gifted teacher <Mr
the spiritual life. Both mysticism proper^ so eidled
and practical asceticism owevaluable works tohispoi.
To the latter category belot^r "De remediia tenta-
tionum", "De via purgativa , "De oratione", "De
gaudio spirituali et pace interna", "De quatuor
novissimis".

The "Imitatio Christi", which appeared in the
middle of the fifteenth century, deserves special at-
tention on account of its lasting influence. "It is &
classic in its ascetical unction aira perfect in its arti»-
tic Btvle" (Hamm, "Die Schfinh^t der kath. Moral",
Mumch-Gladbach, 1911, p. 74). In four books it
treats of the interior spiritual life in imitation Jesus
Qirist. It pictures the struggle which man must
wage a^inst his inordinate paseions and perverse
inclinations, the indulgence oi^ which sullies his con-
science and robs him of God's grace; "Vanity of vani-
ties and all is vanity, except to love God and serve
Him fdone" (Vanitas vamtatum et omnia vanitaa
prteter amare Deum et ilU soli servire: I, 1). It
advises mortification and setf-denial as the most effi-
cacious weapons in this stnus^. It teaches roan to
eetablidi God's kingdom in Im soul by the practice
ftf virtues aooording to the exami^^ Jeeua Christ.

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It finallT leadfl 1dm to onion with Cbrist by exdting
love for witm as well as by pointing out the frailty of aU
creatures: "It is necessary to leave the beloved thii^
for the beloved, because Jesus wishes to be loved
above all thin^ (Oportet ditectum propter dilectum
relinquere, quia Jesus vult solus super omnia amari:
II, xvii). The thoughts of the "Imitation" an
thrown into epigrams so fu^te that they are within
the menteJ emqi of all. Though the botk bein.}m
that the authw was well vened not onfymSdidastie
philosophy and theology, but also in the secrets of the
mysticalufe, yet this ^t never obtrudes itself on the
reader, nor does it obscure the meaning c£ the con-
tents, lliere are a numba* of quotations from tbe
neat doctors Ai^pistine, Bernard, Bonaventure, and
Thomas, from Anstotle, Ovid, and Sweca; yet Uiese
do not mar the imiweesion that the whole work is the
spontaneoos outburst (rf an intoiaefy glowing soul.
It has crftm been said Uiat the teadbingB of tbe
"Imitation" are "unworldty" and show liwe appre-
ciation For sciMiee. But, to judge the work aright, one
must take into consideration the peculiar circum-
stances of the time. Scholasticism had entered on a
period of decUne and had lost itself in intricate subtle-
ties; mysticism had gone astray; all classes had been
more or leas infected with the spirit iA licaitiousiKSS.
It is condi^onB Ute theae Uiat giye ua the 1^9^ to inter-
pret phrases such aa the following: "I would rather
feel compunction than know how to define it"
(Opto mi^ps sen tire compunctionrai <iuam scire t^m
• dennitionem) or "This is the h^est wisdom:
through contempt of the world to strive for the Icing-
dom of heaven" (Ista est summa sapieotia: per eon-
temptum mundi tendere ad regna coelestia).

(4) Modem Times. — During the dxteoith century
St. Teresa and St. Ignatius of Lcnrola stand out mon
IMominently owing to tiie wide4elt influenoe whicli
they exerted upon the reli^n of thrar contemporaries,
an influence that is still at work tiirough their writings.
The writing of St. Teresa arouse our admiration by
Uie mmpUcity, clearness, and prednon of her judg-
ment. Her letters ^ow her to be an enemy of every-
thing that smacks of eccentricity or singuhuitv, sham
piety or indiscreet seal. One <h her pnncipai worics,
the "Way to VedecAioa", though written [wimarily
tot nuns, also contains ^^poeite instructions tor those
who live in the world. While teachii^ the yny to
oont«npUtion, she ^et inaista that not all are called
to it sad that there is greater security in the practice
of humility, mortification, and the other virtues.
Her masteipieoe is the "Castle of the Soul", in
which she expounds her theory of mysticism under
Ute met^ihor ot a "castle" with many ehambeta.
"Hie soul reeplendoit with the beauty oS the diamond
or cental is the caade; the varioua chambers are
the various d^preea through which the soul must
pass before she can dwell in perfect union with God.
Scattered throi^hout the work are man v hints of
inestimable value for asceticism as amilied in every-
day life. This fact is undoubtedly due to the weU-
founded conviction of the saint that .even in extraor-
dinary states the ordinary means must not be set
aside altogether ao that illuaona may be guarded
against (a. J. Zahn, "Introduction to Mystunam",
p. 213).

In his "Exercttia spuituaha" St. Ignatius has left
to posterity not only a grand literary monument of
the science of the soiu, but also a method unparaUeled
in its practical eflicacv of strengthening the will*
power. The booklet has appeared in numberlees
editions and rerisiims and, "despite its modest
guiae, is in reality a oompiete system oi asceticism"
(Meachler). The four weeks of the Exercises ao*
quaint the exercitant with the three degnea of the
Riiritual life. The first week ia taken up with
cWiaing the soul f nwa ain and fnm Ita Inordinate
attachment to creaturaa. The aeeood and third

wadta lead the exerdtant along the illuminative my.
The portrait of Qirist, the most lovable of all men,
is outlined before his eyes, so that he can contemplate
in tbe humanity the reflex of Divine light amd the
8uin«me model of all virtues. The meditations <A
the fourth week, the subject ol which are the resur-
rection etc., lead to union with God and teach the
sold to rejoice in the glory of the Lord. It is true,
there are many rules and regulations, the sequence
is moat logical the arrangement of toe meditatiima
follows the laws oi psychology; yet these exwcises do
no violence to the free will, but are meant to strengthen
the faculties of the soul. They do not, as has
oftm been asserted, make the exercitant a powerl^
insbimiait in the hands of the confeesOT, nor are they
a mystic Sight to heaven, accomplished by means oi
a compulsion which intrads a rapid advance in per-
fection by a mechanical ivoceas (Zdeklo', "Die
Tugendlehre dea Christentuma", Gfltenloh, 1904,
p. 335). Their marked intellectualism, so frequently
objected to, in no wa^ constitutes a hindrance to
mysticism(Mesch]CT, " JeeuitenafiKese u.deutscheMys-
tik" in "Stimmen aus MariapLaach", 1012). On the
oontnuy, they make man's moral will truly free by
removii^ tbe hindrances, while, by cleansing the heart
and by aocustoming the mind to meditative in«;^er,
Uuy are an exoellent preparation for tbe mystical
life. Louis of Granada, O. P. (d. 1588), also belongs
to this period. His work "La guia de pecadoree^*
may justly be styled a book foU of consolation for
the erring. His "El memorial de la vida cristiana"
contains instructions which take the soul from the
very banning and lead her to the highest perfection.
Louis of Blois (Bk)sius), O. 8. B. (d. 1566), is of a
mind kindred to St. Bernard. His "Monile qurit-
uale" ia tiie beat known of his numoous worics.
Thomas (rf Jeaua (d. 1S82) wrote the "Fasaon of
Christ" and "De oratione dominica".

A great number of ascetical writers sprang up duiv
ing the seventeenth century. Among them St. Francis
de Sales stands out most prominently. According
to Linsemann, the publication of his "Philothea"
was an event (d hutorical importance. To make

Eiety attractive and to adapt it to all classes whether
ving in Court oirdeSf in tiie worid, or in a monaatery.
thia waa hia aim and m thia he aucceeded. Of a mild
and sweet temperament, he never lost ai^ht of the
hfli>its and particular circumstancee of the mdividual.
Thoi^ imwavering in his ascetical principles, he
yet possessed an admirable facility for adapting th^
without constraint or rigidity. In the practice of
mortification he recommends modwation and a(hq>ta-
tion to one's state of Ufe and to personal circum-
stances. Lore <A God and of man: tois he puts down
aa the motive power of all actions. The apirit oi
St. Francis penrades the whole of modem ascetidam,
and erv«i to^lay hia "Philothea" is one of the most
widdy read books on asceticism. "Theotimus".
another work of his, treats in the first six chapters of
the love of God, the rest being devoted to mystical
{vayer. His letters, too, are very instructive.
Attention may be called to the new edition of hia
wtHrks ((Euvns, Annecy, 1891 sqq.). "II com-
battimoito qpirituale" of Scupoli (d. 1610) waa
spread very widdy and earaortly recommended by
Francis de Sales.

To the same period belong the following authors
and works. Bellarmine, S.J. (d. 1621): "Gemitus
columbte"; "De ascensionc mentis in Deum"; "De
arte bene rooriendi". Alphonsus Rodriguez, 8.J.
(d. 1616): "Exercicio de perfecciAn y virtudes cria-
tiaaaa" (3 vols., SeviHe, 1609). which has frequent^
been re-edited and translated into nearly all lan-
guages. John of Jesus-Mary, O.C.D. (d. 1615):
^*TeoUm& Mistica" (Naples, 1607), highly esteemed
by Be^mine and Fraoda de Sales. Atvares de
Ptm, BJ. (d. 1620): "De vita apirituaUjJnaque p«tw

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f«etione" (1608); "De extenuiiiAtkHie mali et pro-
motione boni" (1613); "De inquuitione pacis"
(1617), which was frequently re-edited. Gaudier,
SJ. (4. 1620): "De perfectione vita Bpiritualis"
(1619: new ed., 3 vols., Turin, 190^). La Puente,
SJ. (d. 1624): "Guiaeopintual" (ViOladoUd, 1609),
(xmtaining, aeo<»ding to his own statementf » Ma
Ktitome ^ the spiritual life both aetive and oontom-
piative (jvayw, meditation, trials, mOTtification,
praeUoe of virtue); "De la Perfeci»on del Cristiano
en todos sus eetados" (1612). Both works have
ever been highly esteemed by all ascetical men and
have been translsted into many languages. Lessius,
S.J. (d. 1623) : " De p^ectionibus moribusqjue
divinis". a work distinguished both for its scien-
tific and ascetical Bpaxit. Hkibxiiaa lancieius, SJ.
(d. 1638), past-master in the spiritual life, whose
sainthr personality is reflected in his writings (new
ed., Craoow, 1889 sqq.): "De exteriore corporis
compositione"; "De quatuor viis perveniendi ad
perfectionem": "De humanarum paBsionum domi-
nio"j "De meaiis ad virtutem"; "De cauats et reme-
diis in oratione". Greatly valued is his book of
meditations: " De piis erga Deum et ccelites affecli-
bus"; it has been translated into aeveral languages.
Sdiorrer, SJ.: "%nopsi8 theol. asoet." (Dillingen,
1662; rare edition). Godinez, SJ.: "Pr^Uitica de
la teoloca mystica" (La Puebla de los Angeles,
1681), d whidi we have a Latin editkm together
with a conunoitary de la Reguera, S J. (Bone,
1740).

Surin, SJ. (d. 1665), wrote his important "Cat6-
chisme spirituel" at a time when he was subject to
interior trials (cf. Zahn, "Mystik", p. 441). The
book appeared in many editions and translatk»s,
but was placed on the Index. The edition of Fr.
Fellon, SJ. (1730), and the latest edition of Fr.
Bouix (Paris, 1882) jnobably do not fall under this
inohibitifHi, beeauBe in them the errore have been
corrected. After Surin's death appeared: "Les
fondements de la vie spirituelle" (Paris, 1667);
"Lettree roirituelles" (ib., 1696): "Dialogues emrit-
ueb" (ib., 1704). Qaapar Dru^cfci, SJ. (d. 1662).
is the authw m a ctmsiderable number d aooMioal
wwks both in Polish and in Latin, many of which
were translated into other languages. There are two
complete editions of his works: one published at
InRolstadt (1732) in two folios, the other at Kahsi
and Posen (1681-91). Among his numerous works
are: "Lapis lydius boni spiritus"; "Considerationes
de Boliditate vera virtut»"; "De si^limitate per*
fectionis": "De tnevissima ad perfeoticmem via":
"Vota leligiosa". The "Mystica theokMda Divi
Thorns" of Thomas a Vollgomera, O.P. (d. 1666),
published at Barcelona (1662 and 1672) and at Turin
(1890), is almost exclusively made up of ouotations
from St. Thomas and is a rich Htorehouse of ascetical
material. From the pen of Cardinal Bona, O. Cist,
(d. 1674), we have: "Principia et documents vitee
christians" (Rome, 1673) and "Manuduetio ad
ooelum" (Rome, 1672 and 1678), both of which works,
runarkable (or their simplicity and maotical utility,
were frequratly re-edited; the still valuidile "De
sacrificio Missse " ; " De dtseretione siiirituum " ;
"Horok^um asceticum". Comi)lete editions of his
works appeared at Antw^, Turin, Venice. Moro-
tius, O. CHst., in bis "Cursus viUe spirituaUs" (Rome,
1674; new ed., Ratisbon, 1891), follows closely the
lead of St. Thomas. The "Summa thet^ogice
mystics" (new ed., 3 vols., Freiburg, 1874) is vhe
b^ and most widely read work of Huhp of tbsUaaBed
Trinity (d. 1671), the philosoplwr among the mvetio
writers. He wrote in the q>irit oi Si. Thomas,
following definite scientific imnciplee and showing
their practical application in toe spiritual life.
Anthony of the Hofy Ghost, CCD. (d. 1674), was a
disoii^ (rf the auUior just nuned. Bis "DInctaium

mysticum" (new ed., Paris, 1904), dominated the

ralrit oi his master, was written for the instruction
m his pupils. He is also the author (A the following
works: ' Semioarium virtutum " (3rd ed., Augsburg
and WOrsburg, 1750), "Irriguum virtutum" (Wtir»-
burg, 1723), "Tractatus de ckricorum ac priecipue
■aeodotum et pastcmim dignitate", etc. (Vmckurg^

In the course of the ei^teenth century a number
ot valuable works on asceticism and mysticism were
published. To Neumeyo-, S.J. (d. 1765), we owe the

Idea theol. asoet.", a complete, scientifically ar-
ranged epitcnne. Rof^acci, S.J. (d. 1719), wrote "Del
uno necessario", an instruction in the love of God,
vdiich ranks hif^ in ascetical literature and was
trandated into sereral languages. Amcmg the best
literary produetimia, and wide^ read even to-day, is
ScarameUi'a (d. 1762) "Direttorio ascetico". The
author treats asceticism iq>art from mysticism. A
treatise on the virtues is contained in Dirkink, S.J.,
"Semita pofectionis" (new ed., Paderbom, 1890).
Designed along broad lines is the ' ' Trinum perf ectum "
(3rd ed., Augsbuig, 1728) by Michael of St. Catherine.
KatBenbaga*, O.F.M., wrote "Scientiasalutis" (new
ed., Paderbom, 1901). Schnun'a "Institutiones
theol. mystice" (2 vols.) combines asceUeism with
mysticism, tiiouf^ the author is at his best in the
ascetical parts. St. Alphonsus Liguori (d. 1787),
rii^tly called the "Apostolic Man ".published a lai^
number of ascetic works, full of heavenly unction and
tender-hearted piety. The best-known and most
important of them are: "Pratica di amar Geeti
Cnsto" (1768), "Visita al SS. Sacramento", perhuis
the most widely raid <tf all his ascetical works: "1m
vara sposa di Ges6 Cristo" (1760), a sure guide to per-
fection for countless souls.

Complete treatises on asceticism, published during
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, are the fol-
lowing: Grundkdtter, "Anleitung zur christl. VoU-
k<xnmenheit" (Ratisbcm, 1896). Leick, C.SS.R.,
"Schule der christl. Vollkommenheit" (Ratisbon,
1886), insmred by the writings of St. Alphonsus
laguori. Weiss, O.P.. "I^itoaophie der christl. Volt-
kmunenheit" (voL v <rf his "Apolt^e": Freiburg,
1898). The author is extraordinarily well read, ai^
his conception of the spiritual life is unusually deep.
Ribet, "L'aso^tique chr^tienne" (Paris, 1888). Tis-
•ot, "La vie int^rieure". Saudreau, "Les degr6s
de la vie spuituelle" (Angers, 1896 and 1897), a
work full of unction. His other works, "Les faita
eztraordinaires de la vie spirituelle" (1908) and "La
vie d'union k DIeu" (1909), belong to mystieiBn
propetliy so caUed. Foulain, S.J., "La grAce d'orai-
•on'', tnou^ of a mystic character, yet treats of the
ordinary method of ymyer. Saudroui and Poula^
are reliable throu^out and their works are among the
best productions in this branch. Rousset, O.P.,
*'Dircotorium asoeticum" (Freiburg, 1893). Mey-
nard, O.F., " Traits de la vie int6rieure" (Paris, 1899),
based on St. Thomas. Meyer, S.J., " Firat Lessons in
the Science of the Saints" (^d ed., St. Ixniis, 1903),
translated into several languages. 'Fiumm X. Muti,
"Die christliche Aszetik" (2nd ed., Paderbom, 1900).
Joseph Zahn, "Einf(Uuung in die ohristlidie Mystik*'
(Paderbom, 1908), important also for asoetidsm.
Berthier, " De la perfection chr^tienne et de la per-
fection religieuse d'aprte S. Thomas et S. FnmQois de
Sales" (2 vols., Paris, 1901). A. Devine, "Manual of
Ascetical Theokior" (London). Ryan, "Grouiul-
of Quistian Ferfectim" (London). Budianan,
"Perfect Love of God" (London).

An exhaustive list of Catholic aaoetical writers is
even in Mime, "Encyd. thtologique", XXVI;
''Diet. d'aBo6&ne", II, 1467.

Non-Catholic authors: Otto Zdckler, "Die Tugend-
lehre dee Christcntums, geschichtUoi daivestellt"
(OfMerdoh, 1904). W. Hennann, "Dtt VoAdir cUa

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Christen mit Gott" (6th ed., Stuttnrt, 1906), and
"Die sittUchen Weisimgen Jesu" (QAttmgen. 1907).
K&hlei, "Verk^ mit Christo in seiner Beaeutui^
for das eig;ene Leben" (Leipiig, 1904), Peabodv,
"JesuB Christ and the Christian Character". A.
Ritschl, "ChristUohe VoUktHnmenheit" (G«ttingen,
1902). Sheldon, "In his Steps— What Would Jesut
do7", widely read in TgngiMMf

Fbans X. Mots.

Mtstical T^soloot. — Mystical theology is the
science which treats ctf acta and experiences or states
of the soul which cannot be produced by human
effort or industry even with the ordinary aid <tf
Divine grace. It oomprises amoog its subjects aD
«ttraon£nary ftmns of prayer, the higher forms of
contemplation in all their varieties or gradations,
private revelaticois, visions, and the union gronii^
out these between God and the aoul, known as the
mystical union. As the science oi all that is extraor-
dinary in the relations between the Divinity and the
human spirit, mystical theology is the oon^tlement
of ascetiud, which treats at Christian perfection and

its acquisition by the practice of virtue, particulariy
fav the obsNvance of the counsels. The oontents
of mystical theol<^ are doctrinal as well as experi-
mental, as it not only records the experiences of souls
mysticaUy favoured, but also lays down rules for
their guidance, which are based on the authority of
the Soipturee, on the teachings of the Fathers of
the Church, and on the explanations of theok^;iaii0.
many of them ouinent aa nmtica. Its rates aiui
precepts are usually framed for the qwdal use of
those who have occasion to direct souls in the ways
of mysticism, so as to preserve them from error while
faciUtating their advancement. It must ther^ore
take note of the erroneous systems of ^yer, like
Quietism (q. v.) or Semiquietism, and of the self-
illusion or deception of souk that mistake the powers
of darkness for those of light or the promiitm^ of
their own selfHBeddng for Divine oommunicatioDS.
It is this part <d tibie scienoe that naoeeritates inquiry
into various phases <rf oocultism, diabolism, etc.,
into which writers like GOixes have n>ne so extensively.
Mj^ical theology has a nomenclature all its own,
seeking to express acts or states that are for the most
part purely spiritual in terms denoting analogous
expenences in the material order. Usually it does
not form part oS the ordinary class-room studies,
but is imparted 1^ spiritual mastras in their personal
direction of soiib, or inculcated, as in aminariea and
novitiates, by ipecial conferences and courses of
^iritu^ reading. Preliminary to the study td mysti-
cal theology is a knowledge of the four ordinary
forms of prayer: vocal, mental, affective, and the
prayer of simpUcity (see Pratir). The last two,
notably the prayer of aimpUcity, border on the
mystical. Prayer is often called aictive or acquired
contemplation to distinguish it from passive or
higher contemplation, in which mystical union really
consists.

Mystical theology begins by reviewing the various
descriptions of extraordinary contemplation, con-
tained in the works of mystics and of writers on mysti-
cal subjects, and the divisions which help to describe
its various phases, indicating chiefly whether it
consists of an enluj^ent or devation ot knowledfe,
or of abscHrption m the Divine vision, or, agam,
whetiier the dierubic, i. e., intellectual, or seraphic,
i. e., affective, element predominates. The objects
<a contemplation are set forth: God, His Attributes,
the Incarnation, and all the Sacred Mysteries of the
Life of Christ; His presence in Uie Sucharist; the
supernatural order; every creature of God in the
natmul order, animate or inanimate, particularly
the Bkflsed Virgin, the angels, the saints, Providence,
die Church. £d analyung the oauaea U coDtemplar

II mOUMIT

tMML wbMA may b« called its psychology next comes
up for 0(»8iderati(Hi, in so far as it necessitates the
ordinary or exceptional use of any human faculty,
of the senses oi the body, or of the powers of the
soul. On God's part, grace must be considered as a
(Hrindple, or cause, ca contemplation, the special or
unusual graces (gratia datm) as well as ordinary graces,
ihe virtues, theological as well as moral, the -gifts
of the Holy Spirit. The closing chapter in this {>art
of the science dwells on the fruits of contemplation,
especially the elevation of spirit, joy, charity, zeal;
on the influences that may contribute to its duration,
mtemiption, or cessation. Here some theologians
treat in detail of the preliminary or preparatory
dispositions for contemplation, of natural or moral
aptitude, solitude, prayer, mtntification or self-
denial, corporal and spiritual, as a means of soul-
purification; these topics, however, belong more
jMoperly to the domain of ascetical theolt^.

What strictly comes within the province of mystical
theology is the study of the processes of active and
passive purifioation through which a soul must pass
to reach the mystical union. Although the active
processes are also treated to scnne extent in ascetical
theology, they require special study inasmuch as they
lead to contemplation. They comprise: purity of
conscience, or avosion even to the slightest sin:
purity ot heart, the heart being taken as the ry^mbol
^ the affections, which to be pure must be free of
attaohments to anjrthing that does not lead to God:
purity of the spirit, 1. e. ot the imagination and
memory; and purity <tf action. It is to these pro-
oeases that the welf-known term "night" is applied
by St. John of the Cross, unce they imply three
things which are as ni^t to the soul in so far as they
are beyond or contruy to its own lights, viz., the
privation of pleasure, faith as substituted for human
knowledge, imd God as incomprehensible, or darkness,
to the unaided soul. Passive purifications are the
trials encountered by souls in preparation for con-
templation, known as desolation, or dryness, tasd
weariness. As they proceed sometimes from God
and sometimes may be produced by the Spirit,
rules for the discernment of spirits are set down to
enable directors to determine their source and to
apply proper means of relief, eroecially should it
happen that the action of the £!vil One tends to
possession or obsession.

These passive purifications affect the soul when
every other object of contemplation is withdrawn
frcnn it, except its own sins, defects, frailties, whidi
are revealed to it in all their enormity. They put
the soul in the "obscure night", as St. John of the
Cross calls it, or in the "great desolation", to use
the phrase of Father Baker. In this state the soul
experiences many trials and temptations, even to
inndeUty and despair, all of which are expressed in
the peculiar terminolon^ of writers on mystical
theolc^, as well as the^uita dmved from rensting
them. Chief among these fruits is the purification
of love, until the soiu is so inflamed with love of God,
that it feels as if wounded and languishes with the
desire to love Him still more intensely. The first
difficulty mystical writers encounter in their treatises
on contemplation is the pn^)er terminology for its
degrees, or the classification of the experiences of the
soul as it advances in the mystical union with God
effected by this extraordinary form of prayer. Bibet
in "La Mjvtique Divine" has a chapter (x) on this
subject, and the present writer treats it m chapter
xxix of his "Grace of Interior Prayer" (tr.of the sixth
edition). Scaramelli follows this order: the prayer
of recollection; the prayer of spiritual silence; the
lotiyer of quiet; the mebriation of love| the spiritual
sleep; the anguish of love; the mystical union
love, and its degrees from simple to perfect union and
spiritual marriage. In this unim the soul experiences

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various spiritual impreesionfi, whi<^ mysticial writers
try to describe in the terminologv used to describe
sense impressions, as if the soul could see, hear,
touch, or enjoy the savour or odour of the Divinity.
Ecstatic union with God is a further d^ree of prayer.
This and the state of rapture require cueful obeerva-
tion to be sure that the Evil One has dq share in
them. Here again mystical writers treat at length
the deceits, snares, and other arts praotised by the
Evil One to lead souls astray in the quest for the
m)[stical union. Finally, contemplation leads to a
union so intimate and so strong that it can be ex-
pressed only by the tains ' spiritual marriage"
(see Mabriage, Mystical). The article on con-
templation (q. v.) describes the characteristics <rf
the mystical union effected by contemplation. No
treatise of mystical theolog;^ is complete without
chapters on miracles, prophecies, revelations, viaioiH,
all of which have been treated under their re^)ectJve
headings.

As for the history or development of mvstic^m,
it is as difficult to record as a cistory of tbe expe-
riences of the human soul. The most that can be
done is to follow its literature, mindful that the most
extraordinary mystical ejroeriences defy exTHWSBion
in human speecn, and that God, the Author of
mystical states, acts upon souls when and as He wills,
BO that there can be no question of what we could
consider a l(^cal or chronological development of
mysticism as a science. Still, it is possible to review
what mystical writers have said at certain periods,
and especially what St. Teresa did to treat for the
first time mystical phenomena as a science. Before
ber^ mystics were concemed principally with ecstasies,
visions, and revelations; she was tne first to attempt
a scientific analysis of uie process of mystical union
brought about by contemplation. As the contribu-
tion to the science and history of mystical theology
by each of the writers in the following list has been
sufficiently noted in the articles on them, it will
suffice here to mention Uie titles of some of their
characteristic works.

Famous Mystics Prior to the Nineteenth Cmtttry.
— St. Gregory I the Great (b. at Rome, c. 540;
d. there, 604): "Commentaries on Job"; this
book is called the Ethics of St. Gregory. The writ-
ings of Dionysius the Pseudo-Areopagite did not
reach the West until about 824, when they were sent
to Louis the Pious by Michael the Stammerer, Em-
peror of Constantinople: "Opera". Hugh of St.
Victor, canon regular at Paris (b. in Saxony, 1096:
d. at Paris, 1141): passim. St. Bernard, Abbot of

dael^ 1&81): "Opera omnia", Latin tr. by the Car-
thusian SuriUB (CoIcMpic^ 1692). Franpois-Louis Blo-
nuB(de^i8),Beneaictme Abbot of Lieesies (b. near
litee, 1506; d. at Lieadee, 1566): "Opera" (Ingol-
Btadt, 1631).

St. Teresa (b. at Avila, 1515; d. at Aba de Tonnes,
1682): "Opera" (Salamanca, 1588). St. John
of the Cross, founder of the Discaloed CarmeliteB
(b. at Hontiveros, 1542; d. at Ubeda, 1591) : "Opera"
(Seville, 1702). Venerable Luis de Lapuente (b. at
Valladolid, 1564; d. there, 1624): "L&e of Father
Baltasdr Alvarez", confessor of St. Teresa (Madrid,
1615); "Spiritual Guide" (Valladc^d, 1609); "Life
of Marina de Escobar" (2 vols., Madrid, 1665-73).
St. Francis de Sales, Bishop of Geneva (b. at Thorena,
near Annec^, 1567; d. at Lyons, 1622): "Treatise
on the Love of God" (Lyons, 1616). Alvares de
Fas, S. J. (b. at Toledo. 1560; d. at Potoei, 1620):
"De inquidtione pacis" in "Operh", III (Lyonk
1647). Philip of the Blessed Trinity, General of
the Discaloed Carmelites (b. at Mahmcdne, near
Avignon, 1603; d. at Naples, 1671); "Summa theolo-
giffi mystica" (Lyons, 1656). Jean-Joseph Surin
(a. v.). Vraersjble Marie de I'lncamation (b- at
TWs. 1699; d. at Quebec, 1672): "Life and Letters",
publimed by her son Dom Claude Martin, O. S. B.
(Paris, 1677). Bossuet called her the "To^ of
the New World". Bossuet, Bishop of Meaux (b. at
Dijon, 1627; d. at Paris, 1704): "Instruction sur
les 6tat8 d'oraieon" (Paris, 1697). Joseph of the
Holy Ghost, Definitor General of the Discaloed
CIJarTDelites (d. 1639): "Cursus theologite mystico-
scholasticte" (6 vols., Seville, 1710-40). Emmanuel
de la Reguna, S. J. (b. at AguillU* del Campo, 1668: d.
at Rome, 1747) : "Praxis theologis mystics" (2 vols.,
Rome, 1740-46), a development of the mystical
theology of Wading (Father (jrodines). Scaramelli,
S. J. (b. at Rome, 1687; d. at Macerata, 1752):
"Direttorio mistico" (Venice, 1754). As a descrip-
tion, this is the best treatise of the eighteenth century
despite its too complicated classification; Voes has

Subfished a compendium of it, entitled "Directorium
lysticum" (Louviun, 1857). Schram, O. S. B.
(b. at Bamberg, 1722; d. at Bains, 1797): "Institu-
tiones theologite mystica" (Augsburg, 1777), chiefly
an abridgment of la Reguera. More complete lists
(176 names) will be found in Poutam. "Graces d'Ora-
ison" (7th ed., Paris, 1911); tr., ''The Graces of
Interior Prayer" (London, 1910); and in Underbill,
"Mypl fpfarri fNew York, 19121.

^/■ntmATTX, L< m/meiUna iiHt mrrseillndt dimo»iaau»
CPKiit: WUI): yii'fST. Did. 4t nviffguf ihrUknnt nparis, 1868):
Mannd Diiolopv nl^'i<|UC (Puix, 1^97); VaixoOR-
rcT.HA, MysfUa T/iialoa-a Dxii Thoma {"Curin. l&Ql); Bakbk,

Clairvaux (b. near Dijon, 1090; d. at Clairvaux, nt-ha, stiiitua Thfoiaa'n itiii Thomtx {"Cufin. issi); Bakbk,
1153): "On the Canticle of Canticles". Richard V/''' ^™ «
of St. Victor, canon regular at Paris (d. at Paris, S1Sr^^^^''b^\^t^r.^^^^
1173): De contemplatione". St. Bonaventure,
Minister General of the Friars Minor (b. at Bagnorea,
1221; d. at Lyons, 1274): "Journey of the Soul
towards God". The "Seven Roads of Eternity",
which has somethnes been attributed to him, is the
work of a Friar Minor, Rudolph of Bibrach, of the
fourteenth century. St. Gertrude, a Benedictine
(b. at Eisleben, 1256; d. at Helfta, Saxony, 1302):
Revelations. Blessed Angela of Foligno (b. at
Foligno, 1248; d. there, 1309): "Life and Revela-
tions" in "Acta SS.", I, January, 186-234: this
work is one of the masterpieces of mysticism. Tauler,
a Dominican (b. at Strasbuig, c. 1300; d. there,
1361):. "Sermons" (Leipzig, 1498). Blessed Henry
Suso, a Dominican (b. at Constance, c. 1295; df.
at Uhn, 1366): "Exemplar" (Augsburg, 1482).
"The Book of the Nine Rocks" is not by him but
by a merchant of Strasburg, the somewhat unortho-
dox Rulman Merswin. St. Bridget of Sweden (b.
c. 1303; d. at Rome, 1373): "Revelations" (Nurem-
berg, 1500). Blessed Ruysbroeck, sumamed the
Admirable (b. at Ruysbroeck, 1293; d. at Qroenen.

Et»ai tUT le myatiriame ajrfnitiJi/ «i JlJertdtrtr Q ^ JT/Z ndct«
(pAria, IQOO): iDBif^ ShcdM il'hUlfire et dt pfbth ^l-'m* dit mytti-
dime. Lea grmdi iRurliqura rAT/Jimn {Fsjis, Dbnitlb,
J^oM cn^Uirhe Leben- GJumrn/eae onj der druirehen Styttiktrn dtr
/J. JrtftrAnniicrtj ^G™. I DrMMB, A Manun\ ^ ilyitiatl

H-ondun, moi: Gf^RREP. Dit ChtMidu MiMik (Ratiaboa.
IH?^^2); Pdiret, Thtoiogix Mvttira vita OMnmit (Paris, 1702);
HlBET, IJt jtfifWiq'iJe Divine {P&rui, 187fl>r ttttU, L'Ateftiqm^
CKtSittMt (PHJa, 18SS):8Airt)RR4TP, i*" vnion iDint (Pftris,
IBOO); Imk. L'ibU minti^ (Vnnff, 100^): I-fJaiU nbit-

ordinaint de la ne tpiniu^ {Vaiie. IWSj; Ilfw, tr. Cakm,
Thr r>fg'pe.t fif Wfl Sjiirii'ml Liff Itnnilon. 1H071; Idkh, tr.
Kmihi, 7'*' Wa}/ thai Leadx to fioii ILanlon. I^IOlj Thobold,
A n Eivsi/ ifi Aid ■of tht BfUrr ApprKaatum of CoIMm MattiatWk

(London, 1908).

Atto. PouiiAxir.

Theonas, Bishop of Alexandria from about 283 to
301 (EusebiuB, "Chronicle", Ann. Abr. 2299, St. Je-
rome's version). In his time Achillas, who had been
appointed presbyter at Alexandria, at \he same tim«
with Pierius, became celebrated (Eiierf)., "ffist. eocl.",
in, xxxii). The celebrated letter of Thenua to Lu-
damiB, ohambertain to DioolelSan, which has often

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been quoted as givm^ Bucb a lifelike d«seri|rtioB of
the poeitkm of a Chnatian in the imperial Court hat
been pronounced, first br Batiffoi and then by Har>
naok, to be a forgery. Their verdict is endorsed by
Bardenhewer. It was fint puUished fran what pur-
ported to be a trauBcaipt made by Jtoftme Vienier, by
DacheriuB in his "Spioilegium". Theonaa is eom*
memorated in the R<»Qaa Martyrology on 27 August.
St. Athaaasius in his apolocir to Constantinua qpeaki
of a church dedicated by his predecessor. St. Alex-
ander, to Theonas. The same church is alluded to in
the "Acta of 83. Pachomius and Theodorus".

For iita BpulU to Ludaniu ko: BxTmoL, BiilMwt Cntifiu
(1886). 155-60; Haknack, Dtr gtfiUtehU SrUf dm BitAofy
Thtonat in Texte u. Unttrtuehunoen, IX {Ldpiig, 1903). Hi, new
series, Eoclish tr. of epistl« fn Cusxr, Ant^-Ifieen* Fathen: Th«
WritifQ* oj MtUtodiut tte. For s niuiibn of f&buknu itoriM told
far medieval Arabic wiitsrs (Sitxbo*, Emrcsitift, etc) ee*
ItaMAuooT, Hitt. Patnarch; Atemnd., 50 8«. ; Acta SS., IV^Aogiut,

F. J. Baocuos.

Theophanee, Saint, chronicler, b. at Constanti-
nople, about 758; d. m Samotbracia, probably 12
March, 817, on which day he is commemorated in
the Greek menologies and in the Roman Martyrolory.
He was the son of Isaac, impnial governor of the
islands of the White Sea, and of Theodora, of whose
family nothing is known. After the early death of his
parents he came to the Court of Constantine Copro-
nimus. He was married at the of twe^e, but in-
duced his wife to lead a life of virginity, and in 790,
after the death of his father-in-law, they separated
with mutual consent to embrace the religious state,
she choosing a convent on an island near Constanti-
nople, while he entered the monastery called Fofy-
ofaromusinthedtstrictofSi^anonearCyzicus. Later
he bvtlt a monastery on his own lands on the island
Calonvmus (now Calomio). After six years he re-
tumea to Sigriano, founded an abbey known bv the
name "of the great acre", and governed it as abbot.
As such he was present at the second General Council
of Nictea, 787, and signed its decrees in defence of the
sacred images. When the Emperor Leo the Arme-
nian again bc^an his iconodastie warfare he ordered
Theopbanes to be brought to Constantinople and
tried m vain to induce him to condemn what had been
sanctioned by the council. Theophanes was cast into
prison and for two rears suffered cruel treatment; he
was then banishea to Samotbracia, where, over^
whelmed with afflictions, he lived only seventeen
days and wrought many mrracles after death.

At the tugent request of his friend George Syncellus
(d. 810), Ilieophanes tmdertook the contmuation
of his chronicle, during the years 810-15 (P. G.,
CVIII, 65). He' treatwl of the time from the year
284-813, and made use of material already prepared by
Syncellus, probably also the extracts from the works
of Socrat^, Sozomenus, and Theodoret, made by
Theodore Lector, and the city chronicle of Constanti-
nople. The work consists of two parte, the first giv-
ing the history, arran^ according to years, the other
ocmtaining efaroqological tables, full of inaeeurades
aiul ther^ore of little value. It seems that Theo-
phanes had only prepared the tables, leaving vacant
spaces for the proper dates, but that these had been
mled out by some one else (Hurter, "Nomencl.", I,
Innsbruck, 1903, 735). The first part, though lack-
ing in historical precision and criticism, wbich could
scarcely be expected from a man of such ascetical dis-
position, greatly surpasses the majority of Byzantine
chronicles (Krumbaieher, "Gesoh. der bys. Litt.",
1897, 342). The ehionide was edited at Paris fu
1655 by Goar; afjain at Venice in 1729 with annota-
tions and corrections by Combefis. A Latin version
was made by Anastasius Bibliotheoarius, and both
were ably edited by de Boor (Leipzig, 18^).

Bbooeb, Ths Source* of TttMphoHM and (A« Synoe ehronicUri
in BwmmL BtMtrifi. XV (1908), 678; Stasur. HmUftnUncm,

ft dUfananibOB TIwoptwBM, fai JAjuAmmt SiUmmbtrieJtt, 1800,
JMSi S&JI. Muofa, 31t); CBBViUBE, Bioff-BM., II, 4487;
AnA BcB., ZXXI, IL

Funds Mbbbhman.

ThftcqribuM XaranwuB (KtpatuAt, potter), Aiob-
bishop of RoiBaDo in Calabria (1129-^2), a celebrated
homilBtio writer. His sermons, ninety-one of which
are known in manuscript, are mostly exegeticat, and
written in Greek, which was thm still extensively
spoken in Sicily and Southern Italy. They are re-
markable for their simplicity and naturalness, and are
masterpieces of oratorical skill and, for those times,
rare examples of lucid and unforced expositions of bib-
lical texts. They wen first edited, t<^ethar with a
Latin trandation and extensive aimotations, 1^ Fran-
cesco Soorso, SJ^fParis, 1644), which edition is re-
printed in P. G., CaXXU, 125-1078. A new edition
was prepared by Gregory Palamas (Jerusalem, 1860).
The fact that various other individuals also bore the
surname "Kerameua" has mven rise to a controversy
concerning the authorship of these homilies. Soorso,
their first editor, falsely supposed Theophanes Kera-
meuB to have Uved in the mntfa cent\iry and to have
hem Bi^op of Taormina in Sicily. Batiffol, in his
work entitled "L'abbaye de Rossaao" (Paris, 1891),
XXXI, 36-56, holds that part of the homilies were
written by the Calabriau monk John Philagathos, a
disciple of Abbot Bartbolomteus of Grottaforata
(d. c. 1060).

Lancia di Bbolo, Storta dtUa Chieaa tn Sieilia (Palermo, 1884),
459-93; Ideu, Soma Teofano Cerameo ricereht t vAiarimenti in
ArOiUio torito SMtiaao B., I (Palermo, 1877), 391-121. Con-
'^"■■C ft paAtlbln inteipolatioik in homily 59, son LANamM, la
SmnnUnatbrnaUdt rAMoffts, III (I89S), 122-7.

MiCttABL OtT.

Tbtophaiw V6nard, Blesskd (Jban-Th^ofhans
V:6nard), Frcoich missionary, b. at St-Loup, Di(^
oese of Poitiers. 1829; martyred m Tonkin, 2 Fd}.,
1861. He studied at the College of Dou^lapFcm-
taine, Montmorillon, Poitiers, and the Paris Semi*
nary fat Fcveign Missions which he entered as
ft sub-<leaoon. Ordained priest 6 June, 18^ hs
departed for the Far East, 19 Sept. After fifteen
months at Hoi^ Kods he arrived at his mission in
West Tonkin, \i^ere the Christians had recently
been tried by a series <A persecutions under Minh-
Menh, a monster <A cruelty. Shortly after Father
V^ard's arrival a new royal edict was issued gainst
Christians, and bishops and priests were obliged to
seek refuge in caves, dense woods, and elsewhere.
Father V6nard, lAoee constitution had aiwayn been
delicate, euffeied almost constantly, but continued
to exercise his ministry at night, and, more boldly,
in broad day. On 30 Nov., 1860, he was betrayed
and captured. Tried before a mandarin, he refused
to apoetatixe and was sentenced to be beheaded.
He remained a captive until 2 F^., and during this
interval lived m a cage, from which he wrote to hit
family beautiful and wmsoling letters, joyful in antici-
pation <d his erovn. His bishop, Retord, wrote
of lum at this time: "Though in chains, he is as gay
as a little bird".

On the way to mar^rdom Father V6nanl chanted
psalms and hymns. To his executioner, who coveted
his clothing and asked what he would give to be
killed promptly, he answoed: "The longer it lasts
the better it whI be". His head, after exposure at
tiie top of a pote, was secured by the Qiristians and
is now venerated in Tonkin. The body rests in the
crypt at the Misrioos Etrangdres, Paris. Other
jHVcious relics are in the hands of the martyr's
brother, Canon Eus^his V^nard, eat6 of Assais
Deux S^vree, France, who possesses, also, most oS
the martyr's letters, including those written from the
esffe. In a letter addressed to his father, ThSophaas
refers thus to his approatdiing sacrifice: "A slight
■alne-cnt will separate my head from my body, u3a
the spring flowo- ^ch the Master of the garden

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-IBIOmLAllTBBOPISTS 61

gatlien for Hia ijleasure. We are all flowen planted
on this earth, which God plucks In His own good time:
some a little soona*, some a little later . . . Father
and 8on may we meet in Paradise. L poor litUe
moth, go first. Adieu". The cause of bis beatifi-
eation was introduced at Rome in 1879, and he
was declared Blessed, 2 May, 1900. The beatifica-
tion ceremony brought a large delegatitm from France,
including the Bishop at Poitiers and the martyr's
only Burriving brother. Th£<^hane V^nard was
beatified in company with tikirfry-three otiwr martyrs,
most of whom wen natives of Tonkin, CodunOuna,
or China.

HxuBvP, Tktophtm* YinaH fLondoo); Waicb, A ifodm
Jforfyr; ThoufhU from Uadam Marttirt:Th» Fidd Ajar; Vit el
CoTTUpimdanet d« J. TMophane Vtnard (Poitien, 186S).; L4 Bit*-
JUutvux Thiaphant Vtnard (Puis. 1911): LtUr— CMtita du
Bimhnirtia Thiophatu Vhtard (Puis, 1908); C*nuno, Vn
Martin Madmu Odilui. 1010).

Jaubs AmHom Walsh.

Tha<q>hti»nthroplgU, or "Friends of CSod and
Mait", a deistic sect formed in France during the lat-
ter part of the French Revolution. The legal subsU-
tution of the ConrtitutioniU Church, the worship of
Reason, and the cult of the Supreme Being in place of
the Catholic Religion had practically resulted m athe-
ism and immorabty. With a view to oCTsetting thoee
results, some disciples of Rousseau and Robespierre
resorted to a new religion, wherein Rousseau's deism
and Robespienre's civic virtue (r^^ ds la vertu) would
be combined. Chemin wrote tfie " Manuel d^ thfo-

Ehilantbropes"^ and Hatty offered his institute for the
lind as a provisional place of meeting. When, later,
the Convention turned over to them the little chiurh
tit Sainte-Catherine, in Paris, the nascent sect won a
few foUowera and protectors; still its pro^reea was
slow till La R^velliere-L^peaux, an influential mem-
ber (rf the DirectoiT, took up its cause. But it was
only after the Revomtiim of 18 Fnictidor, T^ch left
him master of ijw situation, that his sympathy bore
fruit. Then was the apogee of Theophiluithrt^ism.
Blended in a yny with the cuUe dicadaire, it came into
pOBseesion of some ci the great churches of Paris like
Notre-Dame, SWwsquee du Haut-Pas. St-M6dard
etc. ; it took a conspicuous part in all the national cele-
brations, and from the meUiopolis passed into the
prorinoes, ehiefo the Department <d Yomie. The
movement, m qute of a stnmg tmioaitkn not on|y on
the Mot m Cmiolics but also from Constitatitmak
and FhikM(^erB, was gradualW^ taking hold of the
masses when the overthrow of the Diteotoiy brou^t
it to an abrupt end. The First Consul set his face
against the new religionists and they disbanded.
Sporadic attempts at reviving Theopnilapthropism
were made in the course of the nineteenth century.
In Isambert circulated a manifesto for the pur-
pose of grouinngtheF^chddBts, but nothing came
ctf it. £ 18S4 Henri Carie founded "L'alliance t»-
tigieuse universale" wi^ "Lalibre conscience" as its
organ, but both society and periodical disapi>eared
during the FVanoo-Prussian war. In 1882, Dioembre
and Valli^res, throui^ "La fraternity univenelle" and
many similar publieatk»B, sought directly to reoron-
ize tJbe sect, but the attempt failed and, in 1890, D6-
eembre confessed the impossibility of rousing public
interest. Came^rnck'B voluminous book, "Theiflme",
IMiblidied at Pans in 1900^ had a similar aim and meA a
similar fate.

Tbeopbilantim^ism is described in the "Mannd
du thfophilanthropisme", of which there were new
editions made as the work progressed. The govern-
ing body consisted of two committees, one called
"comity de direction morale", in chuge of thespirit-
nal, the other styled " comity dee administrateurs", in
diHge of the temporaltieB. No dogmatic creed waa
htqMBBd on the adnerents of the new reliaon. the two
' ^vlamental toiets, vis. the ezistenoe ofXloa and the

24 THIOVBIlAireBBOPISTC

inunmlality of the soul, being purely sentimental be-
befs {croyanc^s de genUmerU), deemed neoessa^ for t^
Reservation of society and the welfare of individuals.
The moral teaching, considered as by far the fmnc^>al
feature of the movemmt, held a middle position be-
tween the severity of Stoicism and the laxity of Epi-
cureanism. Its basic iwinciple was: good is all that
tends to preserve and perfect man ; evifis all that tends
to destroy or impair mm. It is in the li^t of that
axiom and not of the Christian standard — in spite of
the phraseology — that we should view the command-
ments concenung the adoration of God, the k>ve of
our neijriibour, domestic virtues, and p^riotism.
Theophiumthropist worship was at first very aimi^
and meant chiefly for the home: it consisted in a shori
invocation of God in the morning and in a kind of ex-
amination of conscience at the end of the day. A
plain altar on which were laid some flowers and fruits,
a few inscrmtions iq)pended to the walls, a pla^orm
for the readers or speakers, were the only furnishings
allowed. The founders were particularly anxious that
this simplicity be strictly adhered to. Nevartheless,
the progress of the sect led gradually to a much more
elaborate ceremoniaL It is a far cry from the early
meetings where the minister, or pbre de /am<K<, pre-
sided at prayer or mimicked Christian buttism, l^rst
Communion, marriages, and funerals, to tAe gorgeous
displayof the so-called national festivals. There even
was a Tbeophilanthropist Mass, which, however, came
much nearer to a Calvinist service than to ihe C^ih-
olic Liturgy. Of the hymns adopted by the sect, some
taken from the writings of J. B. Rousseau, Madtune
Deshoulidres, or even Aacine, breathe a noble spirit
but, side by side with these, there are bombastic lucu-
brations like the " Hymne de la fondation de la r6pub-
Uque" and the " Hymne la souverainetydupeuple".
The same strange combination is found in the feasts
where Socratee, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and St. Vin-
cent de Paul are equally Mnoured, and m the sermon
where political harangues interlard moral oihorti^
tiona. Quite noteworthy is Dubroca's funoal ora-
tion (rf Geoi^e Washington, wherein the orator, under
cover <^ the American hero, cat«%d to the rising
Bonaparte and laid out for him a whole political pro-
gramme which, read in the lifht of subsequent events.
Bounds like irony. Despite the hint, Bonaparte chose
to be the Cromwell rather than the Washii^ton <^ the
new rdigponists.

Undw the aj^warance of moderatiou, Theoi^iilan-
thropism was really an anti-Christian movement.
Whenever superstition was mentioned, it meant the
Christian rehgion. There is no doubt that the first
Theophilanthropists were Freemasons and that Tna-
masonry was the leading spirit of the movemoit
throughout. Neither can a secret collusion between
Protestantism and Theophilanthropism, at least in the
bMpnning, be denied. The first idea of the sect really
bdonm to Diivid Williams, an English Tw^wMtjw who
exercised a considaable influence in Paris diiiinc the
Revolution. Cbonin consulted the French Calvin-
ists before launching his "Manuel". If later a con-
trova%y arose between Protestants themselves as to
the merits of Theophilanthropism, this was due to the
imprudence oS the Theophilanthropists, who, elated
by wpaient success, lifted the mask. The constitu-
tional derg; in the national council held at Notre-
Dame in 1797, ^otested against the new religion, and
Gr^goire wrote in his "Annates de la Rel^ion" (VI,
no. 5) : "Theophilanthropism is one of those derimve
institutions which pretend to bring to God those very
people whom they drive away from Him by estranging
them from Christianity. . . .Abhorred by Christiana,
it is spumed by philosophers who, though may
not feel the need of a rebgion for themselves, stiU want
the people to cling to the faith of their fathers.*'
Catholics went further in their denunciations and ex-
powd, bende the anti-Christian and maeonie apiiik

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TUOPRILIIB 6

tihat animated tiie aeet^ the political izrtriguea hiding
under the mask of rdigion. Tope Pius Vll, 17 Mi^,
1800, placed an interdict on the churches that had been
desecrated by the deistic ritesj and Cardinal Consalvi,
in the course of the negotiations regarding the Con-
cordat 1801, demanded that a speedy end be put to
the Theophilanthrt^usts' profanstKm of tiie Cstholie
temples.

MA-msx. La TUopUlattiknpU (Paris. 1903) : Idw, CmUtOw
twn* d rAiKOH« rMfitut da b rivobUion (Pvit, 1007); BkD-
OEKBTTB, Lm erMfotia raKbtntm dt la rtMbition (Pwia. UU);
RctD. n» rim and dUtokiHon «/ 0i4 in/Uel toewtva in tkt mtbv
petit (Loodoo. 1800); Fmnmao. Diaamita jUoMfiea dt'Donan «
dtOa Morala rOigiaia (fe'T«ullantropi (Turin, 1799; for a oom-
pltto Ubitonapby see Toovmvx, BiUiompliU m FUtlotn dt
riria jmdaiUU rMution (Puk, 1800-1900).

J. F. SOLUBS.

Thtophiltu, Bishop o( Antioch. Eusebius in his
' ' Chronicle " places the name of TheophUus against that
of Pope Soter (169-77), and that of MaximuiuB, Theo-
phihia's successor, against the name <rf Eleutherua
(177-93). This does not mean that Maziminus suc-
ceeded Thet^fhiluB in 177, but only that Thet^ilus
and Maximimis flourished respectively in tiie times
of Soter and Eleutherua. Lightfoot and Hort
diowed that Eusebiua, having no such precise chrono-
logical data for the bishops m Antioch as he had for
thoee of Rome and Alexandria, placed the names of
the Antiochene bishops against those of oootemporary
Roman bishops (Lightioot, "St. Ignatius", etc.,
IL 468 sq., and "St. Clement", etc., I, 224 mq.).
When therefore we find in the third b«dc of The-

Sthihis, "Ad Autolycum", that the writer was alive
tar death (180) of Marcua Aurelius, it does
not foQow, as even writers like Hamack and Barden-
hewer 8U|:^>ose, that Eusebius made a chronological
Uunder.

The "Ad Autolycum", the only extant writing of
Theophilus, is an apolo^ for Christianity. It con-
sists of three books, reaily s^>arate works written at
different times, and correspcmds exactb' to tiie d»-
■cription given (rf it by Eusebius as "three demen-
tary works" (Hist, eod., IV. xxiv). The author
speaks of himself as a convert from heathenism. He
treats of such subjects aa t^e Christian idea of God,
the Scripture accounts of the origin of man and the
worid as compared with pa^ui mirths. On several
occasions he refers (in connexion with the early ehap-
ien of Geama) to an historical wotk ocm^posed by
Idmadf. Eusebius (op. cit.) roeaka ol refutatiou m
Mardcni and ]^nn<^enes, and "catechetical bodks".
To then St. Jerome (De vir. illust., xxv) ad^ corn-
men tariee on Proverbs and the Go^ls. He speaks
of the latter in the prok^e to his own commentary
on tihe Gospels, and also in his e[»8tle " Ad Algasiam ' ,
where we leam that Theophilus commented upon a
Diatessaron or Gospel Harmony composed by hinh-
self ("Theophilus . . . quattuor Evangelistarum m
imiim opus oomprngens"). A long qaotatkm in the
same qiistle is all that survireB afvm eommentary,
for Zann's attempt to identi^ it with » Latin com-
mentary ascribed in amne MSS. to Thetqihihis luv
found no supporters.

Batiftol, Aneimnu liiUraivnt ekritieruiM: Lit. {tkom, 101-3;
Easn, Fonetmna. n*)* Q«aek. dtt S.T. Kanmu, II; Hajlnack,
AitehritU LiL, 490 aq.: Idku, Chroiudoaie, I, 319 sq.: Babosn-
HBwKS-SsAHUi, Patnlom (St. Louu, 1908} , 05-7. For Thso-
phihu's teMhinceoDoerninf theEtem&l'Wora see Ndwhak.Coujm
9/RiatandSitcetutff Arianum\n TTaatTktol.amdBede»i{ljiai<m,
1908), 3U-S7. The Ad Auto^eum wu fint publiabed by Fmi-
sms (Zurich, 1546) ; the Uteat ed. by Otto, Corp. apoUoal.. VIII
(Jeu, 18Q1). En^isfa tr. by Flowxb (London, I860), and in
CuuB, Ant9-ltie»iu Librarj/. The rappoeed CmrnmnAvv on
<jU OotpeU WM first printed db La Bmnb, fitU. 83. FtOrvwu V
(Paris, 1676), then by Orro (loo. dt.), then by Zahn (\oe. cit.,
20-4S). For refereBMs to litentnr* in this commentarv see
BABBBKHHWaB; Motuw in Bmim BtiMiettite, XXII, 12 sq.; and
QoBiniN in Rnu4 BhOdieliu*, XXIV, 107 sq. Qubhtik idves
reasona for recardinsJohn of Jerusalem u poenbly the auuior.
For monogimpbs on TheophIhia*s doetrina see BAaoBNBBmB.

F> J. Baochus.

XIV.— 40

15 Tnofsndw

ThM^iflni, Patrianh of Akxandria (385-418).
Conoenung the extraction and early life of Theo{riiilus
we have but scanty information. He had a sister of
similar temperament and St. Cyril, hia successor, was
his nephew. Hydatius ("Chron.", II: P. L., LI, 874)
dUls mm a "most learned man", and dedicates to him
an Easter table for 100 yean. St. Jerome informs us
tiiat he did not oome fwirard as a publio teacher bo-
fora 385 ("Contra Rufln.", Ill, 18, in P. L., XXIII,
482). After hu election to the Patriarchate of Alex-
andria (385) he showed bimself a man of peat intel-
leotual gifts and capacity, but also extremdy violent
and unscrupulous in the choice of his means. His
name ia connected with three important historicid
events: the decay of paganism in Egypt, the Origen-
istic ccmtroversy, ana the deposition ana banishment

St. John Chrysostom. About 390 Theophilus de-
prived the pagans ai Alexandria of a tanple^ probably
with the consent of the Eknperor Theodosuis I, and
apparently destroyed several other temples (Socratei^
V, 16; Ammian., XXII, xi, 7). A riot ensued, and a
number of CSiristians were slain. With Theophilus
at their head, the Christians retaliated by destroying
the celebrated temple of Serapis, on the ruins of which
the patriarch erected a church. He also erected a
magnificent church at Caoope. In 391 or 392 Theo-
philus was requested by the S^nod ot Capua to exert
nis influence to end the schism at Antioch. How^
ever, he failed to establish peace, and it was only ia

398 that St. John Chrysostom, with the assistance of
Theophilus, succeeded in re-establiahing 'ecclesiastical
communion between Flavian and Rome.

Until 399 Theophilus was rewarded as a friend of
Origen and the Origenists. Many of the so-called
Origenist monks were among his beet friends; some of
them he appointed to ecdeuastical offices and digni-
tiea: for exunpte, he named Isi^re archpresbyttf aiHl
patriarchal aeamomua, and raised others to the episoo-
^te. In the quarrel between Jobannes-Rufinus and
Epiphanius-Jerome he took the side of the first (So-
crates, VI, 10), informed Jerome through Isidore in
396 that he should show more respect for the authority
of his bishop, John of Jerusalem (Epp. Ldii and Ixxxii ;
"Contra Rufin.", HI, 17; "Contra Johannem
Hieroe.*\ 37), and accused St. EiMphanius of anthro-

?imorphi8in. He also banished the Egyptian bishop
aulus, an opponent of the (Mgeniste, and reproached
St. Jerome for the bospitahty he showed him (Je-
rome, "Cont. Rufinum^', III, 17 and 78). Between

399 and 400 Theophilus suddenly altered hia attitude;
the chief motive for the chance seems to have been a
perscmal quarrd with the arenpresbyter Isidore, well
known as a friend of the Ongeniats. Isidore had
taken charge of a sum of money and, in accordance
with the express request of the donor, did not inform
Theophilus, who suffered from a "mania for building"
and avarice (St. Isidore Pelus., Ep. i, 152). The
patriarch heard of the matter, however, and did not
shrink from the vilest slanders against Isidore and
even acts of violence (Pall., VI; Sozomen, VIII, 12).
Isidore found protection with his friends, the monks
of Nitria, whereupon Theophilus turned against them
also. At first he set the anthropomorpKio-minded
monks, the enemies of the Origenists, against them,
although he had condemned their views m his Easter
letter of 899 (Soromen, VIII 11; Caasian, "CoU.",
X, 2), then directed against tnem his Easter letter ca
401 (P. L., XXI, 773). and finally condemned Origen-
ism at the Synod of Aleiondria in 401.

Then placmg himself at the head of soldiers and
armed servantsiie marched against the monks, burned
their dwellings, and ill-treated those whom he cap-
tured (Pan., vui Socrates, VI, 7: for Jerome's congrat-
ulations to Theophilus see Jerome, Ep. btxxvi).
The monks, about 300 in number, proceeded first to
Palestine, whoe the majority of them settled near
Soythopcdis; tiw four Tall Brethrai mranidiile pco-

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seeded to Constantinople to ask proteotion a&d justice
from St. John Chrysostom and the emperor. Theo-
philits was ammuoned to Constantinople to answer
their charaee, and thus begins his connexion with the
tre^sdy orCSuyBostom, which soon took the first place
in & and the public interest (see John Chbtbostou,
Saint). At the S]rnod of the Oak in 403 Theophilus
concluded an equitable peace with the persecuted
monks, and on his return to Alexandria is said to have
again received the books of Origen (Socrates, VI, 17).
That Theophilus may have been really very "broad-
minded", is shown by the fact that he consecrated the
philosopher Synedua bishop about 410, although the
Uttter had not yet been baptized, and had stipulated
t^at, as bi^wp, he might retain his wife and adhere to
his Platonic views (pre-existenoe of soul, all^ricat
ei^lanation of the Resurrection, etc.). As a writer
Theophilus did not attain much prominence. In ad-
dition to his Easter letters, of which three are extant
in a Latin translation by Jerome (P. L., XXII, and
P. G., LXV, 53 sgq.), he wrote "one large volimie
against Origen" (Gmmadixis, 33), of which some frag-
ments are preserved (collected m Gallandi, ' ' Bibt. vet.
patr.", Vn, 801-62; P. G., LXV, 33-68; Zahn, "Foi^
wihungen sur Geech. des neutest. Kanoos", II, Ei^
langen, 18S3, p. 234 sqq.). The Canons ascribed to
Theophilus are in Pitra, "Juris ecclea. Graecor. hist, et
monum.", I (Rome, 1864), 546-649. Inauthentic
and doubtful writii^ were also in circulation under
Theophihis's name (Gennadius^ 33: "Legi et tres li-
bros suo nomine titidatos, sed hngua inconaonans est.
Non valde credidi").

In addition to the sourcee already mentioned, oonsult: Thbo-
sonirr, HUt. ted., V, sxil; Sulpicidb Sevxrco, Dial., t, S-7. in
P. L., XX, 187-8; Tilusmont. Mtmoiru. XI (Vmm. 1698-1712),
441-gg, 633-8; Ceilukr, HULj^ntrtde, VII (Paris, 1729-e3),

438-47; Prat, Origint (Pbito, 190f), xlviii aq.; Vincbnsi, Hittana
Theopkilum Bpiphanium, Hieronymum,
adrtrtarioa Oriffeni* et ini«r OrigmU pofronos Joh. Chryto*-

eritiea; quigilionet inter Theopkilum Bpii
adronarioi OrtQeni* et inisr Origenia p

loinum, Rufinum tt monathot KitrientM (Rome, 186S): Cavxv-
iiBHft, Le tchittM d'Anlioehe (Paris, 1S05), 2S3-4: EoCB. j^wfut

ton Cyrene bei seiner
XXIII (1902), 751-74.

C^BTB. BaUE.

Theosophy, Qwo<f>Ut, wisdom concerning God, is a
term used in general to designate the knowledge of
God supposed to be obtainea by the direct intmtion
of the Divine essence. In method it differs from
tbeok^, which is the knowledge God obtained by
revelation, and from philosophy, which is the knowl-
edge oS Divine things acquired by human reasoning.
It IB often incorrectlv coniounded with mystidam, for
the latter is properly the thirst for the Divine, the
aspiration for the invisible, and hence a natural mani-
festation of the religious sentiment. By intuition or
illumination the initiated Theosophiste are con-
sidered to be in harmony with the central principle

the universe. This knowledge of the secret forces

nature, of iha true relation between the wotM and
man, frees them from the wdinary limitations ot
human life, and gives them a peculiar power over the
hidden forces of the mscrooosm. Their exceptional
faculties are alleged as experimental proof of their
superior scioice; they are the only guarantee of the
truth of their teaching. The]^ are sfud to transmit
this truth by way of revelation. Thus theosophy
i^peals to tradition, but not in the Christian sense.

(1) India is die home oi all theoeophic q>eculati(Hi.
Oltramere says that the directive idea <rf Hindu
civilization is theoeophic. Its develoranent covers a
great many ages, eacn represented in Indian rdigious
uteratiire. Tnere are formed the basic principles of
theosophy. Knowledge of the occult laws in nature
and in life, the intuitive method, superhuman powers,
hostility to established religion are not all equally
iH>parait in each age, but are present conjunctively
m sepatatefa^ throu^i the yrbola course of its histOTy.
The eariy Brabmanie writinm contain the germs,
wbidi have gradualtjr develpped into a rich vev^aiioD

of ideas and beliefs. These ideas are organised into

systeou, not however homogeneous or autonomous
but mixed with other belief. Then they leave the
schools to act upon the masses, either in forming a
religion, e. g. Buddhism, or in penetratiuKpopuiar
religions already existing, e. g. Hmduism. Tnus the
Upanishads teach: that the individual soul is identical
with the universal soul, hence the doctrine of adoaita,
i. e. non-duality; that the individual existence of the
soul is a state of suffering, hence the doctrine of tam-
sara, i. e. metempsychosis; that the individual soul
is delivered from suffering by its reunion with the
universal soul^ a reunion realized by seizing the con-
sciousness of identity with it, henoe the doctrine <d
mokia, i. e. salvation. His bssie doctrines of the
Vedanta and Saukhya systems are monistic Panthe-
ism, intuition as the supreme means to reach truth,
metempsychosis, the world of sense is only a very
little part of the category of things, the theoiy ana
method oi salvation strictly intellectual. These
ffTBtems developed from the Upani^ads. The final
development is Hie Yoga. t. e. "one tdm fits

hims^, or exstcbm", refers to the exercises prao-
tised to free the soul from the body, which to it is
like a string to a bird. Some of these exercises were:
to rid one's self of moral faults (though the inasten
do not agree as to what these faults are); to sit in
certain panful postures, check the breath, and reduce
thought to a minimum by staring at the tip of the
nose; to idaoe the soul in a particular part of the
body, and so gradually acquire mastery over it, or,
raUier, let the soul, the true self, acquire mastery over
the body; to starve and learn to subsist on air, or
even without itj to concentrate thought by memta--
t4on, i. e. to tJunk of nothing, Thyana, the highest
state of which is the cataleptic trance aamadkij in
which mind is suppressed but the soul is in full activ-
ity. In Uiis state the prason is a moAotma, i.e. mastor-
soul and <An enjc^ a temporary release mim the body
whidi it leaves to go roammg about, performing
wonderful feats -on material nature and controlling
other less powerful souls. This latter was the secret
of the Yoga's real power and was supposed to be
done by a trimsfer of soul. When the soul re-enters
the body, the Yoga wakes and is like other people.
By repeated exercises soul can become so st^mg
thBt it secures perpetual rdease from the body, thust
aeoording to the older Yoga teadiing, it nies to
beavoi where it enjoys great happiness, riding in a
celestial car attmded by lovely women and music;
but with the latter Yogas, on breaking all bodily
bonds it formed immediate absorption into the
Sum^e Soul.

(2) Theosopbic teaching comes to the front in the
third period of Greek philoscn^y. Hence it is found
in the Jewish-Greek philosopoy with the neo-Plato*
nists. The theosopbic atmorohere due to tiieinfiueDce
of As Orient is [dainly shown in Flotinus. The
Chmstjo systems reveal mote theosoplur than thecAogf,
And in the JewiA Kabbala is found a tneosophy mixed
with various forms <^ magic and occultism. The
Rtmaissanoe brought into modem thought neo-Flar
tonism and the Kabbala. e. g. Rendilin (d. 1492),
Wippa (d. 1535), Cardano (d. 1676), Faraoelsua
(dT l&IO), Weigel (d. 1588). More important is the
teaching of Jakob BOhme (d. 1624). He tau^t that
the "eternal dualism" of God is the ultimate cause
of dl evil: that there is a "dark" native piineii^
in God, which evil element makes manifest His good-
ness. Without this Uiere would be no revelaticn.
Fmrtfaer, were it not for this principle God could not
know Himself. BShme's teaching influenced Baader
(q. v.), Schelling, and H^el. Theosophic principlea
colour the theology of Swedenborg, and are found in
the group of modem thinkers, especi^ly neo-Hegel-
ians, who claim tJbat Uie existence of God is known
by diraot intuition w by a qiedal faculty oi the aouL

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A new impcnrtaDoe (d these t«aalungB in moden
thought is due to the school oS Modern theoeo^y
dating from the foundation of the Theoe(q)hical
Society in New Yorlc City by Madame Blavataky in
1876. She is the chief and only authority for the
revelation of soKudled T^tan tKcultism. A. P.
Sinnett however uses the term Esotcrio fiuddhism.
They claimed to have the toue solution for the pn^
lems of the universe and oi man from the Upani-
shads aad Buddhist Sutras through Oriental savants,
maiuUmas, the faithful depositories of a profound and
superhuman wisdom. In fact, a great part of their
nomenclature is derived from India, and they seek
there for a justification of teachings drifting about
in modem thought and derived to a great extent, if
not wholly, from neo-Platonlc and Jewish sources
through the Renaissance. The objects of the society
are: to form the nucleus oi a universal brotheriiood of
humanity without distinction of race, creed, sex,
caste, or colour; to encourage the study of compara-
tive religion, philosophy, and science; to investigate
the unexplained laws of nattu« and the powers latent
in man. This last clause gives occasion to include
magic, the occult, the uncanny, and the marvellous
in any and every fmm. Madame Blavatsky, with
Colonel Olcott, went to India in 1878. Shortiy
afterwards her frauds were exposed through lettera
written by her and published by Columb and his
wife, who had been in her service. This was acknowl-
ed^ed by the London Society of Psychical Research,
which in Nov., 18S4 sent R. Hodgson, of St. John's
Coll^, Cambridge to investi^te (Edmund Garrett,
"Isis very much Unveiled", London, 1895: Francis
Podmon^ "Studies in I^ychical Researdi"). In
spite of tids, however, tiie teaching was ccnitinued and
propagated by h^ disciples Mrs. Beaant; Col. Olcott,
A. F. Sinnett, and others.

Modem theosophy claims to be a definite science.
Its teachings are the product of thought, and its
source is consciousness, not any Divine revelation.
As a science it is supposed to be based on investiga-
tion and experimentation of the occult laws in nature
and in human life. Only those qualified for tiie
inquiry can grasp these laws, and they gain from Uiis
knowledge certam superhuman powers. Mrs. Besant
calls it Uie great synthesis of life, i. e. of religion,
science, and philosophy, as old as thoughtful human-
ity, proclaimed in a new form suited to the present
time. Its aim is that spirit is and can become the
master of matter. Hence it is considered as a protest
against materialum which teaches that thougnt and
feeling are the results tA the aggregations ci matter,
"nieosophy on the contrary sees in matter an instru-
ment 01 life, and in thou^t the creative and moulding
power of matter.

The basic teaching of theosophy is the universal
brotherhood of humanity. Hence springs the preach-
ing of toleration to all persons and to all varieties
of belief, e. g. Buddhists, Christians, Atheists. It
considers the different reh^ons as methods adopted
iiy man in the search for God. They are of necessity
various, because men differ in temperament, type,
needs, and st^^ of evolution. Hence they are
different and imperfect expressions of truth. As
such it says; "we cannot aSord to lose any of the
world's religions, for each has its partial truth and
its characteristic message which the perfect man
must acquire." Hence tneosophy appeals to men as
the great peacemaker, for it teaches that all religions
mean one and the same thing, or rathw that they are
all bnuuHieB of a sinde tree. In Urn sense it attacks
comparative n^ythou^ which tries to show that
religion was ong^nall^ the fruit of man's ignorance
and will disappear with the increase of knowledge,
whereas in fact relicpcm cnnes from Divine knowledge,
L e. theosophy.

The piiiHriiMe of unirenal broUtvhood rests iqkhi

u iBiotorar

the "so&larity" of aD living, of all that is, in the

one life and one consciousness. Solidarity springs
from the belief in the immanence of God, the omy
and exttfnal life manifested in the multipUcity of
creation. All forces are external; there is no Bui>er-
natural, except the superhuman and supersensuous,
t e. powers greater than those normally exercised by
man, which, nowever, can be developed. Ignorance
th^efore makes the miracle. Hence there is no
personal God, and for this reason Madame Blavatsky
and Mrs. Besant say that theosophy is more readily
embraced by Atheists and Agnosucs. Hence also
Colville oould teach that the spirit or soul in man is
the onlv real and permanent part of his being; every-
thing else pertaining to him is illusmy and transitory.
Solidarity, i. e. the common life perradii^ all things,
is thus made the basis of morahty. Hence a wrong
done to one is done to all, as e. g. an injury inflicted
on one part of the human organism r^ults in pain
diffused and felt throughout. At the same time we
are told thaJt God is ^ood and man immortal, that the
"immanence of God justifies religion ", i. e. the search
after Him. that all things move to good and to man's
ben^t, that man must understand and co-operate
witih we adieme of things.

Man has eevm aspects, or rather is a being com-
posed of seven principles. These are viewed m two
groups: the Quatemarv, corre^nding to our animal
nature, i. e. soul and body, the mortal part of man,
the products of evolution; and the Triad, correspond-
ing to our ffltiritual nature, i. e. Gpirit, for theoeophists
say that Christian philosophy holds the threefold
division of body, soul, and wirit in man. The
Quatonary is made up of Sikula Sharira, i. e. physical
body| Lfotfo Sharira, i. e. astral double; Prana, i. e.

?rin<uple of life; Kama, i. e. our passional nature,
'he Triad is composed of: Manas, i. e. mind or the
thinker; Buddhi, i. e. the dwelling-place of spirit:
Atntr^ i. e. epmt. Hence we find Atnir-Buddki usecl
conjomtl^. This Triad is called the Immortal IViad.
It IS umted to the Quaternary by Manas, in itself
viewed as Higher Manas, sending out a Ray, whidi as
Lower Manaa is imbedded in Kama. Thus Kama-
Mamu is the link joining our animal to our spuitual
nature, and is the battle-ground of life's struggles.
Man is primarily divioe, a spark of the Divinelife;
this living flame passing out from the Central Firo,
weaves for itself covenn^ within which it dwells
and thus becomes the Triad, the Atma-Buddki-
Manas, the Immortal Self. This sends out its Ray,
which becomes encased in grosser matter, in the Kamio
body, in the Astral Double, and in the physical body.
The Astral Double, i. e. rarer matter, tbe exact double
of Uie physical body, plavs a |^t part in spiritual-
istic phenomena. The Manaa is the real L the rein-
carnating ego makes the human personality. The
Quatemaiy as a whole is viewed as the Personality,
i. e. the shadow of the Self. In fact each principle
or aspect may be considered a Personality m so far
as it undervalues Atma, i. e. throws its shadow over
Atma and ^events us from seeing in everyUiing
Alma, L e. the One Eternal Existence. The seer
however knows that Alma is the one reality, the
essence of all things, that Atma-Buddhi is the Univer-,
sal One Soul, itself an aspect of Atma, that Atma^
Bud^i'Manas is the individual mind or Thinker,
that l^e shadow of Manas, our Atma-Bvddki, makes
men say "my soul" and "thy sour', whereas in
reality we are all one with Atma,\he Uiuaiown Root.
After death all of the Manasic Ray that is pure and
unsoiled gradually disentangles itself, carrymg with
it such of life's experiences as are of a nature fit for
assimilation with the Hiriier Ego. The Manasic
Ego united to Atma-Buddhi passes into the Devar
cm>nio state of consciousness, rapt in blissful dreams
coloured by the experiences <rf the earth-life. This
state is a continuation of tb? «wrtb^e shorn nf hi

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TtinOTOOOPDU '

sorrows, ud a oompletJon of its naUe sad pure
wishes.

Theoeophy is not only a basis of religion; it is also
a philosophy of life. Xs such, its main teaching are
reincarnation and the law of Karma. Karma is the
outcome of the collective life, a law of ethical causa-
tion. In the past incamaticm the had aequb«d
certain faculties, set in motion certain causes. _ The
effect of these causes and of causes set in motion in
meriouB incarnations and not yet exhausted are its
Karma and determine the conmtions into which the
ego is reborn. Thus inequalities of natural gifts, e. g.
genius, of temperament and of character are ex-
plained. The law of progress is the law of involution
and evolution, the retumine of the Divine S[>ark into
a unity with Spirit througn various reincaniations,
which are viewed as a process of purification. Siiu
poverty, and misery are the fruits of unorance, and
are gradually removed as the spirit in usbecomes freed
from earthly dross. There is no heaven nor hell. Death
is the passage from this state of life to another. There
-is an evolution behind and before, with absolute cer-
tainty of final attainment for every human soul, i. e. to
be one with the Absolute. As man advances in this
process his spirit beoinnes stronger, and can devtSap
latent powers, not shown in orduuuy mortals.

Critieitm. — In spite of a Christian ethical phrase-
oloKy, ^eosophy m reality is a form of pantheism,
anddenies a personal God and personal immortality.
Its iq>peal to the spiritual in man, and its striving
after union with the Divine are based upon a contrap
dictoiy metaphysic, an imaginary psychology, a
system of ethics which recognizes no free-wiuT out
only the absolute necessity of Karma. No evidence
or proof is given for its teaching exc^t the simple
statements of its leaders. The denial of a personal
God nullifies its cMm to be a spiritualistic phiiosoph;^.
Judging it as presented by its own ea^nents, it
appears to be a strange mixture of mysticism, charla-
tanism, and thaumaturgic pretension combined with
an eager effort to express its teaching in words whicb
reflect the atmosphere of Christian ethics and modern
scientific truths.

Wbioht, Modm Thtotophy (Boston utd New YoA, 1894);
Bmant, Thioiopkicot AfanuoZi (Loodon, Now York and MadrM,
1882) ; LMluret on At HUton oj Raigiotu: Catholic TruA S^eUtv:
V, TheoMphv (London and New York, 19U); Btji-U TktoBajAi/
and Chritltaniti/ (Catholic Truth Sodvtjr); Di Guhdiuusoh,
Lc Lotut Bl«u in seriM Sdmee M Adttftoi* (Paha); Bdsnxixi,
ifoitua/e di T»o»oM (Rome, 1910); Oltbamcrm, L'hittoire dM
hUm lAtoMpAtoMf daa* VIndt (Puis); Cluuu in Th» JfonA
CJnn.. Feb., March. 1897).

John T. Dhiscoll.

Theotocopuli, DoMENico (El Gheco), one of the
most remarkable Spanish artists, b. in Crete, between
1545 and 1550; d. at Toledo, 7 April, 1614. On 15
Nov., 1570, tiie miniature-painter GiuUo Clovio
wrote to Cardinal N. Famese, recommending E3
Greco to his patron, describing him as a Cretan,
who was then in Rome and had been a pupil of
Titian. El Greco, however, derived very little
influence from his master, for bis works, beyond a
certain influence of Bassano, Baroccio, Veronese, or
Tintoretto, are individual and distinct. £1 Greoo
came to Spain in 1577. He signed his name in Greek
characters, using the Latin form of his Christian
name, and repeatedly declaring himself as a native
of Crete. He appeared before the tribunal of the
Inquisition at Toledo in 1582, as interpreter for one
of his compatriots who was accused of being a Moor;
he then definiteljr announced that he had settled
in Toledo. Nothing is known of his parentage or
early history, nor why he went to Spain; but in time
be became typically Spanish, and his paintings exhibit
an the obaracteristics of the people amongst whom he
resided. From very early days he struck out a
dtf nito line for himself, glorying in tones with
bhie, in the use of prey and maay varied tonn <A
whit^ and in imi»esBiraustie nxA iriiioh fotedad-

owed ideas in art that were introduosd one hundred
and fifty years later. His first authenticated portrait
is that of his patron and fellow-countryman Clovio,
now at Nanlee; his last, that of a cardinal, in the
National Cillery. His first important commission
in Spain was to paint the reredos of the Church of
Santo Domingo el Diego at Toledo. He m^ have
been drawn to Spun in connexion with the work in
the Esoorial, but he made Toledo his home. The
house where he lived ia now a museum of his works,
saved to Spain by one of her nobles.

His earliest important work is "El Espolio",
which adorns the high altar in Toledo, but by far

Dbuil ROM m BuBUL or nn Comdb d'Obou, bt Tk»oio-
copDU, m TR> Cbcxgb or 8. ToKi, Toledo

his greatest painting is the famous "Burial of the
Count of Orgaz" in the Church of Santo Ttxn^.
The line of portraits in the rear of the burial scene
represents with infinite skill almost every phase of
the Spanish character, while one or two of the faces
in the immediate background have seldom, if ever,
been equalled in beauty. It is one of the mastw-
pieces ch the world. The influence of El Greco in the
world of art was for a long time lost sight of, but H
was very real, and vfry far-reaching. Velasquez
owed much to him, and, in modem days. Sargent
attributes his skill as an artist to a profound study of
El Greco's works. El Greco's separate portraits
are marvels of discernment; few men have exhibited
the complexities of mental emotion with equal
success. Tine largest collection of his works outside
of Spain belongs to the Kinj^ of Rumania, some <A
the paintings being at Sinaia, others in Bukarest.
In the National GtulcTy of London, in the coUectitms
of Sir John Sti^ling-^Iaxwell, the Countess of Yar-
borough, and Sir Irederick Cook, in the galleries of
Dresden, Parma, and Naples, and in the possession
of several eminent French collectors are fine examples
of his work. But to study El Greco's work to per-
fection one must visit Toledo, Illescas, Madrid, the
Escorial, and many of the private collections of Spain,
and his extraordinaiy wc^ will be found worthy of
the ctoseet study. He was a man of eccentric habits
and ideas, of tRmendous determiutifni, ortnordi-

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BURIAL OF THE CONDE D'ORGAZ
THE'vrncopru. CHrnm op s. Tfvr.. i^T.Enn

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oary rvtioenoe, and extrenM deroutnesB. H« wu
a oonatADt attFendant at the saoramentB, made com-
plete airangements fox his finwral before he died,
and was buried in the Church of Santo T(md6.

Cosuo. Mtmoir of El Orteo (3 toIa., Madrid, 1908); Babu*
AND Lafond, Domenico Thtoloeoptdi (Paris, 1911).

George Chablss WnxiAMSoK.

Thera (ob Santorin), Diocese op(Santorino), in
the Cyclaaes. About the year 2000 b. c, the extin-
euished volcano of the island renewed its activities,
destroyed the population, and a portion of the island
which was^engulfed in the sea. In 236 b. c. another
eruption separated the island of Tberaeia from Thera;
in 196 B. c. the islet of Hiera ^irani^ up (Pdeo-
Kalmeni) ; in a. d. 46 appeared Thia which was after-
wards swallowed up by the sea; ia 1570 a portion of the
island of Thera caved in; in 1573 and 1711 two new
islands arose ; in 1S06 there was a new volcanio eruption
which lasted two years. The ancient town of Thera
has been discovered at Ha{^ios-St^h^OB,near Meea-
vouno; the Ptolenniea established an important gar-
rison there. Some time after the ouption of the year
2000 B. c, the island called Calliste was repeopled b;^
the Phoenicians, then by the Dorians who named it
Thera about the year 620 b. c. ; it became successiT^
a tributary of Sparta, Athens, the Ptolemies, and
finally the Romans. It is believed that Christianity
was ab-eady introduced there in the second century
and that certain tombs belonged to that epoch (Hiller
von G&rtringen. "Thera", III, 195); a \&y old
church dedicated to Saint Michael and other very an-
cient churches have been found there. The See of
Thera was a suffragan of Rhodes in the seventh and
tenth centuries (Geber, " Ungedruckte . . . T^cte
der Notitiie episcopatuum", 542, 558). It became a
metropolitan see in the eiditcenth century and after
the incorporation of the island with the Kingdom of
Greece it was reduced in 1833 to a bishopric, which
rank it still holds.

Le Quien (Oriens christ., I, 941) and HiUer von
Gfirtringen (Thera, III, 198) ^ve a list of twenty
Greek bishops of whom the greater part are posterior
to the sixteenth century; this list could easily be com-
pleted. In 1207 the island fell into the power of a
Latin lord, himself subject to the Duke of Naxos; the
population decreased continually and in 1457 there
were no more than 300 personB. In 1566 Thera fell
under the domination of the Turks and took the name
of Deir-Mei^. It received the name of Santorin
only in the Middle Ages from Saint Irene, to whom
theislandhadaspecialdevotion. A Latin diocese, suf-
fragan of Naxos, was established there; a number of
bishops are known, who belonged principally to the
fourteenth centuiy (Le Quien, op. cit., Ill, 1007-12;
Eubel, "Hierarchia cathoHca medii ffivi", I, 456; II,
252 ; III, 309). Thera, in the district o( the Cyclades,
numbers 15,000 inhabitants, of whom 400 are Cath-
oKcs; 8 secular priests; 1 parish; 2 churches with a
resident priest; and 6 chapels. There is also a house
of Lazansts, a convent belonging to the Sisters of
Charity and another to the Dominican Sisters. The
bishop has jurisdiction also over the islands of los,
Amorgos, Siphnos, Seriphos, and Melos; the last only
has Catholic inhabitants.

SmTH. Did. of Or. and Ram. fJtog.. 8. v.; Ptotm, HiMotri du
•olmn tt dt»tU» BoUaniqut de SarOorin (Paris, 1842); CioaLla,
GentrtU»tati»tK»oftlu Ulandof Thtn (HeniiopobB,1850).in Greek;
Imcboix, /ie» de Ut Grice CParis. 1853). 484-92; Maimt, D» m-
tnia Thera (Liile, 1874); Focoo*. Santorin «m *ruptoiw
(Paris, 1879); voif QIrtbuiobk, Them (3 Tola., Berlin, 1890-
ISU): JtfwmnM coltolMW (RoBM, 1907), 149.

S. VailhA.

ThenniB BasUloiB, a titular see in Capoadoda

Prima, sufhwan of C^esarea. Hie Greek ^'Notitis
episoopatuum'' down to the thirteenth century de-
scribe the see as the firat suffr^an of CsBsarea. Per>
lu^ tiiere was a bishop from the time of St. Basil; in
any ease four otibos are meatumed: FinninuB, praeot

at the Counefl of Chaloedon, 451; Photimu, at the
Council oi Conitantinoi^, under uie patriuoh Gen-
nadins (169) ; Musonius, eciled byjustin I, about 518:
Theodore, present at the Sixth CEcum^cal Council
of Constantinople, 681, and at the Council in TruUo,
692(LeQuien,''Orienschri8t.",I,389). This see is evi-
dently the city which Hierooles (Synecdemus, 699, 2)
names Thoma, and which he places in Cappadocia
Prima undra the Cesarean metropolis. It may quite
probably be identified with Aqus Sarvene, which the
Tabula" of Feutinger places on the road between Ta^
vium and Coearea, the same, doubtless, as Sarv^na, a
city described on an inscription and by Ptolemy (V, 6,
12} . This would be to-day Tersili Hammam, a village
about twenty hours norui of Csesarea, a vilayet of
Angora, where there are hot mineral sulphur waters,
stiU frequented. A part of the building containing
the baths is of Roman construction; a Christian in-
scription has been found thereon. Therma, which
the "Itinerarium Antonini", 204, places also on the
road from Tavium to Cnsarea, must be lamush Pis-
heten Sou, a mineral spring to uie north of Kir Shehir.

Raimat in BvUelin de eorretpondanet heBhiique, VII (Paris,
1883). 302 sq.; Idem, Ana Uinor (Loodon, 1890), paastmi M«l-
LBB, ad. DiDOT, NetM m PlaUm. L SS4. 878.

S. FATBmte.

TbanxUQ^n, a titular see and suffragan of Athenci
in Achaia Pruna. It is the name of a defile about 4
miles long, whose principal passage was barred by a
wall, which the Phocidians erected against the Thes-
salians in the sixth century b. c. It receives its name
from two hot springs called to-day Loutra (the baths).
There in the mon^ of July, 4S0 e. c, Leonidas,
of Sparta« with 1300 Spartan soldiers and allies fdl
with his men while bravely opposing the enormous
army of Xerxes. In'279 B. c. Brennus with 170.000
Gauls penetrated into Greece by this pass; itwastnere
also ttuit Antiochus III, King of Syria, was defeated
by the Romans in 191 b. c, and where in a. d. 395
Aiaric, King of the Goths, passed on his way to de-
vastate Greece. In the sixth centuiy Justinian re-
stored the fortifications (Procopius, ^'De ledificiis",
rV, 2). After the Latins in 1204 had overthrown the
Byzantine Empire, Thermopyke was made a Latin dio-
cese. Many letters from Innocent III, written in 1208
and 1210 to Bishop Arnulfus, are extant. The other
bishops from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century
are mentioned by Le Quien ("Oriens christianus". III,
847-850; Gams, "Series episcoporum", 431; Eubel,
"Hierarchia catholica medii ffivi", I, 509; II, 275;
III, 332) ; but many of them were only titulars. The
see is also referred to shortly alter in the "Liber cen-
suum" <^ the Roman Church (ed. Fabre), II, 8; it
was never a Greek diocese. To-day it is known as
L^oostomos on the bank of the Maliac (Sulf in the dis-
trict of Phoiotis. The passsge is less diflScult than
formerly because the alluvium deposited by the
Sperchios has caused the sea to recede and has facili-
tated a road between the waters and the mountain.

Shtib, Diet, of Oretk and Roman Geoo., s. v.

Thwsalonluu. Epistles to tbb^ two of the ca-
nonical Epistles of St. Paul. This article will treat the
Church <H TheBsalonic^ the authenticity, canonicity,
time and place of writiiut, occasion, and contents of
the two Epistles to Uiat Cuurch,

I. The CetTRCH op Thessalonica. — After Paul
and Silas had, during the Apostle's second missionary
ioumey, left Philippi, they proceeded to Thessa-
lonica (OeffiraXoWKT), the modem Saloniki), perhaps
because there was in the city a synagogue of tne Jews
O^cts, xvii, 2). Tbeasalonica was the capital of the
Roman Frovinee of Macedonia: it was a free dtr,
ruled by a popular assembly (cf . Acts, xvii, 6, sli t4i>
S4^v) mA magistrates (cf . v^se 6, hrl roAt roKa-dfix^')-
St. PmiI at onoe began to preach the Gospel to tl^
Jews and proielytcs. For three suoogQaive sabbaths

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oe txfUaiMi tite Soripturse in the synacc^e, opaiing
up tbo way and Kradually leading his nearers to the
tremendouB truth that there was need the Christ
should die and rise again from the dead, and that
Jesua whom Paul preached was in very truth this
Christ. Some of the Jews bdiered and took aides
witii Paul and Silas. It would seem that Paul stayed
in the city some time thereafter, for, aooordii^ to the
reading m Codex Bezse (fifth century)^ and the Vul-
gate and Coptic Versions (Acts, xvii, 4), he con-
verted a large number not only <M proaalytes {t&p t«
npoiUwwp) but of Gentile Greeks {ad 'EXXiJw**), In
the firat place, it is unlikely that a large number of
these latter were won overtothe Futh durinf^ the three
weeks devoted to the synagc^es; for Paul did manuid
labour night and day, so as not to be burdensome to
his converts (I These., ii, 9). Secondly, theee converts
from idolatry (I These., i, 9) would scarcely have
become, after so brief an apostolate, a "patteni to all
that believe in Macedonia and in Achaia" (I Theas.,
i, 7). Thirdly, the Church of Philippi sent alms
twice to Paul at Theesalonica (Phil.^ nr, 16), a fact
whii^ seems to indicate that his sojourn there was
longer than three weeks. Be Uiis as it may, the sig-
nal success of Paul's apostolate among Jews, prose-
lytes, and Hellenes, together with the conversion of
''not a few noble ladies" (Acts, xvii, 4), aroused the
Jews to a fury of envy; they gathered together a mob
of idlers from the aeora and set the whole city in
tumult; they beset the home of Jason, found the
Apostle away, dragged his host to the tribunal of the
politarchs and charged him with harbouring tnutors,
men who set Jeeus up as king in place of Cssar.
That night the brethren made eood the escape of
Uieir teacher to Berea. There the Gospel of Paul
met with a much more enthusiastic reception than
that accorded to it by the synagogue of Thessalonica.
The Jews of that city drove Paul to Berea and there,
too, stirred up the mob against him. He left Silas
and Timothy to complete his work and went to
Athens (Acts, xvii, 1-15).

II. FiBST Epistle. A. AtUhenliciiy. (1) Extemid
Evidence, (a) II Thess. — ^The strongest external
evidence in favour of the authenticity of I Thesa. is
II These., which, whatsoever be its date of composi-
tion, is the very earliest document that clearly pre-
supposes I Thess. to have been written by Paul.

(b) Manuscripts. — ^The evidence of MSS. alone is
such as to set the authenticity of this letter beyond all
doubt; it is in the Greek text <rf the Codex Sinaitious
C[ourth coit.), God. Vatioanus (fourth cent.), and
Cod. Alexanminus (fifth cent.); it is in the Old Latin
and Syriac Versions, idiich trace its autheoUcity
down to the middle of the second century.

(c) The Apostolic Fathers give evidence of very
early use of tne Epistle as Sacred Sraipture. St. Ig-
natius of Antioch (d. a. n. 110-17, according to the
chronology of Harnack which we shall follow in this
article), m "Eph. ", X, i, probably uses the dSiaXcfwTM
wport^xtriai, "pray without ceasmg*', of I Thess.,
V, 17; and undoubtedly had in mind I Thess., ii, 4,
when writing to the Romans (II, i) the distinctly
Pauline thought of Mm ifuit iat^vraptrK^ dXXi 9tv, "I
will that ye please not man but God". Because St.
Ignatius, as the other Apostolic Fathers, cites from
memory, without the exactness of later Fathers and
without ever mentioning the nune of the sacred
writer quoted, Dr. Iiwe, the Lady Margaret intH
feasor of divinity in we UniTermty <tf Cambridge,
says: "The evidence that Ignatius knew I ThessaJo*
nians is almost nil" (cf. "The New Teetameait in the
Apostolic Fathers", Oxford, 1905, p. 74). Against
such scepticism, the clear use oi St. Paul by the
Apostolic Fathers is of no avail. Hunack, who can-
not be accused of overmuch credulity, thinks that St.
^natius erf Antioch possessed a ooltoctkm (tf the
Pauline Epistlea; and that by the year 117, St

Bolyoan> trf Ebnyma had a oomjdete ooUeetion (aine

game Simmlunf) thereof before him and veritably
lived therdn (cf. Chronologie der altchristlieheu Lit-
teratur, I, 249, note 2). In the " Pastor" of Hennas
(a. d. 140), we find the phrase of I Thess., v, 13, "Be
at peace among youiselves" {etfnivedtrt iw Awr«&)
several times, used almost as it occurs in the Alexan-
drian and VaticEua Codices (cf. Hennas, "Simil.",
VIII, vii, 2; "Vis. "Ill, vi, 3; HI, ix, 2, 10; HI, xii, 3).

The Apologetic Fathers are clear and to the point.
St. Irenffius (A.n. lSl-9) cites I Thess., v, 23, expressly
attributing the words to the Apostle's First Epistle
to the ThessaJonians ("Contra hffiresefl",-V, vi, 1 in
P. G., VIII, 1138), and I Thess., v, 3, as the saying
of the Apostle (ibid.. V, xxx, 2 in P. G., VII, 1205).
Tertullian quotes at length passages fnun each of Uie
five chapters of I Thess. to prove his thesis of the
resurrection of the body ("Liber de reeurrectione
camis", xxiv, in P. L., II, 874); and uses the Epistle
against Marcion ("Adv. Marcionem", V, xv in P. L.,
II, 541). St. Clement of Alexandria (a. n. 190-210)
very often cites this brief letter — cf. "Psed^ogus",

I, V, 19 (Stahlin's ed., 1. 101) and "Stromata'^ I, i, 6
(Stfihlin's ed., II, 5) fori Thess., ii, 6-7; "Stromata",

II. xi, 4, IV, xii (Stahlin's ed., IZ, 13S and 286), for an
allusion to I Thess., iv, 3, and an accurate citation of
six verses (3-8) of the same chapter; "Psedagogus",
II, ix, ni, xu, IV, xxii (Stahlin's ed. I, 206 and 288,
and P. G., VIII, 1352) for the appeal to almost every
verse of I Thess., v, i. e. verses 5, 8, 13, 15, 19, 22;
"StromaU", I, xi (StShlin's ed., II, 34) for a quota-
tion from the same chapter. So strong is the external
evidence in favour of tne authenUcity of I Hiesa. as
to convince all scholars save only those who, on ac-
count of internal evidence, deny to Paul the authen-
ticity of all his Epistles.

(2) Internal evidence. — In I Thesa. all the main
Pauline doctrines are taught, — the Death and Resur-
rection of Jesus Christ (i, lOj iv, 14; v, 10); His
Divinity andSonship of the Uvmg God (i, 9, 10); the
resurrection of our bodies (iv, 15-18); Um mediator^
ship of Christ (v, 10); the call of the nations to tiie
Kingdom of Christ, which is the Church (ii, 12) . sanc-
tification by the indwelling of the Holy Spirit (iv, 8).
The plain and direct style, the writer's affectionate
concern for his Bpirituaf children, his impatience of
Judaizers, the preponderance of personal over doc-
trinal statements, the frank and honest self-revela-
tion of the writer — all these distinctly Pauhne char-
acteristics argue strongly for the authenticity <^
this letter.

Baur, the prime mover of neo-TQbingen ideas, was
the first to wave aside recklessly all ext^al evidence
and seriously to attack the authenticity of I Thess.
from internal evidence (cf Der Apostet Pauius", ed. 2,
n, 94) . He was followed by Nowack, " Der Urmnmg
des Christentums" (Leipzig, 1867), II, 313; Volkmar,
"Mose, Prophezie und Himmelfanrt" (Leipzig,
1867), 114; and Van der Vries, "De beiden brievea
aan de Thessalonicensen" (Leaden, 1865). Tlie rei^
sons which impel Baur and his followers are trivial,
(i) The lack of doctrine makes the letter unworthy of
Paul. We have noted that the main heads of Puil's
teaching are included in this short letter. Moreover,
the letter is a most touching revelation of the great
heart of St. Paul and as such alone is befitting the out-
q>oken Apostle, (ii) The Epistle is a clumsy for-
gery. The author IMS WOTked up hia8t<ny from Acts.
Paul oould not have written ii, 1^16. It is
far-fetched to compare the woes inflicted by the Jewa
upon the Church of Thessalonica with the ills they
wrou^t upon the Church of Judea. It is un-Pauline
to set Jewish Christians up as an example to Gentile
converts (Baur, cit., 482). Theee purely subjeo*
tive objections are worthless. The Apostle was too
broad-minded to be tied down to the narrow ideas
of Baur. True, in his later letters — to the Romans

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and CorinUiiana and Qalatlaos^ for instaiioe— we
might not lode for the Juxt^MdtKm of Jewish with
Gentile Christians; but tiie Judalsen were not so
troublesome to Paul when he wrote to the Hiessa-
lonians as when he wrote to the RMnana.

(in) The expression I^Aurs S« hr mAroln ipyi) eh
rAn, "the wrath hath come upon them unto the
end'' (ii, 16), naturally refers to the deetniction of
Jerusalem (a. d. 70) as an accomplished punishment
of tiie Jews for killing the Lord Jesus. This is an
imwaiTsnted assun^tion. The phrase cftrAot is
indefinite; it has no definite article nor any defining
qutdificatire; it modifies (^Am and refera to no defr-
nite end either accompliahed or to be accomplished.
St. Paul indefinitely t>ut surely sees the oncoming
end, reads the easily legible writing on the wall, and
int^rets that writing: "The wrath {of Godl hath
come upon them even unto making an end of them".
Qy) Baur (op. cit., 485) finds the eschatology of the
E^stle uDrPauline. In the E^nstlee to the Ccwin-
tuans, Romans, and Galatians, for instanoe, there is
nodicinQ into the future, nothing sud of the raousia,
«r seot^nd coming of Jesus. But the reason is clear, —
those to whom Paul wrote his great and later Epistles
had not the eschatotogical dimculties of the Tnessa-
kmians to meet. He adapted his letters to the wants
(tf thorn to whom he wrote. The rer^^ fact that the
ifiprciiension of an immediiUe Parousia is not men-
tKmed in the later letten would hove prevented a
kfr^ from pahning off as Pettdiiie such an unusual

B. Cononiofv.— The two Epistles to the Thessa-
looians are included among the canonical books ac-
cepted by the Councils of the Vatican, of Trent, and of
Florence, and are among the honuHogoumena of all
early lists of canonical New-Testament Scriptiu*es; for
instance, to mention only such early lists as accord
with the reoeiTed oamm of TVent, these two Epistlsa
are Urted in ^e Muratoriw Fragment (a. d. 196-
206), in the canons of St. Athanaaius of Alexandria
(a. d. 373), <kF the Third Council of Carthage (a. d.
897), in which Saint Augustine took part, of St.
^mhanius (a. d. 403), of Innocent I (a. d. 405), and
of Gelaaius (a. d. 492). In fact there can be no rea-
son whatsoerer to cumbt the oanonidty trf either
letter.

C Time md PIow.-^-The lextua reeepetM, at the end
of the two Epistles, gives a subscription stating that
thw were written from Athens (^7p4^ M'AS^pQr);
and thid same subscription is contained in the gpesA
uncial codices A, B*, K*, — that is, Alexandnnus

S«tttii century), Vaticanm (fifth-century corrector),-
osquensis, and Angelicus (both of the ninth cen-
tisryr); it is likewise truislated in important Latin,
Synao, and Coptic MSS. None the leas, there can
be no doubt but that the letters were written fhuing
Paurs first stay in Oninth. Timothy had been smt
to Theesalonica by Paul from Athens (I Thees., iii, 2).
Hence some Fathers inferred that, on this mission,
Timothy brought along I These. The inference Is
wrong. As Rendel Harris says in "The Expositor"
(1898), 174, Paul may have sent another letter from
AUiens by Timothy to the Thessalonians. He cannot
have sent I Thees. from there by him. Paul deariy
states that Timothy had returned from Theesalonica
brfore the writiiu; of I These, (cf. iii, 6). Whither
did he return? I Thess. doee not state. Acts, xviii,
6, suDplies answer. When Timothy returned from
MacMonia with Silas to Paul, the Apostle was at
Corinth. The news brought him by Timothy was
the occasion of I Thess. Moreov^, in the greeting
with which each letter begins, the names of Paul,
Silvanus (i. e. Silas), and Timothy are grouped to-
gethtf : and we know that the three were together at
Corinth (Acta, xviii, 6) durincPaal's first visit to tiiat
dty (of. abo 11 Cor., i, 19). we have no pEoof that
ttuy wsre ever flbewhne togetiier. I llioM.f tl^

1 THWAALOHIANB

was written durmg the eighteen months Paul stayed
at Corinth, i. e. in the year 48 or 49, according to the
chnmology of Hamat^, "Chionologie der aUchrist-
UcUlKLitteratur" (Leipzig, 1897), I, 717: in the year
83 54 according to the commonly received scheme
of Pauline chronology. Both letters are generally con-
sidered to be the earliest extant writing of St. Paul.
Some few now deem it proved that Pam wrote to the
South Galatians even before he wrote to the Thessa-
lonians, cf. Zahn, "Einleitung in das Neue Testa-
ment" (Lnpsig, 1807), 1, 138.

P. Ocauim. — Having arrived at Athens, Paul at
onoe set himself to convert the Jews, proselytes and
Qoitiles of that city. Amongthe latter he met with
unusually small success. The Epicureans and
Stoics for the most part rated him as a talkative
lounger in the agora and either berated him with ridi-
cule upon the Hill of Aree or wav«d him aside (Acts,

xvii, 16-32). Meanwhile he trembled for the Church
of ThesaalonicB. So long as he had been there, onhr
the Jews strove to set his woHe at naught; now in his
absence, the Qentiles joined the Jews (ITness., ii, 14},
and made a vigorous onslaught upon the faith of his
children. Paid yetuned mistily to see thdr face
once more. In his intense imection and concern^ he
breaks away from his wonted first plural: " We wilted
to have come to you, even 1, Paul, and that once and
again; but Satan nindered us" (ii, 18). The hindrance
wrought by Satan was probably a security i^nst his
return given by Jason and some friends (Acts, xvii,
9) . Being unable to follow the yearnings of his heart,
Paul sent Timothy to save the flock from the ravening
wolves (I Thess., ii, 2). The Acts make no mention
of this lM»tion of Timothy from Athena to Theesa-
lonica. Not long after, Paul left for Corinth (Acts,

xviii, I). Thither Timothy, who returned from
Thessalonica, brou^ back an eyewitness's testi-
mony as to the oonoitions of the faithful of that city.
Rendel Harris, in "The Expositor" (1898), 167,
thinks that the Theesalonians sent Paul a lettwby
Timothy and, to make good his theory, appeals io
I Thesa., i, 2, 5; ii, 1, 5, 9-13; iii, There may
be some ground for such conjecture in "Wealso" (imt
*kI») of ii, 13; "Also I" (xAyti) of I iU, 5, and in
"you have a good remembrance of us always"
(fxT€ fiweiw ^ftdy Aya$^) of I, iii, 6. Be this as it
may, whether by letter or by wwd erf mouth, Tim-
othy f ulty informed Paul of the needs of the Christian
oommumty at Thessalonica; and these needs were the
occasion of the first Epistle to that community.

E. Contejits. — No other letter of Paul to a Church
is so free and easy and epistolary as is this letter; it
defies strict doctrinal analysis, and is far more per-
sonal than doctrinal. Merely for the sake of some
division, we may consider chapters i and iit as personal,
elu4>tersivaiuiv as doctrinal. (1) Personal part — a
missionary's free outpouring of a noble heart's yearn-
ings.— ^He is filled with joy at hearing how the^ stand
fast by the faith which he preached to them (i^ 2, 8);
fondly talks about his labours and about his stay
with them (i, 9-ii, 12) ; thanks God for the way the^
received from him the word of God (ii, 13-16) ; deU-
cately hints at his apprehensions for them, by telling
how at Athens he yearned to see them, how he sent
Timotl^ in his stead, how relieved he now is as Tim-
othy's message has brought him peace of mind
(ii, I7-iii, 10). Then follows a bria and beautiful
pTKver vmieh sums up the yearnings of the great soul
of the Apostle (iii, 11-13).

(2) Doctrinal part. — With this prayer ends what is
meant to be free and epistolary. Now follows a little
phrase of transition — "For the rest, therefore,
brethren" — and a thoroughly Pauline and direct ex-
hortation upon how they "ought to walk and to
please God" by purity (iv, 1-8), brotherly love
(It, and peaceful toil (verse 11). The peace

(tf everydqr toil had been distuibed^V & fanatical
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lethargy due to the supposed onooming Parousi&.
Hence the eschatological passage that fouows. The
brethren who have died will have part in the Second
Comingjust as they that are now alive (verses 12^17);
the time of titw Parousia is uncertain, so that watch-
fulness and not lethargy are needed (v, 1-11). The
lett/a ends with a series of pithy and pointed exhort*-
tions to respect for their relimous teachers, and to the
other virtues that make up the glory of Christian life
(v, 12-22) ; the Apostolic benediction and salutation, a
request for prayers and the charge that the letter be
read in pubhc (verses 23-28).

III. Second Efistlb. A. Auihenlicily. (1) Ex-
ternal Evidence. — MS. evidence is the same for II
Thess. as for I Thess., so, too, the evidence of the
ancient versions. The Apostolic and Apok^etic
Fathers are more clearly in favour of II Theas. than
of I Thess. St, Ignatius, in Rom., x, 3, cites a phrase
of II Thess,, iii, 5, tit rii' ^9no»iip t«5 XpurroS, "in the
patience of Christ ". St. Polycarp (XI, 3) refers the
letter expressly to Paul, although, by a slip of the mem-
ory, he takes it that the Apostle glories (II Thees., i,
4) in another Macedonian Church, that of the
FhiUppians; elsewhere (XI, 1) Polycarp uses II Thess.,

iii, 15. St. Justin (about a. d. 150), in "Dialog.",
xxxii (P. O., VI, 544), seems to have in mind the
eschatological language of this letter. Besides it is
set down as Pauline in the Canon of Marcion (about

A. D. 140).

(2) Internal Evidence. — ^The literary dependence
of II Thess. on I Thess. cannot be gainsaid. The
writer of the former must have written the latter, and
that too not veiy long thereafter, n Theaa., ii, 15.
and >ii> 6, are to be explained by I Thess., iv, 1-8 ana
11. The style of the two letters is admittedly iden-
tical; the prayers. (I, iii, 11, v, 23: II, ii, 16, lii, 16),
greetings (I, i, 1; II, i, 1, 2), thanks (1, i, 2; II, i, 3),
and transitions (I, iv, 1; II, iii, 1) are remarkably alike
in form. Two-thirds of II Thess. is like to I Thess.
in vocabulary and st^le. Moreovo-, the structure of
the Epistle, its aubjecfr-matter, ana its affectionate
outbursts 01 prayer for the recipienta and of exhorta-
tion are all decidedly Pauline characteristics. The
argument from intenaal evidence is so strong as to
have won over such critics as Hamack (Chronoloeie,
1, 238) andJtilicher (EiDleitung,40). Schmiedel,HoTtz-
mann, Weizacker, and others deny the force of this
argument from internal evidence. Its very similarity
to I Thess. in vocabuluy and style is made to mih-
tate against the authenticity of II Tbess.; the letter is
too Pauline; the authw was a clever forger, who,
some sixty years later, took up I Thess. and worked it
over. Taen has been no motive assigned for such a
forgery; no proof given that any post-Apostolic
writer was so cunning as to palm oS this letter as a
Pauline imitation.

Eschatology of Paul. — The chief objection is that
the eschatology of II Thess. contradicts that of I
Thess. : the letter is in this un-Pauline. In I Tbesa.,

iv, 14~v, 3, the writer says the Parousia is imminent; in
II Thess., ii, 2-12, iii. It, the writer sets the Parousia
a long time off. Non-CatboUcs who hold the Pauline
authorship of the two letters ^nerally admit that
Paul predicted the second coming would be within
his own lifetime and deem that the signs narrated in
II Thess., ii, as preludes to that coming do not imply
a long interval nor that Paul expected to die befcve
these signs occurred. Catholics mstst that Paul ean-
not have said the Parousia would be during his life-
time. Had he said so he would have erred: the in-
spired word of God would err; the error would be that
of the Holy Spirit more than of Paul. True, the
Douay Version seems to imply that the Parousia is at
hand: "Then we who are alive, who are left, shall be
taken up together with them in the clouds to meet
Christ, mto the air, and so shall we always be with the
Lord" (I Theas., iv, 16). Ttie Vulgate is no dsarer:

''No8,quivivimuB,qutreBidai8amus"etc. 15-17).
The onginal text solvee the difficulty: 4m«!>o1 l&pra at
ra/M\Mir6ftMP0if SfM cir airott ifiwayifffifiiiOa, Here the
Hellenistic syntax parallels the Attic. The sentence
is conditional. The two participles present stand for
two futures preceded by <f; the participles have the
place of a protasis. The translation is: "We, if we be
aUve — if we be left-^-Ion earthk shall be taken up" etc.
A similar construction is used by Paul in I Cor., xi. 29
(cf. Moulton, "Grammar of New Testament Greek",
Edinburgh, 1906, I, 230). St. Paul is hete no more
definite about the tune of the Parousia than he was in
I Thess., v, 2, when he wrote " that the day of the
Lord shall so come, as a thief in the night. " There is
in St. Paul's eschatology the veiy same indefinlteness
about the time of the Parousia that there is in tbe
eschatol<^ca] sayings of Jesus as related in the
Syrioptica (Matt., xxiv, 5-45; Mark, nii, 7-~37; Luke,
xxi, 20-36). "Of that day or hour no man knoweth,
neither the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but the
Father" (Mark, xui, 32). In the deposit of faith

g'ven by the Father to the Son, to be given by the
>n to the Church, the tune of the Parousia was not
contained. We rMdily admit that St. Paul did not
know the time of the Parousia; we cannot admit that
he knew it wrong and wrote it wrong as the inspired
Word o( God and a part of the deposit of faith.

As for the further objection that the ^x>calyptic
character of ii, 2-12, is poet-Pauline and dependent
upon so late a composition as the Apocalypse of John
(a. d. 03-96) or, worse still, upon we Nero redwim»
atory (Taeitus, "Hist.", II, viii), we answer that this
adsertion is uiUrely gratuitous. St Paul got his
wociJyptio ideas from the very same source as John,
that is either from revelation to himself or from the
Old Testament or from tradition. Mobt of the details
of his apocalyptic description of the Parousia are
given in other apocalyiKea (I John, ii, 18; Matt.,
xxiv, 24; Luke, xxi, 8; Mark, xiii, 22; Deut., xiii, 1-5;
Esech., xxxviii and xxxix; Dan., vU-ix, xi, xii, etc.).
The man of sin, Antichrist, Belial, the well-nij^ com-
plete triumph of evil just before the end of time, tba
almost general i4>osta8iy, the portents, and other itons
are features familiar to Ofd-Testunent and Nev-
Teatament apocalyptic writings.

B. Cananiciiy.— 'The canonicity of II Thess. has
been treated t(M;ether with that of I Thess.

C. Time and Place. — II Thess. was written at
Corinth not lon^ after I Thess., for both Timothy and
Silas are still with Paul (i, 1), aiul the sUenee of the
Acts shows that, once Paul lat Corintii, Silas was not
again his companion in the ministry, lliere seem to
be allusions in iii, 2, to the troublous stay of a year
and a half at Corinth (Acts, xviii); in ii, 14, to the
letter c^uite recently written to tiie Theasalonians;
and in ui, 7-9, to the ministry of Paul among them as
not long passed.

D. Occasion. — ^The eschatology of I Thess. had
been misunderstood by the Thessalonians; they totdc
it, the day of the Lord was at hand (ii, 2) ; they were
ovOTrrou^t by the exaggerations of some meiddlers
and perhaps by a forgeatetter which purported to
have oome from Paul (Ii, 2; iii, 17). Moreover the
disorderly conduct of some (iii, 6, 11) gave Uie
Apostle no Uttle concern; this concern he showed by
the letter.

E. CotUenit. — ^The three chapters into which the
letter is now divided, aptly analyse the thought. In
the first chapter are a greeting, thanksgiving for the
faith and love of the Theasalcmians, and sm assurance
of Divine recompense to them and to their persecu-
tors. In the second chapter is the main thought of
the letter — the eschatology. Certain signs are de-
tailed which must precede the Parousia. Until these
signs appear, there is no reason for terror or taking
l^ve of thmr senses. The third chapter is the usual
Pauline request tot ffnyeia, a cbai^ to avoid tlM

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TBI8SAL0NICA

dborderly, a truly Pauline ^uaon to the otample he
set them, and the final identification of the letter by a
greeting written with his own hand.

Of tb« Qr«ek Ffttbers whose oommenUriM on I and II Thtm.
hmn eoa» down to ua, St. John CmtrBoaioH ia by fu Um BWt
■ohoUrly; THaoDoasr is pithy tnd to the vctai. Tnooou
or MonDMTU. (about a. d. 418) fonna too i^oatte to hia
ideal. EcmLLiua tkb Ducxui dapenda ob Tbwwohi: 8t.
John Dahascsns oa Sr. Jobm CnrManoH. Amon^ taa liaua
Fathera AMBBoaunaa (about 730) at timea em in matters
ol faith; PauuaiDS (about 566) colls ted the expoaitiona of
AMBBoauSTBs, Pblaqius. &r. AuooBTiNm, and Sr. JBaan.
The sraat Cathohc oommantaton of mon reoeot time are:
JcariNiANi (Lyons, 1612), a Lamdi (Antwerp, 1814), Cajbtah
(Rome, lfi29).SALiiBB6K(Madiid, 1602), Kwthukbb (MOnater,
1822). McBnuT (DubUn. 1S76), BnnNO (MOnatm. 1873).
Maomoobt (Parte, 1878), Rount (Paasan. l8S5), Johamnbs
gHl^Dcen, 1888). Panbk (Ratisbon, 1886). Pbat. La thioloffie
it Saint Aid (Pari^ 1008). Picomo (Paris, 1837), PaaoKifS
(Paris, 1881), TotraaaiMT (Paris, 1910). The chief Protaataot
ooauneDtariaa are those of Liohtfoot (Wmm, 1888), DaoiaiaaiD
OSOS), Andlat (100«), Miluoam (1908), Bchmiwkl 1^03),
B. Wsna (18B6).

, Wai/tbb Druu.

TlM8Bil<nileft (Salonixi), titular metropolis in
Maoedooia. It was at first a village called Alia, situ-
ated not far from Axiua, the modem Vardar; it snbse-
qu«itly took the name of Therma, from the thermal
springs east and south of it. The gulf on which it
was situated was then called the Thermaic Gulf.
After having sheltered the fleet of Kin^ Xerxes and
having belonged to the Athenians dunng the Pekn
ponnesian War, Therma passed to the kings of Mac^
oonia after the death of Alexanda-. Cananda-, the
son of Antipater, having enlarged the village and
transported thither the innabitants of the neighbour-
ing vilbxes, called it Thessalonica, in honour of his
wue. Thenceforth the city grew steadily in import-
ance. Unsuccessfully besieged by iEmuius Paulus,
it only opened its gates after the victory of Pvdns
which made the Romans masters of Maceaonia
(168 B. c.)- The kin^^om was thm divided into four
diBtricte, each of which had its capital and its om-
ventut. Thessalonica was the capital of the aeoond
district. In 146 b. c. Macedonia was made a angle
province with ThessaLonica as capital. This was the
arrangement until the tliird ana fourth century of
our era, when four provinces were again formed.
The proconsul bad his residence at Thessalonica. as
did later the prefect of Illyricum Orientale, who first
resided at Srmium. During the firat eivil war Thes-
salonica was the principal headquarters tA Pompey and
the Roman senatwe; during the second it suppiorted
Anthony and Octavius against the Triumvirs, receiv-
ing &om them after the battle of Philippi the title of
free city and other advantages, being allowed to
administer its own affairs and obeying magistrates
called politarchs.

Thessalonica received the title of cotonia under the
fhnperor Vahrian. Theodosius the Great puniAed
the revolt ci its inhabitantB (!^) hy a genend ma»-
HHsre in which 7000 were slain. In 479 the Goths
attaAed the- city. Between 675 and 6S1 the Slavs
unsuceessfuUy besi^ed Thessalonica four times. On
31 July, 904, a Mussulman corsair, Leo of Tripoli,
came unexpectedly with bis fleet and attacked the
city, then the second in the empire, captured and
pillaged it, and took away a ^reat many prisoners. A
dramatic account of the affair was written by a priest
d llieasalonica, John Cameniates, who was an eye-
witness (Schlumberger, "Nic^hore Phocas", Paris,
1890, 35 sqq.). In 1083 Euthymius, Greek Patriarch
of Jerusalem, was commissioned by Alexius I Com-
nenus to negotiate peace at Thessalonica with Tan-
crcd of Sicily, who had conquered a portion of Epinis
and Macedonia and threatened to take possession of
the rest. In August, 1185, Guillaume d'Hauterive,
l^ig of Sicily, besieged Thessalonica by sea with a
fleet of 200 ships andhy land with an army of 80,000
men ; the city was captured, and all reristance from
the Qreeks pumshed with death. In the foOowing

year the city was recaptured by the Byzantines; the
metropolitan Eustathius wrote an account cn the
campaign in a homily, which was read during the
Lent of 1186. In 1204, after the Latins had occupied
Constantinople and a portion of the Byzantine Em-
pire, Boniface, Marquis of Monferrato, proclaimed
himself King of Thessalonica, his Latin Kingdom
depending on the Latin Empire of Byzantium. He
defended it against the Bulgars, whose tsar, the
terrible CaJojan, was assassinated under the walls of
Thessakmiea in 1207, and against the Greeks from
Epirus. In 1222 the latter put an end to the Frankish
iOngdom and took possession of Thessalonica, setting
up an independent empire, the rival of that of Nicsa,
with Theodore Comnenus as first sovereign. He was
defeated in 1230 at Klokotinitza by the Bulgar Tsar,
Assen II, and most of his empire passed into the
hands of the Bulgars. Thessalonica with the remain-
ing cities was given to Theodore's brother, the Em-
peror Manuel.

In 1242 after a successful campaign against the
Emperor of Thessalonica, John Vatatzes, Emperor of
Nietea, forced John An^lo to take only the title of
despot and to declare himself his vassal. After the
expedition of Vatatzes in 1246 Thessalonica lost all
independence and was annexed to the iSnpire of
Niceea which in 1261 was once more removed to Clon-
stantinople. Unable to defend it against the Turks,
the Greeks in 1423 sold Thessalonica to the Venetian^
the dtv being captured 28 March, 1430, bv the Sultan
Murad and definitively incorporated in the Ottoman
Empire. It was the scene of^ unheard-of cruelties on
the part of the Turks. In order to weaken the Greek
element, so powerful in the city and in that part of
Macedonia, the Sublime Porte offered a refuge about
the end of the sixteenth century to the Jews driven
from Spun by Philip II. They now number 80,000
out of 120,000 inhabitants; the remainder of the popu-
lation consists of Turki^ Greeks, Bulgars, Armenians,
and nearly 3000 Cathobcs. The parish is directed by
the Lazansts, the schools by the Christian Brothers.
Thessalonica, which is the capital of a vilayet, grows
constantly in importance, owing to its situation and
its commerce, as well as to the part it played in the
two military revolutions of 1908 and 1909 which
modified the authoritative regime of the Turkish
Empire.

The establishment of Christianity in Utessakinica
seoBs to date from St. Paul's first journey to die city
(see TasssALONiANs, Efistlss to ths). Secundus
and Aristarchus, companions of St. Paul, were na-
tives of Theiraalonica (Acts, xx, 4); Demas who
abamdoned the Apostle to go thither, seems likewise
to have been bom there (11 Tim., iv, 9). According
to Orwen, who igjeata an ancient tradition ("Com-
ment, m Ep. ad Rom.", in P. G., XIV, 1289), Gains
was the first Bishop of Thessalonica. Four persons
of this name are mentioned in the New Testament,
but the GaiuB of Origen would be a native of Corinth
(I Cor., i, 14). MeUto of Sardes relates that Anto-
ninus Hub wrote to the Thessalonians not to tolerate
in their city the tumult against the Christians (Euse-
bius, "Hist, eccl", IV, 26). Alexander assisted at
the Council of Nicsa in 325, at Tyre in 335, and at the
consecration of the Holy Sepulchre in the same year.
At the end of the same centurv Acholius baptized
Theodosius the Great. Le Quiennas compiled a lisi of
74 Greek titulars of this city, some of whom do not
belong to it. Father Petit continued his task and
gives a biographical account of more than 130. The
most famous were: Rufus, who in the early fifth cen-
tury a ted constantly as intermediary between the
papacy and the Eastern Churches; Eusebius, the cor-
respondent of St. Gregory the Great and author of a
work in ten books against the Monophyaites: John,
who early in the seventh century compiled the first
book on the miradee oi St. Demebiiu^t. Jo«e^.

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brother ctf St. IWIore the Studtte, aad the Tiotim

in 832 of the loonodast peraecutions; Leo the Phl-
loBopher, professor at the Maraaurft, the master of
Fhotius and of all the literary celebrities of the period:
Michael Chumnoe, the auuior of several canoQicai
treatises in the twdfth oentuiy; Basil of Achrida, who
took part in tiie theolmpcal discussions with the en-
voys of the pope or at the Emperor of the West;
EustachiuB, toe oeMmted scholiast of Homer; Gre-
gory Palamas, the defender of the Hesychast theories
ana the bitter enemy of the Catholics in the four-
teenth century, who is still regarded as one of the
fireatest doctors of the Schismatic Church; Isidore
Glabas; Simeon, liturgiBt and canonist, d. in 1420, a
year before the capture of the city by uie Turks.

When lUyrieum Orientale, comprising the two dvil
Dioceses of EhEicia and Macedonia, was ceded by Gra-
tian in 379 to tiie Empire of the East, Pope St.
Damasus in order to retain iurisdiction over these dis-
tant provinces appointed the Bishop of Hiessalonica
his vicar ApostoUc. Id this capacity the bishop pre-
sided at the local councila of the various proviooes,
judging and solving difficulties, save in more serious
matters, wherein the decision was reserved to the
pope. He also confirmed the election of metropoli-
tans and simple bishops and granted authoriEatton to
proceed to ordination. Finally, he occupied a privi-
leged place at the oecumenical councils and signed
their (fecisions immediately after the pf^jiarchs. He
thus enjoyed the prerogatives of a patriarch, even to
bearing the title, out was subject to the Patriarch of
Rome. The Bishop of Constaotinople sou^t to
modify this orguiization by inducing Tneododus U to
pass a law (14 July, 421) which attached all the
Bishops of Il^ria to the Byzantine Church, and by
having this hiw inserted in the Code (439); but the
popes protested against this injustice and prevented
the application of the law. Until 535 the Vicar Apoe-
tolic of Thessalonica exerdsed jurisdiction over all the

Srovinces of Illyricum Orientale, but subsequent to
[ovel xi of Justinian tin authority was divued be-
tween him and the new Archbishop of JuaUniana
Prima. The lattw, likewise appointed vicar Apostolic
of the pope, directed the seven provinces of the north
trlale tne Bishop of Thessalonica continued to occupy
Uie six others: Macedonia Prima. Thessalia, Achaia,
Creta, Nova and Vetus Epirus. Matters renuuned so
until 732 when the Emperor Leo the Isaurian, after
his excommunication by the pope, connected all the
bishoprics of Illyria with the Patriarchate of Con-
stantinople. Thenceforth, deeolte the protests of
Rome, "niessalonica was dependent on the Church of
Bysanttum. . , ,

After the establishment of the Latm Kingdom of
Tbefflalonica in 1205 Nivelo de Ch^risy, Bishop of
Soissons, who had tsken an active part in the Fourth
Crusade, was appointed by Innocent III (10 Decem-
ber, 1206) first iMlin archbishop of the city. He died
in Uie following year; his successors were at first resi-
dential and afta^ards titular (see list in Le Quien,
"Oriens Christ.", lU, 108»-96; Eubel, "Hierarchia
catholica medii revi", I, 510; II, 275). From a letter
of Innocent III written in 1212 we learn that Theasar
lonica had then eleven suffragans. Apart from the
saintly bishops mentioned above Thessalonica had
other saints: Agape, Irene, and Chionia, martyred
under Diocletian; Agotbopodus, deacon^ and Theo-
dulus, rector, martyred under Diocletian; Anysia,
martyred under Maximian; Demetrius, martyr, Uie
protector <^ the city, from whose tomb flowed an oil
which worked mirades, and whose superb basilica has
been converted mto a mosque; David, solitary (sixth
century); Theodora, d. in 892; etc. The Vicariat*
Apostolic of Macedonia, for the Bulgars, whose titular
reeidee at Thessalonica, was established in 1883. It
has upwards of 6000 Catholics, 26 residential stations,
88 fleoilar priesta^ most of than married, 10 Laiarist

priesti» 21 diarabes and diapda, 27 primary sobools
tor boys and girls with 1110 pui>ils. The seminary,
directed by the Lasarists, is at Zeitenlik, near Thessa^
lonica. llie Sisters oi Charity and the Bulgarian
Eucbaristine Sisters also have scbot^ and orohanagsa.

Lm QtnaK. Oritiu ekriil., 11. 27-66; Tafsu D4 Tlu—aUnim
aimtH* mffn (Beriitt. 1839); Bbllbt, Obttnatiant tw Fkitloin
«t mr Im mmuMMitft lU la tOU da TiMtaaionimit ia Ritoirt dt
rXauttmfa du IfueHpHMM. XXXVIII (Pam), 13S aq. ; Vi<i-
onaomc L« AToumoh Ttttawtent «t let tUeovMrUt orchMogiqum
moderiMf (Paris, 1800), 216-88; Spata, / SicUitMi in SaloRw*
neU'anno MCLXXX V a>&l«rmo, 1892) : Pvrrr. Im M^um dt
Thtttatoiti^ In BekM d'Orimt, IV, V, VI, mud VIII; DucRHira,
L'lUj/rieum aocUnoMim* ia BynntinU^ ZeiUeknJt, I, 631-60;
VailbA, Antuiion <riU]tneum au patriarcat acumtttvM in
AAm SOrUM, XIV, 30-36: Mianmiu coMoltM (Room, 1907).
7«B: CBinn, Rnegelopmdta bOHta, b. v.

llMfMto, titular see of Nomidia. The oit^
aeons to have had some importance even prior to

Christianity. During the first century of our era
the heffo III Augusta resided there /before being
transferred to Lambssis. It was made a colonia
probably under Trajan. There is m«ition of a
council held there by the Dcmatists. Among its
saints were St. Lucius, its bishop, who in 256 assisted
at the Council oi CarthMe and died for the Faith
two years later; St. Maximuianus, martyred 12 March,
205; St. Cri^iina, martyred 5 Deoembw, 2fA. Some
of its bishops are known: Romulus in 349; Urbicus in
411; Felix exiled by the Vandals in 484; Palladius
n^tioned in an inscription. It was rebuilt by the
patrician Solomon at the beginning of the reign of
Justinian, and he built a tomb there which still
exists. Under the Turks Theveste bad a^ earrison
of janizaries. Since 1851 it has been occupied by the
EVench. Underthenameof Td>6B8aitiBthecsprtaloC
a caatonof the Department of Omstantine in Algeria.
It has 7000 inhabitants, of whom i^ut 1200 are
Europeans. It has a Catholic parish. Tdi>eesa ia
very rich in ancient monuments, among them bemj; a
triumphal arch of (Daracalla, a temple, a Christian
basilica of the fourth century 216 feet kmg by 72 feet
wide, near which are buried a number of pious persons.
_Tovi<OTTi. Qioo- dt FA/rique ekriL: Protommlairt (Rrnnw
302-99; Dibrl in AbtMtto orMtea dn wMrioM aeimtHr.
188V. 33»-3St Buxv. Lt momaiOn tin. d» mmm

8. VailhA.

Thibnrts, titular see in Byaaoena (Africa), not
mentioned by any ancient author. The official uat of
the Roman Curia places it in Byaaoena, but in reality
it belonged to Africa ProecMisularis. An inaeription
fixes the exact site at the ruins now cAlIed Hcoshir
Hamamet, in a plain watered by the Wady Tibar
which has retained the name of the town. These
ruins an situated about five miles nraib-east of
Djebba, near the Djebel Gorra Tunaiai. There are
^iena and calamine mines at Djebba. The fonoer
were worked even in ancient times and are menUooed
in a lett^ from St. C^^iHian to the fMthful ot Thibuis
(Ep. Ivi). Hie chief ruins are those of an aqueduet
and a Christian church. Nearby is the nstive orphan-
age of St. Joemh of Tflur, where the White Fathers re-
ceive ohiefly Algerian KM^yka. Two bishm of HA-
bum are niown: Viooen^ ^<eaent at the Ooimeil of
Carthage in 266, wd Victor, at the Omferenoe ot
Carthage in 411, where his nval was the Dma&t,
Victoriui.

TovLona, (Uag. di PAfritiu cfcrA.: Aveenwloira (Fuii, 18M),

S. PfiTBinfts.
Thilwut de Champagne.— Thibaut IV, Oiunt of
Champame and King of Navarre, a French poet. b.
1201, at Troves; d. 8 July, 1253. He was the posthu-
mous son of Thibaut UI, Count of Champagne and
Blois, and Blanche, sister of Sancho VII, lung of Nar-
varre. He had to aefond his rights to his coimtship first
in 1221 against his uncle. Count of Brienne, and later
fwainst his aunt, Alice,^Queen of Cyprus. During
t&e mimuri^ of Louis iX, be first aided with the

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635

Thibadt, Coma m Champa aira
After ■ P kin tine by Jouannin

nobles against Blanebe of Caetile^ but he soon s^ia-

rated from them, and being attacked by them, he was
defended by the queen. In 1234, bis uncle Sanctio
VII having died childless, he succeeded him as Kinjg of
Navarre. He was the leader of the crusade organised
in 1239 by Gregory IX, and landed at Acre on the

first of September,
fought several un-
successful battles,
and after his troops
were decisively de-
feated at Oasa, he
left Syria on 1
September, 1240.
In order to arouse
the zeal of the no-
bility for the de-
fence of the Holy
Land, he composed
four songs, Icnown
as Crusade songs,
which rank among
his best: their lit-
erary value is equal
to their Christian
inspiration. Very
little is known of
his life after he
returned from his
oampiu^ in Palestine. There is some uncertainty
oonoemmg the place where he died, at Provins,
Troyes, or in Navarre. He is regarded as one of the
neatest lyrical poets of the thirteenth century. His
raythms are most harmonious, his combinations of
metres show a real ^11, while his expressions are full of
refinement and true sentiment. His verses have been
published, under the title of "Poesies du Roi de Na-
varre", by L^vesgue de la Ravalli^re (Paris, 1742).
They consist of sixty-six poems, divided as follows:
thirty-nine love sings, twelve jeux-partis, or debating
song^ four Crusade songs, and eight smrentoM. Dante
and Petrarch had the greatest regutl for this poet and
spoke of him in most laudatory terms.

D'Akbois db JuBAiNTiLU, Ritt. de* eomtet de Chamjtoffn'
(Pwria, 1866); Psm om Jollbvillb, Uiat. de la lattgit* «t d* la
titUntun AoneotM, II (Paria, 18M); Bsdijck, Chaium* d* any-
tad* (Jhah, IwSy.

Loots N. Delamarrx.

Thierry of rrelburg (or of Saxont), a philosopher
and physician of the Middle Ages, and a member of
the Order of Saint Dominic. We cannot with any de-
gree of certainty idratify him with Frater 'Ilieodori-
cus, who in 1283, was named prior of the wnvent of
WQrsburg, but there is abundant evidence that at the
Chapter General held at Strasbui^ (1293) he was
maoe superior general of the province of Germany,
holding this post until 1296. In 1297 we find him at
Paris, teaching the "Sentences" of Peter Lombiu^;
in 1303, at Coblenz; and in 1304, at Toulouse, tak-
ing part in the Chapter General of his order. In 1310,
the Chapter General of Plaisance appointed him Vi-
ecaiua Provincia TetUonica, while awaiting the nomi-
nation of a new provincial. Nothing is known of his
after life.

Thierry was a very active writer. A list of the
works of Dominican authors, compiled in 1330, as-
cribes to him thirty-one different treatises, twenty-one
of which are still in existence, on the most diverse sub-
jects of theology, metaphysics, and cosmology. But
the one wbicn especially redounds to the gloiy of
Thierry is that composed in 1304 " De Fride'^for the
Chapter General of Toulouse, at the request of AmtJric
de Plaisance, superior-general of the order. Therein
with wonderful clearness Thierry describes the differ-
ent reflections and refractions of every ray which forma
either the first or second rainbow. This eorocnment
was made with a si^ieriosl dn^ ci water. TurUieav

more, with the help of spherical dass vaaee filled with
water, he vttified expeiimentuty the phenomena
which he planned. This work, which made its author
a precursor of Deoeartee, is a model <tf the art of
caily oombining expsrimeatB.

Vainoai-RaeuMO, CammuUaH aoara la ifaris a b Iwtm dUF
oOiea, I (B<d<wiw. 1814). pt. Ill: Frid: sto.. 149^6.
Knu, JtffMa- i»i*rHA {puedt^iem TtutoRiew «i Wbtn) Mi)b
Labiit, MHi* Wtrka. mm F<HMMA«ff in BtitrOga mr OndUcMc dtr
^^i^hiidM MiMbdian TnU u. niMmcAMwrn, V (Hanatw.

Pierre Duhbm.

Thian, Loms-ADOLPBB, French statesman and
historian, first presidrat of the Third French Repub-
lic, b. at Marseilles 16 April, 1797; d. at Fans, 3
Sept., 1877. Estabhshed at Paris in 1821 he at onoe
took an important place in the Liberal Oppoaititm
Press as editor of the "Constitutioimel", ana in the
literary world through his " Histoire de i& revolution
fnuiQaise" (10 vols., 1823-27). The foundation in
1829 of "Le National" by Thiers. Mignet, and Ar-
raand Carrel provided the Liberab with a powerful
weapon against the Polignac ministry, and furthned
the movement which resulted in 1830 in the fall of
the Bourbons. A proclamation drawn up by Thiers
29 Ju^, 1830. directed the attention of t£e people to
the Due d'OrlSans who became King Lotti»>Pbilippe.
Thiers became a member of the FVench Academy in
1834 and between 1830 and 1840 was several times
minister under the Juhr Monarchy. When the long
Guisot ministry freed him from political occupations
he undertook the "Histoire du consulat et de V6m~
pire" (20 vols., 1846-62). It was he who caused the
adoption by the Chamber of Deputies, 3 May, 1845,
of an order of the day aimed at the Jesuits and stipu-
lating that the Chamber should rely on the Govern-
ment to enforce the laws of the State. The result
of this vote was the negotiation undertaken at Rome
by the ambassador Rossi in behalf <A the Govern-
ment of Louis-Philippe to secure the suppressicm of the
Jesuits in France. In 1846 Thiers accused the Gui-
Eot ministry oS making concessions to the Catbdic
party at the expense of the university. But after the
advent of the Second Republic, having taken fright
at the rise of certain Revolutionary ideas, he served
the interests of the Church, and as early as March,
1848, he acknowledged in a letter to Madier de Mont-
jan that his ideas had changed with regard to liberty
of instruction. In
the committee
which prepared
the vote for the
Uri FaUoux Thiers
was influenced by
Dupanloup and
declared to Cousin :
"The abbe is right.
In fighting gainst
the con^^atiMis
we have fought
against justice and
virtue and we owe
them reparation."
He voted for
the Roman expedi-
tion.

Under the Sec-
ond Empire Thiers
was elected (1863)
deputy of the Op-
position, but on
several occasions
he criticised in the Chamber the Italian revolution and
beeought the Government of Napoleon not to permit
the downfall of the temporal power. After having
eloquently opposed the policy of the Second Empire
with r^ud to Prussia he was sent to various Euro-
pean oourts by the Bureau of National Defence, wbioh

Adolpits TSTKBa
IVom tlM Portnit by Bonnat

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THUII

wu eeddng aoiBtanee tot defeated France. On 8
F*., 1871, he was elected deputy by twwity-«x
depfutmente, and nine days later the National Assem-
bly almoet unanimously elected him chief executive.
He negotiated the Treaty <rf Frankfort and induced
the Assembly of Bordeaux (1 March, 1871) to ratify
the peace preliminaries. The r^orous measures by
whid) be overcame the Commune of Paris^iade many
enemieB for him. It is still a debated ctuestion whether
he might have saved the life of Mgr Darboy by
consenting to release the revolutionist Blanquil.
Several episcopal nominations mitde under Thiers by
the philosopher Jules Simon, minister of public wor-
ahip, redounded to the glory of the French episcopate.
After the treaty with Germany (16 March, 1873) for
the evacuation of French territory the National
Assemb^ declared that Thiers deeded wdl of his
country. But liie defeat at Paris a( his friend
musat by the Radical Barodet and the subsequent
distuibaiices among the Monarchist in the Assembly
induced Thiers to resign his office 24 May, 1873. He
was succeeded by MacMahon. Having thus given
up power Thiers took his seat in the Left Centre of
the Assembly amid the applause <tf the Left; and
althou^ the advanced memDers <rf the Left, because
of his severity during the Commune, defiberately
treated him as "a sinister old maa", he upheld with
ah his strength and prestige during his last years
a policy designed to bring about the defeat oi the
Right and of MacMahon. His long career sometimes
seems inconsistent. After having contributed by his
historical works to the prestige of Napoleon I and by
his vote to the election <rf the future N^leon III
to the ivendency <tf the Republic, he became the
adv&eeary of the Empire. After having supported
anti-religious Liberalism imder the Restoration and the
monarchy of July, he supported the Catholic claims
under the Second Republic, and during his old age
under the Third Republic he assisted the anti-clerical
parties. But the unity of his life consisted in his
always being the defender of a certain category of
ideas, aspurations, and interests proper to a social
class — Uie bourgeoisie^ and his book on the rig^t of
ownent^ (18w), besides being very intnesting as a
document, u the expression of an individualistic con-
ception, more pagan than Christian, <^ the right of
owner^tiip, one wnieb is the very antitiMeis of social
Christianity. He was buried with Uie ritea of
the church.

Calmon, Diacoart wlevtenlairu d» M. Thitrg (16 vols,, Park,
1878-89): Thiebs, Note* tt Souvenir*, 1870-1873 (Paru, 1893);
LxQorr, Life of L. Ad Thiert (New York, 1897); Julm Simom,
Le Gouvemetnetit de M. Thiere (Paris, 1876, tr. Nev York, 1829);
Hanotaux, UUI. d* la France coniemporaine: L» Ooutenumtnt
de M. Thiere (Paris, 1903) ; db Mabcebk, L'AeeembUe tuUionaU
de 1871, gouverrumerU de M. Thiere (Paris, 1904); QAnrHEBor,
L'Bxdtange dee olaget. Thiere d Mgr Siathov (Paris, 1910);
PiEBWa SiuoM, Thiere chef du pouvoir extcviif (Paris, 1911).

Georges Gotau.

Thi«tmar of Merseburg. See Dtthhab.

Tbigniea. titular see in Numidia. The Roman
Curia's official list of titular sees places Thignica in
Numidia. It belonged to Proconsular Africa. Its ruins
are called Ain Tounga, south-west of Testour, Tunisia.
They are very ext^isive and cover the summit and
slopes of a series of hills. One inscription calls it
"OvitasThignicensis" and states that it was divided
into three parts, another that it became a mttnicipium
at the begimiing of the third century under the
name of "municipium Septimium Aurelium Antonini-
anum Herculeum Frugiienun Thipiica". Towards
the centre of the rains is a Byaantme fortress, trape-
zoidal in shape, flanked by five square towers. Here
an inscription makes mention of the proconsul Do-
mitius Zaiophihis (326-^), famous in the annals of
Qtristian Africa. Among the other rains are a small
triumphal arch, a tenqile, a Christian church, the
nMDH of the enoUwure, etc. Despite die qdeodour and

importance of tius town we know on^ one bisbc^,
Aufidius, who assuted in 411 at the Conference of
Carthage where he had a Donatist rival.

ToOLOm, Otographi* de I'Afriaue dtrHieime. Aveonnilmra
(Path, 1862), 269^1: Otmmu I/Afiiqu» bi/MonUne (Paris, 1896),
passim.

S. PiTRID^S.

Thijin, Joseph Ausbbt Ai;berdinok, b. at Amster-
dam, 8 July, 1820; d. there, 17 March, 1889. After
finiBning his studies in his native city, he took up a
commercial career. But this prosaic occupation did
not smother his talents. Art and Uterature had a
great attraction for him. He made his entry into the
fitmry world as an art critic in the "Spectator" in
1842, and immediately attracted great attention by
his views and his style. The following year he pub-
lished an essay on the spelling of hybrid words, in
which he came out ss a philologist. In his poems,
which are numerous and take rank with what is best
in the Dutch poetry of the nineteenth century, he
shows that he is a disciple of Bilderdijk. This he him-
self declares in his celebrated poem "U mio ik, Oude
met uw stroefgeplooide trekken " (I love you, old one,
with yoax ni^ed features). In his triple capacity of
art critic, phOotogist, and poet, Thijm did so much
from 1842 to 1889 that he not only led the wa/ for
CathoUcs and laid the foundation of Catholic hter»-
ture, but becune one of the foremost writers <^ the
Netherlands of the nineteenth century.

His whole activity, all bis writings, bear the stamp
of Catholicity. No one attacked Catholic art or
Catholic hist<H7 withtmt having to reckon with Thijm.
"Nil nisi per Christum" was hie motto. By bis writ-
ings and the earnest character of his Catholicism
TEiim played one of the most influential r61es in the
Cathohc revival. To him is due no less than to Dr.
W. Cramer and Mgr. J. Smits, first editor-in-chief of
"De Tyd," the restoration of the hierarchy in the
Netherlands. In 1852 Thijm sent a memorial to
Rome setting forth the historic reasons for consider-
ing Utrecht to be the traditional arcbiepisGopal see of
Holland, and the anxietjr of the Catholics at that time
that the historic tradition be not broken. Besides
the poiodical "Dietsche Warande" which he edit^
from 1866 to 1886, the people's almanac for the Cath-
olics of the Netherlands (1852-89), and numberless
brochures in defence of the Church and church his-
tory, his most important works are: "Het Voorge-
bordite", "Falet en Harp", "Portretten van Joost
van den Vondei", "Verspreido Verhalen". "Kerst-
liederen", "De la Lit^ture Ntorlandaise". "Kaiol-
ingische Veihalen", "De Heilige Linie". His last ^-
forta were devoted to the preparation of a complete
edition of the works of van den Vondei.

Kaiholieke ItttutmtU (1889), S77 sq. : DiOedte Warmde (1889).
p. 239 sq.; Vaw DSS Ddtb (Amfltcrdam, 1889); Kath. Atberd.
TUnH (Amsterdam, 1890); Bveken Hiut, lAUenurltdie Panlaeieen
M Xrih<tai (Hailstn. 1881); LsMMMsefeiRffi^^
Maateehappi} von Lfetttrkwxde van Leiden (Leyden, 18S9).

P. Albers.

Thijm, PvTBR Paul Maria Alberdinoe, brother
of the foregjoing, b. at Amsterdam, 21 Oct., 1827,
d. at Louvam, 1 Feb., 1004. He made his studies
in his home city, at first at the Gymnasium and later
at the Atheiueum, from which he was graduated in
letters and history in 1857. For some years he was
instractor in history in Maestricht. After being
called to a professor^ip in the University of Louvain
in 1870, be succeeded m establishing a chair for the
qiecial study of the history of HoUand'e litCTature.
Although not as gifted as his elder brothw, be had a
great deal at the tatter's enthusiasm for literature
and art and was an ever ready champion of the Chris-
tian ideal in art. This savant of artistic tempera-
ment and zeal contributed not a little to t*ie revival
of the Flemish spirit in the University of I^uvain.
He was President of the Associati(Hi 'Tijd en Vlijt
and of Constantinfl Buttf. He was also a member

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of the FlemiBb Academy, and, for a time, !ta Preei-
dent. From 188S on, Paul Thijm edited we p«iodi-
cal "Dietsehe Warande", which was in thig way
transplanted into Belgium. His chief works are:
"De H. Willibrord, Appatel derNederlanden" (1867);
"Karei de groote en zijne eeuw" (1866): "Gestichten
van Uefdadigehied in Belgie, van Karel den Groote tot
aan de XVI eeuw", awarded a prize by the Royal
Academy of Brussels (1883); "Sonets der Algemeene
Geflcbiedenls" (1870); "VrooHjke historic van Ph. van
Mamix" (1876); "Spiegel van Nederlandache let-
teren" (1877).

DieUdta Warand* m Bdfort (Antwerp-Ghent, 1901): Lnm^
MKAiedeniuen son d« Udm <Ur MaaUehappij tan LetUrkutxd* tm
Leidm (Leyden, 1904).

P. Albers. '

Thlmelby, Richard (alios Abbbt), misnonary
priest, b. in Lincolnshire, England, 1614; d. at St.
Omer s, Belgium, 7 Jan., 1672. He entered the
Society of Jesus in 1632. Having taught philosophy
and theology at Li^ge for about sixteen years, he was
sent to England where he laboured for the most part
in his native county. In 1666 he became Master of
Novices at Ghent, and Rector of St. Omer's, Bel^um,
in 1672^ where he renuuned until hia death. His
translation of Father Binet's "Treatise on Purmtory "
was edited by Father Anderdon in 1874. He also
wrote a controversial work entitled "Ronarks on
Stillingfleet" (London, 1672).

OnvBK, CoUeeliona (London, 1845); Mmolooij of the Society
of Jefu» (London, 1902); Soumbryoobl, BMieO^qut de la
Compagnit de Jimu (BnuMls, 1800).

Edwabd p. SpnXAira.

Third Orders. — I. General. — Third Orders sig-
nify in general lay members of religious orders, i. e.
men and women who do not necessarily live in com-
munity and yet can claim to wear the habit and par-
ticipate in the good works of some great order.

A. On'^n.— The general idea of lay people affiliated
to religious orders, as seen in the Benedictine Oblatea
(q. V.) or coJifralera (Taunton, "Black Monks of St.
Benedict", London, 1897, I, 60-63; for Norbertines
cf. Hurter, "Papst Innocenz III", SchaiThausen.
1845, IV, 148), is too natural for there to be any need
to seek its origin. Founders and benefactors of mon-
asteries were i^ceived in life into spiritual fellowship,
and were clothed in death in some religious habit. So
too the Templars had a whole system whereby lay-
folk could partake in some sort in their privileges and
in the material administration of their affairs (Eng-
lish Hist. Rev., London, April, 1910, 227). But the
essential nature of the tertiary is really an innovation
of the thirteenth century. At that date many of the
laity, impatient of the indolent and sometimes scanda-
lous lives of the clergy_ in lower Europe, were sosed
with the idea of reforming Christendom by preaching.
This admirable intention caused the rise of the Vau-
dois under Valdez of Lyons ("Anecdotes Eistoriques
tir^s du Recueil inddit d'Etienne de Bourbon, O.P.",
ed. by Lecoq de La Manche, Paris, 1878, 290-314), and
under somewhat more curious conditions the Fratres
Humiliati. The Vaudois were at first welcomed by
the pope, Alexander III, who authorized their preach-
ing, but as they were unacquainted with theolootnl
teaching and bad pursued no clerical studies, mar
sermons were not seldom dogmatii ully inaccurate and
eventually defiantly hcretieal. The Humiliati also
soon became siu^ct and were forbidden by Lucius
III to preach, till in 1207 Innocent III gave a section
of them permission to resume their work, provided
t^at they limited themselves to moral auctions and
(lid not venture on doctrinal subjects C' De articulis
fidei et sacramentis ecclesite", cf. Denifle, O.P.,
"Archiv fOr Litteratur und Kirchei^eschichte des
Mittehdters", I, 419). Moreov^ some became
priests, were gathoed into a ckuster, and took vp

religious life. The others remwned outade, yet
spintualb' dependent on the clerical portion, cuod now
for the first time in history called a Third Older,
TerUua Ordo (Maadounet, ' ' Les Origines de I'Ordo de
Penetentia"; Uie Bull ts to be found in Tiraboachi, -
"Vetera Humiliatonim monumenta", IL Milan,
1766-68, 139).

B. Division, — The Third Orders can each be di-
vided into (a) regulars, i. e. Uving in convents, and
(b) seculars, i. e. living in the world. Of these the
first take vows, the latter can only make a solemn
promise (except that Carmelite Tertiaries ^iparenthr
take some sort of vows of obedience and chastity, ct,
AngeluB a S.S. Corde, CCD., "Manuale juris com-
munis Regularium", Ghent, 1899, q. 1067), which,
however, diatinguishes them from members of mere
confraternities and constitutes them legally a religious
order (Constitution of Leo XIII, "Misericors Dei
Fihufl").

C. Members. — Any CathoUc may join a Third Or-
der, but maj not at once bdong to more than one, nor
may he without grave cause leaTe one for anotiier.
The laying aside of the distinctive Sign or prayers for
anyspaoeof time does not in itself put an end tomm-
bership with a Third Order, but the deliberate wish to
diseociate oneself from it is sufficient to produce that
effect (S. Cong. Indulg., 31 Jan., 1893).

D. Privileges— The Regular Third Order partici-
pates in all the indulgences granted to the First and
SecoDd Orders (S. Cong. Indulg^ 28 Ausl, 1903). but
not in those granted to the Secular lliird Order
(ibid.). This latter no longer participates in any
privileges save those directly granted to itself (S.
Cong. Indulg., 31 Jan., 1893; S. Cong. Indulg.,
18 July, 1902; S. Cong. Indulg., 28 Aug., 1903).

Tii'..iPHni"ni, T'ii/irn i!\iri!iliiii,-T>ini M'muininiift '"Miliin, 170(1—
Wi, 1, II. HrncT, h,.-r.<^iu,.><r.- d,-. On/rf. ii,ii„UuT iP™.

l.M'.L^i, 1-lV; ^[.,M.■'"■^M,J. ■ tirtfiiiiri r!}t/,\: ,i, P.niiifdia
(I-VilKiHrrt, ISli«K /.'.'Jrj.'.i A'\ihjiiii Frnlmm rj SotlUVm

de fiiltiienlia sru J'erlu Orihuif /Vrjnfii«f( ^ V'a if-iH-i!, IBOl};
GoKTSt Uir Rfi/fi 'J'" Tt'Unr^/fiJr m in Zerifi'iiri/i /cr Kirehen-
snrhirhtf fr.in^i, XX!I1; Ai'IiF'ut v tsjt MarSiM;.-, J'Ai'rd Oriier*
^I'lton!. W\V\}'-y'-V-S. (.'• Rinlrs rt ie. {■'••i-f^nfa^ft da

i'Oi!.! Puiiifnha .lu .\ 1 1 1 ,'ii'rff (Taiia, MattTii-B.,
//i.ijiiire ric'ji .Vfa!(ri,i (ifFiirnijj .if f'lt'ii'i,- tlif Frrret Fffrhfurt, II
(S'ari!-. I'-HIS), Hrrvui r fi KK. lii' (fitlm urtii Knetiff^

lT-V>rjtTi tiff liilh<'ti'ft^'^ i^irth>: L I 'ici-r Wei, ]LPt)7[; PBOlU^a,

Jfamak Juri* Awjuiiutict, XI U<''ciboiir«, I9Q7). 311-18.

II. TmRD OnnuB or Our Ladt or Mount
Carmel. — Soon after the Order of Our Lady of Mount
Garmel was established in Europe in the thirteenth
century, lay persons, not bound by religious vows,
seem to have attached themselves to it more or less
closely. There is evidence of the existence of a
"Confrairie N.-D. du Mont-Carmel" at Toulouse
in 1273, and of a "Compagnia di Santa Maria del
Carmino" at Bologna in 12S0, but the exact nature
of these bodies is uncertain owing to a lack of docu-
ments. Somewhat later mention is frequently made
trade-guilds having their seat in churches of the
(»tler, members of which acted as their chaplains.
Thus the master-bakers, innkeepers and pastry-
cooks at Nhnes, the barbers and surgeons of the same
town, who were alsq connected with the Dominicans,
the goldsmiths at Avignon. Benefactors of the
order received letters of fraternity with the right of
participation in the privil^es and good works oS the
friars. Others, under the name biztoehe and
marUettabB, wore the habit and observed the rule,
e. g. "M. Phicola nostra Pinzochera" at Florence in
1208. Others again became recluses in the anchorages
attached to Carmehte churches, and made profession
under the foiyn: "E^o f rater N. a Spiritu Sancto ad
anachoreticam vitam vocatus offero me, coram Deo,
Patri et Filio et Spiritui Sancto, et promitto me in
aervitio D« secundum Bcripturam sacram Novi et
Veteris Testammti mwe anchoretics vitte uscjue ad
mortem permansurum." Among the tertiarieB not

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j^ring in community must be mentiooed Blessed

Louis Morbioli of Bologna (d. 1495).

The canonical institution of the third order dates
from the middle of the fifteenth century, when a
community of Beguinee at Guelders soueht affilia-
tion to Uie order, and Blessed John Soreth, General
of the Carmelites, obtained a Bull (7 Oct., 1452)
granting the superiors of his order the faculties
enjoyea by tlw Hermits of St. Au^tine and the
Dominicaiu (rf oanonically establishing convents of
"vii^ns, widows, beguinea and mantellate". Fur-
ther legislation took place in 1476 by the Bull
"Mare magnum privilegionim", and under Bene-
dict XIII and his successors. The rule observed
by the t«rtianes, whether living in the world
or gatbmd into communities, was originally that
of the friars with modifications as required by
thdr status. Theodor Stratius, General of the
Caked Carmelites, composed in 1635 a new rule,
revised in 1678, which is stilt observed among the
tertiariee of the Calced and the Discalced Carmel-
ites. It prescribes the recitation of the canonical
office, or else of the Little Office of the BleMed Virgin,
or, in its place, of the Pater noster and Ave Maria
to be said thirty-five times a day, five times in lieu
oi each of the canonical hours; also half an hour's
meditation every morning and evening; fasting on all
Fridays and aW) on Wednesdays and Saturdays
from 14 September till Easter, abstinence during
Adv^t and Lent, and various works of mortification,
devotion, and charity. Superiom may in their dis-
cretion diqi^ise from mtM of these obligations.

It is imposuble to estimate even approximately
the number of tcrtiaries living in the winid. Beodes
these there are numerous corporations of tcrtiaries
eetabli^ed in different countries, viz. two communi-
ties of tertiary brothers in Ireland (Dnimcondra and
Clondallun near Dublin) in charge of an asylum for
the blind and of a high-school for boys: eighteen
cranmunities of native priests in British India be-
krnsng partly to the Latin and partly to the Syro-
Mi&bar rites; four houses of Brothers of Chrirtian
Education in Spain. Far more numerous are the
communities of nuns, namely twenty-three in India
(Latin and Syro-Malabar rites) for the education of
native girls, and four convents in Syria in connexion
with the missions of the Order; two oongr^ationa d
tertiariee in Spain with nineteen ana forty-eight
establishments respective^ and one unattached,
tot educational woi^. In Spain there an also tep*
tiary nuns called "Carmelitas de la caridad" engaced
in works ci chanty with 150 establishments. The
Austrian congr^ation of nuns numbers twenty-
seven houses, while the most recent branch, the Car-
melite Tertiaries of the Sacred Heart, founded at
Berlin towards the end of the last century for the
care and education of orphans and neglected children,
have spread rapidly tnrough Germany. Holland,
Eot^and, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, aiu Hungary,
aiu have twenty houses. In Italy there are three
d^erent conizations with thirty-two convents.
Tliere are smaller branches of the tertiaries in South
America with two houses at Santiaoo, Chile, in
Switzerland with four convents, and in England with
one.

BvHarium CarmdUmun (Botno), 1715 aqa.; CataloguM oon-
Mnftium rdigioaorvm tt ifnMaffimi eonMManiiii Haaaetatonm
(Rome, 1911).

Benzoicf ZnocBiarAN.
ni. The Thhu) Ordeb Seculah or the Order or
Our Ladt or Mount Carmel hsa been introduced
into the United States. There are at present two
congregations, with 125 monben. •

Ferdinand Heckhann.

IV. Third Order or Sr. Doionic. — OrxQin. —
This was one of the earliest development* of St.
Francis's Ordo de Pottiitentia. It was not indeed

the wfan^ organisn from which the IVtan Preacheit

evolved, but rather represents that portion of the
Order of Penance which came under Dominican
influence. At first vaguely constituted and living
without system or form, its members ^^ually grew
more and more dependent on their spiritual guides.
The climax was readied^ and the work of St. Francis
received its final perfection, when Mufion de Zamora,
the seventh master-general of the Friars Preachos,
formulated a definite rule in 1285. By this the Ordo
de Poenitoitia was to be ruled in each local centre hy
a Dominican priest (Federici, "Istoria de cavali^
Gaudenti", Venice, 1787, Codex Diplomaticus, II,
35) and was to be subject to the obedience of the
Dominican provincials and master-generals. No
longer were there to be any of those vague transitions
ana extravagant vagaries (ibid., 28) which disfigured
in history these Orders of Penance. Henceforward
this branch was linked to the fortunes of the Friars
Preachers, wore their habits of black and white
(with few minor differences varying according to
time and country), and was to participate in aU their
^ood works. They wne not called a third order
indeed until after the thirteenth century (Mandon-
net, "Lea rfegles et le gouvemement de I'ordo de
Poenitentia", Paris, 1902, p. 207) but continued to be
known as "Brothers and Sisters of Penance" with
the addiUon "of St. Dominic", that is "The Brothers
and Sisters of the Penance of St. Dominic".

Simultaneously with them there came into being
another and very different institution which, however,
subsequently amalgamated wiUi the Ordo de Poeni-
tentia to form Idle Dominican Third Order. This
was a military order, called the Mililia Jem ChrisH
(soldiery of Jesus Christ) created for the defence ot
the Church gainst the Albigenses. It owed its
origin to Bishop Foulques of Toulouse, Simon de
Montfort (Fedraici, "Istoria de cavalieri Gaudenti*',
Codex Diplomaticus, I), and not improbably to
St. Dominic^ then a canon of St. Augustine. This
connexion with the founder of the Friars Preachen
to first definitely propounded by Bl. Raymund ai
Capua, who became a Dominican about 1350. But
the tniih of this assertion is borne out by several
other indications. As early as 1235, Gregory IX
confided the Militia to the care of Bl. Jordan of
Saxony, second master^eneral, by a Bull of 18 May
(Federici, op. cit., 10) ; and in the same year he decreed
for the kni^ts a habit of black and white {ofi. cit., 14).
EWtber, whoi the Militia was brou^t across the
Alps and established in Italy it is found to be alwim
connected with some Dominican church (op. cit., 1, 13).
I4tstly, it was very largely influenced by a famous
Dominican, Fra Bartolomeoof Bra^anza, or of Vicenza,
as he is sometimes called (op. cit., 12, 42. etc.).
Chiginally working side by side and indepenaent ai
each other, owing to the fact that both received the
same q)iritual administration of the Friars Preachers,
they wpear to have been merged tocher at the
close <» the thirteenth century. This is what Ray*
mund of Capua implies as the result of his researches.
So too their ultimate cdncidmce is hinted at by
Honorius III in 1221 when he designates the Militia
"nomine poenitentia" (Federici, Codex Diplomati-
cus)j and a comparison also of the rules of the two
institutions: that of Gregory IX for the Militia in
1235 (op. cit., 12-16) and tnat of Mufion de Zamora for
the C^er of Penance of St. Dominic in 1285 (<v* cit.,
28-36) would lead one to the same conclusion, lihe
only considerable difference that could be cited
agunst this identity is that Mufion de Zamora
pressly forbids the carrying of arms. But this is in
reality but a further proof <rf their approximation,
for he allows for the one exception whicn could po»>
sibly Lpply to the Militia, viz. in defence of the Church
(ibid., 32). This amalgamation is admitted by the
Bollandists to have become general in the fourtenith

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eeaivay (Acta SanotcHiim, Ai^., !■ 418-422). Fkhu
this double movement therefore, i, e. from the Ordo
de Pcenitentia S. Dominid and the Militia Jesu
CSiristit was born the modem Third Order of St.
Domimc. Though its source is therefore anterior
to the First Order, its full perfection as an oi^anisad
society, with a distinctive habit, a definite rule,
and A declared ^hoa or ^irit, is due to tiie genius oi
tJhe children of St. Dominie. They took vp the work
of St. Francis, and, with thdr «faaractenBtic love of
order and qrstematic arrangement, brought it mta
something compact and symmetrical, from tiiem
this idea ol subjection to a First Order was taken up
by the Fnuiciscans and has been adopted by all sub-
sequent Third Orders.

Svirit. — Primarily the work of the Third Order and
its oefinite niirit may be summed up by saying that it
was eBtabliabed first to help in reform of church dia-
cqtline. Its initial purpose was the preaching of pen-
ance; but under Dominican influences it rather leaned
to the intellectua] aspect of the Faith and based its
message to the world on the e:^x>sitioD of the Creed;
it was to reform church disciplme by the more wide-
spread knowledge of the mysteries of faith. Sec-
oncUy, to defend the Church. Originally this was a
milituy necessity^ demanding phyucal force with
wUeh to restrain equally material opposition.
Thinlty, to devdop the communion of prayer. The
medieval ide^ of Christ's Mystical Body which has
o^iUvated all spiritual-minded people implies a har-
mony of prayer. To achieve this end the contemplar
tive and monastic orders were begun; and the Third
Order of St. Dominic endeavours to link pious souls to
this mat throne of religious (Proctor, ''The Domin-
ican Tertiary's Daily Manual", London, 1900, 15-20).

StfomuUion. — Only for one pmod in ita histonr was
there any real fear o[ suppression. Many held that
the condemnation passed on the B^uinee and Beg-
hards at the Council of Vienna in 1312 applied no kss
to the Orders of Penance. In consequence the mas-
ter-general ^titioned Pope John XXU in 1326 to
settle defimtely the difficulty. As a result he an-
swered by a Biulof 1 June, 1326 (Cum de Mulieribus),
■which is a lone eulogium on the work of the Domiui-
ea& Third Order. After the plague <tf 134S, a peat
deal of laxity and disorRanization crept into the Third
OrdeXf but a wonderful thrc»ig of samts soon caused
its rejuvenation. The influence of St. Catherine of
Siena gave a powerful impetus to the movement in
Italy and her work was carried on by Bl. Clara Gam-
baoorta (d. 1419) and Bl. Maria Mancini (d. 1431).
This new spiritual vigour reached across the Alps to
the sisterhoods of Germany, where the effect was
almost abnormal (Hdmbucber, ' ' Die Orden und Kon-
ncffi^onen dot katholisohen Kirche", Paderbora,
II, 169-177). But there has never been any
reform in the sense of a separate organisation with a
change of rule or habit. Aa in the First Order, tliere
has been a peculiar gift of unity which has maoled it
to last undivided 'for seven hundred ^ears.

Dwinotu. — The Third Order as it exists to-day can
be divided into two categories: regular, i. e. compris-
ing Tertiaries, whether men or women, who live in
oommunity and wear the habit externally; and secu-
lar, i. e. whether married or single, cleric or lay, who
live their lives like others of their profession, but who

Erivately take up practices of austerity, recite some
Uuqeical Office, and wear some symbol of the Domini-
can oiJ^it. The origin of the conventual women
Tvtiaries has never oeen very clearly worked out.
It is usual to trace them back to Bl. EhniW Bicchieri,
about the year 1255 (" Manual of Third C>rder of St.
Dominic", London, 1871, 9). But if the view taken
above of the origin of the Third Order in the Ordo de
Pcenitentia be correct, we are forced to the conclusion
tlwt the cwnmunities of women established by St.
Dcnnhuo at Prouille, S. Sisto, etc. were leaQy of tbis

Hiird Order. Hiefr oonstitntions, approved first for
S. Sisto, though previously observed at Prouille, ex-
pressly speak of the nuns a6"de Pcenitentia S. Msris
MagdaleniE" ("AnalectaOrd. Pned.", Rome, 1898,
628 sqq.). It would seem then that the Oirdo de
Pcenitentia did not exclude convents of enclosed nuns
from its ranks, and this was due probably to St.
Dominic himself. Ver^ much later came a conven-
tual order of men, ori^nated by the genius of
lAocwdwre. He considered that the democratic
spirit of the Dominican Order fitted it especially for
we task of training the youth. But he knew bow
impossible it was for his preaching associates to tie
themselves down to scboolwork among boys; as a con-
sequence, he be^an,in 1852, a Third Order of men,
wearing the habit, living in community yet without
the burdens of monastic me. The rule was approved
providonally in 1853 and definite in 1868 (iw the
rule ef. "Acta Capituli Generalis Ord. Praed.",
Rome, 1904, 106 sqq.). But by far the greatest por-
tion ci the Third (nuer consists of seculu* Tertiaries.
These are of eyeryrank of society, and represent the old
Ordo de Pcenitentia and the old Militia. In certwn
countries they are grouped into chapters, having a lay

Erior and sub-prior or prioress and sub-prioress, and
old monthly meetings. Since the Rule of Mufion de
Zamora (1285), they have always hem subject to a
Dominican priest appointed by the Dominican pro-
vincial. For the actual receiition of the habit, the
master-^neral can give faculties to any priest. The
full habit is the same as that of the members of the
First and Second Orders, but without the scapular
(granted, however, to communities since 1667) .
Though the habit is not worn during life many pro-
cure it so that they may be buried in the recognized
dress of St. Dominic's children.

Extent. — ^It is practically imposnble to obtain^ even
in a va^e way, the number of the secular Dominican
Tertiaries. No general register is kept, and the
records of each priory would have to be searched.
From the time of St. Louis — who wished to join the
Dominican and Franciscan Orders (Acta Sanctorum,
August, y, 545), and is represented in old illumina-
tions, sometimes in the habit of one, sometimes in the
habitoftbeotherCChapotin, "Histoiredesdominicains
de la province de France", Rouen, 1898, p. 407), but
probably never joined either — to our own time, it can
be stated only that wiUi the rise and fall of the First
(>der's greatness rose and fell the number of the
Tertiaries. In England during the thirteenth cen-
tury very many are said to have become Tertiaries.
But of this nothing for certain can be specified. At
the time of St. Catherine of Siena the Mantellate
(women secular Tertiaries) made difficulties about
receiving her to the habit as they included at the date
only widows (Gardner, "St. Catherine of Siena",
London. 1907, II), and there were no men at all in the
Third Order m Italy at that date (Acta Sanctorum,
April, III, 1881). Under Bl. Raymund of Capua, her
confessor and, after her death, twenty-third master-
general, attempts were made to re-establish the order
and no doubt much was done (Mortier, "Maltree
e&i6raux", III, 605-606). But by the time of St.
Antoninus (d. 1450) the numbers had again dwindled
down to insignificance ("Summa Moralis", Verona,
1750. Ill, 23j 5, 5, pp. 1291-2). Just previous to
the Reformation there are a few isolated notices; thus
Bl. Adrian Fortescue, the martyr, notes in his diary :
"Given to the Black Friars of Cbrford to be in their
fraternity 12d" ("Letters and Papers of the Reign
of Henry VIII", London, 1883, Rolls Series, VII, 101 ) .
But these give us no ground at all for any surmise as
to statistics. In America the first canonized saint
(St. Rose of Lima, d. 1617) and the first beatified
negro (Bl. Martin Porres, d. 1639) were both Domini-
can Tertiaries, and later m France were men like M.
OUer and Bl. Grignini de Montfort.

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_ Then came the influence of Laoordaire, from whoae
time there dates a new enthusiasm in the Third Order
("Ami^e Dominicaine", Paris, 1910, 149-65). Of
the regular Tertiaries it is eaaier to speak more defi-
nitely. The numbers of all the dxteen ^proved con-
gregations existing in 1902 are given, and they
amount to some 7000 nuna ("Analecta Ord. Prffid.',
Rome, 1902, 389). To these must be added another
7000 of congregations not yet definitively author-
ized by Rome. But every year fresh convents are
opened and the numbers continually increase. In
England th^ began under Mother Margaret Hal-
lahan (d. 1868) in 1342, and now in all the separate
groupings there are 22 convents with some 500 sis-
ters: in the United States their success has been re-
markable. Founded in 1846 by Mother Amalie
Barth (d. 1895), the congregation m 1902 included 34
convents and over 2000 nuns. In 1876 they passed
into California, where they are rapidly increasing. In
Ireland they have mai^ establishmenta, especially for
educational purposes, for their work is as varied as the
needs of humanity require. Some are enclosed,
others teach, visit the sick, nurse the lep^ look after
old people, take care of penitent girls, work among the
poor in the slums, etc. As for the congregation of
teaching men, they have been greatly disorganized
since their expulsion from France. At i>re6ent they
(wmprise but a half-dozen colleges in Fribourg, San
Sebaatiim, and South America, and do not amount to
more than 100 members in all. Finally, a citation
from Faber's "Blessed Sacrament" (2nd ed., p. 565)
may be made: "Those who are conversant with, in-
deed who find the strength and consolation of their
lives in, the Acts of the Saints well know that there is
not a nook in the mystical Paradise of our heavenly
spouse where the flowers grow thicker or smell more
fragrantly than this order of multitudinous child-like
saints. Nowhere in the Church does the Incarnate
Word show His delight at being with the children of
men in more touching simplicity, with more unearthly
sweetness, or more spousc-Uke familiarity than in this,
the youngest family of S. Dominic."

FsDERici, Ittoria da' eawUien OaudetUi (2 vola., Vesic«, 1787);
Manbonnbt, Let Orioint* de VOrdo dt PatattiUia (Fribourg,
1808): Chapotin, Hitt. d— domirneainn da la protinea dc Franca
UUHjen, 1SS8), 4M-605; Proctos, Dominican TaHary't Daily
Manual (LoDdos, 1900) ; MANiwNinrr, Let rhOei et U gmieeme-
mmU de FOrdo d» Pimitmtia au XITI* nide (Paris, 1902) : Mob-
TiEB, Hut. df mattret gintraux de VOrdrt de* Frire* PrteKmm,
II (1905, Pwifl). 22(hB0: III, 006-6 so.; Heimbucheb, Dit
Ordm u. KongreooHoTien dtr kaiholiiehm Ktreht, II (PulcnjOia.
1907) jCototoffuaSoerw Ord. Prod. (Rome, 1910), 277-79.

Bbdb Jabbbtt.

V. Thihd Oroer Rbodlaii of St. Dominic, in the
United States. — CongregaUom oj Women. — A. Si»*
ters of St. Dominic: —

(1) Congregation of St. Catherine of Siena, with
mother-house at St. Catherine of Siena Convent,
Springfield, Kaiiucky. Foimded in 1822 by Rev.
Thomas Wilson, O.F. Sisters, 300; novioes, 30;
postulants, 7; academies, 6: schools, 13; pupils, 5000.
By this congregation were founded: (a) Congi^atioa
of Dominican Tertiaries of the Blessed Virgin, with
mother-house at St. Mary's of the Springs, Sneppard,
Ohio, in 1830. Sisters, 195; novices, 28; acaciemies,
3; schools, 12; pupils, 4493. From this congregation
were founded (i/ Congregation with mother-tiouse
at Sacred Heart Convent, Galveston, Texas. Sisters
and novices, 81; postulants, 3; schools, 6; pupils,
1130. (b) Con^gation with mother-house at the
Convent of Our L^dy of the Sacred Heart, West
Springfield, Illinois, in 1873. Sisters,. 120; schools,
19; pupils, 4000, academy. I. (2) CongrMation
with mothohouae at St. Cecilia's Convent, Nash-
ville, Tennessee. Founded in 1860 by sisters from
St. Mary's, Somerset. Ohio. Sisters, 98; novices,
15; acaaemy, 1; orpnan a^lum, 1; institute for
young ladies, 1; schools, 6; pupils, 1042. (3) Con-
gregation of Uie Most Holy Name c& Jesus, witli

10 TBDtD

motber^bouse at San Rafael, California. Founded
in 1850 by Most Rev. Joseph Alemany, CP., Ardi-
bishop of San Francisco, at Benicia, Cahfonia.
Sisters, 135; academies. 3; schools, 6.

(4) Coi^retttion of uie Ho^ Rosaiy, with mother-
house at St. Clara's Convent, SiiudDawa, Wisconsin.
Founded in 1847 by Rev. Samuel Ch. Mazzuchelli,
CP. Sisters, 650; college, 1; academies, 9; schooh,
46; pupils, 14,800. (5) Congr^tion of the Holy
Cross, with mother-house at Holy Cross Convent,
Brooklyn, New Yorkt Founded in 1853 by 4 sisten*
from Holy Cross Convent, Ratisbon, Bavaria.
Sisters, 518; novices, 25; postulants, 17; training
school, 1; academies, 3; scnools, 33; hospitals, 2;
sanatorium, 1; infirmary, 1; orphan asylums, 6.
From this cono^ation were founded: (a) Congre-
gation of the Most Holy Rosary with moUio^house
at Mission San J086, California, in 1876. Sisters,
193; novices, 20; postulants, 16; academy, I; orphan
asylum, 1; schools, 9; pupils, 29^. (b) Congrega-
tion of the Immaculate Conception, with mother-
house at Great Bend, Kansas, in 1902. Sisters,
17; novice, 1; postulant, 1; hospital, 1; school, 1;
pumls, 194. (6) Congregation with mother-house
at Holy Rosary Convent. Second Street, New York
City. Founded in 1859 by sisters from Holy Cross
Convent, Ratisbon, Bavaria. Sisters, 600; acade-
mies, 8; hospitals, 2; schools, 60; pupils, 25,000.
From this congregation were founded (a) Congrega-
tico with mother-nouse at Grand Rapids, Michigan,
in 1877. Sisters, 187; novices, 50; postulanta. 15;
high school, 1; academies, 2; orphan asylum, 1; scnools
32; pupils, 6000. (b) Congregation with mother-
house at St. Dominic's Convent, Blauvelt, New York.
Sisters, 139; novices, 11; postulants, 3; schools, 8;
asylum, 1. (c) Congregation with mother-house at
St. Dominic's Academy, Jersey City, New Jersey,
in 1882. Sisters, 215; academies, 3; schools, 21;
pupils, 4427. From this congregation was founded:
7i) Congr^ation with mother-house at St. Thomas
Aquinas Convent, Tacoma, Washington, In 1888.
Sisters, 52; schools, 3; pupils, 300.

(7) Congregation witq mother-house at St. JosejA'a
Convent, Adrian, Michigan. Sisters, 180; novices,
28; academies, 3; schools, 29. (8) Congregation ■
with mother-house at St. Catherine of Siena's Con-
vent, Racine, ^^^8C0^s^n. Founded in 1862 by
Mother Bawdicta Bauer and Sister Thmnamna
Ginck» from Hojh^ Cross Convent, Ratisbon, Bar
varia. Sisters, 286; postulants, 24; academies, 2;
home for ladies, 1; schools, 38; pupils, 6307. (9)
Congregation with mother-house at St. Mary's
Convent, New Orleans, Louisiana. Founded in
1860 by sisters from Cabra, Dublin, Ireland. Sisters,
57; academies, 2; schools, 2; pupils, 565. (10) Con-
gregation with mother-house at Rrao, Nevada;
founded by sisters from New Orleans, Louisiana.
Sisters, 4. (11) Congr^tion with mother-house at
St. Catherine of Siena Convent, Fall River, Maasa^
chusetts. Foimded in 1891 by taa$jen from CarroIK
ton, Missouri. Sisters, 52.

B. Dominican Sisters the Third Order (rf 8t.
Dominic: —

CJongregation with mother-house at the Cbnvent
of Our Lady of the RosMy, 63rd Street, New Yoric
City. Founded in 1867 Father Rochford, CP.
Sisters, 160; novices, 10; postulants, 5; academy, 1 ;
orphan asylums, 2; schools, 11; pupils, 4000.

C. Third Order Secular of St. Dominic was intro-
duced into the United States by the early Domini-
can missionaries. There are at present congrega-
tions of Dominican Tertiaries in almost all the
churches in charge of Dominican Fathers, numbering
from 100-600 members, and many hundred totiariea
throughout the country not belonging to any congre-
gation.

Haimiiuaaa, hU (Mm «. XtngnQaHemt (ted tA„ Vudm

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bom, IMn'; tUCaOMUOimik in A* CMtod StslM. I, II (Kew
York. 1906); Qffeiai Cal/uMo DineUfry (New York.)

Ferdinand Bbckmann.

VI. Tbibd Order or St. Francis (Regular
AND Secular; Male and Female), a branch <rf the
great Franciscan family. We deal here: A. with the
secular Third Order; B, with the regular.

A. Origin, Devdopment, and Present State of the
Secular Third Order. — It has heea beUeved for some
time that the Third Order of St. fVaneu was the
oMest of all Third Orders, bat histcnioal evidence is
against such an opinion. For, besides similar institu-
tions in some monastic orders in the twelfth century,
we find, before the foundation of St. Francis, aThira
Order, prtqierly so cidled, among the Humiliati,
confirmed together with its rule by Innocent III in
1201 (see text in Tiraboschi, "Vetera Humiliatorum
monumenta", IL Milan, 1767, 128). But if the
Third Order of St. Francis was not the first al its
kmd, it was, and still is, undoubtedly the best known
and most widely distributed and has the greatest
influence. About its orinn there are two opposite
opinions. Acoording to Karl Mttller, Mandonnet,
and others, the Sectuar Third Order is a survival of
the original ideal of St. Francis, viz. a lay-oonfrater-
nity orpcnitents, from which, through toe influence
of the Church, the First and Seoona Orders of the
TtiaxB Minor and the Poor Clares have been detached.
Aecradin^ to othersj St. fVancia merely lent his name
to pre-«nsting pemtenttal iaynxoifzatemities, with-
out having any special oonnradcn with or influence
on them. The two opinions are equalljr at variance
with the best texts we have on the subject, such as
Thomas of Celano, "Vita prima", I, 16; Julian <rf
Spires, "OfiSce of St. Francis: Third Antiphon at
Lauds"; Gregory IX, BuU of 7 June, 12^ (BuU.
Franc, I, 05); St. Bcmaventure, "L^. Maior",
IV, 6; Bernard of Besse, in "Anal. Franc/', III, 686.
Accoraing to these sources, St. Francis really founded
a Third Order and gave it a Rule. If we complete
theee notices with some early papal Bulls bearing on
the penitential UKivement and with the account
given by Mariano <rf Florence (end <d the fifteenth
and be«nnii% <^ the sixteenth century) we can state
what follows:

The preaching ot St. Francis, as well as his own
living example and thai of his first disciples, exercised
such a powerful attraction on the people that many
married men and women wanted to join the First
or the Second Order. This being incompatible
with their state of life. St. Francis foimd a middle
way: he gave them a rule animated by the Franciscan
spirit, la the composition of this rule St. Francis
was aamted by his friend Cardinal Ugolino, later
Gr^ory IX. As to the place where the Third Order
was first introduced nothing colain is known. Of
late however the preponderanoe oi opinion is for
Florence, chiefly on the authcnity of Mariano c4
Florence, or Faenza, for which the first papal Bull
(Potthast, "Re^ta Fontificum" 6736) known on
the subject is given, whilst the "Fioretti" (ch. xri),
thouf^ not T^arded as an historical authority,
assif^ Cannara, a small town two boats' walk from
• Portiuncula, as the birthplace of the Third Order.
Mariano and the Bull for Faenza (16 Dec., 1221 ) point to
1221 as the earliest date of the instituti<m of the Third
Order, and in fact, besides these and other sources,
the oldest preserved rule bears this date at its head.
This Rule was published by P. Sabatier and H.
Boehmer (see bibliography), and contained origt-
aally twelve chuiters, to wmcu at the time <Mf Gregpcy
IX (1227) a thirteenth was added. It prescribes
■implioity in dress (1), considend)le fasting and absti-
nence (2-3), the canonical office or other prayers
mstead (4-5), confession and communion tnrice a
year, and forbids carrying arms or taking solemn
nathp without neceaiitr ffl): ervny mimth the hrothm
XTV— 41

and sistefs have to assonble in a diuroh designated
by the ministers, and a rdigious has to dve them an
instruction (7); tney also exercise the wcolcs of charity
with their brothers (8): whenever a member dies
the whole confraternity fias to be present at the fu-
neral and to pray for the departed (9) ; everyone has to
make his last will three months after his reception;
dissensions among brothers and sisters or other
persons are to be settled peaceably ; if any troubles
arise with local authorities the ministers oiujht to
act with the counsel U the bishop (10). No heretic
or anyone suspected of hereay can be received, and
women only with the consent of their husbands (11);
the minist^ have to denounce shortcomings to the
viator, who will punish the culprits; every year two
new ministers and a treasurer are to be elected; no
point of the rule obliges under pain of mn (12). On
account of the prohibition of arras and unnecessary
oaths, the followers of this rule came mto conflict
with kwal authorities, a fact which we have evidence
in many papal Bulls all through the thirteenth cen-
tury, issued to safeguard the privileges of the Tot^
tiariee (see list of these Bulls in Mandonnet, "Lee
R^es", 146-47).

Wadding ("Annales Min.", ad a. 1321, n. 13) gives
another longer redaction of the rule, which is almost
identical with the one solemnly confirmed by Nicho-
las IV through the BuU "Supra montem", 17 Aug.,
1289. This last form has for long been conudered as
the work of St. liVands, whilst Karl Mttller denied any
connexion of St. I>Vancis with it. If we compare the
rule published and approved by Nicholas IV with the
oldest text of 1221, we see that they substantially
agree, slight modifications and different dispositions
of chapters (here 20 in number) excepted. Through
a most interesting text published by Golubovich
(Arch. Franc. Hist., IL 1909, 20) we know now that
this Rule of Nicholas Iv was ^iproved on the petitiMi
of some Italian Tertiaries. Another recent publica-
tion by Guerrini (Arch. Franc. Hist., I, 19W*, 544
sq.) proves that there existed in the tliirteenth cen-
tury Third Order Confraternities with quite different
rules. On the whole, it can safely be affirmed that
tm^ Nicholas IV there was no Rule of the Third Or-
der generally obsmred, but besides the one quoted
above, and probably the most widely ^read, there
were others of more local character. The same mi^t
be said as to the government of the confraternities.
Besides their own officials, they had to have a visitor,
who seems to have been usually appointed by the
bishop. In 1247 Innocent IV ordered that the
Friars Minor were to assume the direction of the
Tertiaries m Italy and Sicilv (Bull. Franc, 1, 464), but
about twenty years later when St. Bonaveoture wrote
his question: "Why do not the Friars Minor promote
the Odrder of 'Penitents'?" {Op. om., VIII, 368) the
contrary had practiodly prevailed. Nicholas IV in-
troduoed unity of rule and of direction into the Third
Order, which henceforward was entrusted to the care
of the Friars Minor.

If we except a few points, bearing especially on fasts
and abstinence, mitigated by Clement VII in 1526
and Paul III in 1547^ the Rule as given by Nicholas IV
remained in vigoiir till 1883, when Leo XIII, himself a
tertiary, through the Apostolic Constitution "Miseri-
oors Dei Filius", modified the text, adaptinjg it more
to the modon state and needs of the society. All
substantial points, however.remained; only the daib^
vocal prayos were reduced, as also the fasts and
abstinences, whilst the former statute of confesmon
and communion thrice a year was changed into
mfwthly communion. Other points of the modified
Rule of LeoXin are of great social and religious im-
portance, such as the protiibition of pomp in dressing,
of frequenting theatres of doubtful character,^ and
keeping and reading papers and books at variance
witti faith and moraw. Thp dinHtt-ion is pntnisted to

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the ibme branehes of the First Order: FViars Minor.
GonventualB, Copuchuis, and to the R^idar Third
Order. By del^ation, oonfratemities can be estab-
Uahed and directed by any parish priest. Those who
for serious reasons cannot join a confraternity may be
received as single tertiaries. Finally, great spiritual

Sriviieges are granted to all members of the Third
'rder.

The beneficent influence of the secular Third Order
of St. Francis cannot be highly enough appreciated.
Through the prohibition against carrying arms a
deadly blow was given to the feudal system and to
the ever-fighting factions of Italian municipalities:
through the admission of poor and rich, nobles and
common people, the social classes were brotuht nearer
each other. How far the religious ideal of St. Francis
was carried out by the secular Third Order we may
judge from the great number (about 75) of saints and
Dleswd every condition it produced. It may suffice
to mention: St. Elix^th of Hungary; St. Louis,
King of France; St. Ferdinand, King of Castile; St.
Elizabeth of Portugal; St. Rosa of Viterbo; St. Mar-
^ret of Cortona; BI. Umihana Cerchi; Bl. Angela of
Fdigno; Bl. Raymond Lullus; Bl. Luchesius of Pog-
gibonsi, who passes as the first tertiary received by
St. f^ancis; St. Ivo; and in our times Bl. Jean-Ba^
tiste Vianney, the cur6 of Ars; <A names celebrated m
history for bterature, arta. poIiti<», inventions, etc.,
Dante, Giotto, Petrarch, Cola di EUenso, Cohunbus,
Vasco da Gama, Cervantes, Lope de Vega, Thomas
More, Galvani, Volta, Garcia MorMio, Liszt, and,
finally, Lady Geoi^ana Fullerton. Popes Pius IX
and Leo XIII were members of the Third Order, as
also is Pope Pius X. Since the adaptation of the rule
by Leo !?QII the Third Order has grown more active
than ever. At present the total number of members
is esteemed thovi. two and a half millions, spread all
over the world. National and local congresses have
been held in different countries: seven in the period
from 1894 to 1908 in France, others in Bet^um, some
in Italy, the fiist general congress in Assisi (1895),
many local ones from 1900 to 1911; others have been
held in Spain, the last one at Santiago in 1909; in
Ajventina the last one at Buenos Aires in 1906; in
In£a, Canada, and iuCiermany and Austria, in the last
two instances m connexion with general confesses of
Catholics. There exist almost in all civilized lan-
gaaifsioe numerous monthly periodicais which, whilst
keeping up the union amongst the different confrater-
nities, serve also for the instruction and edification
its members. The "Acta Ordinia Frat. Min.",
XXVI, Quaracchi, 1907, 255-58, gives the names of 122
such periodicals. French periodicals are indicated
by P. B. Ginnet, O.F.M., "Le Tiers Ordre et le Pr6-
tre". Vanves, 1911, p. 51 sq.; German p^odicals hy
Moll, O.M. Cap., '^Wegweiser in die literatur dee
Dritten Ordena'', Ratisbon, 1911. In Italyeven a
regular newspaper was founded, "Rinascita Frances-
cana", Bologna, 1910; another in Germany, "Allge-
meine deutsche Tertiaren-Zeitung", Wiesbaden, 1911.
—We may mention also the roecial organs for direc-
tors of the Third Order, e. g. "Der Ordensdirektor",
published at Innd[}ruck 1^ the l^rrolese Franciscans,
"Revue saoei^tale du Tiera-Ordre de Sunt Fraa-
9018' ', published by French Capuchins. Both reviews
^pear once every two months.

B. Thiro Obdbb Rboulab (Male and Female).
(1) Its origin and general development till Leo X. —
The origin of the Regular Third (Jrder, both male and
female, can be traced back to the second half of the
thirteenth century, but no precise date can be indi-
cated. It was organized, in different forms, in the
Netherlands, in the south of France, in Germany, and
in Italy, nc^ably some secular tertiaries, who in
many cases had tneir house of meeting, gradually
withdrew entirely from the world and so formed
refigious ccnnmunities, but without Uie three sul^

stantial vows of rdi^oua f>rders. Otho-' reUfmnu
asaodationa such as the Brines (women) and Beg-
hards (men) in the Nethemnds, sometimes passed
over to the Third Order, as has been clearly shown
from recent study. Towards the end of the thir-
teenth and the beginning of the fourteenth century
some suspicion of heretical opinions fell on some of
these free religious unions of the Third Order (6i-
tocchi), as we can infer from the Bull of John XXII
"Sancta Romana", Dec.. 1317 (BuU. Ftmnc^V, 134).
More than a century later St. John of Capistran
(1456) had to defend the Tertiaries in a B|>eeial
treatise; "Defensorium ttftii ordinis d. Francisci",
printed with other minor works of the saint at Venice
in 1580. Throughout the fourteenth century the
regular tertiaries of both sexes had in the most cases
no common organization; only in the following cen-
tury we can obwrve single well-ordered religious com-
munities with ac^om vom and a common head.
Martin V submitted in 1428 all tertiaries, r^^ular and
secular, to the direction of the MiniQter-(>neral of the
Friars Minor (Bull. Franc, VII, 715), but this diq)o-
sition was soon revoked by his successor Eugene IV.
We meet thus in the same fifteenth century with
numerous independent male congrt^tions of regular
tertiaries with the three vows in Italy, Sicily, Dal-
matia, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, and in the
Netherlands. Contcmporaneousbr there existed ma-
ter congregations of ue Third Order with solemn
vows, for instance, the Grey sisters of the Third
Order, serving in bospitab, spread in France and the
Netherlands, whose remarkable statutes of 14S3 have
recently been published by H. Lemartre in "Arch.
Franc. Hist.", IV, 1911, 713-31, and the congregation
still existing founded at Foligno in 1397 by Blessed
Angelina of Marsciano (1435). Leo X, in order to in-
troduce umformity into the numerous congregations,
gave in 1521 a new form to the rule, now in ten
chapters, retaining of the rule as published by
Nicholas IV all that could serve the puipoee, adding
new points, especially the three solemn vows, and
insistmg on subjection to the First Order of St.
Francb. For this last disposition the Rule of Leo X
met with resistance, and never was accepted by Bome
congre^tions, whilst it serves till the present day as
the basis of the constitutions of many Lat^ congrega-
tions, especiiUly of numerous co'Dununities ot sisten
(2) Sin^e congregations after Leo X, of women. —
The two Italian congregations, the Lombardic and
Sicilian, which had constituted themselves in the
course of the fifteenth century, were united by Paul
III, and since Sixtus V enjoyed entire independence
from the First Order. It had then already 11 prov-
inces. In the seventeenth century the oongrega^
tions of Dalmatia and the NetherlaJids (of Zeppem)
were united with the Italian family. In 1734 Clem-
ent XIII confirmed their statutes. Whilst the French
Revolution swept away all similar congr^^tions, the
Italian survived with four provinces, of which one was
in Dalmatia. In 1906 a small congre^tion <A Ter-
tiary lay brothers in the Balearic Islands and a little
lata* two c<Kiventa with colleges in the United States
joined the same congregation, which in 1906 num-
bered about 360 memb^. The dress is that ci the-
Conventuals, from whom they can hardly be distiiH
guished. The residence of the minister-general is at
Rome, near the Church of Sts. Cosmas and Damian.
After the time of Leo X the Spanish confpegation
often had troubles on the question of its submissioii
to the First Order. After Pius V (1568) had put tho
whole Third Order a^in \mdet ti» care <rf the Minis-
ter-General of the Fnars Minor, the superiors of the
three provinces constituted in Spain could, after
1626, partake at the General Chapters ot the Friars
Minor and since 1670 they have had evea a definitfir-
general to r«)resent them. The French congrega^
tita, named mm their house at Paris "of Fiobus",

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wM reformed by V. Muaaart (d. 1637), and main*
taioed dose ties with the First Order till ita extinction
in the French Revolution. A well-known member oi
iiua OHigre^tion is Hyppolit H^lyot, the author ot
an important history of the religious (nxlers. In 176S
it bad four provinces with 61 convents and 494 reli-
giouB. Othor congre^tionB of TortiarieB existed
after the fifteenth oenturv in Germany, Bohemia,
Hungary, Ireland, and England. They perished
eitlier at the time <h the Reformation or in the French
Rerohition. We may mention also the Obre^nians,
the "Bons-Fils" in northern France founded m 1615,
and the "Patents p*is" at Paris after the sixteenth
coitury, all now extmct. In the nineteenth century
some new cimgr^tions arose, e. g. the Poor Brothers
d St. Francis, the Brothers of St. Francis at Wald-
bnitbach (Rhine) after 1860, the "Frati bigi",
founded in 1884 at Naples by Ludovic of Casoria,
O.F.M. The most of these modem tertiary com-
munities consist only of lay brothers and depend on
the diocesan bishop.

(3) Congregation of Sisters. — Whilst Leo X in the
T^ona of the rule had left it free to the congregations
to adopt papal enclosure or not^ Pius V (1568) pre-
acribed it to all convents of tertiary sisters with sol-
tmn TOWS. Still this order was not carried out every-
where. In this regard the custom prevailed that the
Frius Minor refiued to take the direction of those
convents which had only episcopal enclosure. Be-
sides those already mentionra above, we may add the
different offshoots of the Sisters of St. Elizabeth in
Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, and France
(there, under the name of Soeuis du R^uge, some d
than bUU exist). The first Ursulines, also, founded
by St. AngBla Merioi (1540), bekmged to the Third
Order.

In the nineteenth centuiy many of the new congre-
gations adopted the Rule oi the Third Order, but most
d than have no further connexion with the First
Order. Many of them have widely varying names;
a good many are of mere local character, others a^^
are of international importance. As to their activi-
ties, almost all dedicate themselves to works of char-
ity, dtlter in hospitals, homes, or ateliers; others work
in sdiools, not a few are in foreifpi missions. We can
nve here scarcely more than a list of the names, with
the dates of the foundation. In Germany there are
the Poor Sisters of St. Francis, founded 1845 (1851)
by M. Schervier at Aachen, with some houses in
America; the Franciscan Sisters of the Hotr Family,
founded in 1867 at Eupen, Diocese of Cologne; the
Ftimciscan Sisters, at Mttnsterj Westphalia, lotmded
in 1S50; the Poor Franciscan Sisters of the Perpetual
Adoration, at OIpe, Diocese of Paderbom (1857) ; the
Poor Franciscan Sisters of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus
and Manr, at SaUkotten, near Paderbom (1863) ]the
Sisters (rf Mercy of the Third Order, at Thuine, Dio-
cese <tf Osnabrfick (1869): the Sisters of Mercy of St.
FmuaBt at WaMbreitbsieh, Dioeeee of Trier (1863);
the Fraiidscan Sisters at Mounraiwerth, an island on
the Rhine, founded in 1872 at Heythuiz^ in Holland ;
Franciscan Sisters of MariarStem, at Augsburg,
Those first foundation can be followed back to the
thirteenth century; Franciscan Sisters at Dillingen,
Diocese of Augsburg, founded in the fourteenth cen-
tury; the Poor Franciscan Sisters, at Mallersdorf,
Diooese of RatisbcHi (1855); the Congrwation of Ur»-
Vag (1897); the Franciscan Sisters oTKaufbeUTen,
Bioeeae of Augsburg, founded in the fifteenth cen-
tury, to which Itad belonged Blessed Oescentia Hess
(1744). In the Diocese <rf Rottenbuig, in WQrtem-
beiv, we note the communities of Bontanden near
EroUheim fl856); of Heiligenbronn (1857): of the
Sisters of Christian Chanty, at Reute, founded 1S49
at the same place where in the fifteenth century
fikssed Elisabeth of Reute, called also the "good
Beta" (d. 1420)i h«l prafemd the Third Oidv; the

Franciscan Sist^ of SOasen (1863). In Baden is
noteworthy the Congregation of Gengenbach (1867),
since 1876 also in the United States, Joliet, Illinois.
At Mains there is the Convent of Perpetual Adoration
(1860).

In Austria^Hungary the School Sisters of the Third
Order (1728), with mother-bouses at Hallon, Diocese
of Salzburg, at Vienna (III), and at Judenau, Diocese
of St. Peiten; the Sisters of the Third Order of St.
Francis at Vienna (V), (1857): the Poor School Sis-
ters at Voklabmck,. Diocese of Linz (1850) ; the Sisters
of Mercy of tlie Third Order of St. Francis at Troppau.
Diocese of OlmUtz (1853); Congregation of Scnooi
Sisters of the Third Order of St. Francis, at Mfihrisch-
TrObau, Diocese of Olmatz (1851); the School Sisters
of the Third Order of St. Francis at Marburg on 1^
Drau, Diocese of Lavant (1864); the Grey rasters of
the Third Order of St. Fhmcis, at Prague (I), 1856;
and three small communities m '^rol. In Luxem-
burg there is th^ Congregation of Pfaffental; the Sis-
ters of Mercy of St. Francis with the mother-house in
the town of Luxemburg, and communities in Sweden
and the Carolines. In Holland there are the Congre-
gations of Rosendaal, of Breda, of Heythuizen, afl of
which have communities in foreign missions; last^
the Congregation of Heerlen. In Belgium there exist,
besides the old congregation of the Grey Sisters of
Hospitals (see above) at Antwerp, L^au, Tirlemont,
Hasselt, and Tongres, the more recent communities
of Ghent (founded 1701), of H^rines, Diocese of
Malines, of Macon-lez-Chimay, of Opwyk, Diocese
of Malines (1845). In Switzerland there once existed
many congregations of the Third Order, and even now
Uiere are several convents of strict enclosure. Of
ttie active congregations the most noteworthy are the
two founded by the Capuchin Theodosius Florentini,
viz. the Sisters of the Holy Cross for schools, wiUi
mother-house at Menzingen (1844), with numerous
convents outside Sndtzerland, and the Sisters of the
Holy Cross for hospital work (1852), with mother-
bouse at Ingenbohl.

In France, before the last suppresmon of conventa,
there were about fifty communities of the Third
Order; the most important was that of the Mission-
aries of Mary, founded by Mother de Chapotin de
NeuviUe (d. 1904) in India, with actual mother-
house at Rome, with communities spread all over
the world. In Italy there are the Stigmatins, founded
near Florence by Mother Lapini (d. 1860); the
Sisters of Egypt, for misBicnary work, with moth^
house at Rome; the Sisters of Gemona: finally, the
Sisters of the Child Jesus, with motner-house at
Assisi. On the whole, the sisters professing the
Rule of the Third Order amount at least to 50,000.

The Regular Third Order produced one saint,
Hyacintha of Mariscotti, and five Blessed: Lucia
of Callagirone, Elizabeth of Reute, Angelina of
Marscioroo, Jeremias Lambertenghi and (>escentia
H5ss of Kaufbeuren.

Text of the Rule: RruD of 1221, Sabatikb, Rtf/ula antiqua
ftatrutn ti tororum tU Ptnitmtia (Paria, 1001). in Ojnucuttt d»
eriiunie kittorioue, I (P&Hb, 1903;i, 1-30; Boehuer, j4nalMtl«n rvr
Getchichie dtt Pmndtau ton iltntt (Tubinzen and L«ips!£. 1904),
73-82; tr. Adderlet and Mabon, Third Ord«ra. A Iratutatioit a/
an aneimi Rvlt of the Ttrtiariet togtUter vith an account o/ wm$
modem Third Ordtn (Oxford sod London, 1902), 11-23.

Rule of 1289: Sen^iae L,eoi»laiiimia texHu oriffinaUt (Qua-
ncchi, 1897), 77-M; Sbahaoua, BuUarium Franeiicanvm, IV
(Rome, 1768), 94-97; Wadding, AnnaU* Mitwrum, 11 (2ad ed..
Rome. 1732), &-14; de Gdbebmatw. Orbis Serapkieu$Lti (Lyons,
lesa), 784-87; tr. According to the tcit of Wadding: Work* of the
leraphie Father St. franeit of Auiei (London, 1882), 80-91.

Rule of Leo X of lfi2I: atraph. Ltgid. Mxtea orfa., 287-07:
Begtia M Tan. Ordina di 8. Fnmemeo ammota da Lmma X
(QuftTMchi, 1889), witb Latin, Italian, Kouh, and EngBdt tntt
In four columns.

Rule of Leo XIII. 1888: FntWAKDH Oabcia. 8S.D.N. LtenU
PP. Xni Am ad TerHmm Franeitcalem OnUwM tptOmHia
(Quaneoh!, 1901), 72-87.

On the origin of the Third Order: MfliXEa, Die Anfangi dea
Miitoritenorderu vnd der BueAniderttAafien (Freiburg im Br.,
1885) : Idbu, Z«r OnMehtt dea Bveabrtderordmte in ZeUeehriltfQt
KirdrngmMcku, XXUI (Qotba, 1M2), «f»^: MAMsoMim,

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Lm original de TOrdo dt PmiUittia In ConvpU rmi* AttfuaMfaM
Cmffrte teimUfivu vnUmaHim^ dM dwuHswM, awt. V (Fri-
bourg, ISdS), 183-215; Idxm, Lea Ri^ln HU govMrntmeni dt
VOrdo d* FimiUnlia au XIII' tiieli in OfnueuUa d» eriSqiM, I
(PBria, 1902), 143-250; Ookts, Di« Rwi dn Ttrtiariatordau ia
ZeO^nfl far KirehmgeachtehU, XXin (Ootha, 1902), 97-107;
DatiiMOBII, M JfnMehwv Fntui»ka»ti^T«rtiari«r-Rega in
Ftorttu in r«r<eftiinmn mr GeaehicU* wn Florem, IV (Ber-
lin, I90B), 67-81; cf. BiBLia ArAivum Frondteanwn Hittorieum.
I (Quuacobi. 1008), 642-13; tak Oktbst Id AnaUtta BoOmndi-
ana, XXIV (Bnuwls, 1905], 915-19: Mabiaitob FunumNt;*,
CMHMndivm Cknmiearum OrdinU FF. Minorum (QuuMchi,
1911), n[AnA.Fnme.Hitt„n (Quancohl, 1900. 98));^AinoNi,
OK tfmU*ati sai lent rapporii eon I'traia V^tiiutna dtUa
lanatdiCMumiiui teoUXIT* XIII (Milui, 1911), 130-31.
and puriiA; Otmuan, Oli etatuli 4t wn'oatica cotHrtgatiime
fmuHmtia di Bmcia in Arehiwim Fnnetae. HiH., I (Qiu-
nuohi. 1908), 5U-68: Oolvbotich, ^eta tl Hatuta gpuralit
eapitvii Ttm Ordiiut PaMitmOiuin D. Fnneitd Sonmta
oOebrali m. ItBS in Arcii. Franc HUt., 11 (Qutkracdtl, 1900),
«S-71.

QaDeral nuroM »nd mononwha: db OiniiBMATts. loe. oit., II,
783-921; Cabilix), fTMtoria « la Itrctra Orden de San PrancUeo
(2 vols., Suatoaaa, 1610-13); .Bonnom, ArAirium BuBarum,
Vfirtltaionim tt deentorum friitntm tt torontm ItriH Ordinit 3.
Fnneuei (Farma, 1658) ; Idem, Cronolofftum fratrum tt aororwn
lertii Ordinit S. Franeiad lam regularia quain teeubuiM (Pama,
1658); JoANNBS Mabia, Tertii itnUnia S. Franeiaei AaatsitXi*
Annaln prpetui (Pftrig, 1686); Jean Hawb di Veknom, Hit-
tairt gtniraU tt partiatliin du Tian Ordre (8 vols., Parix, 1067;
Lat. vernon, Paris, 1668); Hilarion dm Nolat, La gloirt du
tier$ ordrt dt S. Francott ou rhialoire de ton AaNtMmmf el dt won
vngrit (I^ons, 1694) : Pibtr' Antonio da Vcnsua, Pitt dt'
Santi. BtaH a VtnimMk Seni diDiodd Ttr^ fMtesdj 8. Fran-
eeteo (Venioe. 1725) ; Anokuco da ViceNtA, Sloria cronologiea dai
trt Ordini, 111 (^^oe■ua, 1761) ; Riccabdi, L'Anno francetcano
oatia ViU de* Frauai t SorOU del Tart' Ordina di 3. Fratieaaeo
d^Aaaiti (2 vols., Turin. 1789) ; Hiubius Pabisiknub, Libtr tartii
Ordinia a, Franeiaei Aatiaienna (Oeneva, 1888); Antonids dh
BiLua, Studio orti/iitatn protectam atqua ampUmenlum tartii Or-
dini* da Panitanha coneamanHa (Naples. 1621), with ettttistioa of
the Italiui Regular TUrd Older; Qeneratia ttatuta aita datreta
ftatnm UrHi CMinia da Pmiteniia nmteupati regularia ObaerxaniiiM
Cmgreoationia Lanifobardia (Venice, 1651); Ncua. Le Manuaerit
1^ 797* daa Ardtiiaa otntratea dn, Boyavma IBelgiuml {Fonda daa
Cartuiairt* mmvacrita) in Rnua daa Biblioihiwta at AnAiaea da
Balgiqu^ II (Bnueels, 1904), 361-70: Hausat, Noteaurun Manu-
teril da Haaadt cwaammt laa Boaarda ou Frirat du Tiara Ordra da
St. Fran<:oia d Zappam, ibid., IV (1906), 86-03; van dbk Qbstn,
Bncora lea Statvia daa Bogarda dt Ztpptm, ibid., VII (1908). 176-
77i\'Atitititva, DoeumatUaeoneemanl la tiara-Ordre dAnveraetaaa
rapporta avec Vindualrie drapiire (,lSae-167g) (Brussels. 1910);
Idem, Documenit eoneemanl Ua Bogarda dt MaUnea (JSS4-lSSSi
(Brussels, 1911); Gotbnsl DocumatUa qwadam ad kiatoriam
T»tii Ordinia Regularia in Bdgio apectantia in Arch. Franc. Hiat.,
IV (Quaraccbi. 1911). 637-43; Caluxt, Lea Baggarda dea Pai/a-
Baa in UnivaraiU eatMiqtie da Louvain, Siminaira Hialariqua,
Rapport lur Ua (ravaux ptndant I'anntt acc. 1909-10 (Louvain,
1911). 438-51; CoFANELLi, Cannaraed^ T«n* Ordina Franeeacano
(Foligno. 1895); Cambiabo. S. Francaaeo e il Tert' Ordina in
tienova (Qenoa. 1909); LecbstbB. Abbaj/ea Priauraa at Cowenia
d'kommta en France. Liaie ginirata d^apria Ua papiart de la
Commitaion daa Riguliera an 1768 (Paris, 1002). 85-87; Lanzoni,
I Primordi deW Ordina Franctacano in Faenaa (Fsensa, 1910),
30-31; HoLZAPni^ Handintch dar GeaehichU daa Franatikanar-
ordana (Freiburg im Br., 1909). 660-87; Lat. ad. (Freiburg im
Br.. 1909), 694-618; Heiubucheb. Dia Orden und Kongrmor
tionen dar kalholiachen Kirche, II (2nd ed.. Paderbom. 1907),
489-627; Nobbbrt. Lea Religiewtea Frandaeainat an France
(Paris, 1897) ; for atatJatics: Ada Ordinia Frairvm JKCwrum, XXX
(Quaraoohi, 1911), 93, 96.

Books for practical use, besides the numerous manuab of the
Third Order: O^abd de VAUConuuaa, Documenta pour ev
piiquar la RtgU dv Tiara-OrdredeSainl-Franioiad'Aaaiaa.aM point
devue tpiritual, aocial et ieonomimie (3 vols., Paris, 1899); Bb6ll,
Ruhmeablatlar aua der Getchichtt dea DrUtan Ordena daa ht. Frantia-
kua (Rstisbon. 1911); Libuont, Oodadianatiga an maattdtap-
pdijke Inzloed der Derde-Orde van St. Frandacua bij haran Mf^
aprojtg en op ome dagen (Tumhout, 1908) ; Anon., La Tier*4)rdrt
Franeiaeain d'apria act traditiona (Ligug^, 1897); Caubete Ai^
BEBT, La Code franeiaeain antra laa maina daa hrnmnaa dv mande,
nouMauE apareut avr U Tiara-Ordre de Saint Francoia d'Aiaiae
(MeU, 1905) ; Leodil, Lt Tiara-Ordrt dt Saiat Franeoia d'Aaaiat,
ppunruoi V entrar, pourauot n'u entra-t-on paaf (Mets, 1910);
Cbrbi, £a RegeJa dd Tert' OrdiM Frwaotteano apitgatt eon
Utiomi pbpolari (Turin, 1910).

LlVABItrS OUSEB.

VII. Third Order of &r, Francis, in Canada. —
The Third Order of St. Francis was established by
the Friars Minor Recollects at Qud>ec in 1671, and
some years later at Three Rivers and Montreal.
Ck>iisiaering the population of the country, it was in a
flourishing condition. In 1681 a Recollect notes that
"many pious people of Quebec belong to the Third
Order*'. After the cession of Canada to E^and
the Third Order, deprived of its directors, the Recol-
lects, se^ed to have disappeared gradually, only to
flounsh anew thirty years after Uie deatii at Mmt-

real, 1813, of the last Recollect priest. The Third
Order was re-established about 1840 by Mgr Igna-
tius BouTset, Bishop of Montreal. Fervent felfow-
labourers helped the hoW^ prelate to spread the Third
Order in MonU«^ notiu>ly Cancm J. A. Par6 and liie
Sulpicians C. E. Gilbert and A. GSiiuid. Mgr
Bourget established a fraternity of women, 6 May,
1863, and one of men, 13 June, 1866; both were
directed by the Sulpicians till 1874, by Canon P. E.
Dufresne from 1874 till 1881, by the Jesuits from 1881
till 1888, and by the Sulpicians from 1888 till 1890;
since then by the Friara Minor. Mgr Fabre, suc-
cessor to BisDop Bourget, in a letter (3 Sept., 1882)
to the priests and fail£ful of his diooeiBe,8ay8: "Wc
have in our midst the tertiaries of St. nanciB, vho
are known to you all by the edification th^ give,
and by the good odour of ^1 the virtues which tliey
practise in the world." The Third Order was re-
mtroduced at Quebec almost at the same time as at
Montreal. On 19 Nov., 1859, Father Flavian Du-
rocher, 0. M. I., received the profession of two women,
after a year's novitiate. These were joined by
others, until in 1876 Quebec possessed over 2000 ter-
tiaries, vrtiile in the Province oS Quebec several par-
ishes had groups of tertiaries. Among priests zealous
for the gpwaa of the Third Order at this epoch we
must name, besides the above-mentioned Montreal

Eriesta: Father Durooher, St. Sauveur, Quebec;
I. N. B^gin, now Archbishop of Quebec; James
Sexton, Quebec; Oliver Caron, Vicar-CJeneral of
Three Rivars: E. H. Guilbert, L. Provanchc»\ and
G. Fraser, all three of the Quebec diocese. Father
Provancher was one of the most sealous. In 1866^
having received faculties from the General of the
Friars Minor, he established a very fervent fraternity
in his pariah of Portneuf. He propagated the Third
Order hy his writings. For two years he edited a
review, m which he published nearly every month an
article on the Third Order, or answered questions
appertainic^ thereto. At that epoch (1876) the
brothers' fraternity at Montreal counted 137 mem-
bers; the sisters^ a still greater Dumbw. At Three
Rivers the tertiaries were less numerous — enough,
however, to form a fraternity a little later. Quebec
with its 200 tertiaries did not have a fraternity till
1882.

In 1881 the arrival in Canada of Father Frederic
of Ghyvelde gave new g)irit to the Third Order.
He spent ei^t monUis in Canada, and worked actively
for the Third Order. He beam at Quebec, where
be held the Holy Visit prescnbed by the rule and
admitted 100 new members. At Tnree Rivers he
found "a numerous and fervent fraternity". His
visit to the fraternities of Montreal was followed "by
a notable increase in membership. Shortly after-
wards Leo XIII published his Enoychcals on the
Third Order. The Canadian biahope, in obedience
to the pope's wishes, recommended the Hiird Order
to their clensy and futhful. But the Friars <tf the
Tint Order alone could rave the Third a fittinc
development; hence, when Father Frederic retumra
in 1888, several bishops, among them Bishop Lafldcfae
of Three Rivers and Archbishop Taschereau, welcomed
him as its promoter. The foundation of a convent
of Friars Minor at Montreal in 1890 inaugurated a
hew era of prosperity for the Third Order. The
Franciscans took over the direction of the Third
Order at Montreal. The fratemitiee of other di»>
tricts were viedted regularly, and new <Hies wore
formed. The Third Order has since spread rapidly.
To-day the Third Order in Canada numbers nearly
200 fraternities with over 50,000 members, under
the jurisdiction of the Friars Minor. The Capuchins
have a small number of fratemitiee. The Friars
Minor have also the direction of 20 fraternities with
5000 members in the Franco-Canadian oentree (A
the United States. All these with larce numben tt

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isolated tertiaries (ive a tot^ <d nearly 60,000.
These tertiariee are moetly French Canadians. There
are very few fraternities for English-speaking ter-
tiaries; of these there are two very flourishing ones
at Montreal. It is in the Province of Quebec that
the Third Order is most flourishing. Three monthly
reviews, treating specially of the Third Order, are
published in Cwada: (1) "Ia Revue du Tiers Or-
dre", founded in 1884 by the tertiaries of Montreal,
and directed since 1891 by the Friars Minor of that
city; (2) "The Franciscan Review and St. Anthony's
Record", founded in 1905 by the Friars Minor of
Montreal; (3) "L'Echo de St. Fransoia", published
since 1911 by the Cwuchins of Ottawa. The princi-
pal sodal works of tne Third Order in Canada are:
three houses of the Third Order in Montreai and
one in Quebec^ directed by lady tertiaries; a lodging-
house and an mdustrial school at Montreal, directed
also by lady tertiaries; several work-rooms for the
benefit of the poor; and public libraries, one in
Quebec and two in Montreal.

The Third Order Regular is reiM^sented in Canada
by three flourishing institutions: A. lAUle Francis^
can Sislen of Mary, founded at Worcester, Massar
chuaetts, in 1889 and transferred to Baie-St-Paul,
Canada, in 1891; their constitutions were approved in
1903. They follow the Rule of the Third Order
Rc^lar. Their habit comprises a brown tunic and
acapulaj, a white hood and wimple, and a white
woollen cord; they wear a silver crucifix. Work. — ■
Assistance of the sick, the poor, the aged, of orphans
and instructifxi of the young — in a word, all the works
of mercy. Development. — This congregation possesses
8 houses, nearly all in 1^ United States. TIw mother
house is at Baie^t-Faul, Province Quebec, Canada.
The institution numbers 150 professed sisters, 7
novices, 30 postulants, and 8 associates.

B. Franciscan Miesionaries of Mary, founded in
India, and following the Rule of the Third Order
R^pilar. They have six housee in Canada: (1) Que*
bee, founded 1892; novitiate, peix>etual adoration,
printing embroidery, workshop, house of probation
tor aqHrants, patronage, visitmg the eick. (2) St.
Anne of Beaupr6 (1894) ; j>atrona^, woriuAiop, hos-
pitality for pibrims, visiting the sick. (3) St. Law-
rence, Manitooa (1897) ; boarding-schooL parochial
schools, dispensary, visiting the sick. (4) Pine Creek,
Manitoba (1899); school, model farm, dispensary,
visiting the sick. (5) St. Malo, Quebec (1902); day
nursery, primary schools, school of domestic economy,
dif^nsary, pharmacy, visiting the sick. (6) Winni-
peg (1909);daynura^,embnHdeiy,pfl^nage, visit-
ing the po<H- and the ho^itals. These bouees possees
160 sisters, novices indtuled. Since its establishment
in Canada, the congregation has had 290 Canadian
memb^, many of whom are now engaged in mission
work in China, Japan, India, Ceylon, Congo, Zulu-
land, Natal, Mozambique, Madagascar, and South
America. The mother-nouse of ^ebec has founded
six others in the United States: Woonsocket in 1904;
New York and New Bedford in 1906; Boston in 1907;
Providence in 1909; Fall River in 1910.

C. Rdigious of St. Francis of Aasisi, founded at
Lyons, France, in 1838. Their object is the care of the
sick and of orphans and the education of the young.
They were introduced into Canada in 196i, and have
at present 5 houses, comprising a hoepit^ a boarding-
school for girls, and model and elementary schools.

Third Order Bewilw: L«clb«cq, Pnmitr BtabUuemmil dm tafoi
(Paris, 1891} ; S^aireiaaemenla ff FibMisitmmt d'ttn hetptee A
Qufime (1681). Arehiva de VenaOUt, FM» A^mOcM; GamtU dM
AiR^IlM, BuOMn Uenmta (QoBbee. 1869-76); Rnut du Tierf
Ordre; rr, Bimtmu (TOtimo, Urtiain.Ifotie* hitlori^u «ur to
Tien-Ordrt A Qu&te (Quebec, 1903). Tlurd Order R^nlar: in-
fomMtion farmabed by the oongiegationa themadvea.

OnORIO M. JOTTVX.

VIII. Third Ordeb of St. Francis in Grbat
BuraiN AND Irxumd.— A. In Qnat Aribitn.— The

Third Order Secular comprises ninety-six congre-
gations of which forty are under the jurisdiction of
the Friars Minor of the Leonine Union and fif ty-fom-
imder that of the Friars Minor Capuchin, and about
12,000 members, amongst whom are several diocesan
bisboiw, a number of the clergy, and laity of all ranks.
In their onganiution the British tertiary congregctions
follow the common rule, but many of them add some
corporal works of mercy, reclaiming n^Iigent Catho-
lics, and so forth. Ali the tertiaries are governed
by a commissary-provincial appointed by the minis-
ter-provincial of the first order. His duty is to (trant
the necessary faculties to directors of congregations,
to hold visitations, and generally supervise the affairs
of the Third Order under his jurisdiction. A national
conference of British tertiaries with a view to stroigth-
ening and consolidating the order, was held in 18!^ at
Liverpool in the hall attached to the Jesuit church,
and was presided over by the bishop of the diocese.
The opemns address was delivered by the Archbishop
of Paris. A second national conference was held at
Leeds. Since the institution of the English national
Catholic congress, in 1910, the tertiaries have taken
part in these ana have had their sectional meeting
m the oonfcress.

Of the Tliird Order in Great Britain in pre-Reformap
tion days little is known. It is, however, certain that
there existed in Scotland several houses of Sisters of
the Third Order Regular. Bl&ssed Thomas More is
frequently spoken of as a tertiary of St. Francis,
but there seems to be no historical evidence to sup-
port this statement. The Third Order, however, was
known in England in the penal days. ¥i. William
Staney, the first commissary of the order in Enjdand
aStat tbe Dissolution, wrote "A Treatise of the Third
Order of St. Francis (Douai, 1617). An interesting
fact in connexion with the Third Order in England is
the appointment in 1857, as commissary-general, of
Dr. (suterwards Cardinal) Manning, by a letter patent,
dated 10 April, 1857, given by tne minister-eeneral
of the Capuchin Friars Minor, empowering him to
act as "Superior, visitor and Our Commissary of each
and all the brothers and sisters of the Third Order
Secular dwelling in England". Amongst notable
English tertiaries of modern times, besides Carding
Manning, may be mentioned (Cardinal Vaughan, Lady
Herbert of Lea, the late Earl of Denbigh, and the
poet <2oventiy Patmore. The Third Order R^ular is
represented _ m England by nineteen convents of
sisters and in Scotland by six convents. There are
no communities of brothers. These convents belong
to various ooi^^gatioDs, most of which are of Eogliw
institution. They devote themselves either to cnucar
tion or to parochial works of mercy or to the foreign
missions. Most notable historically amongst theae
congregations are the convents at Taunton and Wood-
chester, which represent the English convent of the
Third Order established at Brussels, Belgium, in 1621.
Their founder was Father (Jennings, the orother of the
martyr Edmund Gennings. This was, in fact, the
first convent of the Thim Order Regular, enclosed,
founded for E^iglisfa women. The community lator
on migrated to Bruges where it remained imtu 1794,
when, owing to the troubles caused by the French
Revolution, it crossed over into England and, after
eleven years' residence at Winchester, settled finally
at Taunton in Somerset. The congregation was under
1^ jurisdiction of the Friars Minor until 1837 when,
owing to the dissolution of the Recollect province, it
came undn the jurisdiction of the diocesan bishop.
In 1860 a second foundation was made at Wood-
cheater.

B. In Irdand. — The congregations of the Third
Order Secular in Ireland are almost exclusively at-
tached to churches of the First Order. Under the
jurisdiction of the Friars Minor of the Leonine Union
are fourteen ocmgr^tionB with 9741 members, and

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subject to the Capuchin Frian Minor are four oon-
oegationB with 5100 members. The Third Order
Regular comprises two houses of brothera at Qu«
and Farragber, and eleven in the Archdiocese of
Tuam, all devoted to educational work. At Drum-
shambo the sisters of the order have a convent where
perpetual adoration is maintained day and nieht.
There is alao one convent of the Franciscan Mis-
nonary Sisters of Mary.

Francitcan AnnaU (Pantuaph. North Wales), a monthly
nugstuw; Franeitean MmHUu (Foreat Gat«, Londoo); varioua
(toUtIs will be found in Thaddbus, The Fraiteuearu in Knfgand
(London. 189S) and in the autisticol tables pnbliabed jnany in.
A<ia ord, §. nun, and Anaiecta ord. ff. mitt. oapp.

Fatbbb Cuthbkht.

IX. Third Ordbk Rboclar of St. Francts, in
THB United States. — A. Congregations of Men. — (1)
Province of the Sacred Heart of Jesus oi the Fathers
of the Third Order R^lar of St. Francis. In 1847
Bishop O'Connor of Pittsburgh obtained from the
Irish congreeation six brothers, who founded a monas-
tery and college at Lorctto, Pennsylvania. Pius IX,
b^ a Rescript of 12 Nov., 1847, erected this founda-
tion into an independent congregation under the
obedience of the Bishop of Fitt^urgh. This congre-
gation in 1908 joined the Italian congregation, and
tether with the community at Spaldmg, Nebraska,
which in 1906 had joined the Italian concretion, was
erected into a province, 24 Sept., 1910. Houses, 4;
coItegM, 2; religious, 62; novices, 5. (See below.)

(2) Congregation of the Franciscan Brothers, of
Brooklyn, New York. Founded 31 May, 1858, by 2
brothers from the Irish congregation, Pius IX, by
a Rescript of 15 Dec., 1859, erected it into an indepen-
dent congregation. The ordinary of the Diocese of
Brooklyn is the superior-^ncral, and governs the con-
gregation through a provmcial superior with an aasiB-
tant and seven consultors, chosen by tiie brothers
from among themselves for a term of three years.
Brothers, 67; novices, 8; academy, 1; college, 1;
schools, 14; pupils, 9875. (See below.)

(3) Ck)ngr^;ation of the Brothers of the Poor of
St. Francis Seraphicus. Founded 25 Dec, 1857, at
Aachen by John Hoevcr for the protection and educa-
tion of poor, homeless boys, it was introduced into the
United States in 1866. Brothers, 43; novices, 5;
postulants, 3; candidates, 13; homes for boys, 2.

B. Congregations of Women. — (1) Sisters of the
Third Order Regular of St. Francis: — (a) Congrega-
tion with mother-house at Oldenburg, Indiana.
Founded in 1S51 by Rev. F. J. Rudolf, its rules and
constitutions were approved by the Holy See.
Sisters, 536; novices, 41; postulants, 7 j schools, 67;

Eupils, 12,273. (b) Congregation with mothei^
ouse at Mt. St. Clare. Cbnton, Iowa. Founded in
1867 bv Rt. Rev. Bishop Lavialle of Louisville,
KentuCKy. Sisters, 130; novices and postulants, 40;
hospital, 1; schools, 16; pupils, 2590.

(2) Sisters of the Third Order of St. Francis:—
(a) (ZJongregation with mother-house at Glen Riddle,
Penn^lvania. Founded by the Ven. John Neyro-
mucene Neumann, C.SS.R., Bishop of Philadelphia,
who on 9 April, 1855, invested three devout women,
Marianne ^chmann (Mother M. Francis), Barbara
BoU (Sster M. Margaret), and Anna Dora (Sister
M. Bemardina), with the habit of St. Francis. In
1896 the mother-house was transferred from Phila-
delphia to Glen Riddle. This congr^ation is divided
into three provinces. Houses, 80; sistere^ 818;
novices, 48; postulants, 15; academics, 4; seminaries,
2; orphan asylums, 9; hospitals, 12; schools, 42;
schools for Indians and n<^roes, 8. By and from this
conD^ation were established (i) Congregation with
mother-houae at 337 Hnc Street, Buffalo, New York
in 1861. Sisters, 277; novices, 30; postulants, 16;
aaylums for aged, 3; schools, 30; pupils, 6540j orphan
asylum, 1; hospitals, 2. From this congregation were
roimdea (a) Congr^ation with mothet^faouse at Mt.

Alvernia, Millvale Station, Pauuyhraiiia, in 1868.

Sisters, 210; novices, 17: postulants, 13; schools, 14;

ails, 6429; orphan asylum, 1; hospital, 1; home for
es, 1. 0) Congregation with mother-house at
Mt. Hope, Westchester Co., New York, 1893. Le^
title: Sisters of St. Francis, Conventuals of the Third
Order of the M.l.V. Sisters, 182; novices, 19;
postulants, 9; academy, 1; schools, 6; (ii) Congre-

tatioD with mother-house at St. Anthony's Convent,
yracuse, New Yoric, 1862. Sisters, 178; novices, 9;
candidates, 6; schools, 17; pupils, 4500; ho^itala,
3: home for aged, 1 ; home for children, 1 ; convents at
Hawaiian Islands, 4. (b) 0>ngreKation with mother-
house at St. i^ancis's Hospital, Peoria, IlUnois;
founded in 1867 by Rt. Rev. John L. Spaldmg,
Bishop of Peoria, and sisters from the House oi
Bethlehem, Herf<wd, Germany. Sisters, 163; novices,
38; postulants, 26; hoepitds, 10; patirats, 5320.
(c) Congregation with mother-house at Tiffin, Ohio,
Founded in 1867 by Rev. J. L. Bihn. Sisters, 56;
novices, 9; postulants, 4; hospital, 1 ; orphan asylums,
2; homes for aged, 2; schools, 13. (d) Congregation
with provincial house at Peekskill, New York.
Founded by Mother M. Gertrude and two sisters
from the general mother-house, Gemona, ItaJy,
who, at the request of Rev. Andrew Feifer, O.F.M.,
came to this country in 1865. Sisters, 284; novices,
18; postulants^ 15; academy, 1; schools, 18; day
nurseries, 3; institution for destitute children, 1:
home for working girls, 1; children in charge of
sisters, 7768. (e) Congregation with mother-house
at Bay SetUonent, Wisconsin, founded 6 Dec., 1867.
Sisters, 35.

(3) Sisters of St. Francis:~-(a) Congr^tion with
mother-house at St. Elizabeth's Convent, AU^any,
New York. Founded in 1857 by Very Rev. Pamfilo
di Magliano, O.F.M. [Sisters, 300; novices, 25;
postuluits, 12; schools, 11; hospitals, 2; homes, 4.
(b) Congregation with motner^house at St. Francis's
Convent, Dubuque, Iowa. Founded in 1876 by
Mother Xaveria Termehr and sisters from the house
of Bethlehem, Herford, Germany, who on account
of the infamous ' ' May laws' ' , were compelled to leave
Ciennany. Sisters, 399; novices, 34; postulants, 20;
orphan asylums, 2; industrial school, 1; acadwy, 1;
home for aged, 1; schools, 43; pupils, 6^. (c)
Congregation with mother-house at St. Joseph's
Hospital, Maryville, Missouri. Founded with the
approbation of Rt. Rev. M. F. Burke, Bishop of
St. Joseph, Missouri, in 1894. Sisters, 45; novices,
7; postulants, 1; hospitals, 6. (4) Sisters of St.
Francis of Penance and Christian Charity: — Congre-
gation with mother-house at Stella Niagara, near
Lewiston, New York. Establiiriied m 1874 by Mothv
M. Alcwsia and three sisters from Nonnenwerth,
nearRolandseck, Rhenish Prussia, Germany. Sisters,
253; academics^ 5; schools, 18; pupils, 6348; otphan
asylum, 1; Indian schools, 2; pupils, 577; foundling-
house, 1.

(5) Franciscan Sisters: — (a) Congregation with
mother-house. Grand Avenue and Chippewa Street,
St. Louis, Missouri. Founded in 1872 by sisters
fnon the general mother-house at Balzkotten, G^
many. Sisters, 224; hospitals, 6; schools, 1; orphan
asylums, 2; house of providence, 1; convent, 1; (b)
CTongregation with mother-house at Mill Hill, Ix>ndon,
Engbnd, for coloured missions. Introduced into
tiie United States in 1881. Sisters, 58; industrial
school, 1; parochial schools, 4; pupils, 765. (6)
Sisters of St. Francis of the Sacred Heart: — Con-
oregation with mother-house at Mercy Hoq>ital,
Burlmgton, Iowa. Sisters, 22; hospital, 1. (7)
Franciscan Sist^ Minor Conventuals: — CJongre-

gition with moth^bouse at St. Joseph's Convent,
uffalo. New York. Sisters, 58jnovices, 16; postu-
lants, 21. (81 Sisters of the Third Order of St.
Vnam of Aam, M.C. :— Congregation with mother^

Digitized by

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house at St. Fran<MB, Wisconsin. Founded in 1840
Bisters fn»n Bavaria. Ita rules and ooDStitutions
were oompiled by Rev. M. Heiss in 1862, and approved
by Rt. Rev. J. M. Henni, Bishop of Milwaukee. In
June, 1873, this congregatitm was affiliated to the
Order of Minor Conventuals, and Pius X on 6 Dec.,
1611, gave it its definite approbation. Sisters, 303;
novices, 22; postulants, 30; academy, 1; orphanage, 1;
institute for deaf mutes, 1; for feeble minded, 1;
schools, 36; pupils, 4600. (0) School Sutero of St.
Francis: — C<m^«gation with mother-house, Green-
field and Twenty-Second Avenues, Milwaukee, Wis-
consin. The sisters conduct schools in Wisconsin,
Minnesota, South Dakota, N^raska, Iowa, Missoiui,
Illinois, Michigan, and Oregon. There are two
branch-houses of this congr^atton in Europe, one
in Luxemburg, the other at Erlenbad, Baden. Sis-
ters, 814.

(10) Franciscan Sisters of the Perpetual Adora-
tion:— Congregation with motherJiouse at St. Rose
Convent, la Cnnse, Wisconsin. Founded by mx
sisters from Bavaria, and rules oompiled in 1853 by
Most Rev. M. Heiss, Arehbi^op of Milwaukee. The
Perpetual Adoration was introduced in 1878. Sisters,
420; novices, 42; postulants, 40; schools, 63: pupils,
8448; orphan asylums, 2; Indian school, 1; domestic
science schools, 2. (11) Franciscan Sisters of
Christiui Charity: — Congregation with mother-
house at Holy Family Convrat, Alvemo, Wisconsin.
Founded in 1869 at Manitowoc, Wisconsin, by Rer.
Joseph Fessler, it was affiliated to the Order of
Friars Minor Conventual 19 March, 19(X>. Sisters,
303; novices, 40; postulants, 10; hospitals, 2; home
for aged, 1; schoou, 53; pupils, 8500. (12) Francis-
can Sisters of the SaCTed Heart: — Congregation with
mother-house at St. Joseph's Hospitu, Joliet, Illi-
nois. Founded in 1867 at Avila, Indiana, by sisters
from Germany. Sisters, 325; novices, 40; postu-
lants, 12; hoffi>ita]s, 10; home for aged, 1; oiphan
asylum, 1; schools, 0. (13) Sisters of the Third
Order of St. Francis of Perpetual Adoration: — Con-
gregation with mother-house at St. Francis's Con-
vent, Nevada, Missouri. Established in 1893 by
Sister M. John Hau and sist^ from the mother-
house at Qrimmenstein, Switxerland. Sisters, 25;
orphan air^Ium, 1. (14) Hospital Sisters of St.
Francis: — Congregation with provincial house at
St. John's Hospital, Springfield, Illinois." Founded
in 1875 by sisters from the general mother-house,
MQnster, Germany. Sisters, 299; novices, 29;
postulants, 11; hospitals, 12. (15) The Poor Sisters
of St. Francis Seraph of the Perpetual Adoration: —
Congregation with provincial house at St. Francis
Convent^ Lafayette, Indiana. Introduced' into this
country m 1875 by sisters from the general mother-
house at Olpe, Germany. Sisters, 613; novices,
35; postulants, 21; academies, 3; orphan asylum, 1;
home for aged, 1; schools, 36; hospitals, 18; high
sdKiols, 2. (16) Sisters of the Poor of St. Fraodu.
See Poor op St. Francis, Sisters of the.

(17) Franciscan Sisters of St. Kunegunda (Polish) :
— (a) Congregation with mother-house at CMcaw,
Illhiois. Founded in 1896. Sisters, 107 ; novices, 22:
postulants, 18; orphan asylum, 1; home for aged and
crippled, 1; day-nursery, 1; schools, 11; pupils, 2070.
(b) Congregation with mother-house at Chicago
Heights, Ilhnois. Foundation of English*epeaking
Franciscan Sisters. Sisters, 17. (18) Sisters of St.
Francis of the Immaculate Conception: — Congrega-
tion with mother-house at Peoria, Illinois. Founded
in 1890. Sisters, 47; novioes, 20; postulants, 17;
schools, 6; homes, 2; asylum, 1. (19) Misnonary
Firanciscan Sisters of the Immaculate Conception: —
Congregation with mother-house, Rome, Italy. The
sisters conduct establishments in the Archdioceses of
New York and Boston, the Diocese of Newark, Pitts-
burgh, and Savaondi. (20) S^niiscan Bisters <rf the

7 'I'm^p

Immaculate Conoeption : — (a) Congregation with
mother-house at Little Falls, Minnesota. Sisters, 60;
postulants, 8; orphan asylum, 1; hoenitats, 3. (b)
Congregation with mother-house at St. Anthony's
Hospitfu, Rock Island, Illinois. Sisters, 18;novices,6.

(21) Polish Franciscan School Sisters:— CongrMa-
tion with mother-house, 3419 Gasconde Street, St.
Louis, Missouri. Founded 29 May, 1901, by Most
Rev. John J. Kain, Archbishop of St. Louis. Sisters
63: schools, 9; pupils, 700. (22) Felician Sisters,
O.S.F..'— Confp^tion wiUi general motbeavhouse,
Cracow, Austna. Founded in 1865 by Sc^hia Truss-
kowska at Warsaw, Russia. Introduced into the
United States in 1874. (a) Western Province of the
Presentation B. V. M. Mother-house, Detroit, Michi-
gan. Sisters, 273; novices, 30; postulants, 55; candi-
dates in preparatory course, 65; schools, 33; pupils,
12,600; orphan asvlum, I. (b) Eastern Province.
Mother-house at Buffalo, New York, established 20
Aug., 1900. Chour Sisters, 278; novices, 32; postu-
lantSj 93; lay sisters, 66; novices, 6; postulants, 21;
candidates in preparatory course, 73; schools, 65;
pupils, 21,556; orphan asylums, 2; home for aged, 1;
emigrant home, f: working.«irl8' home, 1; day nur-
sery, 1. (c) North-western Province of the Presenta^
tion B. V. M. Mother-house, St. Joseph'sOrphanage,
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, established 1910. Sisters,
170: novices, 17; postulants, 27; schools, 24; pupils,
6482; orp|ian asylums, 3. (23) Sisters of the Third
Order of st. IVancis of the Congregation of Our Lady
of Lourdes. Mother-house, Rochester, Minnesota.
Established 1877 by sisters of St. Francis, Joliet,
Illinois. Sisters, 336; novices, 9: postulants, 16;
academies, 5; normal school, Ij schools, 20; pupils,
5707; hospital, 1; nurses' trainmg school, 1.

Hdhbucbbb, Di* Ordm und Km^mUimm dcr tetAofiiwAm
Kirehe (Ttnd ed., Padcrboni, 1907); The Calholie Church iH At
VniM atatM, I, II (N«W Yot^, 1900); OfficuU Catholie Direetory
(New York).

Fbbdinahd Hkckhann.

X. Provinci: op the Sacred Heart of Jescb. —
Prior to 1906 several communities of the Third Order
existed in the United States, all lay institutes dedi-
cated to teaching and other works of charity.
Amongst these were three branches of Franciscan
Brothers; at Brooklyn^ New York; at Loretto, Penn-
^Ivania; and at Sp^dme, Nebraska. The communi-
ties at Loretto and Brooklyn were founded more than
half a century ago from Mount Bellew Monastery,
Archdiocese of Tuam, Ireland; Spalding Institute
was a branch of the Brooklyn community. In 1905
Brother Linus Lynch, then superior of the institute,
adced the ordinary of the diocese for permission to
have some of his subjects ordained priests. This
request the bishop refused, as the community had
been introduced into the diocese for the care of parish
schools, and he feared that in the event of its mem-
bers becoming priests this work would suffer. A pe-
tition was then sent to the minister-general, Rt. Rev.
Angelus de Mattia, asking for union with the third
Order Regular; as this union could not be effected,
some ot the community determined to ask for a dis-
pensation front tfadr vows in order to enter the insti-
tute. In 1907 fifteen were dispensed: these, together
with eleven novices, went to Spalding, N^raska.
where a small community of brothers had been unitedi
to the order in 1906. They were received by Very
Rev. Dr. Stanislaus Dujmoric, commissary-general,
and by dispensation of Pius X from the ordinary year
of probation 'they made the vows of the order. A
college was then opened at Spalding, giving the order
its first house in the United States.

In 1908 the diocesan community of Frandscaa
Brothers at Loretto, PennBylvania, were admitted to
the solemn profession, and eight young men were
received into the novitiate.

In 1910-11 Rt. Rev. Eugene A. Gairey, D.D..

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Biahop of Altoona, requested the fathers to take charge
(rf the Italian Church of St. Anthony of Padua at
Johnstown, Penn^lvania. and the Church of Our
Lady (tf nfount Carmel, Altoona, Pennsylvania.
The four houses in the United States were erected
into a province, 24 Sept., 1910, Very Rev. Dr. Jerome
Zazzara being elected provincial. The Archbishop of
Chicago has since given the fathers charge of Sts.
Peter and Paul's SUvic Church in that city, and a
new college is to be opened at Sioux City, Iowa, in
1912. The provincial motiier-house is at St. Francis's
College, Loretto, FennqylTaoia. The American
Province has now five convents, two colleges, sixty-
Ave professed members, and twenty novices and pos-
tulants.

fioRDONi, Otnutoffium Pralnm tt Sanrum Tertii Ordinia
rParni&, 1658); HAltot, Hittain d— Ordrtt Mcfuutiqua: Ztc,
Brmt Hitloria Tertii Ordinia Rtqularii S. Franeiaei; M88. eon.
tained in ths srohivw ol Lmtto Convent, Loietto, PeuiaylvanU.

John P. M, DotxiB.

XI. The Third Ordee Secular of St. FnANas
was established in the United States by the early
I-Yanciscan missionaries for the white settlers and
soldiers and Indian converts^ especially in the
Southern States. A confratcrmty existed at Santa
Fc long before 1680. Another confraternity existed
in New Mexico almost from the time of the recon-
ciueat (1092-1695). The document stating this fact
is a report of the Father custos, Jos£ Beroal, dated
Santa F^, 17 Sept., 1794. There is no documentary
evidence of the existence of a Third Order for lay
people as a regularly organized confraternity any-
where e]aef though we learn from documents that
single individuals were termed tertiaries among the
Indians. It is most probable, however, that a con-
fraternity existed at St. Augustine, Florida, before
the close oS the sixteenth century, and at San Antonio,
Texas, before the middle of the eighteenth century.
The establishment of provinces of tne order of Friars
Minor brought about the establishment of many
confraternities. There are at present 186 confra-
ternities of Franciscan Tertianca in this country,
with a membership of 35,605. Of thes^ 142 con^^
gallons with 27,805 members are under the direction
of the Friars Minor, 32 with 6800 members under
the direction of the Friars Minor Capuchin, and 12
congi^tions with 1000 members under the direc-
tion of the Friars Minor Conventual. Besides these,
there are many hundreds of tertiaries throughout
the country not belonging to any congregation.

XII. The Third Order Secular or the Serv-
iTEs was eetabli^ed in the United States in 1893.
There are at present 2 congregations, with a member-
ship of 400.

XIII. The Third Ordeb Regulab or Sbbtttes.

See Mart, Servants of.

Heimbccher, Orden u. Kongreqationen (2nd ed., Poderborn,
1907); The Calkolic CAureA in (A« U. S., I, ll (New York, 1000);
OfflciiU Cathotie Dirtelarv (New York).

Ferdinand Hecuunn.

Thirty Ymib War, Ike.— The Thirty Years
War (1618-48), though pre.«minently a German war,
was also of great importance for the history o( the
whole of Europe, not only because nearly all tne coun-
tries of Western Europe took part in it, but also on
account of its connexion with the other great Euro-
pean wars of the same era and on account of its final
results.

I. Causes of the War. — The fundamental cause
was the internal decay of the empire from 1555, as evi-
denced by the weakness of the imperial power, by
Uie gross lack of patriotism manifested by the estates
of the empire, and by the paralysis of the' imperial
authority and its agencies among the Protestant
estates of South-western Germany, which had been in
a state of discontent since 1655. Consequently the
whole of Gennany waa in a continual state of imrest.

8 THIBTT

The decay <^ the empire encouraged the other nations
of Western Eurqpe to infringe iqkhi its torittMy.
Sptun and the Newrfauids made use of the pmod of
the twelve-years truce to secure a footing in the neigh-
bouring district of the Lower Rhine so as to increase
their strategic base. For nearly a hundred years
France had made treaties with many of the estates
hostile to the emperor. Henry IV of France was
murdered in 1610 at the very moment he was about
to interfere in the war over the J iilicli-Cleve succession.
James I of Bng^nit was the father-in-law of the head
of the Protestant party of action in Gemuuiy, Elec-
tor Frederick V of the Palatinate, and was mclined
to take part in a continental quarrel. Deem ark
sought obstinately tc obtain the power of "adminis-
tration" over the dioceses of Northern (Germany that
had become Protestant, and to get control of the
mouth of the Elbe. Gu8tavuBAdolphus(1611"32),of
Sweden, also showed a strong desire to interfere in
Gmnan affairs. At the outbreak of the Thirty Years
War all these oountries, it is tni& were prei^ted from
taking part in it by internal dimculUes or by wars in
other directions. Still the diq;»osition to do so existed
everywhere.

Another cause of the war was that the countries
forming the Austrian provinces belonged to the
empire. For, in the first place, the empire, owing to
the geo^pbical position of these countries, became in-
volved m we contemporary affairs in Eastern Europe.
The general aristocratic reaction that appeared
throu^out Europe at the end of the fifteenth and
in the sixteenth centuries gradually became so power-
ful in the eastern and northern countries that a life-
and-death struggle between its representatives and
the sovereign power broke out at the beginning of the
seventeenth century in the more active districts ol
these sections. These causes gave the first impulse
to the Thirty Years War (eee section II below). In
addition the dynasty ruling the countries forming
Austria was a branch of theTHabsburg family, whose
most distinguished line at that era ruled Spain.
From the reign of Philip II (1556-98) the Spanish
Habsburgs were the champions of Catholicism in
Western Europe and the chief rivals of France in the
Btrugfcle for supremacy in Europe. From about 1612,
especially during the administration of Philip Iv
(1621-65) and ^ distinguished minister. Olivarez,
they displayed increased energy and tried to induce
the German Habsburgs to support their plans. The
empire was all the more affected by this Spanish pol-
icy as the head of the German Habsbui^ was Em-
peror of Germany.

A further important cause was the religious sec-
tarianism which, after diminishing for a short time,
grew more intense early in the seventeenth century.
In the Catholic movement (about 1592) which fol-
lowed the Council of Trmt only Catholic theologians
and a few prinoee had taken part; the second move-
ment, on the contrary, carried with it the masses of
the clei^ and laity, and was marked by an ardent
spirit of Taith and a passionate demand for the spread
of Catholicism. If among Protestants the idealistic
entJbusiasm waa perhaps not so great, still their par-
tisan feeling was equally violent and their oHnbative-
ness no less ardent. After the war began it soon
became manifest that social and economic reasons
made Germany a favourable soil for its growth.
Economic life, which for a long time had flourished
greatly, from the second half of the sixteenth century
had grown stagiiant. Consequently there existed a
large number who were glad to have the opportunity
of supporting themselves as paid sold^ora and of
enriching themselves by plunder. The nobles, also,
who were numerous in proportion to the rest oS the
population, took advantage of the opportunity to
indulge their private feuds and robberies. As only
a onall numbo* of them wcve attny^ed by foiwga

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wars, they were readr therefore for intemal disorders.
800D there appeared leaders of ability who gathered
both nobles and bui^hers under their banners and
retained them in their service by indulging their
evil instincts. On the oth^ hand, the people of Ger-
many, who had been long unaccustomed to war and
were not trained to bear public burdens, chafed under
the hardships now imposed upon them. This dis-
content, combined with the ease with which troops
were equipped, aided in prolonging the war.

II. The Bohemian Rbvout. — At the bewnning of
the seventeenth century the regions ruled by the
German Habsbui^ included Upper and Lower Aus-
tria, Bohemia together with Moravia and Silesia, the
lesser part of Hungry which had not been conquered
by the Turks, Styria, Catinthia, Catniola, the TyvcA,
and the provinces boraeiii» on Germany. This terri-
tory, however, was divided among three branches of
the family, the main line, the Styrian, and that of
Tyrol-Vorarlborg. Although the main line of the
German Habsburgs held by far the larger part of these
landed possessions yet its territories did not form a
compact wliolc, but were only a number of loosely
connected countries, each having its own provincial
estates, which were largdy composed of nobles and
which maintained an incessant opposition to the
dynasty, and therefore lai«ely desired religious free-
dom, that is the right to berome I*rotestant and to
introduce Protestantism into their domains. The
struggle of the nobility against the dynasty reached
its height during the last decade of the reign of Ru-
dolph II (1576-1612). Even at that time the nobil-
ity maintained relations with the active Protestant
party in the empire. In 1604 the Hungarian nobles
revolted with the aid of the ruler of Transylvania^ and
in 1607 they rebelled again and became the alhcs of
the Turks. On 25 June, 1608, Rudolph was obliged
to transfer the government of Hungary, Austria, and
Moravia to hia more compliant brother Matthias;
he did not, however, give up hia rights as King of
Bohemia, and in 1609 was able to pacify an outbreak
of the Bohemian nobility only by granting the
Imperial Charter iMajestOtdiri^ which gave rel^ous
liberty not only to the nobles and their dependents in
Bohemia but also to those living on the crown lands.
This concession greatly strengthened the power of the
nobles.

After Rudolph's death Cardinal Klcsl sought, as the
councillor of Matthias (1612-19), to avoid above all
any new crisis, so as to gain time to reorganize the
resources of the ruling dvnasty, Matthias, like Ru-
dolph, had no son and the royal famihr chose as his
successor Ferdinand, the head of the Styrian branch
of the Habsburgs, who had restored Catholicism in
Styria. In 1617 the dynasty i^rsuaded the Bohemi-
ans to accept Ferdinand as their future king, and in
1618 they prevailed upon the Hungarians to elect
him king. Before this (May, 161S) the Bohemian
nobles had revolted anew under the leadership of
Count von Thum on account of the allied infrmge-
ment of the charter granted by Rudolph. The dy-
nasty was not yet ready for war. When Matthias
died (March, 1619) the Hungarians and the inhabi-
tants of Mora\ia joined the revolt, and in June
Thum advanced on Vienna with an army to persuade
the Auatrians also to join. However, the determined
attitude of Ferdinand prevented the insurrection and
Thum withdrew. Ferdinand was now able to go to
Frankfort, where his election as emperor (28 August)
secured the imperial dignit y for his family. Two daj-s
before this the Bohemians had elected the leader of
the Protestants, Frederick of the Palatinate, as rival
King of Bo>'emia.

TTie inhabitants of Lower Austria now joined the
revolt, Bethlen Gabor, Prince of Transylvania, made
an alliance with its leaders, and in conjunction with
them once more threatened Vienna at the close of

Ma MB A L TUSKHNB

PhlSppe de Cbampaigne, the Fiiuko-
thek, Munich

1619. Thenceforth, however, discipline steadily de-
clined in the Bohemian army, and- the leaders dis-
agreed. The expected aid was never received from
the Protestant party, exciting that a few of the less
important nobfee of the empire joined the insurrec-
tionaiy forces. On the other hand, in October, 1619,
Ferdinand obtained the help of Maximihan m Ba-
varia, who had the largest army in the empire, and of
the Ptotestant Elector of Saxony. Spain and Poland
also sent troops. Maximilian so greatly terrified the
Protestant party, which since 1608 had formed the
Union, that it was broken up. He then advanced
into Bohemia supported by Austrian troops and
decisively defeated the Bohemians in the battle of
the White Mountain, near Prague. The Fire nr
Frederick, called
the "Winter King"
on account of the
brief duration of
his rule, fled. Fer-
dinand took posses-
sion of his prov-
inces and restored
order there. The
war with Transyl-
vania, however, was
carriM on with in-
terruptions until
1626.

HI. The War
IN THE Palatinate
AND THE War with
Denmark. — ^The
emperor placed
Ftederick^ the Elec-
tor Palatine, under
the ban of the
empire on 22 Jan-
uary, 1621; the latter refused to beg for pardon.
Reconciliation was made more difficult by the demand
of Maximilian of Bavaria of that part of the Palatine
lands called the Upper Palatinate, as recompense for
the expenses of the war; he also desired, in accordance
with a traditional claim of the Bavarian ruling fam-
ityj the electoral dignity belonging to the Paktinate;
this the emperor gave nim with hesitation and under
certain conditions (21-25 February, 1623). Maxi-
milian gained for himself the desired land by trans-
planting the war to the territory of the Palatinate.
Spanish troops had established themselves in tlie.sc
districts as early as 1620, and aimed at retaining p6s-
session of the Palatinate for the purpose of establis' -
ing communication between the Italian possessions cf
Spain and its territoriea in Burgundy and the Nether-
lands. In carrying out this scheme the Spaniards in
the same year (1620) had seized the Valtelhna and the
territory of the Rhietian League. Before this, in
1617, when Ferdinand became the head of the Ger-
man-Habsburg dynasty, Spain had expressed its
desires for the revendon of the Austrian ptwsessions in
Alsace.

None of the victors desired to continue the war.
The emperor was fully occupied with the restoration
of his power in his hereditary possessions and with
the war against Transylvania. The Spaniards had
only a small military force, as was shown by the
spiritless manner in which they recommenced war.
with the Netherlands in 1621. Maximilian, it is true,
desired to obtain possession of his conquests; but he
had no confidence m the Spaniards, and found it very
difficult to bear the burdens of war, as he received no
outside aid of importance. On the other hand, the
Count Palatine received no active help either from
the Protestant estates of the empire or from abroad,
but by the beginning of 1622, several adventurous par-
tisans of his — F-mest of Mansfeld, Christian of Bruns-
wick (called "mad Christian"), and Margrave Ge(»ge

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liVederick of Baden — collected 50,000 mercenaries, an
army of unusuqJ size for that era. This force was
intended to oppose the army of Majrimilian and tiie
Spaniards, and as quickly as its numbers decreased
they were recruited afresh. The Bayarian com-
mander-in-chief Tilly defeated this force when it
attempted to prevent his army and the Spaniards
from occupying the fortified towns of the Electoral
Palatinate (undecisive ei^agement at Wiesloch, 27
April, 1622; complete defeat of the army of the mar-

Srave at Baden at Wimpfen, 6 May, 1622; severe
efeat of Christian at Hdahet, 20 June, 1622). After
this, howevo-, the NeUieriands, the foe of Spain,
allowed the still unccmquwed Mansfeld to enter their
territory; from here he advanced in 1623 into East

Frisia. The plan
was that Christian
should come to his
support with a new
army. Tilly, bow-
ever, pursued
Christian and com-

Eletely defeated
im on 6 August,
1623, at Stadtlohn
in Westphalia, but
was not able at
that moment to
attack Mansfeld.
Under these cir-
cumstances Tilly
was obUged to re-
main in north-west-
em Germany; the
estates of tms ter-
ritory had taken
no part in the war,
and soon the quar-
tering of the soldiers and the forced ocmtaributions
aroused violent discontent among them.

A denominational movement now also gradually
mode itself felt. In 1623 for the first time a Catholic
was elected bishop in the Diocese of OsnabrUck.
Hereupon the estates of Lower Saxony demanded the
emperor's guarantee for the security of their lands
which had formerly belonged to the Church. The
emperor, however, was willing only to promise secur-
ity a^iinst force, not a^inst a judgment of dispos-
session. In 1624 Maxmiilian b«an to make the
Upper Palatinate once more Catholic. In Swabia
the Catholic estates sought to regain the many ecclesi-
astical foundations that had been actiuired by the
Protestants. A large number of suits concerning
ecclesiastical property were still in litigation before
the courts of the empire. There developed on the one
side the desire, and on the other the oread, that all
the dianges in the entire empire made by the Frot-
estants contrary to the Religious Peace of Auesburg
might be done away with. Foreign countries oegan
to give increasing attration to the war. France
sought especially to separate Maximilian from the
emperor; the Netherlands granted subsidies: in 1624
a French embas^ intrigued against the Habsburg dy-
nasty at the German and northern Courts; England
and Holland negotiated both with King Christian IV
of Denmark and with Gustavus Adolpnus to induce
these rulers to take part in the war. Christian, who
belonged to the estates of the empire as Count of
Holstcin, was elected commander of their forces by
the oppressed and aroused estates of the lower
Saxon circle, and on 9 December, 1625, he came to
an agreement with England and Holland and marched
into the empire.

Thus the enemies of the emperor and the Duke of
Bavaria became so powNful that the emperor could
no longer Irave iAie burdens or the direction of the
war to a sin^ prince of the mipire, even though this

prince were as able as Maximilian. The stru^le now
threatened to engage all Europe. WaUenstein, a
Bohemian noble, and the ablest of all the leadm of
mmwnaries, offered to collect and maintain in the

same way as the enemy a force lai^ and better
equipped than that of the Protestants. Ferdinand
accepted Wallenstein's offer, and on 7 April, 1625,
appointed him general. For some unknown reason
Wallenstein and Tilly did not come to an under-
standing. In 1626 Wallenstein took up a position
on the Elbe. Mansfeld planned to surround him and
establish ccanmunication with the Prince of Transvl-
vania, but Wallaistein defeated him on 25 April at
the bridge over the Elbe at Deesau. However. Mans-
feld was able to march to Transylvania, wnere he
found that Bethlen Gabor had decided to make peace.
Shortly after hia arrival be died of fever. Wallen-
stein mcreased bis army to 70,000 men and in the
summer of 1627 he defeated Mansfeld's troops, now
without a leader, at Kosel in Silesia on 9 July. In
the meantime Tilly had defeated the Danish King
Christian on 27 August, 1626, in a hotly-contestea
battle at Lutter on the Barenberg. During the
winter Christian equipped a new army; nevertheless,
Tilly drove him from the lower Weser and Elbe, but
did not take Stade.

IV. The Edict of RESTntmoN. — The success of
the imjrerial and Bavarian armies in Northern Ger-
many enabled the Catholics to reclaim the lands of the
Church. In 1626 the ramgetio Francis William of
Wartenberg, a relative of Maximilian, became Bishop
of Osnabriidi. He sought to be made biahop also of
the dioceses of Minden and Verden, which had become
Protestant. In 1627 the Austrian Archduke Leo-
pold W^illiam became Bishop of Halberstadt; in the
early part of 1628 he was defeated by a prince of
Saxony in his attempt to secure the Archdiocese of
Magdeburg, but in the summer of 1628 he obtained
the right (h sueceasion to the Archdiocese of Bremm.
In Southern Germany Maximilian undertook m 1627
to make the Electoral Palatinate Catholic again.
Catholic demands were now sent to the emperor from
all sides. In accordance with the Habsburg method
of administration and with the emperor's own way
of thinking, these demands were all turned over in
September, 1628, to the Aulic Council for judicial
investigation. Following this, Ferdinand issued in
March. 1629, the Edict <^ Restitution. In its first
part the edict settled the meaning of the diluted
ordinancee of the Religious Peace; it then ordered
that all legal suits arismg from the Religious Peace
which were pending before the imperial courts were to
be settled summarily in accordance with the edict.
It further appointed three commissions which were to
det^mine and correct the infringements of the Reli-
gious Peace in all parts of the empire. The Guelphs
m Northern Germany were obl^ed to surrender what
they had taken of the Diocese of Hildeeheim in 1523
with the exception of a small part; in March, 1630,
imperial commissioners took possession of Magde-
burg, and in May and July, 1630, Francis William of
Wartenberg estaDlished himself at Verden and Min-
den. In Southern Germany WUrtembei^, in par-
ticular, was forced to make restitution.

In the beginning of the trouble, at the period of the
Bohemian revolt the more i>owerful of the Protestant
estates had hdd to the emperor. The transfer of the
electorate to Maximilian, however, had made Saxony
and Brandenburg indignant because it put an end to
the parity of religions in the Electoral College. To
keep Brandenburg from joining the other side Wal-
lenstein devastated it between 1626 and 1627. The
Edict of Restitution, however, alienated all the Prot-
estant rulers and nobles from the emperor. From
desire of peace and from lack of strcn^ ibiey ioA no
st^ against him. It was not until the Cathotie
estates also became estranged from the emperor that

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a crisis arose in the internal affairs of the emfnie
which largely influenced the continuance <d the war.

Wallenstein's method of recruiting and maintain-
ing his arm^ required the establishment of extremely
large divisions of the anny. Following a custom
introduced by Fa>dinand in Austria, he assigned to
each of these diTisMMnv a definite dismct for the col-
leotkm of recruits and supplies. At first these dis-
tricts were in the domains of the rulers and nobles
hostile to the emperor; gradually, however, the terri-
tories of the ^iritual princes who had been united by
Maximilian in the League were thus assigned and
finally, in May, 1628, the domains of the Elector of
Saxony who had, in other respects, been protected by
the Habsbui^. The estates resisted, wpealing to the
Law<rfthe Imperial Dietof 1570, and complaining that
Uieir countries were used as recniiUnf depots without
their consent. Tliey protested against the extraor-
dinary amount of the enforced Contributions, their
long duration, and against the amount of plunder.
They emphasized these complaints by threats to
take the law in their own hands. They watched the
emperor with suspicion when, after he had placed
(1^1) the Elector Palatine under the ban o( the em-
pire without the consent of the Electors, he revived
other imperial privileges that had fallen into disuse.
Thus he declared the estates of Lower Saxony, which
had taken part in the Danish war against his orders,
guilty of treason punishable by the loss of their terri-
tories. The estates knew instinctively that their
territorial sovereiKnty, which had existed as a fact
from_ 1555, depends solely on the passivity of the
empire in foreign affairs, and that they would have to
be more submissive to the onperor's authority should
the dnl war develop into a European one, as ai>-
peared more likely from year to year. This thought
troubled them greatly. Their horizon was narrow;
they were imorant of European politics. They said
that under Wallenstein's influence Ferdinand would
make the imperial power absolute, and that German
liberty, that is their freedom as princes, was en-
dangered. The fact that Wallenstein's army was
ocxnposed of Catholics and Protestants alike, uid that
be appointed as general so zealous a Lutheran as Hans
Georg von Amim, impressed the Catholic estates
with the idea that their community of interests with
the emperor had become weaker, and induced them
through self-interest to unite with the Protestant
estates in opposition to the emperor. Maximihan
in particular was anxious and discontented. An
Italian Capuchin, Valerio Magni, irritated him by
reports about Wallenstein and the intentions of the
emperor, while Walloistein fanned the flame by his
hanh treatment of the Bavarian Elector, by his oon-
■tant dranands for greater military auUiority from the
emperor, and by securing his own appointment as
prince of the empire (April, 1628).

The first clear sj^ptoms <n the tension between the
emperor and the estates of the empire wvn: the meet-
ing of the League at WOrzbuig in January, 1627 ;
session of the Electors at MOfiiausen in October>No-
vember, 1627; and the meeting (rf the Catholic Elec-
tors at Bingen in June, 16S93. The assembly at
Mulhausen already demanded a change in the mili-
tary organization and the dismissal of Wallenstein.
At first Ferdinand sou^t to reduce the tension by
working upon Maximilian; in the Treaty of Munich,
1628, he guaranteed to him the Electoru dignity and
the possession both of the Upper Electoral Palatinate
and that on the right bank of the Rhine for thirty
years. In the course of 16S8, however, the emperors
markedly advantageous position over the estates was
seriously^ injured by his desire, after oompfeting the
reorganization of his Austrian territories, to secure the
continuance of the imperial crown in nis family by
the election of bis son as King <rf the RcMnana. Thu
desire made him dependait on the |ood will ot the

Electora. In the spring of 1628 he forosd WaOoH
itcan to reduce the sue of his army a Httle, and in the
autumn of the same year to make a mu(^ lai^er
reduction. Encouraged thereby the Electors refused
to accede to the emperor's wish for the convocation
of the Electoral Gollefffi, and wanted to d^er it until
the end of the war. The Edict of Restitution also
deferred the meeting, but only for a short time. At
Fo-dinand's demand the Elector of Mains finally
convoked the college for June, 1630. Before it met
the emperor again forced Wallenstein to dismiss a
lar^ part of his troops. The meeting of the Electors,
which was held at Batisbon from 3 JiUy till 12
November, 1630, the two Protestant Electors not
attending, took place under entirely changed polit-
ical ana military g--
conditions. I
V. 'Kb War |!
Becomes a Euro-
pean CONFUCT. —
About 1625 the
Spanish Habsbui^
began to develop
an energetic pol-
icy, as they had
done in the six-
teenth century.
They believed a
great opportunity
had come to give
Protestantism a
crushing blow:
they even hoped
for the aid of
France, although
this hope proved
vain, llie ^>ani^
troops were sent
first against the Count ton OxxNvrixitM

Netherlands; in From » oontempormry print

1626 Spinola took the important fortress of Breda. In
the meantime Austria and Bavaria were to aid Spain
by cuttii^ off the Netherlands from its main source
u onnmerciai revenue, the Baltic. In this way the
Spaniards thought to use against the Dutch the same

the^ strove to cut off the Danish ^wtTcanying to
Spain the product of the silver mines of America. At
first Ferdinand hesitated and Maximilian still more.
However, it was agreed at the Brussels conference of
1626 to bkickade the coast of the North Sea and at
least one port on tint Baltic. Ausbia soon found that
it could lurthCT its own interests in this enterprise.
Ferdinand planned to gain a free water-route to the
sea for his products by treaties with the countries on
the banks of the Kibe and Oder, and by treaties with
the laige Dutch commercial cities to obtain a good
outlet for his exports, especially in sending Hungarian
copper to Spain. In 1627 the Dukes of Mecklenburg
were deprived of their possessions for aiding the King
of Dounazk, and Wismar was confiscated as a good
vort on the Baltic. In pursuance of the schone the
Spaniards were now to appear with a fleet in the Bal-
tic so as to enable Wallmstein to gain the supremacy
at sea. During this period, however, Spain's per-
formances on sea were a disappointment, and on this
occasion^ also, no fleet appeared. Upon this the
Haoseatic towns, whose aid in carrying out the plan
had been counted on from the first, were intimidated
by Denmark from sending snips. Wallenstdn
attempted to build a fleet himself, but only a small
flotilla, capable of inflicting occasional surprises
under Gabriel Leroy, came into existence. The last
hope of aid from ^ain vanished when the Spanish
fleet carmng silver was destroyed in the autumn of
1628. Tlie defects of Wallenstein's method of carry-
ing on war appeared at the same time in consequence

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of the peculiar ohanoter of the problema he waa to
solve. He did not dare to use his army for difficult
awges or sudden attaches; where he was forced to do so
his projects failed. He left the strongly fMlified city
of Magdeburg, which controlled the passage over the
Elbe, untaken in his rear. He wished to taice by
storni in May, 1628, the city of Stralsund, which
forraed the connexion between the German Baltic
coast and Sweden, but he gave up this plan, and be-
sieged it from thelandside. He could not force the city
to surrender, however, as Danish and Swedish troops
came to its aid. His victory in August, 1628, over
a Danish army of relief at Wolgast did not chai^ the
result. Denmark, it is true, signed the Peace of
lAibeek, 22 May, 1629, on condition that all conquered

territorieashould be
restored. But this
brought Gustavus
Adolphus on the
scene of war.

In the autumn
of 1629, Gustavus
Adolphus declared
before the Swedish
Diet that the em-
peror wanted to
conquer Sweden
and tne Baltic, and
that he should be
prevented from do-
ing so, but that if
Sweden were vic-
torious on German
soil the German
states would be-
come the booty of
Sweden. ITp to this
time, notwithstand-
ing many offered
inducements, the
king had limited
himself to wars with weaker opponents. He had,
however, always carried on war, not only from
love of it, but also from the necessity of sup-
porting his army in foreign countries, as Swe-
den, being a poor country, could not otherwise
maintain it. In the meantime the king neglected
nothing to increase the prosperity of Sweden. Just
then he lusted to secure the wealth of the north
German cities and princefl. But now, the politico-
commercial plans of the emperw threatened to put
an end to Sweden's trade in copper, its one valuable
natural source of wealth, while Wallenstein's troops
threatened to expel the Swedish forces from the
country beyond the Baltic, from the revenues of
which, especially the customs, it largely drew its
pecuniary meuis. Self-defence as well as the spirit
m adventure forced the king to put some check
upon the emperor. Nevertheleas, he hesitated until
the summer of 1630, when on 6 June he landed on
the German coast of Pomerania. Except for a few
persons of importance Gustavus was not wel-
comed, even by the Protestants, and was obliged
to make his way in Pomerania by force of arms. In
a short time his money was entirely pone, and he
debated for months whether he might venture
inland. Wallenstein could, perhaps, davb crushed
hira, but instead, he left tne way open to him, for,
through resentment at the empax>r s command in
the spring of 1630 to reduce the number of his troops,
he had disbanded the greater part of the imperial
forces in the districts now entered by Gustavus, and
had allowed other detachments to be sent to fight
in the Netherlands and Italy. The year previous
Tilly had vain^ begged Maximilian's permission to
attack tJbe Netherlanders at the right moment in
their own county, giving aa hi* mwm that the

Chribtiah IV, KiKO or Dbnhare
From a conteiuporsiy print

money of the Dutch was constantly used to renew
the opposition to the Bavarian troops. Maximilian,
however, had not the courane to enter into open
conflict with a foreign foe. Thus the Dutch atadt-
holder, }<>ederick Henry, in 1629, ^ter the ^nat
Spanish general S^ola had been recalled, was able
to besiege Bois-le-Duc, and thus give the first great
rebuff to Spain. It was not Tilly who now hastened
to the aid of the Spaniards; an imperial force, de-
tached from Wallenstein's army, was sent. But
when the Dutch seised the fortificatim of Wesel and
thus endangered the retreat of the impoial trcmiB,
a part of the imperial force fdl back. Bois-le-Due
surrendered on 14 September, and the Dutch were
able to take the offensive.

In France Richelieu had, from 1624 to 1628, re-
established the internal authority of the govern-
ment to such an extent that after twenty years of
cautious forei^ policy more positive measures could
be adopted. This chan^ was first of all made
evident to the Habsburgs in Lorraine. Duke Charles
of Lorraine (from 1624), a vassal o! the emperor, laid
claim as heir to the Duchy of Barr in Alsace; but
Richelieu disputed his rights and harassed the
secular authority of the Bishop of Verdun so that
the latter took refuge in the empire. In 1627 the
mate line of the Dukes of Mantua-Montferrat in
upper Italy became extinct. The next heir was the
Duke of Nevers, a relative of the Bourbons. He took
poBseadrai at once of Mantua, and hoped to secure
Montferrat also by the marriage of his son with the
daughter of his predecessor, fbr the succession to
Montferrat was in the female line. Montferrat,
though, lay far below Mantua in the western part
of upper Italy. Consequently Spain and Savoy were
able to seize the district for themselves before the
Duke of Nevers could enter it. Spain wished to
maintain controllihg influence in upper Italy, which
it had acquued during ihe reign of Cnarles V. France,
on the other hand, now saw Savoy, which had
become de|)endent on it, suddenly taking sides
with Spain. Spain asked for the decision of the
emperor, who was suserain of Mantua. Ferdinand
interfered in the quarrel, not only because his dynasty
had always considered the imperial rights in Italy
of much value, but also because he had constantly,
from the time he ruled St^^ia, been opposed to
Venioe, which he believed nof^t become dai^Tous.
Still, neiUier he nor Spain earned on the negotiations
rapidly nor with insistence, as their attention was
daimed in other directions. Thus Richelieu had
time to punish Savoy (1628-29). After this Ferdi-
nand's troops besieged Mantua and the Spaniards
under Spinola besieged Casale. Richelieu did not
yet consider France strong enough to oppose the
Habsbui^ directly. When Mantua was taken
and Caaale's poation became very precarious,
Richdieu proposed a truce; this vraa mgpoa at Rialto
on 4 Septemba, 1630. Then Richelieu sent his
most adroit negotiator, Pdre Joseph, to Ratisbon.
wh^ the electors were still in session. He hopea
to withdraw France from the struggle but to raise
up enemies enough ^ainat Austria ebewhere.

On 17 June, 1630, Richelieu made a treaty with the
Netherlands by which he gave them a subsidy for
the cmitinuance of the war against Spain. By means
of the truce, which was brought about by EVance,
between Gustavus Adolphus and Poland at Altmark
in S^tembffl', 1629, Gustavus was at liberty to take

Eart in the war within the empire. Nevertoeless, he
eeitated to assume responsibilities which would
permit France to interfere with his management of
the war. From March, 1629, n^otiations had be«a
actively carried on by Richelieu with the imperial
estates but so far to httle purpose. His aim was to
separate them from the emperor by InringinR than into
a netUral ccnfederation under his goiuiioe. By

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representing that the firiendihip (tf Franoe, an
tial^ peacaul country, would protect than against
the pretensions of the warlike emperor, and that their
alliance with France would guarantee their "Gmnan
liberties" af^nst Austria, he hoped to separate them
from the emperor in a neutral confederacy. How-
ever, Maximilian was not slow to make the couoter-
proposal that France should form an alliance only
with the Cathohc estates, abandoning aU the agree-
ments made so far with the Protestants. In this way
it would be possible to isolate the Habsburgs and yet
complete the Catholic restoration in western Europe.
The basis of these negotiations from October, 1629,
was the draft of a treaty between France and Bavaria.
Richelieu transferred the n^^tiations with the em-
peror to the place where the College of Electors was
m session, because he hoped here to come to a settle-
ment with the estates. Success in these undertakings,
however, was made difficult for Richelieu by trie
landing of Gustjtvus Adolphus on German soil in
June. When the emperor announced (13 August,
1630) Wallenstein's resignation to the Electors,
they declared themselves ready to aid him against
Gustavus on condition that both the imperial troops
and those of the different estates should be united
under Maximilian as commander-in-chief. Ferdi-
nand used the friendliness of Uie Electors to exert

Eressure upon the French n^otiator. Although the
ttter was only to come to an agreement regarding
upper Italy, still Ferdinand made him promise in
the Peace of Ratisbon (13 October) that when the
Duke of Nevers received Mantua and Montferrat in
fief, France would neither attack the onpire itself
nor aid others in an^ manner to attack it, and that
tiie Duke of Loiraine should be included in this
f^reement. This imperial success however, came
to nothing, because the estates and the emperor did
not reach an agreement. The Protestant Electors,
instead, invited the Protestant estates to meet at
Leipsig and form a neutral party (Assembly of the
Princes at Leipzig, February-April, 1631). The
Catholics came to an agreement with the emperor
that Uie imperial tro<n)B ^ould be under the command
of Tilly, but Maximifian had made up bis mind that
TiU^ should only be employed to protect Bavaria
against a possible attack by Gustavus Adolphus.
He insisted, therefore, that Uie imperial troops and
his own should not be united into one army. This
enabled Richelieu, whose overthrow seemed certain
in November, 1630* to avoid confirming the Peace of
Ratisbon, and, contrary to agreement, to make the
treaty of Bfirwakle (23 January, 1631) with GuBtavuB
Adolphus. In this treaty Gustavus, whom the need
of money had finally made compliant, pledged hin>
self to carry on war against the emperor for four years.

VI. Thb Wab With Sweden Within the Empieb.
— After Wallenstein's deposition Gustavus was able to
clear the entire lower course of the Elbe of the imperial
troops, which were disbanding and bad no com-
mander. Bis farther advance would take him
through the territories of the Electors of Branden-
burg and Saxony, and these princes refused to let
him pass. Tilly thus gained time to assume com-
mand on the Elbe and Oder, and immediately at-
tempted (February, 1631) to force Gustavus to a
battle; but the latter was not to be drawn into one.
During this period, in which no decisive action took
place, Tilly's position became critical, because, as had
nappened at Stralsund, a Swedish detachment under
Dietrich vor Falkenbei^ had thrown itself into
Magdeburg, in September, 1630, and, supported by
the citizens, refused to permit the imperial troops to
ent^. Mwdebui^ was the city which Wallenstein
had BO carefully avoided. Tilly determined to take
it, and stormed it on 20 May, 1631. But a fire,
which the Swedes are accused oi starting when they
WW thai the city was lost, lud it in adua, and took

frotn Tilly the advantage he had gained. In ^e
meantime Gustavus bad taken ad\'antagc of the with-
drawal of his opponents towards Magdeburg to seixe
the fortresses of Frankfort and Landsbei^ on the mid-
dle course of the Oder, and to wring from the Elector
'of Brandenbui^ KUstrin and the fortress of Spandau
at the junction of the Spree said the Havel Rivers-
Fearing that the Elector of Saxony would also yield
to Gustavus, Tilly tried to terrify the wavering ruler:
this, however, forced the latter under the influence of
the Lutheran general, von Amim, who had formerly
been an officer of Wallenstein's, and forming a tem-
porary alhance with Sweden, on 17 September, 1631,
the combined troops of Saxony and Sweden destroyed
Tilly's army at Breitenfeid, near Leipzig. The vic-
tory had a great
mofal effect, but
did not d&oM the
war. In north-
western Germany
Pappenheim had
an excellent posi-
tion which enabled
him to control tn:
line of the Wes^
for the emperor,
and the emperor
and Bavaria bad
sufficient means to
raise new troops.
The strength of
Gustavus Adol-
phus was alwa>'B
much below that
of his enemies.

Conscious of this, Tht !>.F-bifm(F-iioi5.*iranilS7S-19SffH
he felt the neces- i n.n, p,mt

sity of entering rich disfrictH which he could use
for the support and strengthening of his troops;
in addition he wished to come into communication
with the Protestant estates of south-western Ger-
many that were favourable to him, and perhaps heated
when there to persuade France to undertake a com-
mon war asainst the onperor, Thef=e views probal^
influenced nis military decisions after the battle of
Breitenfeid. He left the Sksouc; to occupy the Aua*
trians by an attack on Prague, and without moving
against Pappenheim he went straight towards the dio-
ceses on the Main and the middle course of the Rhine
in order first to defeat them, and then their chief,
' Maximilian^before striking a decisive blow against the
ranperor. While living in the centre of the empire
dunng the winter of 1631-32 he prepared his plans to
secure absolute Swedidi control over the Protestant
estates and to secularize the dioceses that had re-
mained Catholic. He also carried out his schemes for
using German money to increase the prosperity
Sweden.

MaximiUan's fear of Sweden constantly increased,
and in May, 1631, he made his first treaty with
France. It was, however, very hard for him to as-
sume a neutral position towards the Protestant
princes who opposed the emperor and the empire.
Gustavus Adolpnus on his part was not inclined to
spare the champion of Catholicism in the empire for
the sake of Richeheu. Finally, Maximilian ao com-
pletely lost courage that negotiations for a truce were
begun in December, 1631, and the truce was con-
cluded in January, 1632. For the emper^ this was
the most dangerous moment of the war. The Saxons
had taken Prague. Richelieu continued to be hostile
although the emperor had agreed to the Treaty of
Cherasoo (April, 1631), in which be waived the recog-
nition by the Duke of Nevers of his suzerainty over
Mantua; this treaty replaced that of Ratisbon. Con-
trary to the agreement made at Cherasco, Richelieu
did not withdraw his troops from Piedmont, but

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throti^ the treachery of Pigiierolo, retained it. He
made the fli^t to Lorraine <h Gaston of Orleans, who
lived in discord with his brother Louis XIII, a pre-
text to carry the war into Lorraine and there to seise
one fortress after another. In this way his troops
were kept near the seat of war, between the Germans
and Dutch. In January, 1032, Gustavus Adolphus
urged that Richelieu should take Hs^enau and Za-
bem in Alsace from the HabsburRS. Richelieu hen-
tated, and Pdre Joseph persuadra him for relinous
reasons to reject the proposal. During all theae
months the emperor had had no commander to whom
he ccHild entrust the direction of his forces. His son,
Ferdinand III, was still too young, so from necessity
he turned again to Wallenstein. The latter kept him

in suspense and
only consented
when granted pow-
ers BO great as to
raise su8j>ioion
asainst himself.
The contract waa
made on 13 April,
1632, although
Wallenstein actu-
ally assumed com-
mand several
weeks earlier.
Gustavus reopened
the campaign in
February, 1632,
and began the siege
of Bamberg. But
Tilly came with
freui troops and
relieved the city.
He wished to open
communications
with Wallenstein
at Eger and thus force Gustavus to withdraw from the
interior of Germany, but Wallenstein did not stir;
consequently Gustavus was free to advance directly
towards Bavaria. On 15 April there was an unde-
cided battle at Rain on the Lech; Tilly was mortally
wounded and the Bavarians withdrew from the battle-
field. This left the road to Munich open to the
Swedes and permitted them to plunder the Bavarian
lowlands. However, Maximihan retained Ingol-
Btadt and Ratisbon, the two strategically important
points of his country. Gustavus Adolphus simply
lost time in the Bavarian campaign. In north-west-
em Germany Pa^penheim was successful in his under-
takings. New miperial forces gathered both in
Bohemia and Swabia. In June Wallenstdn con-
quered Bohemia, formed a junction then with Maxi-
milian, and kept Gustavus inactive at Nurembet^ for
weeks. In vam Gustavus tried to draw Wallenstein
into a battle, and when he attempted to storm Wal-
lenstein's position (3 September) he was defeated.
For about six weeks he marched aimlessly tbrouefa
Franconia and Swabia pursued by Wallenstein. The
latter suddenly drew off towards SaiHmy in order to
unite there with Pawpenheim, and cut cm Gustavus's
road to the Baltic. Gustavus followed and on 16 No-
vember, forced a battle at L&tzen near Leipzig, just
as the forces of Wallenstein and Pappenheim met.
The Swedes gained the victory, but ttiey paid for it
with the life of Gustavus Adolphus. On the im-
perial side Pappenheim, the emperor's most daring
and capable cavalry general, was killed.

The death of the Swedish king did not make any
wwentifti change. His policies were carried on in the
same manner and with equal skill by his trusted coun-
cillor Axel Oxenstiem. The strength of the Swedish
forces had been declining throughout the year 1632.
The important questions to be decided were: whether,
as the Swedish power declined, the Protestant prtnoea

Bmbwaip, Dm or Saxm-Wwuum
From old «iisnviii|

would act independmtly <tf it under the leaders^ of
Saxony, taking upon themselves the cause of Irot-
estantism and of the independence of the princely
rulers; also whether the emperor oould find a com-
maoder who would make the unreliable and sluggish
Wallenstein unnecessary. On account of these diffi-
culties the next two years were more occupied with
negotiations than with battles. Oxenstiem brought
Duke Bemhard of Saxe>Weiniar, who had been
trained under Gustavus Adolphus and who was the
Meat of the younger commanders amon^ the Ger-
man Protestants, and with him Saxony mto ckwer
union with Sweden; he also made an agreement
with the Protestant rulers of the central Ger-
man states at the assembly at Heilbron (March,
1633) . In November, 1633, Bemhard by a
daring advance took Ratisbon; Austria lay open
to him, vbUb a revolt of the Bavarian peasants
crippled Bavaria's strength. The duke, however^ did
not venture into Austria and by January Maximilian
had subdued the prasants. Sweden rapidly lost its
popularity even among the Protestants of central
Germany, for it demanded much. In addition,
Oxenstiem flooded these states with Swedish copper
coin and sent their good silver to Sweden, thus ruinmg
them economically. As early as 1634 the influence of
Richelieu over these states was greater than tiiat (rf
Sireden. Wallenstein used his army but little in
1633. He was constantly occupied with negotia^
tions, chidly with Saxony, but also with Sweden, with a
view to imposing a peace on the Habsburgs. The
commander of tne Saxon forces, von Amim, per-
suaded him to agree to one truce after another. In
this way Saxony saved its strength and Rained time
to improve its position in the empire both as regards
Sweden and the emperor. Although he afterwards
denied it, even Richdieu beUeved early in 1634 that
Wallenstein was ready to enter into relations with
fVance also. Ferdinand and Maximilian, however,
had already planned his downfall; he was murdered at
Eger on 25 February, 1634.

France was the only countiy succeesful in war and
politics from 1632 to the middle of 1634. An in-
creasingnumber <rf fortresses in Lorraine came under its
oontrol. In the cfprins of 1632, aStN making a treaty
with the Archbish<^ ol Trier to protect him from the
Swedes, French troops occupied Coblenz and Ehren-
breitstein on the opposite side of the Rhine. Rich-
elieu also carried on negotiations with the Archbishop
of Cologne, who was Bishop of Li^e as well, by whicn
he hoped to bring French troops mto north-weatem
Giermany in the flank of the imperial forces there, and
also to garrison Dinan which belonged to the Diocese
of Ia^. From this latter point France would be
able to exercise a strong influence on the war betweoi
Spain and the Netherlands. Dinan was not obtained
owing to a revolt of the citizens of Cologne. _ How-
ever, from this time on, Richelieu pressed steadily for^
ward towards Alsace. He wished the Protestant
princes to request him to garrison the fortified Alsa-
tian towns, and for a time in 1634 he occupied Mont-
b^aid, which belonged to Wurtemberg, and the
Diocese of Bade. Spain had already, in 1633, sent
troops both from Italy and from the Netherlands to
the upper Rhine as protection. Richelieu's plans
were held in check by the slow progress of the war in
the Netherlands. Notwithstanding the treaty of
1630, by which France granted subsidies, the States
General showed but little warlike spirit, while the
southern part of the Netherlands was positively averse
to war. A ^^ish attack by sea on the Netherlands
ended in September, 1632, in a complete defeat. On
the other hand, an attack by the Stadtholder of the
Netherlands on Maastricht in 1633 led to the capture
of the fortress, not, as hoped and planned, to a revolt
of the southern provinces against Spain. Ndther did
itfwoeIVancetoc^>enly takepartmtti^wor. Nea»-

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tiaUons (or peace were bejsun and it was only by hia
greatest efforts, and by his promise that France aJso
should declare war on Spain, that Richelieu was able
to frustrate them.

In the autumn of 1634 conclusive action was also
taken in the empire. Ferdinand's son assumed com-
mand of the imperial troops, and Maximilian drove
the Swedes out of Ratiabon. Id this year the com-
mand of the Bavarian army was assumed by the Duke
of Lorraine who had been obliged to fly from his
country. Von Amim's attempt to take Prague a
second time failed. In south-western Germany the
Swedes had undoubtedly the strongest army. Early
in September the imperial and Bavarian armies united
at NOrdlingen, which the Swedes under Hom had
iridied to capture, and completely destroj'ed {6 Sep-
tonber, 1634) the remainder of the finely-disciplined
troops to which Gustavus Adolphus had owed his
successes. After this the men who fought under the
Swedish flag were only mercenaries, greedy for

?limder, like those of the other armies of the time,
'o prevent the emperor from becoming absolute
master in the empire, Richeheu had to declare war on
him. Almost at the time of his declaration, warwas also
- proclaimed by Ferdinand and Philip IV (May, 1636).

VII. War of the Eupike and Sfain Against
France and Sweden up to rrs Tubning Point. —
The prospect of the interference of France had led
Saxony to make friends with the emperor. Both
desired by the Treaty of Prague (30 May, 1635) to
lay the foundation for a general peace between the
estates of the emjpire and the emperor and for their
union against a foreign foe. To this end amnesty
was to be granted to all the estates which, within a
definite time, agreed to the treaty. The treaty also
sought to readjust the constitutional relations between
the emperor and the estates suitablv to the historical
development and yet so as to make the empire an
organic whole. I<Vom 1555 the estates had almost
forf^tten the advantages of their union in the empire
until the Swedish supremacy had reawakened this
Gonsciousnesa. France's declaration of war also
aroused the sense of nationahty; most of the German
rulers, following the example of Brandenburg, ^reed
to the treaty between the emperor and Saxony.
On 12 May, 1636, it was proclaimed as a peace of the
empire. Some, indeed, signed it very unwillingly at
Strasburg; the widowed Landgravine of Hesse Cassel
put off her a^eement without daring openly to reject
Uie treaty. Final^^ in December, 1636, Ferdinand's
son was elected Kmg of the Romans, and on 16
Fdbruary, 1637, he succeeded his father as emperor.

The emperor, Bavaria, and Spain, decided to b^n
energetic offensive operations agunst France. In
1635 a combined imperial and Bavarian army forced
back the French in Alsace and Lorraine, out the
commanders of these forces lacked courage and cau-
tion. In 1636 the combined troops had to be with-
dniwn, finally, across the Rhine, ^ter their numbers
had been greatly reduced. In 1636 the Spaniards
had seized and rendered powerless the Elector of
IVier, and, by skilful Fabian movements, had de-
stroyed two armies of French and Dutch which had
ent^ed the Spanish Netherlands. In 1636, it is
true, the forces of Spain and Holland soon balanced
each other. Spain now turned with superior forces
against France. The German cavalry general, Jan
van Werth, who shared in the direction of the cam-
paign, wished to advance straight towards Paris,
but the heads of the expedition allowed themselves
to be detained before the small fortress Coibie, until
ibe French had brought together 50,000 men. TMs
army forced the Spaniards to withdraw once more.
Saxony made an imfortunate attempt, with the aid
of imperial troops, to drive the remains of the Swedish
forces completely out of Germany; the campaign
ended in the severe defeat of the combined aimy by

the Swedish generalj Baner, at Wittstock (4 October,
1636). The fantastic plan of the Spaniards to revenge
the defeat, by a combined attack of their fleet and the
imperial ana Saxon land forces on Livonia so as to
stnke the Swedes in the rear, failed because the fleet,
while on its way, was defeated (1630) by the Dutch
in the English Channel. By a desperate defence,
Brandenburg sought to save at least its fortresses
from the Swedes. In 1639 Baner twice made forced
marches as far as Prague, plundering and terrifying
as he went. From the close of 1536 the Habsburgs
were placed in an unfavourable defensive position
in the west. France took into its service the army
fighting under Bemhard of Saxe-Weimar, on the upper
lUiine, and in December, 1638, Bemhard conquo^
Briesaieh on the
right bank of the
Rhine. In 1637,
after a celebrated
siege, Holland re-
took the town of
Breda which had
been lost in 1626.
Neither the Dutch
nor the fVench
made any further
progress in the
Netherlands, nor
could they derive
the expected ad-
vantages from the
capture of Arras
(Aunist, 1640), by
which they had
pierced the line of
fortresses protect-
ing the southern
Netherlands. Even in 1639, the Habsburgs main-
tained their superiority in numbers^ but their enemies
conducted the war with greater skill. (Consequently
the imperialists gained but little when Piedmont in
1630 proclaimed its independence of France.

The union of the German estates consequent upon
the Frmch attack did not beget any warlike enthusi-
asm. They longed for peace and hoped that the
peace congress proposed in 1636 would assemble.
Soon the prolongation of the war, and its disasters,
aroused renewed discontent with the imperial policy.
The complaint was everywhere heard that the empe-
ror was continuing the war only for the advantage
Q$ Spain, llie n^tiations between Maximilian
and France, which had been carried on almost from
the beginning of the war, were renewed in 1637,
althougn, as usual, without result. In 1639 Duke
Bemhara died unexpectedly. France enlisted bis
troops and placed them under the command of
the able General Gu^briant; and in this way acquired,
what it had not had before, an experienced army of
its own on German soil. In the winter of 1639-40
Gu£briant boldly forced his way into the interior of
the onpire intending to unite with Baner. As he
advanced the Landgravine of Hesse broke off the
negotiations with the emperor; thus once more for-
eigners g^ned allies in the heart of Germany. In
January, 1641, Baner planned to capture Ratisbon.
again, but the thaw that set in discouraged him.
Gulbriant also saw that he could not long maintain
himself in so advanced a position; as in 1631, the
imperial forces controlled the line of the Weser and
threatened fahn on that side. In the spring of 1641
Saxony and the emperor prepared to repeat against
Sweden the offensive operations which had failed in
1663. The plan failed, owing to the simultaneour
deaths of von Amim, the Brandenburg statesmaa
C!ount Schwarzenberg, and Baner. The young Fre4.
ericfc William became Elector of Brandenburg in De-
cember, 1640, and early in the summer jof 164L issuetis
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proclamation of nratnlity. This ttve the Swedes
time to place their troops under the command of
TorstensoD, who was .much superior to Baner in
energy. Moreover, «he rising of the French nobility
was not as successful as the Habsburgs had hopea.
Gu^briant, indeed, was obliged to withdraw from the
empire to aid in its suppression, but on his way to
fiance he defeated at Kempen in January, 1642, the
imperial and Spani^ troops, who were going to the
help of the French nobles. In the meantime the
war had taken a decisive turn in favour of the French,
in an unexpected place. The inhabitants of Barce-
locti, oppressed by the Spanish soldiers quartered
upo*^ them, revolted and were booq joined by the
whoif of Catalonia (June, 1640). Richelieu at once
sent aid to the rebels. In December, 1640, Portugal
also shook ofT the Spanish yoke. - For several years
Spain was crippled at the cni^ seat of war by these
conflicts in the Pyrenean peninsula. On the other
hand the IVench, under the leadership of youn^ com-
manders, Turenne and Cond6, became experts m the
art of war. By June, 1642, Piedmont was again
under control. In 1643 Cond6 completely destroyed
the finest and most celebrated troops of the Spanish
army at Rocroi in the Netherlands. The Provinces
of Hainault and Luxemburg in the southern Nether-
lands fell into his bands. In 1644, Holland seized
the mouth of the Scheldt and France Grevelingen,
and in 1645 France occupied the greater part of
Fielders and in 1646 Dunkirk. Henceforth, the
Si)aniardB held only a few of the large cities in the
Spanish Netherlands. The people, excepting the
nobility, remained loyal to them.

VIII. Tub Resui/ts op the Wab. — The German
Habsburgs were forced to take the defensive and
their cause was in great danger. Allied with Maxi-
milian they were compelled to use their main force
to prevent the occupation of southern Germany by
the French. They bravely fought in this part of
Germany under Mercy during the years 1643-45,
but were continually obliged to fall back. On 5
May, 1645, they gained a famous victory over Tu-
renne at Meigentheim; on 3 August, 1645, the French
were victorious at Allersheim and Mercy was killed.
Still the imperial and Bavarian troops were always
at least strong enough to save Bavaria from the
incursions of the French. In the meantime, however,
the imperial forces had not been able to bring a
sufficiently large army against the Swedes. These,
it is true, were obligeti to encounter (1642) a new en-
emy in Denmark. But the Danes accomplished just
as little as their imperial allies. The imperial forces
were severely defeated by Torstenaon at Breitenfeld
in Novembra-, 1642, and at Jttterbogk and Magde-
burg in October, 1644. After these two victories,
Torstenson formed an alliance with George Riik6czy,
the successor to Bethlen Gabor as Prince of Transyl-
vania. Resolved to carry the war directly into the
hereditary lands of the emperor, Torstenson advanced
at once as far as BrQnn, but there saw that he was too
weak for such an undertaking. The result of the
Swedish victories in this year was the permanent loss
by the imperialists of the control of the Weeer, and
of their position in north-western Germany. Den-
mark concluded a treaty of peace in 1645.

During the years 1642-45 the German estates un-
ceasingly demanded peace. As early as 1640, at a
session of the Electors at Nuremberg, the opinion was
expressed, that a part of Pomerania should be ceded
to the Swedes if this would content them. In 1641,
at the suggestion of the electors the first Diet held
-since 1613met at Ratisbon, and its success proved
that the effort made in the Peace of Prague to revive
the organization of the empire had borne good fruit.
The Diet granted the emperor considerable subsidies.
Tlie estates, however, showed very plainly that th^
believed the emperor was oveiMmnaidmte of ^lain.

Q 1flXftT7

France and Sweden encouraged this view by express-
ing their readiness to open n^otiations. The opinion
gained ground among the estates that if Austria did
not break off its connexion with Spain the estates would
once more abandon the emperor, form a union among
themselves, and make a treaty of peace for the em-
pire with France and Sweden. The estates hoped
that these two countries would consent not to inter-
fere in the internal affairs of the empire, especially as
regards religion. The economic suffering and misery
of the population of the empire had greatly increased,
la^ly tnrougb the maraudii^ expeditions of the
Swedes, and final success in the war was clearly out of
the question. John Philip von Schonbom, Bishop of
Wurzburg, was especially active in supporting the
proposal that the estates should separate from the
emperor and establish peace in the empire without
him. Maximilian encouraged the bishop, though
reluctantly. One after anothor, the smaller German
estates brought letters of protection from the Swedes
in <uder to escape being plundered by them. In this
way these territories oecame neutral without any
further formalitiea. Of the laiver principalities
Brandenburg abandoned its neutraJity in 1644 with-
out, however, becoming friendly to the emperor on
this account. On the other hand, Saxony, wnich was
exhausted and desperate, made a direct treaty of,
neutrality with Sweden in 1645. Under these circum-
stances the emperor early in 1643. also declared him-
self ready to negotiate. He wished, however, that the
treaty of peace ^ould be general, not limited in goo-
graphical extent as was the case in 1630. The nego-
tiations were to be carried on with France at MOnster,
with Sweden at OsnabrUck, where the Swedish em-
bassy had been since the spring (tf 1643. About the
middle of 1643 the imperial ael^ates appeared at
both designated places, and the French delegates fol-
lowed in the spring of 1644. At the close of 1644, the
imperial delegates presented their first proposition, to
which the French did not reply until November, 1G45.
A last dispute had arisen over the question whether
the emperor alone should negotiate for the' empire or
whether the estates should also be represented. The
quairel was practically settled by the invitatitm to be

f resent sent to the various estates by France and
weden. On 26 August, 1645, the emperor also in-
vited them. In the same year representatives of
Spain and Holland also appeared at MUnater. An
ambassador of V^ce and a papal nuncio likewise
took part as mediators between France and the
emperor.

The course of the negotiations was influenced by the
results of the last events of the war, and it was
decided hy the military ccmditiona of 1646. In this
year the Swedes under Wrangel united with Turome
and the two armies occupied Bavaria. This led
Maximilian to make a treaty of neutrality with
Sweden in March, 1647. The entire empire was now
occupied by the armies of France and Sweden, but the
emperor retained undisputed possession of his heredi-
tary lands. The outbreaks of the years 1647-48 were
directed against him. The fVench, however, could not
aid these revolts, as internal troubles in France
claimed their attention and made them deeiipua of
coming to a settlement with the emperor and the
empire. While Turenne marched back to France
(1647) Wrangel seized Prague, but was expelled by
the emperor and Maximilian, who broke his agree-
ment with Sweden. In 1648 Turenne i^peared again
and, allied with the Swedes, defeated the imperial and
Bavarian forces at Zusmarhausen and cruelly ravaged
Bavaria. The attack on Pn^e was renewed by the
Swedes alone in July, 1648, under K&ugsmailE. They
took part of the city, but the Auatriana brought to-
gether a larger army and forced them to witharaw in
November, 1648.

At the opening ctf the negoUatkoiB for peace the

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flmperor bad bt^wd to be able to mdcsunify Sweden
ana to separate it from France, but on Sweden's re-
UubI to accept his proposals he was obliged to give up
bis intention of making peace only if ^ain were in-
cluded Id it. Supported by Maximilian, France
induced the emperor and empire to remain neutral
during the Franco-Spanish war. This success for
France, however, did not prevent Holland from con-
cluding peace with Spam on 5 June, 1648. But
France received recompense for this disappointment
in a new and great victory of Cond^ at Lens in the
Netherlands, on 20 August, 1648. To secure peace for
the empire, Austria consented in 1648 to give up its
hereditary lands in AJsace and the cit^ of Brcisach to
France; it also finally reoopiized the mcorporation of
the territories of Metz, Tom. and Verdun into France.
It postponed, however, the decision as to the claims of
France on the Duchy of Lorraine, and prevented
France being made an estate of the empire for its
conquests in Alsace. Sweden received the land
around the mouth of the Oder with Stettin and Hither
Pomeraniaj the territory near the outlet of the Weaer,
and the dioceses of Bremen and Verden, as well as
Wismar, and was made an estate of the empire, be-
cause it, and not the Electorate of Saxony, had been
the leader of the Protestant estates in the negotiations
for jwace. In addition it was to receive money to
pay its mercenaries.

Taken in general, all the states and territories of the
empire were confinned in the possessions that they
had had in 1618. The exceptions were: Electoral
Saxony was confirmed in the possession of Lusatia
which had been conceded to it m 1620; Bavaria waa
left in possession of the Upper Palatinate and of the
fourth electorship, while a new, eighth electorate was
created for the Palatinate; by the intervention of
France, Brandenburg received, besides Further Pom-
er^kia, a number of dioceses with the right to secu-
larize them. This and the similar concession to
Sweden for Bremen and Verden undermined one of the
main foundations of the orgaihization of the empire,
which for himdreds of years had rested on the exist-
ence and importance of ibe spiritual domains. In
other particuIarB it was evident that the more im-
portant states sou^t, and probably sincerely, not to
aamage the efforts made in the Peace of Prague to
revive the orgMiization of the empire, yet in various
instances they inflicted much injury upon it. It was
contrary to the organization of the empire that the
D^tiations, deviating from the original intention,
were not limited to external matters. Sweden and a
large number of the Protestant estates were not will-
ing to consent to this. To settle the claims made by
the different religious denominations to one and the
same territory the year 1624 was taken as the normal
year, and the denomination which had prevailed in
that year in a territory, was, as a rule, to be the per-
manent religion of that territory. Calvinism was
included in the religious peace. The coiSpulsory
force of the principle, ei^us t^j, ejus religiOj waa
restricted 1^ granting pnvate Bberty conscience,
but only to a limited extent. The result of these
regulations was in the main that the p^iod of the
violent religious disputes which had divided the
empire was closed. It was also hoped that an effect-
ive working of the organic parts of the empire — the
imperial and provincial, diets, the supreme court, the
Aulic Council, and the district constitution — would
be secured for the future by an arraneement of their
relations with one another and of tneir authority.
The details of this reconstruction were l^t to the
decision of a future Diet. It was settled, however,
that grants of supplies were to be made not by majority
votes, but by the voluntary agreement of the estates.
AH the rulers, evaa the petty ones in southern and
western Germany, were declared soverei^ in the
intaaal government of their territories with certain

exoe^ions. Moreover, the right to have diplomatio
relations with foreign countries and to make treaties
with them was granted to every estate. In reality
this rwilation only gave legal recognition to condi-
tions that actually existed.

Austria was exempt from all these regulations, espe-
dally from the changes in the canon law prevaihng
there. This showed how little injiu^ the war had
inflicted upon it, and also the increasing differentia-
tion between its domains and those of the other
estates of the empire. The seal was impressed upon
this differentiation by the fact that France seciu^
(1647) the appointment of John Philip von Schfinbom
as Elector of Mainz and consequently Chancellor of
the Empire, and eq>ecially by the fact that the treaty
oonoeded to France and Sweden lastinj; diplomatic
influence in the eminre in return for their evacuation
of the impoial territories. To counterbalance the
influence which Austria exercised within the empire iii
virtue of her possession of the imperial crown, France
and Sweden' received the right to superintend the exe-
cution of the treaty in the empire, consequently to con-
tinually interfere in imperial affairs. On this basis
the Peace of Westphalia with France and Sweden waa
settled on 24 October, 1648. The chief results of the
Thirty Years War were: the foundation and recog-
nition of a unified Austria imder the rule of the Ger-
man Habsburgs; the revival, in a certain doubtful
sense though, of the Holy Roman Empire; the estab-
lishment of Sweden on German soil; the permanent
weakenmg of Denmark; the renunciation by Holland
of all efforts to drive Spain out of southern Nether^
lands; an enormous increase of the power of France.
The cjuestion whether Spain would be able to main-
tun itaelf as a great power alongside oi France led to
eleven more years of war between the two states, and
was decidedjn favour of France, by the Treaty of the
Pyrenees. This treaty and that of Westphalia were
the basis of the pre-eminent position of France during
the second half of the seventeenth century.

Theatrum Bwropmtm (1635—); Khevenhilleb, AnnaUs ter-
duundai (Ratiabon, I640-M, 2nd ed., 1716-26); Wabsenbbbo,
CommmUariorum dt beUo in/er imperolorM Ferdinandoa II et III
M tonun hatlt geiitt liber tintpitarii (many editions eiooe 1630) ;
Cabafa, Commeniaria d« Oennania taera restauraia (1639), aui>-
plnaeDt (1641); Cwatvm, KgL StAmedUchen in Teut»Mand
gtfahrtm KrUges,p%. i (1648), pt. ii, (1663); PcFBifDOBr. Com-
meniarionim d* r«&u« Suecicia (1686); Aitzeua, Saken tan Staet
en Oorlogh in ende tmirerU de Vereeni^de NederlaTtden(,lS21-lQ69;
1657-71); Korr«»pondmx Kai$er Ferdinandt II. . .mii P. Beeanua
und P. Wilhdm Lamormaini, k. BeiehMUm in Arckiv far
Oetltrr. Oetek., n. 64; Nuniialurberiehta aua Deutschlaad,
dirinon 4 (1628-1635; 3 Tola, up to the present); Iruer, Die
VerhatuUimeen Schwedena und teiner Verhandtten mii WdUen-
«Mn wid dem Kaiaer, ieSl~l6S4 (3 toIs., 1888-91): Neaociaiiime
tteritet Umehant la faix de Milnaler et d'Omahwg (4 vols.,
26); Carreejiondencut diptomatiea de lot plenipoteneiarioa EspaA-
olee en d congretto de MUneier (3 vole., 1884-85); Gartmeb,
Weetphalieche Friedenetamku (9 vok., 1731-38): Mbixbn, Atia
pacie Weetphalica puUtca (6 vols., 1735-36); Politiache Kom-
epondent dee Crafen Front Wilhelm von Warlenberg, Biechoh von
OmabrQek. 16X1-31 (1897); Gindilt, Geeeh. dee SO jdftr^wn
Kriegee (4 vols., Pnunte, 1860-80), only covers up to 1623; Gak-
ddikb. The Thirty lean War (London, 1874), many editions;
WiNTKR, Geech. da SOJOkrigen Kriegee (1883); RrrTEB, Deuieche
Geech. itn ZeitaUer der GegenreformatUm u. dee SO jahrigen
Kriegee, III (Btuttgart, 1908); Hubter, Geech. Kaieer Fer-
diaand'e II.. VIU-XI (Sohaffhausen, 1857-64); Koca.Geeeh. dee
detUecken Reiehe vtUer die Regierung Ferdinand* III (2 vols.,

1865- 66) ; Klopp. Der SO jOhrige Krieg bie cum Tode Guetav
Adctfe lese (3 vols., Padeibom 18til-06); Riesleb, Geedi.
Baiemt, V; HANOTAtiX, La eriee europienne de i6£l in
Revue de deux mandee, V, 7: Stieve, Emet r. Af ant/eld
(1890); Orxu Der nitidereaeheitch^nieche Krieg (4 vols , 1872-
94) ; ScBHin, Dm tnarAirM Potitik der Hapiburper leSS-tS (1903);
GCntbeb, Dae Reetituiioneedikl v. IGZ9 u. die kathtA. Reetavration
A&winemberge (1901); Tdpetz, Der StreU um die geieUieh. GlUer
u. dae Reetavniimeedikl 1BX9 (1883); Uher den Aftteil Frank-
reieh* am Kritge namendiek die Unterenekung^ *• Fagniee,
Reaearcbesconoeminc the bumiug of Magdeburg, especially those
of WrmCH; Cbonhoim, Serigee hietorta under Gveiav Adcife
regtrvng (flTOtB.,8tookhohn, 1867-72); Trettioanoakrigetog wider-
handlinoama i Tykeland fran Ouetat Adolfe dod till Weetfaiieea
freddelulet /1876-80); GrafiBBB. Geech. GwUav Adolfe (4th ed.,
1864); Ehbeb, Paptt Vrhan VIII u. Guetac Adol/e in Biet.
Jahrimeh der GOrreegeedUeltafl. XVI: Ibmbk. Amim (1894);
Stbucx, Johann Oeorg u. Ozenetiema (Stralsund, 1809); Sodbn,
(htetav Adolf tmd eeia Heer in SoddeuiechUmd lesl'SS (3 Tola.,

1866- 69) : Jakob, Von Lauen nach ffHrdlingen (Straaburg, 1904) ;

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Daoniff, BmiJurd wn Wttmar (3 rob., 1885); I&sy, GtMtai
ildotr (3 rob., lSSe-70>. The period ia8»-4S has been iiuat-
Meatbr inrestisated on Ite dlplomatlo eido; tbe bibliofraphy on
tbbpuntiatoabntedepeeofUtUaraliw. ODaxaM,DiePoUtib
SdkiMrfMi <M wMtML rritdtntkongnu (1887); SniHaEBara,
ZKt jMUftcn u. df« Frisdtiufraf teas-teso (lOM). Of the
woris on the oearion of Abaoe of. Jakob. Xrwafmnw Mmm
Airdh J'Vwdfcrfjoft (1807) i Ovsuuhm, />m aUrtfwv am fbou an
Aontmch (1906).

Martin Spahn.

Thzuuls, a titular see in Auguatamnica Prima, suf-
fragan of Peluaium; a city of Lower E^pt, on the
canal east of the Nile, between ite Tanitic and Men-
desian brsmch^. Herodotus (II, 166) gives it as the
c^Hal of a nome bearing its name, and Ptolemy as
tut of the Mendeaian nome. In the fourth century
it was still important, having its own administration
and being exempt from the jurisdiction of the Prefect
of Alexandria. It waa in existence at the time of the
Arabian conquest, and was later called AI-Mourad or
Al-Mouraden; it must have disappeared after the
Txu-kish conquest. Its ruins are at Tell el-Mel, about
five milee north-west of SenbeUouln, a station on
the n^way from Zagazig to Manaoiirah. Le Quien
C'Chiens Christ.", II, 537) names nine bishops of
Thmuis, the last three being Monophysites <h tiie
Middle Ages. The others are St. Phileas, martyr (in
the Martyrology, 4 Feb.); St. Donatus, his successor,
nuutyr; Liberius (not C^ius), at the Council of Niciea
in 325; St. Serapion, d. shortly before 360, the author
of various works, in part preserved ; Ptolenueus, at the
Council of Seleucia (359); Aristobulus, at the (Jouncil
of EphesuB (431).

Smith, Diet. Greek and Rom. oeog., 8. v.; i>k RouoA, Oiog. on-
eUnna d» la Bat»«-Eovvl« (Pan*. 1891): AhIiunbao, Qiog. dt
VBmv*» d tipoqitt eoptt (Paria, 1893), 286, 800 K^^^

8. PfrnuDte.

Thomas, Saint, the Apostle. — Little is recorded of
St. Thomas the Apostle, nevertheless thanks to the
fourth Gospel his personality is clearer to us than
that of some others of the Twelve. Bis name occurs
in all the lists of the Synoptists (Matt., x: 3; Mark,
iii, 18; Luke, vi, 15, cf. Acts. 1, 13), but in St. John he
plays a distinctive part. First, when Jesus an-
nounced His intention of returning to Judea to visit
Lazarus, "Thomas", who is called Didymus [the
twin], said to his fellow disciples: "Let us also go, that
wemay die with him" (Jonn, xi, 16). Again it was
St. Thomas who during the discourse before the Last
Supper raised an objection: '"Iliomas saith to him:
Lord, we know not whither thou goest; and how can
we know the way?" (John, xiv, 5). But more espe-
cially St. Thomas is remembered for his increduhty
when the other Apostles aonounced Christ's Resur-
rection to him: "Except I shall see in his hands the
print of the nails, and put my finger into the place of
the nails, and put my hand into his side, I will not
believe" (John, xx, 25) ; but eight days later he made
his act of faith, drawing down the kindly rebuke of
Jesus: "Because thou East seen me, Thomas, thou
hast believed : blessed are they that have not seen,
and have believed" (John, xx^ 29).

This exhausts all our certain knowledge regarding
the Apostle but his name is the starting-point of a
oonstao^le apocryphal literature, and there an
also certain historical data which suggest that some
of this apocryphal material may contain germs of
truth. The principal document concerning him is
the "Acta Thoma , preserved to us with some vari-
ations both in Greek and in Syriac, and bearing unmis-
takable signs of its Gnostic origin. It may indeed be
the work of Bardesanes himself. The story in many
of its particulars is utt^^rly extrav^ant, but it is of
early date, being assi^ed by Hamack (Chronok«ie,
ii, 172) to the beginning of the third century, before
A. D. 220. If the place of its origin is really Edessa,
as Hamack and others for sound reasons supposed
(ibid., p. 176), this would lend considerable probabil-
ity to the Btatenient, explicitly made in the "Acta"

(Bounet, cap. 170. p. 286), that the relics of the Apoe-
tie Thumaa whicn we know to have been venerated
at Edessa ('* PeregrinatioSilviaB", ed. Geyer, p. 60), had
really come from the East. The extravagance of the
legend may be judged from the fact that in more than
one place (cap. 31, p. 148) it representsThomas(Judaa
Thomas, as lie is called here and elsewhere in Syriac
tradition) ae the twin brother of Jesus. The word
Tliomas in Syriac is equivalent to 9tSvtu» in Greek, and
means twin. uendelHarriswhoexaggeratesverymuch
the cult of tbe Dioscuri, wishes to r«ard this as a trans-
formation of a pagan wor^ip of Edessa but the point
is at best problematical. The story itself runs briefly
as follows: At the division of the Apostles, India fdl
to the lot of Thomas, but he declared his inability to
go, whereupon his Master Jesus appeared in a super-
natural way to Abban, the envoy^ of Gundafor, an
Indian king, and sold Tnomas to him to be his slave
and to serve Gundafor as a carpenter. Thep Abban
and Thomas sailed awur until they came to Andrap-
olis, where they landed and attended the marriage
feast of the ruler's dau^^ter. Strange occurrences
followed and Christ under the appearance of Thomas
exhorted the bride to remain a virgin. Cktming to
India Thomas undertook to build a palace for Gunda-
for, but spent the money entrusted to him on the poor.
Gundafor imprisoned him, but the Apostle escaped
miraculously and Gundafor was converted. Gomg
about the country to preach, Thomas met with
strange adventures from dragtHis and wild asaes.
Then he came to the city of King Misdai (Syriac
Mazdai), where he converted Tertia the wife of Mis-
dai and Vazan his son. After this he was condemned
to death, led out of the city to a hill, and pierced
through with spears by four soldiers. He was buried
in the tomb of the ancient kings but his remains wete
afterwards removed to the West.

Now it is certainl)r a remarkable fact that about
the year a. o. 46 a king was reigning over that part
of Asia south of the Himalayas now represented by
Afghanistan, Baluchistan, the Punjab, and Sind, who
bore the name Gondophcmes or Guduphara. This
we know both from the discovery of coins, some of
the Parthian type with Greek legends, others of the
Indian type with legends in an Indian dialect in
Kharoshthi characters. Despite sundry minor vari-
ations the identit); of the name with the Gundafor of the
"Acta Thorns" is unmistakable and is har^ dis-
puted. Further we have the evidence of the Takht-
i-Bahi inscription, which is dated, and which the
best specialists accept as establishing that the King
Guduphara probably began to rei^ about a. d. 20
and was still reigning in 46. A^ut there are excel-
lent reasons for believing that Misdai or Masdai may
well be a transformation of a Hindu name made on
Iranian soil. In this case it will probably represent
a certain King V&sudSva of Mathura, a successor of
Kanishka. No doubt it can be urged that the Gnostic
romancer who wrote the "Acta Thomse" may have
adopted a few historical Indian names to lend verim-
militude to his fabrication, but as Mr. Fleet urges in his
severely critical paper " the names put forward here
in connexion with St. Thomas are distinctly not such
as have lived in Indian story and tradition" (Jour,
of R. Asiatic Soc., 1905, p. 235).

On Uie other band, though the tradition that St.
Thomas preached in "India" was widely roread in
both East and West and is to be found in such writers
as Ephraem Syrus, Ambrose, Paulinus, Jerome, and,
later, in Gregory of Tours and others, still it is diffi-
cult to discover any adequate support for the long-
accepted beli^ that St. Thomas pushed his missionary
journeys as far south as Mylapore, not far from Ma^
draSj and there suffered martyrdom. In that reooo
is still to be found a granite bas-relief cross wiui a
Pahlavi (ancient Persian) inscription dating from the
seventh century, and the tradition tbait it was hoe

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that St. Thomas laid down bis life is locally very
strong. Certain it is also that on the Malabar or west
coast of southern India a body of Christians still
exists using a form of Syriac for ita litiuvical lan-
guage. Wnether this Church datee from the time of
St. Thomas the Apostle (there was a Syro-Chaldean
bishop John "from India and Persia" who assisted
at the Council of Nicea in 325) or whether the Gospel
was first preached there in 345 owing to the Persian
persecution imder Shapur, or Sapor, or whether the
Syrian missionaries who accompanied a certain Thomas
GEma penetrated to the Malabar coast about the year
745 seems difficult to determine. We know only that in
the sixth century Coamas Indicopleustes spefuks of the
existence of Christians at Male (7MaIabar) under a
bishop who bad been consecrated in Persia. King
Alfred the Great is stated in the " Anglo-Saxon Chron-
icle" to have sent an expedition to establish relations
with these Christians of the Far East. On the other
band the reputed relics of St. Thomas were certainly
at Edessa in the fourth century, and there they re-
mained until th^ were translated to Chios in 1258
and afterwards to Ortona. The improbable HU|^es-
tion that St. Thomas preached in America (Amencan
Eccles. Rev., 1899, pp. 1-18) is based upon a misun-
derstanding of the text of the Acts of the Apostles (i,
8; cf. Berchet "Fonte itaiiane per la storia delta
scoperta del Nuovo Mondo", II, 236, and I, 44).

Besides the "Acta Thonase" of which a different
and notablv shorter redaction exists in Ethiopic and
Latin, we have an abbreviated form of a so-called
"Gostje! of Thomas", originally Gnostic, but as we
know it now merely a fantastical history of the child-
hood of Jesus, without any notably heretical colour-
ing. There is also a "Revelatio ThonMe", condemned
as apocryphal in the Decree of Pope Gelasi us, which
has recently been recovered from various sources in
a fragmentary condition (sec the full text in the
Revue b&l6dictine, 1911, pp. 359-374).

The mostteoeDtanclthoiott^iTOrkis: DAHUiAim. i>t« TAomw
Leaendt (Freiburo. 191^. See alao: Weckk« in TheoL Quartal-
aehrifl xcu (TaDlngeD, 1910), 63&-565: Daruiann, Jttducka
Fahtlm, II (FnUnin, 1906), 130 sqq.; Pick, Tla ilpmrvpAal AeU
«fPaut, Pttar and Tkomiu (Chicago. 1909) givw a u. of the Acta
lluma; Wfaam, Apoeryphal AcU <^th»Apottie» (Loudon, 1871),
fai Syriac, with tr.: Lipbiusamv Bonhxt, ^ eta apotM. apocr. ^^eip-
sig, 1891-1903), UMthirdpartofthiaeolleetioDjivM the full Greek
taxt of the Acta of Tkomat, oritically edited; Bdsxht in Jaw. of
Th«o<.SltM<»M(I,280Bqq.; in,94Bqq.) hasshown that the Syriao
is probably the orimoal laneuage; Idxm, Tt:3Ut and Studies (Cam-
bndn, 1897 and 1903), V; Malan, TheConftieUofthiHolvApos-
lie* (LoodOD, 1871), 187-220; Mbdltcott, India and tb^ ApottU
ThnAM (JjoaAoa, 1905), a work written by a Catholic ricar
ApoatoUc but unorittoal in tone; PiETEiia in Analeeta boUand-
iana (190S), 197, (1908), 207; Richards, Indian CArutviM of
8L Thomoa (London, 190M; Rsnoxl HaBku, Cult ofiht Ueatmlv
Twin* (1906), 105-25; Flibt in Jour, of R. jitiatie Sodtt]/
OondoD. 1905), 223-30, (1906), 706-11; BtiBEiTr-PREUscBEH,
UniAHtUntuin in Orient jTlibiBWBa, IWT); Miucb Rab, The
Syrian Church in India QBdintMiigb, ISfQ) ; Wilhkui, fiMtidU
Legtnden tind Ltgendare (Ldpsig, 1907) ; MicBBb and Pbetbbs,
StangUM apocrypAM; / Enno^ dt Thoauu (Puis, 1011): Tia-
CBBNDOET. fvofvdta ajiocr. (Ldpsig, ISny.BAViMminWitner
SiHdUn Ontaam, 1908). 308-340; BmLHms in Bmu UnAMe-
Mm, XXVin (Mandsous, 1911).

Hebbert Tbubston.

Thomas, Cbaru;s L. A., French composer, b. at
Metz, 5 Aug.. 1811; d. at Paris, 12 Feb., 1896. He
gained the Grand Prix at the Paris Conservatoire
m 1832, having previously won first prize for piano
and for hwmony. Continuing his studies with Kalk-
brenner, Barbereau, and Lesueur, he composed much
during the years 1836-50, including three motets and
a requiem mass. Turning his attention to comic
opera he produced a number of ballets, of which "Le
Caid" showed great promise. In 1851 he became a
member of the Institute, and in the followingyear was
appointed professor of composition at the Conserva-
toire. At length be captui«d the opmt-going public
with "Mignon", produced on 17 Nov., 1866. This
niccesB he followed up with "Hamlet", a five-act
opm first given on 0 March, 1868. In 1871, on the

death of Auber, he was appointed Director of the Con-
servatoire, a position he held till his death. Among
bis 8aa«d oompodtionei, his "Messe Solennelle" was
given on 22 Novemb^ 1857, the feast of St. Cecilia,
at the Church of St. Eustache, for the ben^t of tiie
Society of Artist Musicians. On the same feast, in
1865, his "Marche Religieuse" was performed. His
merit was recognized by several decorations mcludlng
the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour in 1894.
From a musical standpoint, Thomas holds a high

retains its popularity, after close on half a oentmy.

Matthsw, Handbook of Mutieal Hittory (London, 1808);
OnOTi'a DieL of Mu*ic and Mundane, ed. Maitland (London,
190«-10). v.; Lu, Slon of Opera (London, 1909} ; Dumbtam,
A C^dopedie DietT^ Jfwfe O-ondonJ^gCM).

W. H. Grattan-Flood.

Thomas, Gobfxl or Saint.
subtitle IIL

Bee Apocrtpha,

Thomu JUwI, BuBBBED (also Able, or Abell),
priest and martyr, b. about 1497; d. 30 July, 1640.
He was chaplain to Queen Catharine, and defendo* of
the validity of her marriage with Henry VIII, for
which reason he was eventu^y put to death. He was
a graduate of Oxford, and appears to have taught the
queen modern languages and music. After a journey
to Spain in her behalf, he received the parochial bene-
fice of Bradwell in Sussex. He soon published (May,
15327) in defence of the queen's marriage a work en-
titled: "Invicta Veritas, an answor to the detennina-
tion of the most famous Universities, that by no man-
ner of law it may be lawful for King Heniy to be
divorced from the Queen's grace, his lawful and very
wife". For this he was thrown (1532) into Beau-
champ Tower, and after a year's hb^tion again
imprisoned, in December^ 1533, on the charges of
di^eminating the prophecies of the Maid of K^t, en-
couraging the queen "obstinate^ to persist in h^ wil-
ful opmion against the same divorce and separation",
and maintaining her right to the title of queen. He
was kept in close confioemeat until his execution at
lybum, two days after the execution of Cromwell
himself. There is extant a very pious Latin letter
written by him to a fellow-martyr, and another to
Cromwell, begging for some shght mitigation of his
"close prison y-yi. e. "license to go to church and say
Mass here within the Tower and for to be ia some
bouse upon the Green". It is signed "by your daily
bedeman, Thomas Abell, priesv'. His act of at-
tainder states that he and three others "have most
traitorously adhered themselves unto the bishop of
Rome, being a common enemy unto your Majesty and
this your Realm, refusing your Hiidiness to be our and
their Supreme Head of this your Realm of England".
There is in Beauchamp Tower a rebus of the Martyr,
probabb^ executed by himself; the figure of a wO.
carved on the wall, the letter A in front and the word
"Thomas" above. He is one of the fifty-four Eng-
lish martyrs beatified by Leo XIII 29 Dec., 1886.

Pollen, IAmb of the Bnglieh Mariyrt, I (London, 1004). 462-83.

Thomas J. Shahan.
Blessed Edward Powell. — With Blessed Thomas
Abel there suffered Edward Powell, priest and mar-
tyr, b. in Wales about 1478; M, A. CSxon.: Fellow of
Oriel, 1495; D.D. 26 June, 1506 and styled perdoclm
vir by the university. He was rector of Bleadon,
Somerset, and prebendary of Centum SoHdorum in
Lincoln, which he exchanged for Carlton-cum-'Hiurlby
in 1505, and the latter for Sutton-in-Marisco in
1525. He also held the prebends of Lyme Reds, Cal-
stock, Bedminster, and St. Mary RedcUffe, Bristol,
and the living of St. Edmond's Salisbury. A court

Sreaeher in high favour with Henry VIII, he was ot-
ered to publish a reply to Luther ("Propugnaculum
Bummi Saoerdotii Evangclioi, ac septem* Summer-
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tenim, saditum per Tinim eruditom, Bacrsrum Uter^
arum profesaorem Edoardum Poelum adversus Mar-
tinum Lutherum fratrem famoaum et WicUfistan in-
si^em", London, 1523, three books in the form of a
dialogue between Powell and Luther). The Uni-
veraity of Oxford commended this work, and styled
Powell "the glory of the university" uk a lettor to Uie
king. Powell was one of ths four jheotogians se-
lected to defend the l^alii^y ^ the marrlLge of C*" i.n-
arine of Anwon, in connexiou with whi^b he wr^-^ ne
very rare "Tractatus de non disaolvendo Hemici Re-
gis ciun Catherina matrimonio'' (London).

In March, 1533, Powell was selected to answer Lati-
mae at Briatt^ and was dl^ed to have diaparaged
his moral character. Latimer ocnnplained to Crom-
well, and Powell fell into further disfavour by de-
nouncing Henry's marriage with Anne Boleyn. He
was discnarged from the proctorship of Salisbury in
Jan., 1534, and in November he was attainted, to-
gether with Blessed John Ftsher, -for high treason in
refusing tc take the oath of suoce&sion, deprived of his
benefices, and imprisoned in the Tower of London.
His ccmfinemoit was very rigorous: the keeper him-
self was sent to the Marahalsea Prison fco* allowing
Powell and Abel out on bail. The sentence was not
carried out until 30 July, 1540. Three CathoUcs
fPcwell, Abel, and Richard Featherstone) and three
Protestants suffered together. The victims were
dragged on hurdles from the Tower to Smithfield, a
Ca<'£o.iic and a Protestant on each hurdle. Powell's
tx:n<'i^nion was Robert Barnes, the Protestant divine.
A dialogue in verse was published shorty after, "The
metynge of Doctor Barnes and Dr. Powell at Paradise
Gate and of theyre communicacion bothe drawen to
SmitKfylde fro the Towar" (London, 1540), in the
British Museum. The Catholics were hanged, drawn,
and quartered as traitors; the others were burned as
heretics.

CbustON, LitMafUuFoundtrtofBraaenoM, 118, 18t, 245, 363.

C. F. Wbmyss Brown.

Thomas & Jera ^az Sanchez db Aviu), Dis-
oalced Carmelite, writer on nwstical theology, b. at
BfBza, Andalusia, 1564; d. in Rome, 24 (or 27) May,
1^7. Son of Don Baltasar de Avila and Dofia Teresa
de Herrera, he took d^^ees in the humanities at an
unusually early age, applied himself afterwards to
ihe study of Divinity, and in 15S3 to that of law at the
university of Salamanca. Having heard one of the
profeaaors extol the writings of St. Teresa (asyst un-
published) he procured a copy, tJie study of which re-
sulted in a determination to embrace her manner of
life. He took the habit at Valladolid, April, 1586,
and made his profession in the following year. As a
novice he was commissioned to i^Tite a ceremonial ac-
cording to the Roman Rite lately introduced into the
order, which remained in force until the last century.
He filled the posts of reader of Divinity at Seville,
prior at Saragossa, and provincial of Old Caatile. At
the expiration of his term of office he withdrew to the
Deaert of Las Batuecas situated in a mountain go^
of difficult access near Alberca. Later he became
prior of this convent. He himself had been the orig-
inator of this peculiar kind of life. The Carmelite
Rule was written for hermits, but the strictly eremiti-
cal life, at least on a large scale, being incomfiatible
with the exigencies of modem timee, he devised a
compromise by restricting the number of such con-
vents to one for each province, and limitit^ that of the
religious to four permanent ones, and volunteers from
other houses who were to reside there only one year at
the time. He established the firat Desert at Bolarque
(New Castile) in 1592, Las Batuecas (Old CastUe)
during his provincialship, and later on a similar house
in BeMum. He was called to Italy by Paul V who
deaixedf to evangeUze the Congo States. Unlike the
Spanish Congregation of the Order, the Italian bad

decided on principle to engage in missionary work^
and Thomas being noted for his zeal was selected for
it. The expedition, however, was frustrated, but he,
with a view to furthering missionary enterprise, es-
tablished with Uie pope's consent a new branch of the
wderunder the title oi Congregation of St. Paul, which
waa to cultivate exclusively miasiona:^ work ("22 July,
1(S(3S). Both the Spanish and the Itahan superiors
resented this step on the ground that it might lead to
a split in the order; the pope withdrew his approval,
and Thomas remained two vears under a cloud.

He wrote his large work, "Stimulus missionum"
^lome, 1610), and soon afterwards another, "De pro-
curanda aahite omnium gentium" (Antwnp, 1613), in
which he outlined the organization and functions of a
papal congregation with such wisdom that Gr^ry
XV when instituting Propaganda in 1622 followed the
lines suggested by Tnomas. The latter had been sent
by Paurv to the Low Countries where he was favour^
ably received by the archdukee, and founded convents
at Brussels (1610), Louvain (1611), Cologne (1613),
Douai (1613), Lille (1616), Li^ (1617), Antwerp
(1618), Marif^e (Desert, 1619), Louvain (miaaion-
ary college for the East, and also for England and
Holland, 1621), and Namur (1622). From 1617 he
filled the post of Provincial of Flanders. While at
Brussels he placed the Carmelite Nuns who had come
there from l^ain and France under the jurisdiction of
the Italian superiors, and assisted them in the estab-
lishment of numerous conventa. In 1621 he was re-
called to Rome as definitor general, and died there
three years later in the odour of sanctity. By order
of Urran VIII his writings were coDeoted In two vol-
umes, and were published at Cologne in 1684, wfaHe
a third volume was never carried through the press.
Besides the works already mentioned there are some
on subjects connected with his order (its antiquity,
Salamanca, 1599; the privileges of the confraternity,
1599, commentaries on vanous points of the rule,
notices of prominent men, etc.). Other works deal
with mystical theology, <x whim the principal are:
"De oontemi>latione divina", Antwerp, 1620, and
"Divin» orationis methodus", Antwerp, 1623. The
small treatise " La meilleure part, ou la Vie contempla-
tive", translated and edited by Berthold-Ignace de
Ste Anne (Brussels, 1686), is from an unpublished
work. In his mystical writings Thomas A Jesu rars-
tematized St. Teresa's teaching on the basis of St.
Thomas Aquinas, II-II, QQ. clxxi-clxxv.

Not leas active than Triomas A Jeau in hoping to es-
tabliah the Fl>opaRanda was Venerable Dominic A Jeeu
Maria (Ruzzola), b. at Calatajud, 16 May, 1569; d. at
Vienna, 16 Feb., 1630. At an early age he entered
the convent of Calced Carmelites in his native town
where his imcle was prior, and was sent after hia pro-
fpftsion to Sar^o88a.and Valencia, receiving Holy or-
ders at Tortosa. The desire of a stricter life led him to
the Dbcalced Carmelites at Pastrana (1589), who sent
him as master of novices to Madrid, and afterwards to
AlcalA for his higher atudies. He assisted Uie plague*
stricken at Barcelona, and was five years subprior at
Valeneia. He rrai^ed the nriorship of Toledo at the
command of Philip III who aesired his presence at Ma-
drid. After a short time he withdrew to the Desert of
Bolarque. The papal nuncio sent him to Rome
where he fiBed the posts of master of novices and

erior at the convent of La Scala. The pope entrusted
im with a mission to the Viceroy of Naples at Pa-
lermo, but would not consent to his wrmanently
absenting himself from Rome. In 1614 he became
procurator general, and three years later general, in
which capacity he undertook the canonical visitation
of the northern Italian convents, and founded the
Deae-rt of Varazzo near Genoa, haying previously es-
tablished a convent at Loano in Liguria. The strug-
gle between the (^tholic and Protestant powers whim
ultimately developed into the Thirty Years War har-

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TBOKA8

lubrdtfaioiitt PMilYsentDmnbuo to Ferdinand II,
VDO wee preparing to engage in what was hoped woxild
prove a decisive battle. With a erueifiz in his hand
and a picture of the Madonna, whi<^ had been ^lame-
fuUy mutilated by the heretics, suspended from his
neck, he moved among the combatants, ammating the
Catholics to fi^t far their FaiUi and to gain the vic-
tory he promised would be theirs. The Battle of
Fr^e proved iiMleed a signal sueoess (8 Nov., 1620).
Dominic ocmtinued his joHmey through Vierma, Lor-
raine, Colore, Brussels, (where he as^sted Archduke
Albort on his deathbed), Paris, and Marseilles, being
everywhere hailed as a h&o. Back in Rome towards
the end of 1621 be assisted the pope in the establish-
ment of Propagaoda, towards which end he bad col-
lected KMiflkterwle funds during his apo^lie jounuy;
he was nominated a member oi toe Congregation,
Urban VIII sent bim to Vienna to bring about a set-
tlement of the diff^nces between the Court of Aus-
tria and the House of Mantua, but he was taken ill
and died, surrounded by the imperial family. His
body, partly incorrupt, now rests in the Ctumelite
church at Unter Doebling near Vienna. His biog-
raphers relate uumiio'lees miracles allied to have
been wrought by him during life (for which fae was
called the Thaumaturgus of his time), and after his
death, but until the conclusion of the process of beati-
fication it is imposeible to ^peak of these. He wrote,
besides some works which remained in MS.: "S^ten-
tis spirituales' (on mystical theology), translated
into French (Paris, 1623), German, and Flemish ;
"Ai^umenta psalmorum" (Rome, 1623); "De pro-
tectione B. Viivinis" (French translation, Paris,
1645); "OonoonOa spiritualis" (Spanish teanslation,
Brussels, 1626).

BeridM the •xtmiriTe notioeB oonUined in Psiupro a BS.
TBDCiTAn, Daeor. Carmtli, in the BKforma d» lot Daeaiaoe, and
the HUl. generalit Conortgatimit S. Blia. see BERTnoLD-IaKACB
M Sn Amra. F*«di la Uhre Anne tU JUut (Meehtin, 1882), II,
3U-386, oonoemlng^Thomaa 4 Jesu, Phiuppus a 88. Trini-
un, Vita Vim. PrDomxniei (Lyons, 1S5S), aba in Preach, and
HabU Gabsula, LAen df mtw. Dominiinu Cbuubruck, 1003).

BhNBDICT ZlHHEltHAN.

ThomMi a KenqitiB, autiunr of tiie "Imitation of
(Christ", b. at Kempen in the IMooese of Cologne, in
1379 or 1380; d. 25 July, 1471. His parents, John
and Gertrude Haemerken, were of the artisan class;
it is said that Gertrude kept the village school, and
most probabW^ the father worked in metols, a common
calling in Kempen, whence perhaps the surname
Haemerken, or Haemerlein, Latinised MaUeolua (a
UtUe hammer). We have certain information of <»ily
two ohildreii, Jdm, the souor hv about fourteen yean,
and Thomas. TluHnaa was oiuy thirteen when ne set
out f(ff the schools of Deventer, in Holland. His
brother had preceded him thitiier by ten or twelve
years, and doubtless Thomas expected to find him
BtiU there. On his arrival, however, be learned that
he had gone two years since with five other Brothers
of the Common Life to lay the foundations of a new
congr^tioa of Canons Regular at Windesheim,
about twenty miles from Deventer, wbeie he tihen
went and was lovingly rec^ved by his brother who
provided him with a letter of introduction to the
superior of the Brothers of Common Life at Deventor,
Florentius Radewyn. Radewyn gave a warm welcome
to the young brother of John Haemerken of Kempen,
iriaced him for the time being in the house and under
the maternal care of "a c^ain noble and devout
lady", preeeoted him to Uie rector of the schoobk and
paid his first fees, though the master returned the
nmey when he learned whence it came. These par-
ticularit we have from the pen of Thomas hunseu in
biographies, written in his old age, of (>erard
Groote, FlorentiuB Radewyn, and their followers (see
"The Founders of the New Devotion", London, 1905).
^ seven years be remained at Deventer, numbered
fiDm the fiat ankuig the diadplee of Radewyn, and

for a good portiott of the time Uving in his boose under
his immediate care. It m impossible to exaggerate
the influence of those years in the formation of his
chu«cter. The "new devotion", of which Deventer
was then the focus and centre, was a revival in the
Low Countries in the fourteenth century of the fer-
vour <tf the primitive Christians at Jerusalem and
Antiocb in the first. It owed its inception to the
fa>vid preachii^ of the Deaoon Gerard Groote, its
further oifanization to l^e prudence and generous
devotedness of Ftorentius Radewyn. Its associates
were called the "Devout Brothers and Sisters", also
the "Brothers and Sisters of the Common Life".
They took no vows, but lived a life of poverty,
diastity, and obedience, as far as was eompatible wiw
their state, some
intiieirown homes
and others, espe-
cially clerics, in
community. They
were forbidden to
beg, but all were
expected to earn
th«r living by the
labour of their
bands; for the
clerics this meant
chiefiy the tran-
scribing of books
and the instruc-
tion of the young.
AH earnings were
I^aced in a com-
mon fund at the
dis^toeal of the su-
perior; the one
ambition of all
was to emulate
the life and vir-
tues of the first
Christians, especially in the love- of Grod and the
naghbour, in simplicity^ humility, devotion. Fup*
thermore, parUy to provide Devout Brothers and
Sisters with ^eetive protectors and experienced
guides, partly to afford an easy transit to the religious
state proper for those of their numb^ who should
deaie it, Gerard Groote conceived the idea of estab-
lishing a branch of the canonical order, which should
always maint^n the closest relations with the mem-
bers of the new devotion. This sobeme was curied
into effect after liis imtimely deatii, at the eariy age
of forty-three, fay the foundation of the oonn^tion
of ^ndesheim, as it was aftenrards ealled : Prom the
tract of land where the first prions was established
(1386). These details are given as hdpful to a better
understanding of the life and character of a Kempis,
a typical and exemplary Brother, and for seventy-two
years he was one of the most dietinguiriied of the
Canons Regular.

At Deventer Thomas proved an apt puinl, idready
noted for his neatoaBS and skill in transoribiuf roanu-
BCripta. This was a liffr*loiig labour of love with him;
in addition to his own eompoeitions he copied numer-
ous treatises from the Fathers, espeei^y »t. Branard,
a Missal for the use of his community, and the whole
Bible in four laige volumes still extaat. After com-
pleting his humanitiee at Deventer, in the autumn of
1399, with the commendation of his Bi^>erior, Ftoreo-
tius Radewyn, Thomas sought admission among the
Canons Reguhir of Windedieim at Mount St. Agnes,
near Zwofie, of which monastery his brother John was
then [oior. The bouse had been established only the
pevious year, and as vet there were no claustral
bladings, no garden, no benefactors, no funds. Dur-
ing his term of office^ which lasted nine years, John a
Kempis built ^e pnory and commenced the church.
In tiuae ekouDMtattoea w« find th« eo^ilaiution of the

TaoMA* A Kmcpi*

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THOMAS

662

faot that Thomas was not clothed as a novioe until
1406, at which date the aloiater was just oonqrieted,
nor ordained priest until 1413, the year after the
church was consecrated. The point is worth noting,
as some writers in their eagerness to discredit the
claims of a Kempis to the authorship of the "Imita-
tion" have actually fastened upon the length of this
period of probation to insinuate that he was a dullard
or worse. Thomas was himself, to within a few
months of his death, the chronicler of Agnetenberg.
The story which he tells of the early struntes of the
priory on the Mount, its steady progress, (md eventual
prosperity is full m charm and edification ("The
Chronicle of the Canons Regular of Mount St. Agnes",
London, 1906). These records reveal to us the sim-
plicity and holiness of his religious brethren. He was
twicfl ejected subprior, an'l onco ho was made proc-
urator. The reiisoTi as.'^ipned by an ancient oiog-
rapher for the laxtar uppoinl n^trS is one that doea
honour both to Thomas and hia brethren^ his love for
the poor. However, we can saarcd^r mugine the
author of the " Imitation" a good business manager,
and aftcc a tims his preference for retirement, litenuy
work, and conteTEipiation prevuiiiMl with the Canons
to rdieva him of the fai|»!MQ» The experience thus
gained he made use of m*i «0itual toeatise, "De
fidfli dispptiaatore".

Ihs lirst lenurd of oiRtj.f ae sti!>|itior was interrupted
by tkf L-xilb of the coniinuuity Irom Agnetenberg
(1429), occaaioned by the unpopular obeervanoe by
the CanoQfi of Winde&heim of an interdict laid upon
the country by Martin Y. A dispute had arisen in
connexion with ah appointment to the vacant See of
Utrecht iinJ an interdict was upon the land. The
Canons remained in exile until the question was set-
tled (1432). The community of Mount St. Agnes
had dwelt meanwhile in a canonry of Lunenkerk,
which they reformed and affiliated to Windesheim.
More than a year of this trying period Thomas spmt
with his brother John in the convent of Bethany, near
Arnheim, where he had been sent to assist and comfort
his brother, y^h.o was ailing. He remained until his
death (November, 1432). We find record of his elec-
tion as subprior again in 1448, and doubtless he re-
mained in office until age and infirmity procured him
release. It was part of the subprior's duties to train
the youn^ religious, and to this fact no doubt we owe
most of his minor treatises, in particular his " Sermons
to the Novices Regular" (tr. London, 1907). We also
know from early biographers that Thomas frequently
preached in the church attached to the prioiy. Two
similar series of these smnons are extant (tr. " Prayers
and Meditations on the Life of Christ" and "The
Incarnation and Life of Our Lord", London, 1004,
1907). They treat of a Kempis's favourite subjects,
the mystery of our Redemption, and ihe love of Jesus
CSirist as diown in His words uid works, buteroeoially
in the sufferings of His Passion. In person Thomas
is described as a man of middle Height, dark com-
plexion and vivid colouring, with a broad forehead
and piercing eyes; kind and affable towards all,
eq>ecudly we sorrowful and afflioted; constantly
engaged in his favourite occupations of reading,
writing, or prayer; in time of recreation for the most
part suent and recollected, finding it difficult even to
express an opinion on matters of mundane interest,
but pouring out a ready torrent of eloquence when the
conversation turned on God or the concerns of the
soul. At such times ofteoi he would excuse himself,
"My brethren," he would say, "I must go: Someone
is waiting to converse with me in my cell." A possi-
bly authentic portrait, preserved at Gertmidenberg,
boirs as his motto the words: "In omnibus requiem
qiucsivi et nusquam inveni nisi in een Hoecken met
een Boecken" (Everywhere I have souf^t rest and
found it nowha*e, save in little nooks with little
books). He was laid to rest in the eaatmi eknato' in

a spot carefully noted by the ocmtinuator of his
ohroniole. Two centuries after the Reformation,
during which the priory was destroyed, the holj^ re-
mains were transferred to Zwolle and enclosed in a
handsome rehquary by Maximilian Hendrik, Prino^
Bishop of Cologne. At preemt they are enshrined
in St. Michael^ Church, Zwolle, in a mamifieent
monument erected in 1897 by subscriptions from all
over the world and inscribed: "Honon, non memoriae
ThomsD KempenaiB, cuius nomen pereimius quam
monumentum (To the honour not to the memory of
Thomas a Kempis, whose name is more enduring than
any monument). It is interesting to recall that the
same Maximilian Hendrik, who cuaowed such seal in
preserving and honouring the relies of a Kempis, was
also eager to see the cause of his beatification intro-
duced, and began to collect the neoessaiy documents;
but little more than a b^nnii^ was made when be
died (1688) and sinoe that date no further steps have
been taken.

A few words on Thomas's claim, once disputed but
now hardly so, to the authorship of the "Imitation of
Christ". The book was first issued anonymously
(1418) and was soon accorded a wide wdcome, copied
by different scribes, and attributed to various spiritual
writers, among others St. Bmiard, St. Bonaventure,
Henry de Kukar, Innocent III, Jean Chsrlier de
Gerson, and John a Kempis. In 1441 Thomas com-
pleted and signed his name to a codex still extant
(Royal Library, Brussels, 5355-61), containing the
four books of the "Imitation" and nine minor trea-
tises. Then for two hundred years no serious attempt
was made to di^xissess a Kmipis of his title; but eany
in the seventeenth century a fierce and prolonged con-
troversy was commenced with the object of establish-
ing the claim either of Jean Charlier de Gerson^
Chancellor of Paris, or of his Italian variant,Giovanm
Gersen, alleged Benedictine Abbot of Vercelli. At
one praiod an Englishman, Walter Hilton, Canon
R^[ular of Thuigarton. the author of the "Scale
(Laddra') of Perfection , was brought forward, but
his claim was not long maintained. Incredible as it
may sound, the very existoice of Giovanni Gersen of
Vercelli is yet to be proved. Of Jean* Charlier de
Gerson the following facts have been established and
they may be foimd demonstrated at length in such
works as Cruise, "Thomas k Kempis", and Kettle-
well, "The Authorship of the De Imitatione Christi".
Not a single contemporary witness is fotmd in Gersen's
favour; not a single manuscript during his life or for
thirty years aftw nis death ascribee the work to him;
internal evidence, style, matter, etc. are in every
respect unfavourable. On the other hand we find the
title of a Kempis proved by the following: several
contemporary witnesses of unimpeachable auUiority,
including members of his own order, name Thomas as
the author; contemporary MSS., including one auto-
graph codex, bear hia name; internal evidence ia
wholly favourable. Sir liVanois Cruise summarizes
this last item under three headings: (1) identity^ of
style, including peculiarities common to the "Imitap
tion" and other undisputed works of a Kempia, viz.:
barbarisms, Italianized words, Dutch idioms, sys-
tematic rhythmical punctuation, and the word devolua
as used pnmariljy of associates of the new devotion;
(2) The Imitation" breathes the whole spirit of the
Windedidm sdiool of mysticism; (3) it is impreg-
nated throu^ut with the Scriptures and the writings
of the Fathers, especially St. Augustine and Bemai^
all favourite founts of m^iration far a Kempis ana
his fellow Canons of Windesheim. The "Imitation"
itself, the best known and the first in order of merit of
his original writii^, comprises in bulk about one-
tenth of the works of a Konpis. Many were or^inally
instructions for the novices and junior Canons oi
whom, as subprior, Thomas had oharge; others an
quritual treatises ot wider appliMttioD and some ol

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these indeed, as the "Oratio de elev&tione mentU in
Deum", rise to sublime heights of mysticism. There
are numerous praters of sweet devotion and quaint
Latin hymns of simple rhythm and jingling rhyme.
One work, of which Thomas was editor" ratLer than
authw, isa "Life of (St.) Lydwine, Virgin " (tr. Lon-
don^ 1911). The best oomplete edition bo far of the
"Opwa omnia" ot a Kempia is that d the Jesuit
Sommalius, published by Nut of Antwen), 1607; even
Hub does not contain the "Chronioon Montis Saocts
Agnetis", which was edited by H. Roewe;^d, S.J., and
publidied in one volume with the "Chronicon Windes-
onenae" (Antwerp, 1621). Of the innumerable edi-
tions oi the "Imitation", doubtless by far the most
interesting is a facsimile from the 1441 codex, pub-
lishfid in London, 1879. A splendid critical editiwi of
the "Opera omnia" is now being published by Herder
under the able editorship of Dr. Pdhl; five of df^t

g ejected volumes have appeared (1911). Messrs.
egan Paul have published in a uniform edition five
volumes of translation, already mentioned in the
course of this article. Messrs. Bums andOates have
brought out a sixth. It is hoped eventually to offer
a complete translation. This series will prove a boon
to students of a Kempis, as, althoiwh several lesser
works, such as "The Soliloquy of the Soul "The Dis-
dpUne of the Cloister", the "Manuale Parvulorum",
etc., have been rendered into English, the work hitherto
accomplished has been of unequal merit. Perhaps in
this connexion we m^ quote the enthusiastic com-
mendation of Prior Pirkhamer addressed to Peter
Danhausser, the publisher of the first edition of
Thomas a Kempis s works, 1494: "Nothingmore holy,
nothing more nonourable, nothing more rdi^^us,
nothing in fine more profitable for the Christian
commonweal can you ever do than to make known
these works of Thomas k Kempis."

Cbdibb, Thoma* (t Kempit (London, 1887); Idek, Who tuoc
tht AtOhor of the Imitationf (Loadoo, 1898) ; Qbii, Eiddtn Snfntt
(London. 1907): Kbttlbwell, The Authorthip the De Imi-
bMoM Chriati (London, 1877} ; Idsii, TAoim* d Kmpie and the
Brotkert of tho Common Life (London, 18S2); MontvobkNCT,
Thomaa d RempU, Hit Apt artd Hit Book (London, 1906);
ScoLLT, Life of the Veturabie Thomaa d Kem-pit (London, 1001);
Watbrton, 1%»mae d KempU and tho Imilation of Chriol (LoDr
doa, 1883); Ahobt, Deductio eritiea qw jh*^ teget laniorit
eritiea moraliier eertum reddittir Von, T^mam Kempentem
Librorum de Imitationo Chrieti Authorm tttt,eU. (Augibiirc
1761): Idsu, Mortdia eerlitudo pro Fm. Thoma Kempmti
(Auciburc 1764); Idhh, Scutum Kempeiue (Cologne, 1728);
iDKK, Puna et tuecincta informatio d« ttatu totiua conirovereia, etc
(AugsburK. 1725); Becker, L'Aaiottr do rimitalion li lee doci^
ffMfOi ffierlandatt (La Haye, 1882); Bdbcb, Chroaieon Windoee-
HMHte, and Liber de reformati&ne monaeleriorum (Halle, 1887j;
Gbsoobt. Hittoire du livre de VJmitaiion de Jistu-Chriet et de
eon virHable auteur (Paris, 1843); Hibsche, Tkoma Kempenei*
De Imilatione Chrieti, (Berlin, 1874) ; Idem, Proleoomena tu
Biner Neuen Au»o<Ae der Imilalio Ckneti (Berlin, 1883): ed.
SOUUAUVB, Opera omnia (Antwerp, 1607); ed. FShl, Opera
omnia (5 vols.. Freiburg, 1902-!1); CompUU Workt. I-V
(London, l(H)4-7); Chromoon Morttie Saneta Agnetit (Antwerp,
1621); Malou, Reeherehee hietorimee et eritiguee ew U viriUMe
ONtour du litre de rimitalion de Ji»u»-Chri»t (Paris, 1858);
MbIxa, Delia Controvereia Qerieniana (Prato, 187S); PirroL,
La doctrine du litre De Imitatione Chrieti (Porta, 1881) ; Samtini,
IdiriUi de Thommaeo da Kempie (Rooie, 1870, 1880 : Spitsbn,
Thomat d Kempit, etc (Utrecht, 1880) ; Idem, Lee HoUandieme de
rimitation de Jieue-Ckriet (Utrecht, 1884); Idem, NontMa
difenee (Utrecht, 1884); Wolmqbusek, OiowMM* Oeretn, tetn
Lmm vnd tein Werk de Imitatione Chrieti (Atwburg, 1880);
Ideh, Stptttn Motiea contra Thomam de Kempia (Vienna, 1882),

Vincent Sctllt.

Thomas Alfleld (Attfebij), Alfhildb, Hawfield,
OFTBLnns), Vdnsrable: (alias Badqur), priest,
b. at Gloucestershire; martyred at Tyburn, 6 July,
1585. He was educated at Eton and Cambridge
(1568). He was afterwards converted and oame to
Douai College in 1576, but the troubles there oom-

Eelled him to intermit his studies for four years, and
e was evratuaUy ordained and sent forth from
Rfflms in 1581. Here he was associated with the
celebrated mission of Blessed Edmund Campion and
Father Persons, and he persuaded the latter to take
as his servant his brother Robert Alfield, then r^
cently oooToted, but iriw aftarwaxda became a

13 TBOMAM

traitor of note. Thomas seems to have kbonzed

chiefly in the north, where after a time he was amsted
and sent to the Tower of London, 2 May, 1582.
Here he at first made a "glorious" confession, and
even endured torture; but being afterwards sent
back to the north, he fell, and went to the Protestant
Church. Upon nxaininA liberty he waa deeply
penitent for his faO, and returned to Dr. Allen at
Reims to gather new resolution. Returning again
to Endand he was induced by the famous seaman
John Davis (about March, 1584) to make for him
ofifere — presumably insincere on Davis's p«t — of
services to Spain. In August of the same year Dr.
Allen's celebrated " True and modest Defence ' '
appeared in answer to Bunny's "Execution of
Justice". To circulate such books as Allen's was of
tike greatest service to the F^th. Alfield undertook
the oangraous task with the help of a dyer by the
name of Thomas Webley, and of one Crabbe. After
some months he was t^ain arrested, and a^n sent
to the Towei^ whence he was removed to Newgate
and tried. Crabbe renounced the pope and thereby
saved hia life; the other two were hanged. A re>
prieve had, for some unknown reason, been granted
for Alfield, but it arrived too late.

Challonbr, Mt.tnonarv Priate (Edinburgh, 1877); Oltxsir,
BibL Diet. Bfui- Cath., a. v. Aljteld, Thomae; Knox, LeUertnf Car-
dinal Alien (London, 1SS2); there are alao several referwNMtO
Alfield In the Record OfBce, Jjondon, many of which Era clmi
by SuHvON in The RarMer, new mt., VII, 420-431,

Fahuck Rtan.
Thomat AngUoiu. See Thomas of Jobs.

Thomas Aquinmg, Saint, philosopher, theologian,
doctor of the Church {Angelicus Doctor), patron M
Catholic universities, colleges, and schools, b. at
Rooca Seoca in the Kingdom of Natdes, 1226 or
1227; d. at Fossa Nuova, 7 March, 1274.

I. Lute. — ^The great outlines and all the importuit
events of his life are known, but biographers diffw
as to some details and dates. Death prevented
Henry Denifie from executing his project of writiw
a critical life of the saint. Denifle's friend and pup^
Dominic Prtlmmer, O.P., professor of theology in
the University of Friboiu«, Switz^land, has taken
up the work uid is publisuaing the "Fontes Vita S.
Thonue Aquinatis, notis historids et criticts iUu>*
trati"; and the f&st fascicle (Toulouse, 1911) has
appeared, giving the life of St. Thomaa hy Peter Calo
(1300) now published for the first time. From
Tolomeo of Lucca (see Bartholomew of Lucca)
we learn that at the time of the saint's death there
was a doubt about his exact age (PrQmmer, op. cit.,
45). The end of 1225 is usually assigned as the
time of hia birth. Father Prtimmer, on the authority
of Calo, thinks 1227 is the more probable date (op.
cit., 28). All agree that he died in 1274.

Landulph, his father, was Count of Aquino, Theo-
dora, his mother, Countess of Teano. His family
was related to the Emperors Henry VI and Freder-
ick II, and to the Kings of Aragon, Castile, and
France. Calo relates that a holy hermit foretold
hia career, saying to Theodora before his birth:
" He will enter the Order of Friars Preachoa, ukI so
great will be his learning and sanctity tiiat in his
day no one will be found to equal him" (PrQmmer, op.
cit., 13). At the age of five, according to Uie custom
of the times, he was sent to receive his firat truning
from the Benedictine monks of Monte Cassino.
Diligent in study, he was thus early noted as being
meditative and devoted to prayer^ and his preceptor
was surprised at hearing tne child ask frequently:
"What 18 God?" About the year 1236 he was sent
to the University of Naples. Calo says that the
change waa made at the instance of the Abbot of
Monte Cassino, who wrote to Thomas's father that
a boy of such tolents should not be left in obscurity
{Frfimmtf, op. dt,, 20). At NapW^ preowtwg

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THOMAS 664 raoMAB

were Pietro Martini and Petrus HIbemtu. The saw that the hamit's prophecy would eventually be

chronicler says that he soon surpassed Martini in fulfilled or because hie brotherB feaa*ed the threats

erammar, and he was then given ovn to Peter of of Innocent IV and Frederick II, he was set at liberty,

Ireland, whd tnuned him in logic and the natural being lowered in a basket into the arms of Uie Domini-

sciencea. The customs of the times divided the cans^ who were delighted to find that during hia

liberal arts into two courses: the Trivium, embracing captivity "he had made as much progrees as if he

grammar, logic, and rhetoric; the Quadrivium, had been in a stttdium generate" (Calo, op. cit., 24).

comprising music, mathematics, geometry .and astron- Thomas immediately pronounced his vows, and his

omy (see Arts, The Seven Liberal). Thomas superiors sent him to Rome. Innocent I V examined

could repeat the lessons with more depth and lucidity closely into his motives in joining the Friars Preachers,

than his masters displayed. The youth's heart had dismissed him witJi a blessing, and forbade any

remained pure amidst the comipticm with which further interfo^ce with his vocation. John the

he was surrounded, and he resolved to embrace the Teutonic, fourtii master general the order, todc

religious life. the young student to Paris and, according to the

Some time between 1240 and August, 1243, be majority of the saint's biographers, to Cologne,

received the habit of the Order of St. Dominic, being where he arrived in 1244 or 1245, and was placed

attracted and di- under Albertus Magnus, the most renowned professor
reeled by John of of the order (on chronology of this period sec Prtim-
St. Julian, a noted mer,op. cit., p. 25). In the schooIs'Hiomas's humility
preacher of the and taciturnity were roisinteipreted as signs of dul-
convent of Nimles. nees, but when Albert had hewd his brillisoit defence
The city wondered d a difficult thesis, he exclaimed: "We call this
that such a noble young man a dumb ox, but his bellowing in doctrine
young man should will one day resound throughout the world."
don the garb of a In 1245 Albert was sent to Paris, and Thomas
poor friar. His accompanied him as a student. In 1248 both re-
mother, with turned to Cologne. Albert bad been appointed
mingled feelings regent of the new atudium generale, erected that year
of joy and sorrow, by the general chapter of the order, and Thomas
hastened to Naples was to teach under him as Baehdor. (On the sys-
to see her son. tem of graduatim in the thirteenth century see
The Dominicans, Preachers, Order of. — II, A, 1, d; Fleur\-, "Hist,
fearing she would Eccl.", diss. V. ; Touron, "ViedeS.Thomasd'Aquin''
take him away, Paris, 1740, II, v; Draue, "Christian Schools ana
sent him to Rome, Scholars", London, 1881, 413: Douais, "L'oi^^isa-
his ultimate desti- tion des Etudes dans I'ordre des FF. PnScneurs, au 13^
nation being Paris sifecle", Paris, 1884.) During his stay in Cologne,
or Cologne. At probably in 1250. he was raised to the priesthood by
the instance of Conrad of Hochstaden, archbishop of that city.
Theodora, Thom- Throughout his hvm life, he frequently preached the
as's brothers, who Word of God, in Germany, France, and Itjily. Hia
were soldiers un- sermons were forceful, redolent of piety, full of solid Ln-
der the Emperor struction, abounding in apt citations from the Soip-
Frederick, cap- tures (see " D; Th. Aquinatis sermones et opuscula con-
tured the novice cionatoria", 2 vols., Paris, 1881). In the year 1251
near the town of or 1252 the master general of the order, by the advice
Aquapendente, of Albertus Mamus and Hugo a S. Charo (Hush of
and confined him St. Cher), sent Thomas to nU the office of Badbelor
ar. Tbohas Aquivab in the fortress of (sub-rG|[ent) in the Dominican stttdium at Paris.
Kero deiift Franeesea. Poidi-Peooli San Giovanni at This apiwitttmeot may be regarded as the banning
Gftllory. Milan Rocca Secoa. <rf his pubUc career, for his teaching soon attracted
Here he was detained nearly two years, his parents, the attention both of the professors and of the
brothers, and sisters endeavouring by v^ous means students. His duties consisted principally in explain-
to destroy his vocation. The brothers even laid ing the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard, and his
snares for his virtue, but the pure-minded novioe commentaries on that text-book of thcolofry furnished
drove the temptress from his room with a brand the materials and, in great part, the plan for his
which he snatched from the fire. Towards the end chief work, the "Summa theologica".
of his life, St. Thomas confided to his faithful friend In due time he was ordered to prepare himself
and companion, Reginald of Pipemo, the secret of to obtain the degree of Doctor in Theology from the
a remarkable favom: received at this time. When University of Paris^ but the conferring of the decree
the temptress had been driven from his chamber, he was postponed, owing to a dispute between the uni-
knett and most earnestly implored God to grant nim versity and the friars. The oonflint, originally a
integrity of mind and body. He fell into a gentle dispute between the university and the civic authori-
sleep, and, as he slept, two angels appeared to assure ties, arose from the slaying of one of the students
him that his prayer had be^ heard. They thai and the wounding of three others by the city guard,
^rded him about with a white girdle, saying: "We The univerwty, jealous of its autonomy, demanded
gird thee with the girdle of perpetual virginity." satisfaction, which was refused. The doctors closed
And from that day forward he never experienced the their schools, solemnly swore that they would not
slightest motions of concupiscence. reopen them until their demands were granted, and
The time spent in captivity was not lost. His decreed that in future no one should be admitted to
mother relented somewhat, Mter the first burst of the degree of Doctor unless he would take an oath
anger and grief; the Dominicans were allowed to to follow the same line of conduct under similar
provide him with new habits, and through the kind circumstances. The Domininans and Franciscans,
offices <A his sister he procured some books — the Holy who had continued to teach in their schools, refused
Scriptures, Aristotle's Metaphysics, and the "Sen- to take the prescribed oath, and from this there arose
tences" m Peter Lombard. After eighteen months a bitter conflict which was at its height when St.
or two years spent in prison, either because his mother Thomas and St. Bonaventure were ready to be

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THOMAS 6

presented for their degrees (see VMijriian, " Life and
Labours of St. Thomas of Aquin 2 vols., London,
1871-72, 1, xxi). William of SuAmour extended tlie
dinmte Deyoaa the orupnal question, violently at>
tacked the FHub, oT wboia he was eviooitly
jealous, and denied their ri^t to occupy chain
in the university. Against his book, "De pericuBs
novisBimorum temporum" (The Penis of the Lsst
Times), St. Thomas wrote a treatise "Contra im-
pugnantes reUgionem", an apology For the reli-

E'ous orders (Touron, op. cit., 11, oc. vii sqq.). The
>ok of William of St-Amour was ocmdemned by
Alexander IV at Anagni, 5 Ootobor, 1266, and th«
pope gave orders that the mendieaiit friara should be
admitted to the doctorate.

About this time St. Thomas aJso combated a
dangerous book, "The Eternal Gospel" (Touron, op.
cit., II, czii). The university fuithorities did not
obey immediately; the infiuenoe of St. Louis IX and
eleven papal Bnefs were required before peace was
firmly established, and St. Thomas was admitted
to the degree of Doctor in Theolon^. The date ci
his iMt>motion, as given by many oiographerB, was
23 October, 1257. His theme was "The Majesty of
Christ". His text, "Thou wateraet the hills from
thy upper rooms: the earth shall be filled with the
fruit of thy works" (Ps. ciii, 13), said to have been
Bu^ested by a heavenly vimtor, seems to have been
prophetic m his career. A tradition be^ that St.
Bonaventure and St. Thomas received Uie doctorate
on the same da^, and that there was a euitest ot
humility between the two friends as to which should
be promoted first. From this time St. Thomas's
life may be summed up in a few words: praying,
preaching, teaching, writing, journeying. Men were
more anxious to hear him than they had been to hear
Albert, whom St. Thomas surpsssed in accuracy,
luddity, brevity, and power of exposition, if not m
universality of knowledge. Paris claimra him as
her own; the popes wished to have him near them;
the vtudia of the order were eager to enjoy the boiefit
of his teaching; hence we find him suceessivdy at
Ani^^, Rome, Bologna, Orvieto, Viterbo, Peru^pa,
in PJiris again, and finally in Naples, always teachmg
and writing, living on earth with one passion, an'ardent
seal tor the explanation and defence of Christian
truth. So devoted wan he to his sacred task that
with tears he begged to be excused frmn accepting
the Archbishopric of Naples, to wiuak he was ap-
pointed by Clemait IV in 1265. Had this awoint-
ment been accepted, most probably the "Summa
theolc^ca" would not have been written.

Yielding to the requests of his brethrCT, he on
seveaal occasions took part in the deh'berations of
the general chapters or the order. One of these
chapters was held in London in 1263. In another
hela at Valenciennes (1259) he collaborated with
Aibertus Magnus and Peter of Tsrentasia (afterwards
Pope Innocent V) in formulating a ey^em ot studies
which is substantially preserved to this day in t3a»
ttudia generalia of the Dommican Order (cf. Douais,
op. cit.). It is not surprising to read in the biogra^
pnies of St. Thomas that he was frequently abstracted
and in ecstasy. Towards the end of his life the
ecstasies became more frequent. Oa one occasion,
at Naples in 1273, after he had completed his treatise
on the Eudiarist, three of the brethren saw him lifted
in ecsta^, and they heard a voice proceeding from
the crucifix on the altar, saying "Thou hast written
well of me, Thomas; what rewud wilt thou have?".
Thomas reined, "None other than Thyself, Lord"
(I^mmer, op. dt., p. 38). Similar declarations are
said to have been made at Orvieto and at Paris.
On 6 December, 1273, he laid aside his pen and would
write no more. That day he experienced an unusu-
ally Umg ecstasy duriI^c Mass; what was reveiJed to
him we can omv Burmise from his reply to Fathor

S TBOHAS

RegmaM, who urged him to continue his writiogs:
"I can do no more. Such secrets have been revealed
to me that all I have written now appears to be of
little value" (modiea, FrQnuner, op. cit., p. 43).

The "Summa theologica" had been completed
only as far as the ninetieth question of the third
part (pe partibus pcBnitenti®). Thomas began his
immediate preparation for death. Gregory X, naving
convoked a general council, to open at Lyons on 1
May, 1274, invited St. Thomas and St. Bonaventure
to take part in the deliberations, commanding the
former to bring to the council his treatise "Contra
OTores Gmeonun" (Against the Errors of the
GredEs). He tried to obey, setting out on foot in
January, 1274. but strength failed hun; he fell to the
ground near Terracina, whence he was conducted
to the Castle of Maienza, the home oS his niece the
Countess Franoesca Ceccano. The Cistercian monks
of Fossa Nuova pressed him to accept their hospital-
ity, and he was conveyed to their monastery, on
entering which he whispo^d to his companion: This
is my rest for ever ana evo*: here will I dwell, for I
IiavedMMenit"(Ps.oxxxi,14). When Father ReginaU
unced him to remain at the castle, the saint replied:
"U the Lord wishes to take me away, it is better
that I be found in a religious house than in the
dwelling of a lay person." The Cistercians were so
kind sjod 'attentive that Thomas's humility was
alarmed. "Whence comes this honour", he ex-
claimed, "that servants of God should carry wood
for my five!" At the m^rait request of the monks
he dictated a brief commentary on the Canticle of
Canticles.

The end was near; extreme unction was admini^
tered. When the Sacred Viaticum was brought into
the room he pronounced the following act of faith:
"If in this world there be any knowledge of this sacra-
ment stronger than that of faith, I wi.<m now to use it
in afiirming that I firmly l>elieve and know as certain
that Jesus Christ, True God and True Man, Son of
God and Son of the Virgin Mary, is in this Sacra-
ment." Hwn he added: "I receive Thee, the price
of my redemption, for Whose love I have watdied,
studwd, and laboured. Thee have I preached; Thee
have I taught. Never have I said anything against
Thee: if anything was not well said, that is to be attrib-
uted to my ignorance. Neither do I wish to be
obstinate in my opinions, but if I have written any-
thing erroneous concerning this sacrament or other
matters, I submit all to the ;udgment and correction
of the Holy Roman Church, m whose obedience I now
pass from this life" (Prtlmmer, op. cit., p. 48). He
died on 7 March. 1274. Numerous miracles attested
his sanctity, ana he was canonized by John XXII,
13 July, 1323. The monks of Fossa Nuova were
anxious to keep his sacred remains, but by order of
Urban V the body was given to his Dominican
brethren, and was solemnly translated to the Domini-
can church at Toulouse, 28 January, 1369. A mag-
nificent shrine erected in 1628 was destroyed during
the French Revolution, and the body was removed to
the Church of St. Sernin, where it now reposes in a
sarcophagus of gold and silver, which was solemnly
blessed by Cardmal Desprez on 24 July, 1878. The
chief bone of his left arm is preserved in the cathedral
of Naples. The right arm, oestowed on the Univer-
sity <x Paris, and orij^nalW kept in the St. Thomas's
Cfaapd of the Dominican' cnurciK is now preserved in
the Dominican Church ot 8. ftlaria Sopra Minerva
in Rome^ whither it was transferred djuring the French
Revolution.

A description of the saint as he appes'-zd in hfe
is given by Calo (Priimmer, op. cit., p. 401), who
says that his features corresponaed with the greatness
of his soul. He was of lofty stature end of heav^.
build, but straight and well proportioned. Hia
complexion was "Bke the cokiur t^-'Dsw wheat":
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THOMAS

666

THOMAS

ioB head waa large and well shaped, and he was sli^tly
bald. All portraita represent him as noble, mediti^
tive, gentte yet strong. St. Pius V proclaimed St.
Thomas a Doctor of the Universal Church in the year
1567. In the Encyclical ".£temi Patris". of 4 Au-
gost, 1879, on the restoration of Christian philosophy.
Leo XIII declared him "the prince and master of all
Scholastic doctors". The same illustrious pontiff,
by a Brief dated 4 August, 1880, desifpiated him
patron of all Catholic universities. a«idenues, colleges,
and sclwoU throughout the workt.

II. WRmNQS. — A.(ren«raf Remarits.-^AlthoagfaSt.
Thomas Uved less than fifty years, he composed more
than sixty works, some of them brief, some very
lengthy. This does not necessarily mean that every
woni in the authentic works was written by his hand;
he was assisted by secretaries, and biographers assure
us that he could dictate to several scribes at the same
time (Vaughan, op. cit., vol. I, p. 469). OUier worics,
some of which were composed by hia disciples, have
been falsely attributed to him. The most recent,
and probably the most satisfactory^ treatise on the
authenticity of his works is the scnra of articles by
P. Mandonnet. " Des i^crits authentiquee de S. Thomas
d'Aquin" (Fribourg, 1910), originally written for the
"Revue Thomiate '^(March-April. 1909). The "Dis-
mtationes in singula opera D. Th. Aquinatis"
(Venice, 1750) of Bbnard de Rubeis are givm in all
important editions of the saint's works. A reliable
and convenient list is given by Fr. Sertillangea, O. P.,
in his "S. Thomas d'Aquin" (2 vols., Paris, 1910).

In the "Scriptores Ordinis Pnedicatorum" (Paris,
1719) Fr. Echard devotee eighty-six folio pages to St.
Thomas's works, the different editions and transla-

tion of printing, copies were multiphed rapidly in
Germany, Italjr, and France, portions of the ''Summa
theologica" being one of the first important works
printed! Peter Schoeffer, a printer of Mainz, pub-
lished the "Secunda Secunda^' in 1467. This is the
first known printed copy of any work of St. Thomas.
The first complete edition of the "Summa" was printed
at Baste, in 1485. Many other editions of tfiis and of
other worics were published m the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, especially at Venice and at
Lyons. The principal editions of all the works
(Opera Omnia) were published as follows: Rome,
1570: Venice, 1594, 1612, 1745; Antwerp, 1612; Paris,
1660, 1871-80 (VivAs): Parma, 1852-73: Rome, 1882
(the I^nine). The Roman edition of 1570, called
"the Piana", because edited by order of St. Pius V,
ma the standard for many yeara. Besides a carefull^
revised text it contained the commentaries ai Cardi-
nal Cajetan and the valuable "Tabula Aures" of Peter
of Bergamo. The Venetian edition oS 1612 was
highly prized because the text waa acoompanied by
■ the Caietan-Porrecta commentariea (see Porrecta,
Serafino). The Leonine edition, begun under the
patronage of Leo XIII, now continued imder the
master general of the Dominicans, undoubtedly will
be the most perfect of all. Critical dissertations on
each work will be ^ven, the text will be carefully
revised, and all references will be verified. By direc-
tion of Leo XIII (Motu Proprio, 18 Jan., 1880) the
"Summa contra gentiles" will be piublished with the
commentaries of Sylvester Ferrariensis, whilst the
commentaries of Cajetan go with the "Summa theo-
togica". The latter has been published, being vols.
IV-XII of the edition (last in 1906). St. Thomas's
works may be classified as philosophical, theological,
scriptural, and apologetic, or cfmtroversial. The
division, however, cannot always be rigidly main-
tained. The "Summa theologica", e. g., contains
much that is philosophical, whilst the "Sununa contra
gentfles" is inmcipally, but not exdusivety, Tpbakmc^^

ical and apologetic. His philosophical works an
diiefly commentaries on Aristotle, aiid his &8t iitmraw
tant theological writings were commentaries on I^tw
Lombard's four books of "Sentences"; but bedoesnot
slavishly follow either the Philosopher or the Master
of the Sentences (on opinions of the Lombard rejected
Migne, 1841, edition of the

"Summa" I, p. 461).

B. Hia PrineimU Work$ in Detail. — Amongst the
worics wherein St. Thwnas's own mind and method
are ahown, the following deBa>ve n>ecial maition: —

(1) "Qusstionesdiaputatn" (Disput^idQueations).
— ^These were more complete treatises on subjects
that had not been fully elucidated in the lecture halls^
or concerning which the professor's opinion had bera
soiwht. They are very valuable, because in them the
author, free from limitations as to time or space,
freely expreasee his mind and givea all arguments for
or a^Eunat the opiniona adopted. These treatises,
containing the questions "De potentia", "De malo",
"De spint. oreaturis'', "De anima", "De unione
Verbi Incamati", "De virt. in communi", "De
caritate", "De oorr. fratema", "Despe", "De virt.
cardinal.", "De veritate", were often reprinted, e. g.
recently by the Association of St. Paul (2 vols., Pans
and FnlMurg, Switzerland, 1883). (2) "QuodlibeU"
(may be rendered "Various Subjects", or "Free
DiseuBsioDs"). — They present questions or ailments
proposed aad answers giv^ in or outude the lecture
nalu, chiefly in the more formal scholastic exercisee,
termed cireidi, condwione*, or dettrminaiionea, which
were held once or twice a year. (See Mandonnet,
"Siger de Brabant", 2nd ed., Louvain, 1911, IV,
p. 85; Turner, "Hist, of PhiloeojAy", Boston, 1903,
p. 340.) (.3) "De unitateintellectus contra Averrois-
tas". — This opusculum routed a voy dangnous and
widespread error, viz., that there was but one soul for
all men, a theory which did away with individual
Uberty and reaponsibiUty. (See Atbbbobs; Mandon-
net, op. cit.) (4) "Commentaria in Libros Senten-
tiarum" (mentioned above). — ^This with the following
work are the immediate forerunners of the "Summa
theologica". (5) "Summa de vmtate cathohcs
fidei contra gentiles" (Treatise on the Truth <rf the
Catholie Faith, against Unbelievers).— This woric,
written at Rome, 1261-04, waa composed at the
request of St. Ra^ond of Fennafort, who desired to
have a philosopmcal exposition and defence of the
Christian Faith, to be used against the Jews and
Moors in Spain. It is a perfect model of patient and
sound a|K>logetics, showing that no demonstrated
truth (science) is opposed to revealed truth (faith).
The best recent editions are those of Rome, 1878 (by
Uecelli), ftf Paris and Fribourg, Switzerland, 1882, and
of Rome, 1894. It has been translated into Qreek,
Hebrew, and Syriac, and quite recent^ Fat^ Rick-
aby, 8. J., gave to the world an annotated tranda-
tion into English (with some abridgment) imder the
title "Of God and His Creatures'^ (London and St.
Louis, 1905). It is divided into four books: I.
Of God as He is in Himself; II. Of God the Origin of
Creatures; III. Of God the End of Creatures; IV.
(X God in His Revelation. It is worthy of ranark
that the Fathers of the Vatican CouncU. treating the
necessity of revelation (Const. "Dei Filius'', c. 2),
employed almost the very words used by St. Thomaa
in treating that subject in this work (I, cc. iv, v),
and in the "Summa theologica" (I, Q- i, a. 1).

(6) Three works written by order w Urban IV
(see Mandonnet, " Ecrits authentiquea", p. 128). — (a)
The "Opusculum contra errores Gnecwiim" refuted
the errors of the Greeks on doctrines in diqHite
between them and the Roman Church, viz., the pro-
cession of the Holy Ghost from the Father and the
Son, the primacy of the Roman pontiff, the Holy
Eucharist, uid purgatory. It waa used against Uie
Qredn with tdUng effect in the Os^mi of Ly<am

lot m tne %Jm^KU of JL^oo

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THOMAS 6

(1274) and in the Council of Florenoe (1403). In Uie
range of human reasonings on deep Bubjecto there can
be round nothing to surpass the sublimity and depth
of the aiviAnent adduced by St. Thomas to prove
that the Holy Ghmt proceeds from the Father and
the Son (cf. Suinma theol., Q. xxxvi, a. 2); but it
must be borne in mind that our Faith is not based on
that argument alone, (b) "Officium de festo Cor-
poris CHristi". — Mandonnet (Ecrits, p. 127) declares
that it is now established beyond doubt that St.
Thomas ia the author of the beautiful Office of Corpus
Christi, in nluch solid doctrine, tender piety, and
enli^tenihg Scriptural citations are combined, and
expressed in language remarkably accurate, b^utiful,
chaste, and poetic. Here we find the weU-known
hymns, "Sacris Solemniis", "Pange Lingua" (con-
cluding in the "Tantum Ergo"), "Verbmn Super-
num" (concluding with the "O Salutaris Hostia"),
and, in the Mass, the beautiful sequence "Lauda
Sion". In the responses of the office, St. Thomas
places side by side words of the New Testament
affirming the real presence of Christ in the Bles^
Sacrament and texts from the Old Testament refer-
ring to the types and figures of the Eucharist (see
Vaughan, op. cit., pp. 810 sqq.; CaswallL "Lyra Ca-
tholica", London, 1840; Gu^ranger, "The Liturgical
Year; Feast of Corpus Christi"). Santeuil, a poet of
the seventeenth century, said he would give all the
verses he had written for the one stanza <u the "Ver-
bmn Supemum": "Se nascens dedit socium, eonves-
cens in edulium ; Se moriens in pretium, Se regnans
dat in pnemium" — "In birth, man's fellow-man was
He, Hia meat, while sitting at the Board: He died his
Ransomer to be, He reigns to be his Great Reward"
(tr. by Marquis of Bute). Perhaps the gem of the
whole office is theantiphon "O Sacrum Convivium"
(cf. Conway, "St. Thomas Aquinas", London and
New York, 1911, p. 61). (c) The "Catena Aurea",
though not as onginal as his other writings, furnishes
a striking proof of St. Thomas's prodigious memory
and manifests an intimate acquaintance witii the
Fathers of the Church. The work contains a series
of passages selected from the writings of the various
Fath ers, arranged in such order that the texts cited
form a running commentary on the Gospels. The
commentary on St. Matthew was dedicated to Urban
IV. An English translation of the "Catena Aurea"
was edited by John Henry Newman (4 vols., Oxford,
1841-1845; see Vaughan, op. cit., vol. II, pp. 529 sqq.).

(7) The "Summa theologica". — ^This work immor-
tahzed St. Thomas. The author himself modestly
considered it simply a manual of Christian doctrine
for the use of students. In reality it is a complete,
scientifically arranged exposition of theokin^ and at
the same time a summary of Christian philosophy
(see SuMMiBs, Suuhoub). In the brief prologue St.
Thomas first calls attention to the difficulties expe-
rienced by students of sacred doctrine in his day, the
causes assigned being: the multiplication of use-
less questions, articles, and ar^ments; the lack of
scientific order; frequent repetitions, "which beget
disgust and confusion in the minds of learners".
Then he adds: "Wishing to avoid these and similar
drawbacks, we shall endeavour, confiding in the Divine
assistance, to treat of these things that pertain to
sacred doctrine with brevity and clearness, in so far
as the subject to be treated will permit." In the
introductory question, "On Sacred Doctrine", he
proves that, besides the knowledge which reason
affords, Revelation also is necessary for salvation,
first, because without it men could not know the super-
natural end to which they must tend by their volun-
tary acts; secondly, because, without Revelati<m, even
the truths concerning God which could be proved by
reason would be known "only by a few, alter a k>ng
time, and with the admixture of many errora'.
When revealed trutlu have beat accepted, the mind

57 TH01U8

of man proceeds to explain them and to draw eonchi-
nona mm them. Hence results theolc^, yrbixsh is
a science, because it proceeds from principles that are
certain (a. 2). The object, or subject, of this science
is God; other things are treated in it only in so far as
they rdate to God (a. 7). Reason is used in theolc^
not to prove the truths of faith, which are accepted
on the authority of God, but to defend, explain, and
develop the doctrines revealed (a. 8). He thus
announces the division of the "Summa": "Since the
chief aim of this sacred science is to give the knowl-
edge of God, not only as He is in Himself, but also as
He is the Beginning of all things, and the End
of all, especially of rational creatures, we shall
treat first of God; secondly, of the rational cre»-
ture'a advance towards God (de moiu creatura
rationalia in Deum); thirdly, of Christ, Who, as
Man, is the way by which we tend to God." God
in Himself, and as He is the Creator; God as the End
<tf all thii^, especially of man; God as the Redeemer
— ^theae are the leading ideas, the great headings,
under which all that pertains to theology is contained.

(a) Sub-divisions. — (i) The First Part is divided into
three tracts: (a) On those things which pertain to the
Essence of God; (fi) On the distinction of Persons in
God (the mysteiy of the Trinity) ; (7) On the produc-
tion of creatures by God and on the creatures pro-
duced, (ii) The Second Part, On God as He is in the
End of man, is sometimes called the Mond Theology
of St. Thomas, i. e., his treatise on the end of man and
on human acts. It is subdivided into two parts,
known as the First Section of the Second (I-lI, or
la 2se) and the Second of the Second (II-II, or 2a
2ffi) . (a) The First of the Second.— The first five que»-
tions are devoted to proving that man's last end, his
beatitude, consists in the possession of God. Man
attains to that end or deviates from it by human
acts, i. e. by free, deliberate acts. Of human acts he
treats, first, in general (in all but the first five ques-
tions d the I-lH, secondly, in particular (in the wnole

the II-II). The treatise on human acts in genial
is divided into two parts: the first, on human acts in
themselves; the other, on the principles or causes,
extrinsic or intrinsic, of those acta.. In these tracts,
and in the Second of the Second, St. Thomas, follow-
ing Aristotle, gives a perfect description and a wonder-
fully keen anal3^s of the movements of man's mind
and heart. (/S) The Second of the Second considers
human acta, i. e., the virtues and vices, in particular.
In it St. Thomas treats, first, of those things that
pertain to all men, no matter what may be their
station in life, and, secondly, of those things that per-
tain to some men only. Things that pertain to all
men are reduced to seven headii^: Faith, Hope, and
Oiarity; Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, and Taopeo^
ance. Under each title, in order to avoid repetitions,
St. Thomas treats not only of the virtue itself, but
also of the vices opposed to it, of the commandment
to practise it, and 01 the gift 01 the Holy Ghost which
corresponds to it. Things pertaining to some men
only are reduced to three headings: the graces freely
given (graiieB gratis daUs) to certain individuals for
the good of the Church, such as the gifts of tongues,
of prophecy, of miracles; the active and the contem-
plative life; the particular states of life, and duties
of those who are in different states, especially bishops
and religious, (iii) The Third Part treats of Christ and
of the benefits which He has conferred upon man,
hence three tracts: On the Incarnation, ana on what
the Saviour did and suffered; On the Sacraments,
which were instituted by Christ, and have their effi-
cacy from His merits and sufferings; On Eternal Idfe,
i. e., on the end of the world, the resurrection of bodies,
judgment, the punishment of the wicked^ the happi-
ness of the juBt who, through Christ, attam to etonal
life in heavoi.

Eight years were given to the oomposi^ioD of tlus

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work, which was begun at Rome, where the First edition of 1766. Of recent editi<uis ihe best are the
Fart and the First of the Second were written (1265-. following: the Leonine; the Miene editions (Paris,
69). The Second of the Second, begun in Rome, 1841, 1877); the first volume of the 1841 edition con-
was completed in Paris (1271). In 1272 St. Thomas taining the "Libri quatuor sententiarum" of Peter
went to Naples, where the Third Part was written, Lombard; the very practical Faucher edition (S vols,
down to the ninetieth question of the tract On small quarto, Paris, 1887), dedicated to Cardinal
Penanoe (aee Leonine edibon.Ijp.xlii). ThewOTkhas Fecci, enriched with valuable notes; aRconan edition
been completed by the adoition of a supplement, of ISH. The "Summa" has been translated into
drawn from other writings <rf St. Thomas, attributed Greek and Armenian, and some parts have been trans-
bv some to Peter of Auver^e, by others to Henry lated into Chinese (see De Ruoeis in Z^nine ed., I,
of Gorkxmi. These attributions are rejected by the p. cxcvii; Echard, "Script, Ord. Pned.", I, p. 345;
editors of the Leonine edition (XI, pp. viii, xiv, xviii). Touron, op. cit., vl, ix; Vaughan, op. cit. II, p, 167).
Mandonnet (op. cit., 153) inclines to the very prot- In 1896 Father Joseph Rickaby, SJ., published
able opinion that it was compiled by Father Reginald "Aquinas Ethicus", a translation of the principal
de Pipenio, the saint's faithful companion and secre- portion of the Second Part of the "Sunmia theo-
tary. The entire "Summa" contains 88 Tteatises, 612 losca". At the present time FaUier Thomas P^es,
Questions, subdivided into 3120 article^ in which OiP., is publishing a French translation cS the whole
aioout 10,000 objections are proposed and answered. "Summa" with commentaries, under the title "Com-
8o admirably is the promised order preserved that, by mentaire fran^ais littoral de la Somme Thtologique
reference to the be^nning of the Tracts and Questions, de S. Thomas d'Aguin". The five volumes which
one can see at a glance what place it occupies in the have appeared (Pans, 1907-10) bring the work down
general plan, which embraces all that can be known to the end of the First Part. (For reviews, sec "Cath.
tiircmgh theology of God] of man, and of their mutual University Bulletin", Jan^ 1908: Jan., 1909;
relations (see accompanying chart, reproduced by March, 1910; April, 19110, £ or the EngUsh-speaking
permt88ionDf"TheRo8ary Magazine"). "Thewhole world "The Summa Theologica of St. Thomae
Summa is arranged on a imiform plan. Every subject Aauinas, literally translated by Fathers of the Eng-
ia introduced as a question, and divided into articles- lish Dominican Province, " is oeing prepared. The
. . . Each article has also a uniform dispomtion of first number (London and New York, 1911) contains
parts. The topic is introduced as an inquuy for dis- the treatise on the Divine Essence (De Deo Uno, QQ.
cussion, under the term I/fruffi, whether — e.g. Utrum i-xxvi). Interesting iotroductory chapters treat of
Deu8 sUt The objections against the proposed "The Scholastic Philosophy", ' The Summa theo-
thesis are then stated. These are generally three or logica", "The Method ot St. Tlumias", and "The
four in number, but sometimes extend to seven or Leonine Edition",

more. The conclusion adopted is then introduced 0. Method and Style of SU ThamM. — ^It is not pos-
by the words, Retpondeo dicendum. At the of able to characterize the method of St. Thomas by one
the thesis expounded the objections are answered, word, unless it can be called eclectic. It is Aristote-
under the forms, ad primum, ad tecundim, etc." (Eng. lean, Platonic, and Socratic; it is inductive and deduc-
tr., see below). The "Summa" is Christian doctrine live; it is an^vtic and synthetic. He jchose the best
in scientific form; it is human reason rendering its that could be found in those who pieceded him, care-
highest service in defence and explanation of the fully sifting the chaff from the wheat, approving what
truths of the Christian religion. It is the answer of was true, rejecting the false. His powers of ^nthesis
the matured and saintly doctor to the question of his were extraordinary. No writer surparaed him in the
youth: What is God? Revelation, made known in faculty of expressmg in a few wcDnJioeen words the
the Scriptures and by tradition; reason and its best truth gathered from a multitude of varyii^ imd con-
results; soundness and fulness of doctrine, order, flicting opinions; and in almost every instance the
conciseness and clearness of expression, effacement of student sees the truth and is perfectly satisfied with
self, the love of truth alone, hence a remarkable St. Thomas's summary and statement. Not that
fairness towards adversaries and calmness in combat- he would have students swear by the words of a
ing their errors; soberness and soundness of judnnent, master. In philosopl^, he says, atguments from
together with a charmingly tender and enlightened authority are of aectmdary importance; philoeophy
piety— these are all found in this "Summa more does not consist in knowing what men have said, out
than in his other writings, more than in the writing in knowing the truth (In I lib. de Cccio, lect. xxii; II
ot his contemporaries, for "among the scholastic Sent., D. xiv, a. 2, ad 1^). He assigns its proper
doctors, the chief and master of all, towers Thomas place to reason used in theology (see below: Influence
Aquinas, who, as Cajetan observes (In 2am 2a;, Q. of St. Thomas), but he keeps it within its own sphere.
148, a. 4) 'because he most venerated' the ancient Against the Traditionalists the Holy See has declared
doctors of the Church m a certain way seems to have that the method used by St. Thomas and St. Bona-
inherited the intellect of all' " (Encyclical, "Mkerm venture does not lead to Rationalism (Denzinger-
Patris", of Leo XIII). Bannwart, n. 1652). Not bo bold or original in inves-
(b) EditiraiB and Translations. — It is impossible to tigating nature as were Albert us Magnus and Roger
mention the various editions of the "Summa", Bacon, he was, nevertheless, abreast of his time in
which has been in constant use for more than six science, and many_ (A his opinions are of scientific
hundred years. Very few books have been so often value in the twentieth century. Take, for instance,
republished. The first complete edition, printed at the following: "In the same plant there is the two-
Basle in 1485, was soon followed by others, e. g., fold virtue, active and passive, though sometimes the
at Venice in 1505, 1509, 1588, 1694; at Lyons in 15^, active is found in one and the passive in another, so
1541, 1547. 1548, 1581, 1588, 1624, 1655; at Antwerp that one plant is said to be masculine and the other
in 1575. These are mumerated by Touron (op. dt,, feminine" (3 Sent., D. Ill, Q. ii, a 1. — For other
p. 692), who says that about the same time other examples see Conway, O.P., op. cit., pp. 73 sqq.;
editions were published at Rome, Antwerp, Rouen, Walsh,"St.ThomasAquinas",in"RosaryMagazine'',
Paris, Douai, Cologne, Amsterdam, Bologna, etc. M^, 1911.).

The editors of the Leonine edition deem worthy of "Hie style of St. Thomas is a medium between
mention thoee published at Paris in 1617, 1638, and the rough expressiveness of some Scholastics and the
1648, at Lyons in 1663, 1677, and 1686, and a Roman fastidious el^ance of John of Salisbiuy ; it is remark-
edition of 1773 (TV, pp. xi, xii). Of all old editions able for accuracy, brevity, and completeness. Pope
they consider the most accurate two published at Innocent VI (quoted in the Encyclical, ".£temi
Baaua, one in 1698, Uie otbw in 1712| and the Venice Fatris", of Leo XIII) declared that, with tl» exoq[»-

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THOMAS 6

tion of the canonical writings, the works of St. Thomas
surpass ail otfaen in "accuracy of expression and

truth of statement" (habet proimetatem verborum,
modum dicendorum, veritatem sententiarum). Great
wators, such as Bossuet, Lacordaire, Monsabr^^ have
studied his style, and have been influenced by it, but
they could not reproduce it. The same is true of
theological writers. Cajetan knew St. Thomas's
style better than any of his disciple, but Cajetan is
beneath his great master in clearness and accuracy of
expression, in soberness and solidity of judgment. St.
Thomas did not attain to this perfection without an
effort. He was a sinsularly blessed senius, but he
was also an indefatig^le worker, and by continued
application he reached that stage of perfection in the
art of writing where the art disappears. "The
author's manuscript of the Summa Contra Gentiles ia
still in great part extant. It is now in the Vatican
library. The manuscript consists of strips of parch-
ment, of variouB ^ades of colour, contained in an old
puvhment cover to which they were origin^hr
stitched. The writing is in double colimm, ana diffi-
cult to decipher, abounding in abbreviations, often
passing into a kind of shorthand. Throughout many
passages a hne is drawn in sign of erasure (Rickaby,
M>. cit., preface: see Ucelli ed., "Sum. cont. gent. ,
Rome, 1878).

III. Influbncss exebted on St. Thomas. — How
was this p«at genius fonned? The causes that
exerted an mfiuence on St. Thomas were of two kinds,
natural and supernatural.

A. Natural Causes. — (1) As a foundation, he "was
a witty child, and had received a good soul" (Wis,,
viii, 19). From the banning he manifested preco-
cious and extraordinary talent and thoughtfulness
beyond his years. (2) His education was such that
great things might have been expected <rf him. His
training at Mcmte Casmno, at Naples, Paris, and
Cologne was the best that the thirteenth century could
give, and that century was the golden age of educa-
tion. That it afforded excellent opiwrtunities for
forming great philosophera and theologians is evident
from the character of St. Thomas's contemporaries.
Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus, St. Bonaven-
ture, St. Raymond of Pennafort, Roger Bacon, Hugo
a S. Charo, Vincent of Beauvais, not to mention scores
of others, prove beyond all doubt that those were days
of really great scholars. (See Walrfi, "The Thirteenth
Greatest of Centuries", New York, 1907.) The men
who trained St. Thomas were his teachers at Monte
Cassino and Naples, but above all Albertus Magnus,
under whom he studied at Paris and Cologne. (3)
The books that exercised the greatest influence on his
mind were the Bible, the Decrees of the councils and
of the popes, the works of the Fathers, Greek and
Latin, especially of St. Augustine, the "Sentences" of
Peter Lombard, the writings of the philosophers,
especially (tf Plato, Aristotle, and Boethius. If from
these authors any were to be selected for special
mention, undoubtedly they would be Aristotle, St.
Augustine, and Peter Lombard. In another sense
the writings of St. Thomas were influenced by Aver-
roes, the chief opponent whom he had to combat in
CHtler to defend and make known the true Aristotle.
(4) It must be borne in mind that St. Thomas was
blessed with a retentive memory and great powers of
penetration. Father Daniel d Agusta once prised
nim to say what he consid««d the greatest grace he
had ever received, sanctifying grace of course excep-
ted. "I think that of having understood whatever
I have read", was the reply. St. Antoninus declared
that "he remembered everything he had read, so
that his mind was like a huge library" (cf. Drane, op.
cit., p. 427; Vai^han, op. cit., II, p. 567). The bwe
enumeration of the texts of Scripture cited in the
"Summa theolofljca" fills ei^^ty small-print columns
in the Migoe edition, and by many it is not unieascH^

0 THOMAS

ably supposed that he learned the Sacred Books by
heart wmle he was imprisoned in the CasUe oi Seax
Giovanni. Like St. Dominic he had & specif love
for the E^istjes (rf St. Paul, on which be wrote com-
mentaries (recmt edition m 2 vols., Turin, 1801).

(5) Deep reverence for the Faith, as made known by
tradition, characterises all his writings. The con-
sueludo KcUaux — the practice of the Church — should
prevail over the authority of any doctor (II-II, Q- x.
a. 12). In the "Summa" he quotes from 19 councils,
41 popes, and 52 Fathers of the Church. A slight
acquamtance with his writings will show that among '
the Fathers his favourite was St. Augustine (on the
Greek Fathers see Vaughan, op, cit., II, cc. iii sqq.).

(6) With St. Augustine (II De doctr. Christ., c. xl),
St. Thomas held that whatever there was of truth in
the writings of pagan |>liilosophers should be taken
from them, as from "unjust possessors", and adapted
to the teachine of the true religion (Sum. theol., I,
Q. Ixxxiv, a. 5). In the "Summa" alone he quotes
from the writings of 46 philosophers and poetis, his
favourite authors being Aristotle, Plato, and, among
Christian writers, Boethius. From Aristotle he
learned that love of order and accuracy of expression
which are characteristic of his own works. From
Boethius he learned that Aristotle's works could be
used without detriment to Christianity, He did not
follow Boethius in his vain attonpt to reconcile Plato
sad Aristotle. In general tlffe Stagirite was his
mast^, but the elevatioiiandgrandeurofSt. Thomas's
conceptions and the majestic dignity of his methods
of treatment speak strongly of the sublime Plato
(see Vaughan, op, cit., II, pp. 49,fi27 sqq.;Huit, "Le
Platonisme au treizi^me si^cle" in " Annalesde Pnilos.
Chr^tienne", Feb., 1890; "Les £l£mrats Platoniciens
de la doctrine de St Thomas" in "Revue Thomistc",
Nov.-Dec., 1911).

B. Supemaittral Causes. — Even if we do not accept
as literaUy true the dechu-ation of John XXII, that
St. Thomas wrought as many miracles as there are
articles in the "Summa", we must, nevertheless. ^
beyond causes merely natural in attempting to explain
his extraordinary career and wonderful wntings, (1)
Purity of mind and body contributes in no small de-
gree to eleamees of vision (see St. Thomas, "Commen-
tarie8onICor.,o.vii",LesBOnv). By the gift of purity,
miraculously granted at the time of the mystic gird-
ling, God made lliomas's life angelic ; the perspicacity
and depth of his intellect. Divine grace aiding, madfe
him the "Angelic Doctor". (2) The spirit of prayer,
his great piety and devotion, drew down blessings on
his rtudies. Explaining why he read, every dav, por-
tions of the "Conferences" of Cassian, he swa; "In
such reading I find devotion, whence I readily ascend
to contemplation" (PrUmmer, op. cit., p. 32), In the
lessons of the Breviary read on his least day it ia
explicitly stated that he never began to study without
first invoking the assistance of God in praver ' and
when he wrestled with obscure passages of tne Scrip-
tures, to prayer he added fasting. (3) Facts narrated
by persons who either knew St. 'Thomas in life or
wrote at about the time of his canonization orove
that he received assistance from heaven. To Father
Ranald he declared that he bad learned more in
prayer and contemplation than he had acquired from
men or books (PrOmmer, op. cit., p. 36). These same
authors tell m mysterious visitors who came to en-
courage and enhghten him. The Blessed Virgin
appeared, to assure him that his life and his writings
were acceptable to God, and that he would persevere
in his holy vocation. Sts. Peter and Paul came to aid
him in interpreting an obscure passage in Isaias.
When humility caused him to consider himself un-
worthy of the doctorate, a venerable religious of hia
order (sumipeed to be St. Dominic) a«>peared to
enoourage him and su^s^^ ^ '"^ opening

diseourse (PrOmmer, op. cit., 29, 87; l^>eco in^'Acta-

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ST. THOMAS AQUINAS AMONG THE DOCTORS OF THE CHURCH
Francisco Zurbaran, the Museum, Skvillb.

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THOMAS 6

Sa", VU Mar.; Vau|^. c^. dt., U, 91). ffis
eestasies have been meutioned. His abstraotionB in
presence of King Louis IX (St. Louis) and oi distin-
piished visitors are related by all biographers. Hence,
even if allowance be made for gfea.t enthusiasm on
the part of his admirers, we must conclude that his
extraordinary learning cannot be attributed to merely
natural causes. Of him it may truly be said that he
laboured as if all depended on his own efforts and
prayed as if all depended on God.
IV. Inflvskci) or Sr. Thomas. — ^A. Infivenee on
— 'The great Scholastics mre holy as well as
men. Alexander of Hake, Blessed Albotua
Ma|;nus, St. Thomas, and St. Bonaventure prove that
leamingdoea not necessarily dry up devotion. The
angelic Thomas and the seraphic Bonaventure repre-
sent the highest types of Christian scholarship, com-
bining eminent learning with heroic sanctity. Cardi-
nal Bessarion called St. Thomas "the most saintly
of learned men and the most learned of saints' .
His works breathe the spirit of God, a tender and
enli^tened piety, built on a solid foimdation, viz.
the knowle^ of God, of Christ, of man. The
"Summatheologica" may be made a manual of piety
aa well as a text-book for the study of theology {cf.
Drane, op. cit^ p. 446). St. Francis de Sales, St.
Philip Neii, St. Charles Borromeo, St. Vincent
Ferrer, St. Fhu V, St. Antoninus oonstantly studied
St. ThtHnas. Nouung oouM be more inspuin^ than
his tzeatises on Christ, in His sacred Person, m Bis
life and suffoings. His treatise on the sacraments,
especially on penance and the Eucharist, would melt
even hardened hearts. He takes pains to explain
the various ceremonies of the Mass ( De ritu Eucha-
risti*" in "Sum. theol.", Ill, Q. Ixxxiii, and no
writer has explained more clearly than St. Thomas
the effects produced in the souls of men by this
heavenly Bread (ibid., Q. Ixxix). The •principles
recently ui^ed, in regard to frequent Communion, by
Pius X ("Sacra Trid. Synodufl'', 1905) are found in
St. Thomas (Q. Ixxix, a. S, Q. hotx, a. 10), although he
is not so explicit on this point as he is on the Commu-
nion of children. In the Decree "Quam Singulari"
(1910) the pope cites St. Thomas, who teaches that,
when children begin to have some use of reason, so
that they can conceive some devotion to the Blessed
Sacrament, th^ may be allowed to communicate
(Q. hxx, a. 6, ad 3™). The spiritual and devotional
aspects of St. Thomas's theology have been pointed
out by Father Contenson, O.P., in his "Theologia
mentis et cordis". They are more fully explained
by Father Vallgomera, O.P., in his "Theologia
M^tica D. Tbonue", wherein the author leads toe
soul to God throu^ the purgative, illuminative, and
tmitive ways. The Encyclical Letter of Leo XIII on
the Holy Spirit is drawn largehr from St. Thomas, and
those who have studied the "Prima Secunds" and
the "Secunda Secunds" know bow admirably the
saint explains the gifts and fruits of the Holy Ghost,
as well as the Beatitudes, and their relations to the
different virtues (see Froget, O.P. "De L'habitation
du Sahit Esprit dans les flmes justes, d'apr^ la doc-
trine de S. Thomas d'Aquin", Paris, 1898). Nearty
all good spiritual writers seek in St. Thomas de6m-
tions <rf' the virtues which th^ recommend. Recently
his minor works on the rdigious life have been trans-
lated into English ("An Apology for the Religious
Orders", by St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Louis, 1902;
"The Religious State", "The Episcopate", "The
Priestlv Office", by St. Thomas, St. Louis, 1902).

B. fnjluenee on IrUeUectucU Life. — Since the days
of Aristotle, probably no one man has exercised such
a poiraiful nifluniDe on the thinking wwld as did
St. Thixnas. authority was vei^ great during
his lifetime. The popes, the univeraities, the atudia
of his order were anxious to profit by his learning and
pudeooe. Sereral of his unpwtuit works were

1 TBOMAfi

written at the request of others, and bis opinion was
sought by all olaaws. On several occasions the doc-
tors of Paris referred thdr disputes to him and gr^e-
fully abided by his decision (Vauc^ian, op. dt., II,

E. 544). His principles, made known by bis writmgs,
ave continued to mfluence men even to this day.
This subject cannot be considered in all its aspects,
nor is that necessary. His influence on matters purely
philosophical is fully explained in histories of philoso-
phy (see e. g. Gonzalez, O.P., "Hist, de la philoso-
phie", II, Paris, 1890: Turner, op. cit.,pp.343sqq.:
Vallet. C.S.S.. "Hist, de la phil.", Paris, 1886; Joui^
dain, " La Philosophie de S. Thomas d'Aquin ", 2 vols.,
Farifi, 1858; Haur^au, "Hist, de la Phil, scolastique",
Paris, 1872-80; Ueberweg, "Hist, of Philosophy",

2 vols.. New York. 1903, I, pp. 443 sqq.). (Theolo-
gians who followed St. Thomas will be mentioned in
Thouism. See also Preach eks, Order of.^ — II, A,
2, d.) His paramount imj^rtance and influence may
be explained considering him as the Christian
Aristotle, combming in his person the best that the
world has known in philosophy and theology. It is
in this light that he is proposed as a modeTby Leo
XIII inthefamousEncyclical"^temiPatri3". The
work of his life may be summed up in two proposi-
tions: he established the true relations between
faith and reason; he systematized theology.

(1) Faith and Reason.— The princtples of St.
Thomas on the relations between faith and reason
were solemnly proclaimed in the Vatican Council.
The second, thira, and fourth chapters of the Consti-
tution "Dei Filius" read like pages taken from the
workflof the Angelic Doctor. First, reason alone i^not
sufficient to guide men: they need Revelation; we must
carefully distinniish the truths known by reason
from higher truths (mysteries) known by Revelation.
Secondly, reason and RevelatioiL though distinct,
are not opposed to each other. Thirdly, faith pre-
serves reason from error; reason should do service in
the cause of faith. Fourthly, this service is rendered
in three ways: (a) reason should prepare the minds of
men to receive the Faith by proving the truths which
faith presupposes (praambidafidei); (b) reason should
explam and develop the truths of Faith and should
propose them in scientific form: (c) reason should
defend the truths revealed by Aumuity God. This
is a develomnent of St. AugustineT^famous saying
(De Trin., XIV, c. i), that the right use of reason is
"that by which the most wholesome faith is batten
... is nourished, defended, and. made strong".
These principles are proposed by St. Thomas in many
places, especially in the following: "In Boethium, dc
Trin. Proem.", Q. ii, a. 1; "Sum. cont. gent.", I, cc.
iii-ix; "Summa", I, Q. i, aa. 1, 5, 8; Q. xxxii, a. 1; Q.
Ixxxiv, a. 5 (ef. Vaugnan, op. dt., cc. viii, ix, x; Man-
ning, "The Vatican Coundl and Its Definitions",
New York, 1905, pp. 206 sqq.) . St. Thomas's services
to the Faith are thus summed up by Leo XIII in the
Encyclical "^temi Patris": "He won this title of
distmction for himself: that single-handed he victo-
riously combated the errors of former times, and
supphed invincible arms to put to rout those which
might in after times spring up. Again, clearly dis-
tinguishing, as is fitting, reason and faith, he both
preserved and had regard for the rights ot each; so
much BO, indeed, that reason, borne on the wings of
Thomas, can scarcely rise higher, while faith could
scarcely expect more or stronger aids from reason than
those which she has already obtained through
Thomas." St. Thomas did not combat imaginary
foes; he attacked living adversaries. The works of
Aristotle had been introduced into France in faulty
translations and with the misleading commentaries
<tf Jewish and Moorish philosophers. This gave rise
to a flood of errors which so alarmed the authorities
thai the reading of Aristotle's Physics and Meta-
pt^oM was f<sfoidden by Robert de Cour^on in 1210^

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672

TH0IU8

the decree being moderated by GrMoiy IX in 1231.
There crept into the University of Pans an luddioufl
epitit of irreverence and Rationalisnh represented
especially by Abelard and Ri^rmond LuUus, which
claimed that reason could know and inrove all tilings,
even ^e mysteries of Faith. Undw Uie authority or
Averroes dangerous doctrines were propagated, espe-
cially two very pernicious errors: first, that pKiloso-
phy and religion being in diiTerent regions, what is
true in religion might be false in philosophy; secondly,
that all men have but one soul. Averroes was com-
monly styled "The CommoitatOT", but St. Thomas
says he was "not so much a Peripatetic as & comiptor
of Peripatetic philosophy" (Opusc. de um't. intell.).
Applying a principle of St. Augustine (see I, Q.
Ixxxiv, a. 5). foUowmg in the footsteps of Alexander of
Hales and Albertus Magnus, St. Thomas resolved to
take what was true from the "unjust possessors",
in order to press it into the service of revealed religion.
CH>iection8 to Aristotle would cease if the true Aris-
toue were made known; hence his first care was to
obtain a new translation of the works of the great
philosopher (see A.Jourdain, "Recherches critiques
sur r^lge et I'origine des traductions latines d'Aris-
tote", Paris, 1819, 1843: Ueberw^, op. cit., 1. p. 4^;
Barth(51emy Saint-Hilaire). Aristotle was to be puri-
fied; false commentators were to be refuted; the most
influential of these was Averroes, hence St. Thomas is
continuaJly rejecting his false interpretations.

(2) Theology Systematized. — The next step waste
press reason into the service of the Faith, by puttin|;
Christian doctrine into scientific form. Scnolasti-
eism does not consist, as some persons imagine, in
useless discussions and subtleties, but in this, that it
expresses sound doctrine in language which is accu-
rate, clear, and concise. In the Encyclical "jEtemi
Patris" Leo XIII, citing tMe words of Sixtus V (Bull
"Triumphantis", 1588), declares that to the right
use of philosophy we are indebted for "those noble
endowments which make Scholastic theology so
formidable to the enemies of truth", because "that
ready coherence of cause and effect, that order and
arraj; of a disciplined army in battle, those clear
definitions and distinctions, that strength of argu-
ment and those keen discussions by which light is
distinguished from darkness, the true from the false,
expose and lay bare, as it were, the falsehoods of
heretics wrapped around by a cloud of subterfuge and
fallacies". When the great Scholastics had written,
there was light where there had been darkness, there
was order where confusion had prevailed. The work
of St. Anselm and of Peter Lombard was perfected
by the Scholastic theologians. Since their days no
substantial improvmiente have been made in the
plan and sjnatem of theology, although the field of
apologetics has been widened, and positive theology
has become more important.

C. St. Tkomoi's Doctrine Followed.— Within Aahort
time after his death the writings of St. Thomas were
universally esteemed. The Dominicans naturally
took the lead in following St. Thomas. The general
chapter held in Paris in 1279 pronounced severe pen-
alties against all who dared to speak irreverentur of
him or of his writii^. The chapters held in Fteis
in 1^, at Bordeaux in 12S7, and at Lucca in 1288
expressly required the brethren to follow the doctrine
of Thomas, who at that time had not been canonized
(Const. Ord. Pned.j n. 1130). The University of
Paris, on the occasion of Thomas's death, sent an
official letter of condolence to the general chapter of
the Dominicans, declaring that, equally with his
brethren, the university experienced sorrow at the
loss of one who was their own by many titles (see
text of lettCT in Vaudian, op. cit., II. p- 82). In the
Encyclical "..Sltemi Patris Leo Xlll mentions the
Universities of Paris, Salamanca, Alcali, Douai,
Toulouse. Tymvain. Padua, Bolosna. NaDkt. aw

Coimbra as "the homes of human wisdom where
Thomas reigned supreme, and the minds of all, of
teachers as well as of tau^t, rested in wondeiful
harmony und» tJie shield and authority of the Angelic
Doctor". To the list may be added Lima and Manila,
Friboiu^ and Washington. Seminaries and colleges
followed the lead of the universities. The "Summa"
gradually supplanted the "Sentences" as the text-
book of theol(^. Minds were formed in accordance
with the principles of St. Thomas; he became the
great master, exercising a world-wide influence on the
opinionB d men and on their writing; for even those
who did not adopt all of his conclusions were obt^ed
to give due consiaeration to his opinions. It has been
estimated that 6000 commentaries on St. Thomas's
works have been written. Manuals of theology and
of philosophy, composed with the intention of impart-
ing his teachinf^, translations, and studies, or digests
(Awies), of portions of his works have been published
in pn^usion during tkte last six hundred years and
to^ay his name is in honour all over the vwld (see
Tbomibu). In every tme of the general councils
held since his death St. Thomas has been singularly
honoured. At the Council of Lyons his book "Con-
tra errores Greecorum" was used with telling effect
against the Greeks. In later disputes, before and
during the Council of Florence, John of Monten^ro,
the champion of Latin orthodoxy, foimd St. Thomas's
works a source of irrefragable arguments. The
"Decretum pro Annenis" f Instruction tfxc the Arme-
nian a), issued by the authonty of that council^ is taken
almost verbatim from his treatise, "De fidei articuUs
et septem sacramraitis" (see Densinger-Baimwart, n.
695). "In the Councils of Lyons, Vienne, Florence,
and the Vatican", writes Leo XIII (Encydical
"iGtemi Patris"), "one might almost say that
Thomas took part in and presided over the delibera-
tions and decrees of the Fath^^ CMitending against
the errors of the Greeks, of heretics, and Rationalists,
with invincible force and with the happiest results.
But the chief and special glory of Thomas, one which
he has shared with none of the Catholic doctors, is
that the Fathers of Trent made it part of the order of
the conclave to lay upon the altar, together with the
code of Sacred Scripture and the decrees of the
Supreme Pontiffs, the Summa <rf Thomas Aquinas,
whence to seek counsel^ reason, and inspuntion."
Greater Influence than this no man could have.

Before this section is closed mention should be made
of two books widely known and highly esteemed,
which were inspired by and drawn from the writing
of St. Thomas. The Catechism of the Council of
Trent, composed by disciples of the AngeUc Doctor,
is in reaUty a compenditmi his theology, in con-
venient fonn for the use of parish znieats. Dante's
"Divina Commedia" has been called "the Summa erf
St. Thomas in verse", and commentators trace the
great Florentine poet's divisions and descriptions of
the virtues and vices to the "Secunda Secundee" (see
Berthier, O.P., "La divina oommedia con commenti
secondo la scholastica", Turin, 1893; Osanam,
"Dante et la philosophic au treiziime sidcle", Paris,
1845. p. 319; Jourdain. op. cit., II, p. 128).

D. AppreeialUm of St. Thomag, — (1) bi the Church.
— The esteem in which he was held during his life has
not been diminished, but rather increased, in the
course of the six centuries that have elapsed since his
death. The position which he occupies m the Church
is well explamed by that great scholar Leo XIII, in
the Encyclical "Mtemi Patris", recommending the
study of Scholastic philosophy; "It is known that
nearly all t^e foundoa and framera d laws of religioua
orders ocanmanded their societies to Btu<j^ oad idi-
giously adhere to the teachings of St. Thocnas. . . .
To say nothing of the family of St. Dominie, whidi
rigjitfy claims this great teacher for its own
W statlitM fit thp Rnnpdintinm. th^ OarmeKtes.

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lugustinians, the Society of JemiB, and many others,
%U testify that they are bound by this law." Amonnt
the "many others^' the Servites, the Passionists, tne
Bamabites, and the Sulpicians have been devoted in
an emtecial manner to the study of St. Thomas.
(See Berthier, "L'Etude de la Somme Th^ologique
de S. Thomas d'Aquin", Paris, 1905, pp. 18 aqq.;
Goudin, O.P., "Phil. D. Thonue"^ Paris, 1886, in-
trod. a 3; Toiiron, op. dt., V, ee. n, xii.) The ptm-
eipal ancient univermtiee wh»e St. llHimas ruled as
great master have been enumerated above. The
Palis doctors called him the mmning star, the lumi-
nous sun, the Ught of the whole Church. St^hen,
Bishop ot Paris, repreasing those who dared to attach
the doctrine of "that most excellMit Doctor, the
blessed Thomas", calls him "the great luminary of
the Catholic Church, the precious stone of the priest-
hood, the flower of doctors, and the bri^t mirror of
the University of Paris" (Drane, op. cit., p. 431).
In the old Louvain University the doctras were
required to uncover and bow their heads when they
pronounced the name of Thomas (Goudin, op. cit.,
p. 21), (On the universities, see Touron, op. cit.,
1. V, cc. IX, X; Echard, op. cit., I, 436, pp. 15 sqq.;
cf. also Thomibm.)

"The oectunenical eouncilB, where blossoms the
flower of ail ewthhr wisdom^ have always been careful
to hold Thomas Aquinas m singular honour" (Leo
XIII in "Mt. Patris"). This subject has been suffi-
ciently treated above. The "Bullarixmi Ordinia
Pnedicatorum", published in 173»-39, gives thirty-
eight Bulls in which eighteen sovereign pontiffs praised
and recommended the doctrine of St. Thomas (see
also Vaughan, op. cit., II, c. ii; Berthier, op. cit., pp.
7 sqq.). These approbations are rscalled and renewed
by Leo XIII, nbo uys roeeisl stress on "the crowning
testimmy of Innocent Vl: 'His teaching above that
of others, the canons alone excited, enjoys such an
elegance of phraseology, a method of statement, a
truth of proposition, that those who hold it are never
found swerving from the path of truth, and he who
dare assail it will always be suspected of error'"
(ibid.). Leo XIII surpassed his predecessors in
admiration of St. Thomas, in whose works he declared
a remedy can be found for many evils that afliict
society (see Berthier, op. cit., introd.). The notable
Encyclical Letters with which the name of that illus-
trious pontiff will always be associated show how he had
studied the works of the Angelic Doctor. This is
very noticeable in the letters on Christian marriage,
the Christian constitution of states, the condition
of the woiiing classes; and the study of Holy Scrip-
ture. Pope Fius X. m several LettOB, e. g. in the
"Pascendi Dominici Chregis" (Sept., 1007), has in-
sisted on the observance of the recommMMAtions of
Leo XIII concerning the study of St. Thomas. An
attempt to give names of Catholic writen who have
expressed their appreciation of St. Thomas and of his
influence would be an impossible undertaking; for the
list would inclnde nearly all who have written on phi-
losophy or theology since the thirteenth century, as
well as hundreds m writers on other subjects. Com-
mendations and eulogies are found in the introductory
chapters of all gooa commentaries. An incomplete
list of authors who have collected these testimomes is
given Father Berthier (op. cit., p. 22). Other
names will be given in bibliography. (See Thouists.)

(2) Outside the Church.- — (a) Anti-Scholastics. —
Some persons hare been and are still oOTx>eed to
everything that oomes under the name of Scholasti-
cism, which they hold to be synonymous with subtler-
ties and useless discusnons. From the prologue to
the "Summa"' it is dear that St. Thomas was opposed
to all that was superfluom md confusing in Schcuastio
studies. When people understand what true Scholas-
ticism means, their objecti<uu will oease ^ee De WuU,
"Scholasticism Oid and New". NflV York, 1907:

Perrier, "The Revival of Scholastic Philosophy".
New York, 1909; and especially the Encycbcal
"jEtemi Patris"). (b) Heretics and Schismatics. —
"A last triumph was reserved for this incomparable
man — namely, to compel the homage, praise, and
admiration of even the very enemies of the Catho-
lic name" (Leo XIII, ibid.). St. Thomas's ortho-
doxy drew upon him the hatred of all Greeks who
were opposed to union with Rome. The united
Greeks, nowev^, admire St. Thomas and study
hisworKS (see above, translations of the "Summa").
The leaders of the sixteenth-century revolt honourra
St. Thomas by attacking him, Luther being particu-
larly violent in his coarse invectives against the great
doctor. Citing Bucer's wild boast, "Take away
Thomas and I will destroy the Church", Leo XIII
(ibid.) remarks, "The hope was vain, but the testi-
mony has its ^ne". Cuo, Tocco, and otho* biog-
raphers relate that St. Thomas, travelling from Rome
to Naples, wmrated two celebrated Jewish rabbis,
whom ne met at the country house of Cardinal Rich-
ard (PrOmmer, op. cit., p. 33; Vau(^an, op. cit., II,
p. 795). Rabbi Paul of Burgos, in the fifteenth
century, was converted by reading the works of St.
Thomas. Theobald Thamer, a disciple of Melanc-
thon, abjured his heresy after he had read the "Sum-
ma", wtueh he intended to refute. Hie Calvinist Du-
perron was converted in the same way, subsequently
becoming Archbishop of Sens and a cardinal (see
Conway, O.P., op. cit., p. 96). After the bittemeas
of the first period of Protestantism had passed away,
Protestants saw the necessity of retaining many parts
of Catholic philosophy and theology, and those who
came to know St. Thomas were compelled to admire
him. Ueberww says "He brought the Scholastic
philosopl^ to its highest stage « development, by
effecting the most perfect accommodation that was
possible of the Aristotelian phiI<»ophy to ecclesiasti-
cal orthodoxy" (op. cit., p. 440). R. Seeberg in the
"New Schaff-Herzog Religious Encyclopedia (New
York, 1911) devotes ten columns to St. Thomas, and
says that "at all points he succeeded in upholding
the church doctrine as credible and reasonable"
(XI, p. 427). For many years, especially since the
days of Pusey and Newman, St. Thomas has been in
high repute at Oxford. Recent^ the "Summa con-
tra gentiles" was plac^ on the list of subjects which
a candidate may offer in the final honour schools of
LiUerm Humanioret at that university (cf. Walsh,
op. cit., c. xvii). For several years Father De Groot,
CP., has been the professor of Scholastic philosophy
in the University of Amsterdam, and courses in
Scholastic philosophy have been established in some
of the leadms non-GathoUe universities of the United
States. Angbcans have a deep admiration for St.
Thomas. Alfred Klortimer, in the chapter "The
Study of Theology" of his work entitled "Catholic
Faith and Practice" (2 vols.. New Yorkj 1909), regret-
ting that "the English priest has ordinarily no scien-
tific acquaintance with the Queen of Sciences", and
proposing a remedy, says, "The simplest and most
perfect sketch of univeiiBiu theology is to be found in
the Summa of St. Thomas" (voiril, pp. 454, 465).

V. St. Thomas and Modxrn Thought. — In the
Syllabus of 1864 Pius IX condemned a proposition in
miich it was stated that the method and principles of
the ancient Scholastic doctors were not suited to the
needs of our times and the progress of science (Den-
singer-Bannwart^. 1713). In the Encyclical "JEter-
ni Patris" Leo XIII points out the benefits to be
derived flrom "a practical reform of philosophy by
restoring the renowned teaching of St. Thomas
Aquinas''. He exhorts the bishops to "restore the
goldoi wisdom of Thomas and to spread it far and
wide for the defence and beauty of the Catholic Faith,
for the good of society, and for the advantage of all
the saences" Tn the pagr* nf the Encyclical imme-

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diatdy praceding these words he explains why the
teaching of St. Thomas would produce such most
desirable results: St. Thomas is the ^re&t master to
explain and defend Uie Faith, for his is "the solid
doctrine of the Fathers and the Scholastics, who so
ctearly and forcibly d«noiutrate the firm fouiidaticais

the Ffuth, its Divine or^;in, its certidn truth, the
arguments that sustain it, the benefits it has conferred
on the human race, and its perfect accord with reason,
in a manner to satisfy completely minds open to
persuasion, however unwilling and repugnant". The
career of St. Thomas would in itself have justified Leo
XIII in assuring men of the nineteenth century that
the Catholic Church was not exposed to the right use
of reason. The sociological aspects of St. Thomas are
also pointed out: "The teachings of Thomas on the
true meamng of liberty, which at this time is running
into licens^ on the Divine origin of all authority,
on laws and their force, on the paternal and just rule
of princes, on obedience to the highest powers, on
mutual charity one towards another — on all of tnese
and kindred subjects, have very great and invincible
force to overturn those principles of the new order
which are well known to be dangerous to the peac^id
cunder of things and to public safety" (ibid.). The
evils affecting modem society had been pointed out
by the pope m the Letter "Inscrutabili" of 21 April,
1»7S, and in the one on Socialism, Communism, ana
Nihilism ("The Great Encyclicals of Leo XIII'*, pp.
9 sqq.; 22 sqq.). How the principles of the Angefic
Doctor will furnish a remeay for these evils is ex-
plained h&n in a general way, more particularly in
the Letters on the Christian constitution of stabe^
human liberty, the chief dutifes of Christians as citi-
zens, and on the conditions of the wording classes
(ibid.; pp. 107, 135, 180, 208).

It 15 in relation to the sciences that some persons
doubt the availability of St. Thomas's writings; and
the doubters are thinking of the physical and experi-
mental sciences, for in metaphysics the scholastics are
admitted to be masters, teo XIII calls attention to
the following truUis: (a) The Scholastics were not
opposed to investigation. Holding as a principle in
anthropologv "that the human intelligence is only
led to the Knowledge of things without body and
matter by things sensible, they well understood that
nothing was of greater use to the philosopher than
diligently to search into the mysteries of nature, and
to be earnest and constant in the study of physical
things" (ibid., p. 55). This prindple was reduced to
praetioe: St. Thomas, Blessed Albertus Magnus,
Roger Bacon, and others "gave large attention to the
knowledge of natural things" (ibid., p. 56). (b)
Investigation alone is not sufficient for true science.
" When facts have been established, it is necessary to
rise and apply ourselves to the study (rf the nature of
corporeal things, to inquire into the laws which govern
them and tbe principles whence their order and varied
umty and mutual attraction in diverritry arise " (p. 55).
WiU the scifflitists of to-day pretoad to be better
ceasonen than St. Thomas, or m^e powerful in
thems? It is the method and the principles of St.
Thomas that Leo XIII recommends: "If anything is
taken up with too great subtlety by the scholastic
doctors, or too carelessly stated; if there be anything
that ill agrees with the discovmes of a later age or, in
a word, is improbable in anv way, it does not enter
into our mina to propose tnat for imitation to our
age" (p. 56). Just as St. Thomas, ia his day, saw a
movement towards Aristotle and philosophicfd studies
which could not be checked, but could oe guided in
the right direction and made to serve the cause of
truth, so also, Leo XIII, seeing in the world of his
time a spirit of study and investigation which might
be productive of evil or of good, bad no desire to
check it, but resolved to propose a moderator and
master who couU giude it m the paths d trutlu

No better guide oould have been chosen than the
clear-minded, analytic, synthetic, and sympathetic
Thomas Aquinas. His extraordinary patiepce and
fainiMB in dealing with erring philoeopAeta, his appro-
bation of all that was true in their writings, his jgentle-
ness in c<Kkdemuing what was fabe^ his dear-eighted-
ness in pointing out the direction to true knowledge
in allitsDrancheSihisaptnessandaccura^ in express-
ing the truth — these qualities mark him as a great
master not only for the thirteenth century, but for
all times. If any persons are inclined to consider him
too subtle, it is because they do not know how clear,
concise, and simple are his definitions and divisions.
His two ttmnuB are masterpieces of pedagogy^ and
mark him as the greatest <tf numiui teachers. More-
over, he dealt with errors similar to many which go
under the nune of philosophy or science in our days.
The nationalism of Abelsjtl and others called forth
St. Thomas's luminous and everlasting principles on
the true relations of faith and reason. Ontologism
was solidly refuted by St. Thomas nearly six centuries
before the days of Makbranche, GidDerti, and Ll)&gl:E
(see I'Sum. theol.", I, Q. bcxxiv, a. 5). The true
doGtrine on first principles and on universals, given by
him and by the other ^reat Scholastics, is the best
refutation of Kant's cnticism of metaphysical ideas
(see, e. g., "Post. Analyt.", I. lect. xii; "De ente et
essentia , c. iv; "Sum. theol. , I, Q. xvii, a. 3, corp.
and ad 2um; Q. Ixxix, a. 3; Q. Ixxxiv, a.' 6, a. 6, corp. and
ad lum Q. Ixxxv, a. 2, ad 2um, a. 3, ad lum, ad 4um.
Cf. index to "Summa": "Veritas", "Principium",
" Universale ") . Mpdem psycbolofpcal Pantheism
does not differ substantially from the tiieory of one
soul for all men asserted by Averroes (see "Dc unit,
intell." and "Sum. theol.", I, Q. Ixxvi, a. 2; Q. Ixxix,
a.5). The Modernistic error, which djstinguiuies the
Christ of faith from the Chnst of history, had as its
forminner the Averroistic principle that a thing might
be true in philosophy and false in religion.

In the Encychcal "Providentiefdmus Deus" (18
Nov., 1803) Leo XIII draws from St. Thomas's writ-
ing the principles and wise rules which should govern
scientific criticism of the Sacred Books. From the
same source recent writers have drawn principles
which are most helpful in the solution of questions
p^taining to Spiritism and Hypnotism (cee Cocon-
nier, "L'Smehumaine", Paris. 1890; "L'hypnotisme
franc", Paris, 1898; Berthier, "Spiritisme et hypnotis-
med'apr^S. Thomas": appendix III to "L'Etude").
Are we to conclude, then, tiiat St. Thomas's works, as
he left Uiem, funush suffident instruction for scien-
tists, philosophers, and theologians ci our times?
By no means. Vetera novit augere et ■perjicere —
"To strengthen and complete the old by aid of the
new" — is the motto of the restoration proposed by
Leo XIII. Were St. Thomas living to-day ne would
gladly adopt and use all the facts made known by
recent scientific and historical investigations, but he
would carefully weigh all evidence ^ered in favour of
the facts (see "L'Avmir du lliomisme" in SertU-
langes, op. cit., p. 327). Positive theology is more
necessary in our days than it was in the thirteenth
century. Leo XIII calls attention to its necessity in
his Encyclical, and his admonition is renewed by
Pius X m his Letter on Modernism. But both pon-
tiff b declare that positive theology must not be ex-
tolled to the detriment of Soholastie theok>sy. In the
Encyclical "Pascendi". prescribing remetOes against
Modernism, Pius X, following in this his illustrious
EH^decessor^ gives the first place to "Scholastic philos-
ophy, especiuly as it was taught by Thomas Aquinas".
^. Thomas is still "The Angel of the Schools".

SPEcnncN OP Text or thk Somma; I. Q. i, a. 1.
With translation by English Dominican Fathers.
Vtnm ait seMnarium pnet«r Wbether, VtaHin pUIoMtdv,

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1. Videtnr quod dod sit neon-
•arium pmter pUIoMphi-
CM diwdpKnn aliun ooo-
ttinam baberi. Ad tm
•nim que aupn ntionem
nmt, bomo dod debet
«on«ri, aMondum illod
EooH. 3, 22: Attion te do
quKBieria. Bed ea qua
ntitmi aubduntur, nif-
fioientw tradimtur in
DhUooophiou dJadplinia.
BUpCTfluum i^tur videtur
prBtor philoaopbicM di^
niplimi aiia— dostrinm
habui.

3. Pwmtmn», dootrioa aon po-
test ean nisi de ente; mUl
tnim Bdtur niai verum,
quod cum eate coaveiti-
tur. 8ed de onmibua en-
tibus tractatur in disd-
pliiiia philos^hiciB et
etiam de Deo; unde qiue-
dam pan philoaopbi« ditn-
tur tneolocia, sivp miehtia
divina. ut patet per Phil-
oeophum in fl Metaph.
(com. 2). NoQ fuit igitur
neceMariom pneter phiJ-
oeophioaa diadplloa* atlam
doctrinam habari.

Btd contra est quod dicitur 2 ad
Tinoth., S. 16: Omnia
aeriptura divi&itue )n-

Sairata utilis eat ad docen-
um, ad argueodum, ad
oorripiendum, ad erudi-
eodum, ad jiwtitiam,
Scriptura aut«m divinitus
insnirnta non pertioet ad
phi1oe(q>bicBS diBoipiioM.
qiue sunt secundum hu-
man am rstionem inventffi.
Utile ifdtur cat prKter
phtloeophicaa diacipliitaa
eese aliam scientiam divin-
ituB insp'ratam.
Reapondeo dieendum quod,
nseenarium fuit ad hu-
nuuiam aalut«ni ease doo-
trinam quamdam necUD-
dum revelationem
divinam pnter philoaopli-
icaa dieciplinas qu« ra-
ti one hum ana investi-
xaotur. Primoqnideir quia
Eomo ordinatur ad Deutn
aout ad quetndam finem,
qui comprebensionem ra-
tionia excedit, secundum
iilud leai. 64, 4: Ocutus
Don vidit, Deua, abeque te,

§nn preparasti expectan-
ibua te. Finem But«m
oportet eeae prBCOgnitum
hominibua, qui auaa in-
tent! onee et actiones de-
bent ordinare in Bnem.
Uode neoeaaaihun fuit
bomini ad lalutem quod ei
Dota fierent ausdam per
Tevelatlonem divinam qna
tatioDom hanatiam eze*'
dunt.

Ad ea etlam qu» de Deo ratione
homana inveatigari po»-
Bunt, neeemrium fuit
bominem iastrui lerela-
tione divina; quia Veritas
de Deo per rationem in-
veatiBata, a pauds, et per
loncum tempua. et oum
admixtione m u 1 1 o r u m
HToram homini proveni-
ret ; a enjiu tamen Teritatis
ooi^tione dependet tota
hominia aalus, qus in Deo
eat. UtiglturHriuabomini-
bns et coDTenieDtiva et oer-
tiva prOTeniat,neoeaaarium
ftdt quod de divlnis
divinam rerelatlonem in-
etfuerentur. Neceagarium
igitur fuit, pneter phito-
aophlcaa diadplinas qua
per rationem inveeticBO-
nt, aacratn dootilnam per
l«v«UtioDan baberi

V« pcoeaad tfatu to the AM

■rtMa:

Objeotion 1. — It leema that, b»>
sidea pbitoeophioal seieoee,
ve have do need of any
further knowledge. MaD
ahouM Dot seek to know
what is above reason: Beek
not the things that are too
bigli for thee (Ecelos.. iB,
22). But whatever is not
above reason is fully
treated fd {nphUoaophioal
seinwe. Tberafote aoy
other knowledge beeidea
philoeopbieal soienee ia
Bvportwraa*

Obieotion 3. — Further, knowl-
edge can only be con-
flemed with being, for
nothing ean be known, save
what ia true; and alt tbat
is, is true. But everything
that is, is treated of in
philosophical adenoe —
even God himself — so that
there is a part of phi-
losophy called theology, or
the Divine science, as
Aristotle has proved.
Therefore, besides i^ilo-
sophioal science, there is no
need of any further knowl-
edge.

On the contran', it la said: All
Scripture inspired of God
is pro6table to teach, to
reprove, Ut correct, to in-
struct in justice (II Tim.,
iii, 16). Scripture, in-
spired of God, IS no part of
pnilosophica] soienee,
which has been built up by
human Teason. Tberaore,
it ia useful that, besides
phiioeophical science, there
should Mother knowledge,
i. e.. inspired of God.

I answer that, It was neeessary
for man's salvation that
there should be a knowl-
edge revealed b^ God. be-
udea philosophical science
built up by human reason.
First, indeed, because man
is ordained to God, as to an
end tliat surpasses the
grasp of his reason. The
eye hath not seen, be-
sides Thee,' O God, what
things Thou hast prepared
for them that wait for
Thee (Isa., Ixiv, 4). But
^e end must first be
known by men who are to
direct their thoughts and
actions to the end. Hence
it was necessary for the sal-
vation of man tbat certain
truths which eaoeed human
reason should be made
known to him by Divine
Bevdatioa.

Even as rejnrda tbooe truths
about God which human
reason could have diseov-
ered, it was necessary that
man should be taught by a
Divine Revelation: oeoause
tbe truth about God aiioh
as reasm ooutd discover,
would only be known by a
few, and that after a long
time, and with the admix-
ture of many errora.
Whereas man's whole sal-
vation, which is in God,
depends upon the knowl-
edge of this truth. There-
fore, in order that the sal-
vation of men might be
brought about more fitly
and more surely, it was
necessary that they should
be tauarM Divine Truths
by Divme Revelation. It
was therefore napsasaty
(hat. bsridM philoa^tUeat

Ad primttm ergo dloeodum,

Suod, lioet ea que sunt
Itiora bominis oogoitiona
non aint ab homine per ra-
tionem inquirenda, sunt
tamen a Deo revelata, aus-
dpienda per fidem: nnde
et ibidem (Eceli.. Ill, 2ft),
aubditur: Plurima aupra
sensum hominum oetensa
aunt tiU. Et in huju*-
Modl sacra dootrina eon-
ilatit.

■alsMi built up by rwsoB,
there should be a aaoied
a e i e n c e leamt thnmib
Revelation.
Reply Objection 1.— Althou^
those tbinga wbieb are b^
yond man'a knowlaiUe
may not be souriit for Of
man through bis reason,
neverthdese, onee they are
revealed by God they must
be aoeepted by faith.
Hence, the saned text
continues: For many thinn
are shown to thee above the
understanding of man
(Eodus., iii, 2B). And in
this the sacred seienoe oon-
dsts.

Reply Objection 2. — Sdeneea
are differentiated aceor^
ing to the various means
through which knowledge
is obtained. The astrono-
mer and the pbyaicist both
may prove the same con-
cludon-^that the earth, for
instance, is round; the as-
tronomer by means of
mathetnatios (i.e., abstract-
ing from matter), but the
phy^otst by meansof mat-
ter itself. Hence there is do
reason why those things
which m^Y be leamt from
philosophical science, so far
ss they can be known by
natursl reason,may not also
be taught us by another
seienoe so far as they fall
within revelation. Hence
theology included in Sacred
Doetnne differs fn kind
from that theolon' which
is part of iddkoopny.

Ad secundum dieendum quod
diversa ratio c<»noecibilis
diverdtatem acientiarum
iitdudt. Bamdem enim
ooncludonem demonstrat
astrologus, et naturalia,
puts quod terra eat ro-
tunda; sed astrologiu per
medium matlwmatioum,
id est, a materia ab-
stractum; naturalis au-
tem per medium circa
matenam consideratum.
Unde nihil prohibet de
eisdem de quibun philo-
sophies disoipliiue trac-
tuit, secundum quod sunt
oo^osdbilia lumine natu-
ralis rationla. ettam aliam
scientiam tractare. secun-
dum quod cognoscuntur
I u m i n c divins revelo-
tionis. Undo theoloeia,
qu» ad sacram doctrinam
pert! net, diffcrt, secundum
genua, ab ilia theoloma
qun pars philosophM
poDitnr.

BoLLANDisTS. Ada iSiS., VII Mar.; Hubtsb, Mnncnef., II (Tnns-
bruck, 100^, 808; Mowiier, HitUtire dta mallret gtniraiix de
rOrdre des FF. Prtfhwn vPans. 1903) ; Chevaueb, Rfpertoire df
untreta hiatoriqaea du moi/en Age, II (2nd ed., Paris, 1907), 447
eqq.; Uebbhwgo. tr., Hist, of Fhilo*opk]/, I (New York, 1903).
442; SERTiLLANaEe, S. Thomas d'Amin, II (Paris, 1910), 337;
pBRRiER, The Renvoi of ScholatHc Philotophu (New York, 1909),
249.

On Ufe and Works. — ^The earliest biographers were Peter
Calo (d. 1310 or J3481, Wiluam db Toc-co (d. about 1324).
ProLouao or Ldoca (d. 1327), and Behnard Gdidoms (d.
1831). Caio, Life, is printed in PbOhmkb, Fonte* vila S.
Thtma (Toulouse, 1911); Tocco Is given in Ada SS. In vol. I
of the 1S88 Venetian edition of the Summa is found the xamt:
Life, vii., AuthorU vita R. P. Fr. Gail, de Thoeeo atiihore, qui sunt
vidit, et audirii leoerUem et yradieamtem; Nunc primum edita.
Gebardub di Fhachkto (d. 1271). Vila Fratrum Ord. Pratd., ed.
Rkicrkbt (Louvain, 1896). Notices of these biographers are
given in Echakd, Script. Ord. Prod. (Paris, 1719-21). also an ex-
tensive account of Bt. Thomas and his writings, I, 271 sqq. Sr.
ANTONiNtJS and Natalis Alexaxdbr are numbered amongst the
biographers. Toukon, La vie de S. Thomai d'Aqttin, awe un
expoef de sa doctrine et m* outroQee (Paris, 1740) is a mine of
vatnable information. ViEUirs, De D. Th. Amtin, doetritta et
emptit {Padua, 1664; Venice, 1673; Brescia, 1748; Vienna, 17B3);
D* NTT LB, Die Vnitereitaten dee Mitlelattere (Berlia, I8SS);
Are&tf fOr LUeraiHT und Kirckenoetdiictite d«t AfiUsIaffers, II
(Berlin, 1886); DDNiPLX-CHATiiutM. Charivlarium Unit. jPari-
•tsnsis (Paris. 1SS9-41); Chevaubr, CataU>trie eritimte dee
msres de S. Th, d'Aquin (Romans. 1886); MAimomfwr, aiaer de
BreAaiU: BcHte authentiquee (see above) and Lea titree dodoraut
de B. Th. d'Aquin in Tiet. Thomiete (1909), XVII. 597-^;
FBiaESio, Vita di 8. Tomaeo (Rome. 1616, 166^; WaBHEB, Der
keiL Thomat von Afptino (Ratisbon, 1S5S) ; De (Jroot. Hel Ltrm
son den H. Thomas van Aquinat (Amsterdam, 1882; Utrecht,
1907): Bakeillx. Biet. de S. Th. d'Aquin (Paris. 1846, 1859.
1802) ; DiDiOT, Le Doeteur An^^itique (Lille, 1694) ; VAroHAN. Life
and Labourt of S. Thomat of Aquin (2 vols., London, 1871-72:
abridged, in one vol., London, 1875) ; KAVANAtiaH, The lAle of 8.
7%Aquiw (LondoD, 1890); Conway, 8t. Thomat A«utna«
(London and New York, 1911).

Commentaries. — Tbe principal commentators on St. Thomas's
works are: Sr. Antoninus, Bamnh, Billitabt, CAJVrAN, Ca-
pmxoLCa, CoMTXNBON, (Sonet, John or Sr. Tbohas, Lnoo,
MuniNA, PoKSBCTA ((7apponi), SALAUANTirBKBEs (soe Salhan-
TicnraBB and CoHPLTrrBMsBs). Boro, Sdabbe, STLVBsmt, 8ti^
vnra, TOtETTO.»VALENTIA, VABqUBt, VlCTOKIA, Fhancis. The
fdlowing liave appeared since the publication of the Stemi
Patrie (1879): Bdonpensibbb, CowmemL in P^ P. S. Thtat. 8.
Th. Xqwm. (Rome, 1902); Billot, Janssbkb, Sum. Tked. ad
modum Cemtmrni. in Aquin. Sum. (Rome, 1899. sqq.); pAqnsT,
Diep. Theol., teu Comment, in Sum. TheoL S. Thoma (Quebec.
lS^t-1903}; PioTTBS, Comment, frantaie littiral de la Somme
TKtoL de 8. Th. d'Aquin (Toulouse. 1906 sqq.): Satolli. tn Sum.
Theel. O. Tk lowv. ftelsi«joiu* 'Bomn. 1SM~88U

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676

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DioesU, ladloea, tipflct&l Tmtdaes.— Parm op Beboauo,
Tabula Aarea in omnia optra S. Th. Again. (J%te ed., Parma,
1883); MzDicn (db Mkbicik), Sum. Th«oL S. Th. Amtin. for-
skUu explieatio (new ed., Vioo, 1858-02), sives toe whola
Summa ta aylloeiatio form. Valuable indicea are (iven in all
mod editions of Opera Omnia and of the Suntma Thvitooica.
llkua, in Miffne editions of the iSumnta the following are found:
I. De priwipuM r«frtu,- II. In Scrij*- Satram (all text« cited In the
Summa ana Supplammi); III. Ad prnripua doetrvta Cfiriil.
eapila; IV. De Heerttibtu (heresies refuted in the Summai; V. D«
AntUoffiia (explanations of apparent oontradiotions) ; Vl. Atif/.
Hanniei Axiomata de tacramenlit, Seh*ma dt Sacratn. CaUuhit-
mu* Cathalieiu: VII. Cataioffu* Audorum a X). Th, Lmuiatonim
(pfailoeophers, poets, pontiffs, oounoils. Fathers mentioned in the
Summa},' VIII. Index in Epi«t. tt Stmur Diminiearum. Bbb-
THIKB, L'Etude de ta Somtiu ThM. de S. Thomas d'Aauin (Paris,
1006); Tabubt nitfmatica et nptoptiea Mtui Sum, Theot. (Fii-
hours, 1893) ; Tabula avstam. H amtMf. totiuM Ann. CmU. CM.
(Paris. 1900); Lipicrm. Saer. Doetr. ThowtiiHea ufjUku dam&n-
ttrata (Rome. 18B3).

For discussions relatios to St. Thomas and the Immaoulate
Conceptioo: Cajgtak. In 3 P.. Q. S7, a. t; De ConceUu B. V.;
PoRRHCTA, 7« S P. Q. S7. a. 2; Jdannbs a. St. Troha, De Approb.
Dod. 8. Th. diep. I, a. S; Albxandeb Natalu, SieL Bed., eac
XIII et XiV; De Brroriima Joannia de Monteeono; Cosnoldi.
Sent. S. Thoma de immunitale B. V. apeceati oriffiwJie lobe (re-
printed in vol. XXV, Parma od. of St. Thomas's works) ; Ecallb
m Comp. of BiLLOABT, Sum. Summa S. Th., T. II, pp. 311 sqq.
(Paris, 1S8S); Bkrthibr in Append, to V Etude da la Somme
ThM., 399 sqq., who cites many authors, not Dominicans, (jving
interpretations favourable to St. Thomas; 3pa.da, Antmodver-
«um«« in opue Rtni. Malon, de dot/mate /mm. Cone. (Rome, 1862) ;
RoDARD DB Card, L'Ordre dea Frirea Prtcheurt el L'ImmaeuUe
Conception (Brussels, 1864). On the other hand many authors
hold either that St. Thomas did not teach the Immaoulate Con-
ception or that his opinion is doubtful.

AjmoD^t dosmatico-devotional treatises bMides works already
cited (above TV) the following may be mentioned: MAzard,
UeduUa S. Th. Aquin *«u medUationee ex operibu* S. Th. (2 vols.,
Paris, 1907) ; MoNaABai, Expoeition du Dogme Cathotique (Parity,
1873-90): Jamvibr, Expoeitton de la morale eathoiiipte (8 voh.,
Paris, 1003-10): Schwalh. Le Chritt d'aprit S. Thomae d'Aijuin
(Paris, 1910); Db u. Barrb. La Morale d'aprit S. Thomaa et let
thMagiem eeolaatitpM (Pans, 1911); Moroott, Der Spender
der. heiL Sacratnente naeh , , . der heiL Thomae (FlvibuTK,
1886); UaritAoffie dee heiL Thomae p. Aguin (Freiburs, 1878);
RotiaSBT-MASBOT7uA, Traiti de la ttritabU oraieon, d'aprit lee
^neipet de S. Thomae (Paris, 1911); D. Tk. A^in. OMciun
PoTPum; Accsdunt Ano. DocL monila et pretm (Pvis, 1901) oon-
tains St. Thomas's advice to students. On The Angelic Wai^
fare, a confraternity establiabod rn honour of St. Thomas's purity
and the girdle of purity, see Ada SS. VII Mar.; Mortibr, HUi.
dee maitree gin. de VOrdre dee Prim Prtcheurt. II (Paris, 1905).
vi; The An^ic Qvidtfby a Z>»minMian Father (Boston, 1899).

Summanes of St. Thomas's philosophy are given in all Hi*-
toriee of Philoaophg; also in Joubdaiit, La Phil, de S. Th. d'Aquin
(2 vols.. Paris, 1858); Crout, Doel. Philos. de S. Tk. d'Aiptin,
^aprU le Dr. Stoeckl (Paris, 1890); Maumub, St. Thomae et la
Philotophie Carteeitnne (2 vols., Paris, 1890); Oaroier, La Phil.
deS. ^Aomas (4 vols., Paris, 1892-96); SaBULi^NaBS, S. Thomaa
d'Aquin (2 vols.. Paris, 1910); Oonxai,bs, PhiL riementaria (3
vols» Madrid, 1868; 7th ed., 1891); Batudioe eobra la Piloeefia de
S. Tomae (Manila, 1864; Madrid. 1836); Bttvdioe rsfviotoa, filo-
toi/tcoe, eientificot v tocialee (Madrid, 1873); Ziouara, 3aom> (uf
priacipiidel IVxtdilionalitmo (Viterbo, 186S); Idbm, Propadmtica
ad S. TheoL (Viterbo, 1884); loan, Summa Philotoplaoa (3 vols.,
Rome, 1876; 7th ed., Paris, 1889): Idbm, Osssmutont su alcune
interjtretationi di O. C. Ubaghe tuW ideologia di S. Tommaaa
d'A<iuino (Viterbo, 1870); Ideh, DeUa luee intelleeiuaU e deW
Ontoloffitmo teenndo la dolirina di S. Boaavent. e Tommaeo d^Aguii*
(2 vols., Rome, 1874) ; Idbm, De ment. ConcUii Viennentit in d—
finiendo dogmate untonis atiima Aumaao cam eorpore (Rome,
1878); Lbpidi, Examen phit'theologicvm de OntoUmiamo (Louvain,
1874): Opuaculea philoaopkiguea. tr. ViONON (Paris, 1899); Sle-
mania philoao^ia ehrittiante: T/ogiea (Louvain, 1875); OnUftogia
(Louvain, 1877); Cotmolo^ia (Louvma, 1S79); FARoaa, Ebtdia
philoaopkiquet pout tuloanaer let IhSoriet d'Arittole it S. Thomae
(8 vols., Paris, 1887-1902); FanoasAT, Eaaai «ur laa doOrinea
ootiti^uaa de S. Thomaa (Paris, 1857); MoRaoB, Queationa d'onto-
logie: kudea lur S. Thonuie (Lyons, 1876); Aubbrt. La payeoloois
ThomitU et laa thioriaa modemaa (Lyons, 1902) ; O'Neill, lino
Thinga and Old in S. Thomaa Aquinai, Introd. (London, 1009);
Walker, Btaavon the origin of kmneledae Aeeordittg to the ni-
loaophy of St. Thomaa (London, ISWJjSoaDllACHiB, Tka Xnom-
oNensu of Ood. Itt Relation to the Theory ef KnotMat in BL
Thomaa (Notre Dame, 1905).

For St. "Thomas and Sot^ Doctrines. — Schwalm, Lostma da
lAiloiophie eociala (Paris, 1910), eves an excellent bibliofraphy
on p. xvii; Lbo XIII, BncvelicMe, Mtemi Patria; Quod Apoa-
toliei munaria: Immeirtale Dei; Sapientim Chrittiana; Amim
iVinarum; (Mmss d« Commun*. in The Oreat Sneyclieal Leiteri of
Leo XIII (New York, 1903); Scraub, Dia BifentumaUhre naeh
Thomatpon Aguin unddem modemsnSoaalMmua (Freiburg, 1898):
WAtTER, Am Eigenthum nach der Lehredaa hi. Thomaa ton Aguin
und dee Sozialiamua (Preiburs, 1895); ANTONiADBa, Die Staata-
Mra daa Tbomat *on Aquin (Leipng, 1890); Bbbonb, Der Auf'
aaia, De Regimine Prineipum. von Thomaa pon Aquin (Bonn, 1894) ;
Buaa in Sncudopadia of Social Reform: Abhlet in Palvraaa't
Dietiottarv of PoiUicai Boonomv-

Periodicals. — Many articles on St. Thomas's doctrine have
bom publtahod in the fdhwioR Reviawa; Annolst ds Pkiloao^i*
CMWmas (Paris. 18S1 — ^)/Ts CVsOld Cottdifm (FlonoM ud
BoaM.UM — ) ; fticdsi ^myimtm (Paria, IgB^j Pkiloaoykiatim

Jahrbuch (FuMa, 1888 )]_8anct ThoTnaa BiOUar

1888 ): Anus ThomiaU (Par\a. 1893): Reme Nio

(Louvain. 1894 )j K«pu« det Sdenoet Philotophimaa at Thto-

iogiquaa (Katn, 1907 ); Catholie UniteraUj/ Bulletin (Washini-

ton, D..C., 1894 ); Cjensa n»m's(a (Madrid. 1910—-).

For additional Ubbomphy ne Aiasmm Maoinw, Bt«WBo;
Pbilosopht; Pbuobuh, Obdbb of; Hmo-Bcmohumcaii;
Tbomibh.

D. J. KSNNEDT.

ThOTXM BmIm^ Saint, martyr, Archbishop d
Cant^uiy, b. st London, 21 Dee., 1118(?): d. at
Canterbury, 29 Dec., 1170. St. Thomas was bom of
parents who, oonung from Normandy, had settled in
England some years previously. No reliance can be

Elaiced upon the legend that his mother was a Saracen.
a after life hie humble birth was made the subject of
spiteful comment, though his parents were notpeasants,
but people of some mark, and from his earbest years
their son had been Yn3X taught and had asiociated
with gentlefolk. He learned to read at Merton Ab-
bey and then studied in Paris. On leaving school he
employed himself in secretarial work, first with Sir
Ricner de rAigle and then with his kinsman, Osbert
Huitdeniers, who was "Justiciar" of London. Some-
where about the year 1141, under circumstancee that
are variously related, he entered the service of Theo-
bald, Archbishop of Canterbury, and in that house-
hold he won his master's famnir and eventually be-
came the most trusted of all his clerics. A description
embodied in the Icelandic Saga and derived probably
from Robert of Cricklade gives a vivid portrait of him
at this period. "To took upon he was slim of growth
and pale of hue, with dark hair, a long nose, and a
atrai^tly featured face. Blithe of countenance was
he, winnmg and loveable in his conversation, frank of
speech in ms discourses, but slightly stuttering in his
talk, BO keen of discernment aiu rnkdoatanding that
he could ahws make difficult questions plain af t«r a
wise manner.^' Theobald recc^piixed his capacity,
made use of him in many delicate negotiations, and,
after allowing him to go for a year to study civil and
canon law at Bologna and Auxerre, ordained him
deacon in 1154, after bestowing upon him several
preferments, the most important of which was the
Archdeaconry of Canteri>ury (see Radford, "Thomaa
of London", p. 63).

It was just at this period Uiat King Stephen died
and the young monarch Henry II became unques-
tioned master of the kingdom. He took "Thomas of
London ", as Becket was then most commonly called,
for his chancellor, and in that oflSce Thomas at the age
of thirty-six became, with the possible exception of the
justiciar, the most powerful subject in Henry's wide
dominions. The chroniclers speak with wonder of the
relations which existed between f^e cfaanoellor and the
sovereicQ, who was twelve years his junior. People
declared that ' ' they had but one heart and one mind ' ' .
Often the king and his minister behaved like two
schoolboys at play. But although they hunted or
rode at the head of an army together it was no mere
comradeship in pastime which xmited them. Both
were hard workers, and both, we may believe^had the
proq>erity of the kingdom deeply at heart. Whether
the chanoellorj who was aftw aU the elder man, was
the true ori^nator of the administrative redforms
which Henry mtroduced cannot now be clearly deter-
mined. In many matters they saw eye to eye. The
king's imperial views and love of splendour were quite
to tne taste of his minister. When Thomas went to
France in 1158 to negotiate a marriage treaty, he
travelled with such pomp that the people said: " lif this
he only the chancellor what must be the glory of the
king himself?"

In 1153 Hiomas acted as justice itinwant in time
counties. In 1159 he seems to have been the chief
or^nizer of Henry's expedition to Toulouse, upon
which he acoouipanied him, and thoudi it aeems to be
untrue that the impost o( "seutage^waa eaUed into

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677

THOMAJI

ezistenoe for that oocaaon (Round, "Feudal Eng-
land", 268-73), still Thomas undoubtedly pressed on
the exaction of this money contribution in heu of mili-
tary service and enforced it fkjgainst ecclesiastics in
sucn a way that bitter complaints were made of the
disproportionately heavy burden thus inmosed upon
the Church. In the mihtary operations Tnomas took
a leading part, and Gamier, a French chronicler, who
lived to write of the virtues of St. Thomas and his
martyrdom, declares that in these encounters he saw
him unhorse many French knights. Deacon though
he was, he led the most daring attacks in person, and
Edward Grim also gives us to understand that in lay-
ing waste the enemy's country with fire and sword the
chancellor's principles did not materially differ from
those of the other commanders of his time. But
although, as men then reported, "he put off thearch-
deacoir', in this and other ways, he was very far from
assuming the licen-
tiousmannersof those
around him. No
word was ever
breathed a^nst his
personal purity. Foul
conduct or foul
speech, lying or un-
cnastity were hateful
to him, and on occa-
sion he punished
them severely. He
seems at all times to
have had clear prin-
ciples with regard to
tJie claims of the
Church, and even
durii^ this period of
his chancellorahip he
more than once
risked Henry's griev-
ous displeasure. For sample, be opposed the dis-
pensation which Henry for pohtical reasMiB extorted
from the pope, and strove to prevent the marriage of
Maiy, Abb^ of Romsey, to Matthew of Boulogne.
But to the very limits of what his conscience permit-
ted, Thomas identified himself with his master's in-
terests, and Tennyson is true to history when he
makes the archbishop say:

I served our Theobald well when I was witli him:

I served King Henry well as Chancellor:

I am his no more, and I must serve the C^undi.

An^biahop Theobald died in 1161, and in the

course of the next year Henry seems to have decided
that it would be good policy to prepare the way for
further schemes of reform by securmg the advance-
ment of his chancellor to the primacy. Our authori-
ties are agreed that from the first Thomas drew back
in alsum. "I know your plans for the Church", he
said, "you will assert claims which I» if I were axdt-
bishop, must needs oppose." But Henry would not
be gainsaid^ and Thomas at the instance of Cardinal
Henry of Pisa, who urged it upon him as a service to
religion, yielded in spite of his misgivings. He was
ordained priest on Saturday in Whitweek and conse-
crated bisnop the next day, Sunday, 3 June, 1162. It
seems to have been St. Thomas who obtained for Eng-
land the privilege of keeping the feast (rf the Blessed
'Trinity on that Sunday, the anniversaiy of his conse-
cration, and more than a century afterwards this
custom was adopted by the papal Court itself and
eventually imposed upon the whole world.

A great change took place in the saint's way of life
after his consecration as archbishop. Even as chan-
cellor he had practised secret austerities, but now in
view of the struggle he clearly saw before him he gave
himself to fastings and disciplines, hair diirts, pro-
tracted vigils, and conatttnt pragm. Befon tiw end

of the year 1102 he stripped himself of all signs of the

lavish display which he nad previously affected. On
10 Aug. he went barefoot to receive the envoy who
brought him the pallium from Rome. Contrary to
the King's wish he resigned the chancellorship.
Whereupon Henry seems to have required him to
surrender certain ecclesiastical preferments whidi he
still retained, notably the archdeaconry, and when
this was not done at once showed bitter di^leasure.
Other misunderstandings soon followed. The arch-
bishop, having, aa he believed, the king's express per-
mission, set ahout to reclaim alienated estat^ belong-
ing to his see, a procedure which a^in gave offence.
Bull more serious was the 9pen resistance which he
made to the king's proposal uiat a vcduntary offering
to the sheriffs should be paid into the roydi treasury.
As the first recorded instance of any determined oppo-
sition to the king's arbitrary will in a matter of taxa-
tion, the incident is of
much constitutional
importance. The
saint's protest seems
to have been suo-
cessfut, but the rela-
tions with the king
only grew more
strained.

Soon after this the
great matter of dis-
pute was reached in
the reaistanoe made
by Thomas to the
kmg's officiak when
they attempted to as-
sert jurisdiction over
criminous clerks. The

auestion has been
ealt with in some
detail in the article
England (V, 436). That the saint himself bad no wish
to be lenient with criminous clerks has been well shown
by Norgate (Angevin Kings, ii, 22). Itw^aswith him
simply a question of principle. St. Thomas seems all
along to have suspected Henry of a design to strike at
the independence of what the king regarded as a too
powerful Church. With this view Henry summoned
the bishops at Westminster (1 Oct., 1163) to sanction
certain as yet unspecified articles which he called his
grandfather's customs (aifttec(m«u«/udinM),oneofthe
known objects of which was to bring doics guilty of
crimes under the jurisdiction of the secular courts.
He other bishops as the demand was still in the
vague, showed a wiUingoess to submit, though with the
condition "saving otir order", upon which St. Thomas
inflexibly insisted. The king's resentment was there-
upon manifested by requiring the archbishop to sur-
render certain castles he had hitherto retained, and by
othfo* acts of unfriendliness. In deference to what be
bdieved to be the pope's wish, the archbishop in
December consented to make some concessions by
giving a personal and private undertaking to the king
to obey his customs "loyally and in good faith' .
But when Henry shortly afterwards at Clarendon
(13 Jan.. 1164) sought to draw the saint on to a formal
and public acceptance of the "(Constitutions fjf
Clarendon", under which name the sixteen articles,
the ttvUm cotmtetudinea as finally drafted, have been
commcmly known. St. Thomas, though at first yield-
ing somewhat to the soUeitations of the other bi^ops,
in the end took up an attitude of uncompromising
resistance.

Then followed a period of unworthy and vindictive
persecution. When opposing a claim made against
him by John the Maraoal, Thomas upon a frivolous
pretext was found guilty of contempt of court. For
this he was sentenced to pay £500; other demands for
man* of momy firflowMl, and finally, though a

Emtrancb to thc TuiraSFT or Habttbdoh, CAJtrBUuaT

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complete release of all claima against hn» as chan-
cellor bad been given on his becoming archbiahop, ha
was required to render an account of nearly idl the
moneys which had passed throuidi his hands in his
discharge of the office. Eventually a sum of nearly
£30,000 was demanded of him. His fellov bishops,
summoned by Henry to a council at Northampton,
implored him to throw himself unreservedly upon the
king's mercy, but St Thmnas, instead cu yielding
solemn^ warned thorn and threatened them. Then,
after ou^rating Mass, he took his archiepiscopal
cross into his own hand and Resented himseli thus in
the royal council chamber. The king demanded that
sentence should be passed upon him, but in the con-
fusion and discussion which ensued the saint with

uplifted cross made
his way out through
the mob of angry
courtieTS. He fled
away secretly that
nieht(130ct..ll64),
sailed in disguise
from Sandwich
(2 Nov.), and, after
being cordially wel-
comed by Louis VII
of fVanoe, he threw
himself at the feet of
Pope Alexander III,
then at Sens, on 23
Nov. The pope,
who had given a
cold reception to
certain episcopal en-
voys sent by Henry,
welcomed the saint
very kindly, and re-
fused to accept his
resignation oi his

^ - see. On 80 Nov.,

Seal or tbm bbb aw Camtbuubt ThnmM wpnt iA
Bhowin. th. M^rtyrfom St. Than*. ^^^^W^^^^to

at the Cistercian Abbey of Pontigny m Burgundy,
though he was cCKm>eUed to leave this refuge a year
later, as Henry, after confiscating the an^bisnop's
property and banishing all the Becket kinsfolk,
threatened to wreak his vengeance on the whole
Cistercian Order if they continued to harbour him.

The negotiations between Henry, the pope, and the
archbishop dra,^^ed on for the next four years without
the position being sensibly changed. Althou^^ the
saint remained firm in his resistance to the principle of
the Constitutions of Clarendon, he was wilhngto make
any conoesflions that could be reasonably a^ed of
him, and on 6 Jan., 1169, whea the kinp of Endand
and Prance were in conference at Montmirau, he
threw himself at Henry's feet, but as he still refused
to accept the obnoxious ciistoms Henry repulsed him.
At last in 1170 some sort of reconciliation was
patched up. The question of the customs was not
mentioned and Henfy professed himself willing to be
guided by the archbishop's council as to amends due
to the See of Gantoilnuy for the recent vic^tion of its
rights in the crowning of Hoiry's son by the Arch-
b»hop of Ywk. On 1 Dec., 1170, St. Thomas again
Umdea in England, and was received with every
demonstration of popular enthusiasm. But trouble
aknoet immediately occurred in connexion with the
^[>Bolution of two of the bishops, whose sentence of
excommunication St. Thomas had brought with him,
as well as over the restoration by the de Broo family
of the archbishop's castle at Saltwood. How far
Henry was directly responsible for the tragedy which
soon after occurred on 29 Dec. is not quite clear.
Four knights who came fnxn France demanded the
absolution of the bjahops. St. Thomas wouki not
CMnply. They left ftn- a space, but came back at

Vesper time wttli a band of armed men. To their
angiy question, "Where is the traitor?" the saint
boldiy replied, " H^ I am, no traitor, but archbishtqt
and priest of God." They tried to drag him from
the (»iurch, but were unable, and in the end they slew
him where he stood, scattering his brains on the pave-
ment. His faithful companion, Edward Grim, who
bore his cross, was wounded in the struggle.

A tronendous reaction of feeling followed this deed
of blood. In an extraordinarily brief space of time
devotion to the martyred archbishop had epread all
through Europe. The pope promulgated the bull <^
canonization, little more than two years after the
martyrdom, 21 Feb., 1173. On 12 July, 1174,
Henry II did public penance, and was scoureed at the
archbishop's tomb. An immense number of miracles
were worked, and for the rest of the Middle Ages the
shrine (rf St. lliomas of Canterbury was one of Uie
weahliieBt and most famous in Etuwpe. Hie mar^
tyr's holy remains are believed to have been destroyed
in Sept., 1538, when nearly all the other shrines in
Enghmd were dismantled; but the matter is by no
means clear, and, although the weight of learned
opinion is adverse, there are still those who believe
that a skeleton found in the crypt in Januuy, 1888, is
the body of St. Thomas. The story that Heniy VIII
in 1538 summoned the ardibitdicqp to stand his trial
for high treason, and that yrbea, in June, 1538, the
trial had been held and the accused pronounced con-
tumacious, the body was ordered to be disinterred and
burnt, is probably apocryphaL

By far the host EnnuD UTe la Mouis, Th« Lift of SL Tkoma*
BtekH (2nd ed., Lonaon, 1685); there is » Bomevhat fuller wori^
of L'HuiLusn. Saiia TKomiu it Canlorbtrv (2 Tola., Puis, ISBl) ;
the volume by Dnmnmi, SL TAomo* BtekM (Pmu, 1009). In
the Beriee Lu SainU ia not ftbrsut of modem rcaeareh. There
tn nrerml exodlsnt live* by AocUouu, of which Huttoit,
ThomoM Baeket (Londoo, 1900), and the noeount by Noaoan tn
DicL Nat, Bioo.. a. T. Tkviim, known a* Thomaa A Btdett, m
probably the beat. The Uomphy by Robertson, Btektt,
AnAbithop of CanUrlmry (Lonaon, ISM), ia not sympathetie.

Nearly all the aouroN of tlw life, aa well aa tho boeka of
miraolea woriud at the Oaiat, havo baan aditod in the BolU
StriM by Roamaoa under the titla MaUriaU for A« BiMory
of Thnmaa BtdM (7 rola., London, I876-188S). The valuable
Norae aaca ia aditeo in the same aenea by BlAomsaoit, TAmnu
Saga A*«vaihipa (2 toIb., LmuIoq, 1W4). The ohroniole of
QABinxB DB PoMT S. Maxbhob, YU 4$ St. Thowuu Martyr, haa
been edited bjr Htmao (Paria, 18110). The miraelea hare beMi
apedaUy atudied from an acaoatlo atamtooiot by Abbot, Tkomat
^ ConiarbHrv. At* dtaik and mimdf toU, London, 1808).
Borne vaiuaUe material haa been ooUeeted by Radtobp, Thonuu
of London b*for* Mo CoimenHom (Cambridce, 18M), On the
nlioa see Mobbis, JMict of St. Tkomat (London, 1888): Thobn-
TON, Btdctt't BrniM (CBBtobmy, 1000); Wabd, Tha Ctmfrbun
POtrimagm (LMtdoa, IBM); wabkbb fa Eng. HiaL Bn., VT
(lSl)77M-5«.

Herbert Thurston.

ThomM Quiitiani, Saint, an ancient body of
Christians on the east and west coasts of India, claim-
ioK spiritual descent from the Apostle St. Tnomas.
The subject will be treated under the following heads,
viz.: — ■!. Their early traditions and their connexion
with the Apostle St. Thomas; II. The Apostle's tomb
at Mylapur; IH. This upheld by the Edeesan
Churdi; IV. For their earhest period they possess no
written but a trwlitional histo^; V. Reconl of these
traditions embodied in a MS. Statranent dated 1604 ;
VI. Thit Syrian merchant Thomas CSana arrives in
Malabar, an important event in their history and
the social benefits therefrom; VII. The arrival also of
two pious brothers, church-builders: VIII- Ancient
stone crosses and their inscriptionsj IX. Their early
prelates; X. Were theee Christians infected with Nes-
torianism before 1599? XI. Medieval travellers on
the Thomas Christians: XII. Their two last Syrian
bishops; XIII. Archbishop Menexes and the S}i«>d of
Diamper; XIV. Their first three Jesuit biafaopa; XV.
The Carmelite Foiod: XVI. Two Latin Vicars Apoa-
tolic: XVII. Divided into three vicariates with na-
tive bishops.

I. Intcnat in the history of these Oiristians arises
from more than one feature. Their u^|ent descent at

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onoe attracts attention. Theophitua (mmuuned the

Indian), an Arian, sent by Emperor Constantius (about
354) on a mission to Arabia Felix and Abyssinia,
is one of the earliest, if not the first, who draws our at-
trition to them. He had been sent when very young
a hostage a Divma, by the inhabitants of the ^la^dive6,
to the Romans in the reign of Constantine the Great.
His travels are recorded by Fhilostorgius, an Arian
Gre^ Chiu-ch historian, who relates that TheophiluB,
after fulfilling his mission to the Homerites, sailed to
his island home. Thence be visited oth^ pu1;8 of
India^ r^orming many things — for the Christians of
the place heard the reading of the Gospel in a sittine,
etc. This reference to a bodv of Christians witn
church, priest, and liturgy, in the immediate vicinity
of the Maldives, can only apply to a Christian Church
and faithful on the adjaoent coEtst of India, and not to
QeyiaOt which was well lAiowu even tiiea under its
own designation, Taprobane. The people referred to
were then Christians known as a body who had their
liturgy in the Syriac language and inhabited the west
coast of India, i. e. Malabar. This Church is next men-
tioned and located by Cosmas Indicopleustes (about
£35) "in Male [Malabar] where the pepper grows";
and he adds that the Christians of Ceylon, whom he
specifies as Persians, and "those of Malabar" (the lat-
ter he leaves unspecified, so they must have been na-
tives of the countiy) had a bishop residing at Oaliana
(Kalyan), ordained in Persia, ana one likewise on the
Island of Socotra.

n. St. Gregory of Tours (Glor. Mart.), before 590,
reports that Theodore, a pilgrim who bad gone to
Gaul, told him that in that ^urt of India where the
corpus (bones) of Thomas the Apostle had first rested
(Mylapur on the east or Coromandel Coast of India)
there stood a monastery and a church of striking di-
maisioDS and elaborately adorned, adding: "After a
long interval of time these remains had been removed
thence to the city of Edessa." The location of the
first tomb of the Apostle in India is proof both of Im
martyrdom and of nis Apostolate in India. The evi-
dence of Theodore is that of an eye-witness who had
visited both tombs— the first in India, while the sec-
oad was at Edessa. The primitive Christians, there-
fore, found on both coasts, east and west, witness to
and locate the tomb at Mylapur, "St. TlKnnas", a
little to the south of Madras; no other place in India
li^ any claim to possess the tomb, nor does any other
eountry. On these facts is based their claim to be
known as St. Thomas Christians.

III. Further proof may be adduced to justify this
claim. A Syrian ecclesiastical calendar of an early
date confirms the above. In the c|uotation given be-
low two. points are to be noted which support its an-
tiquity— the fact of the name given to Edessa and the
fact that the memory of the translation of the Apos-
fJe's relics was so fresh to the writer that the name of
tiie iadividual who had brought them was yet remem-
bered. The entry reads: "3 July, St. Thomas who was

fuerced with a lance in India. His body is at Urhai
the ancient name of Edessa) having been brought
there by the merchant Kbabin. A great festival. "
It is on^ natural to eqiect that we should receive
from Edessa first-hand evidence of the removal of the
relics to that city; and we are not disappointed, for St.
Ephraem, the great doctor of the Syrian Church, has
left us ample details in his writings. Ephraem came
to Edessa on the surrender of Nisibis to the Persians,
and he lived there from 363 to 373, when he died.
This proof is found mostly in his rhythmical compo-
sitions. In the forty-second of his "Carmina Nisi-
hiDa" (Leipxig, 1866) he tells us that the Apostle was
put to dei^ m India, and that his remuns were sub-
sequenUy buried at Edes.sa, brought there by a mer-
chant— but his name is never given; apparently at
that date the name had dropped out of popular mem-
ory. The sarne is repeated in varying form in several

of his hymns edited by Lamy (Ephr. Hymnt et Sep*
mones, IV). "It was to a land oi dark people he was
sent, to clothe them by Baptism in white robes. His
grateful dawn dispelled India's painful darkness. It
was his mission to espouse India to the One- Begotten.
The merchant is blessed for having brought so great a
treasure. Edessa thus became tne blessed city by
possessing the greatest pearl India could yield.
Thomas works^ miracles m India, and at Edessa
Thomas Is deseed to baptize peoples perverse and
steeped in darkness, and that in the land of India."

For fuller proof of the Apostleship of St. Thomas
the reader is referred to the work of tne present writer
"India and the Apostle Saint Thomas" (I^ondon,
1905). This short excursus was necessary to estab-
lish the claim of the Christians on the coast and espe-
cially that fA the Malabar Syrian Church to be the
daughter of the ApcKtle St. Thomas.

Iv. These Christiana have no written records of
the incidents of their social life from the time of their
first conversion down to the arrival of the Portuguese
on the coast, just as India had no history until the ar-
rival of the Mohammedans.

V. Fortunately the British Museum has a large
collection consisting of several folio volumes contain-
ing MSS. letters, reports, etc., of Jesuit nussions in
India and elsewlure: among these in addl. vol. 9853,
begmnlng with the leaf 86 in pencil and 525 In ink,
there is a "Report" on the "Serra" (the name by
which the Portuguese designated Malabar), written
in Portuguese by a Jesuit missionary, bearing the date
1604 but not signed by the writer: there is evidence
that this "Report" was known to F. de Souza, author
of the "Oriente Conquistado", and utilized by him.
The writer has carefully put tc^ether the traditional
record of these Christians; the document is yet un-
published, hence its importance. Extracts from the
same, covering what can be said of the early part of
this history, will offer the best guarantee that can be
offered. The writer of the "Report" distinctly in-
forms us that these Christians had no written records
of ancient history, but relied entirely on traditions
handed down by their elders, and to these they were
most tenaciously attached.

Of their earliest period tradition records that after
the death of the Apostle his disciples remained faith-
ful for a long time, the Faith was propagated with

g'eat zeal, and the Church Increased considerably,
ut later, wars and famine supervening, the St.
Thomas Christians of Mylapur got scattered and
sought refuge elsewhere^ and many of them returned
to paganism. The Christians, however, who were on
the Cochin side, fared better than the former, spread-
ing from Coulao (QuUon) to Palur (Paleur), a village
in the north of Malabar. These ha4 fared better, as
thcv lived under native princes who rarely int^ered
witn their Faith, and they probably never suffered
real persecution such as befell their brethren on the
other coast; besides, one of the paramount rajahs of
Malabar, C^eniman Perumal, had conferred on
them a civil status. The common tradition in the
country holds that from the time of the Apostle seven
churches were erected in diSa%nt parts of the coun-
try, besides the one which the Apostle himself had
erected at Mylapur. This tradiuon is most tena-
ciously held and is confirmed by the "Report". It
further asserts that the Apostle Thomas, after preach-
ing to the inhabitants of the Ishmd of Socotra and
establishing there a Christian community, had come
over to Malabar and landed at the ancient port of
Cranganore. They hold that after preaching in Mal-
abar the Apostle went over to Mylapur on the Coro-
mandel Coast; this is practicable through any of the
many paths across the dividing mountain ranges
which were well known and much frequented in olaen
times. The Soootrians had yet rctamed their Faith
when in 1542 St. Francis Xavier visited thpm on hi^

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THOMAS 680 TBOKAf

^nvtolndtt. Inaletterof lSSq>t. oftheaaDMyaar, king, «1io apoke gncioushr to him. Tohonourhim

adore— od to the Society at Rome, he has left an in- he save Um his name, frtyling him Cocurangon Cana,

teresting account of the degenerate state of the Chris- ana he went to rest in bis place, and the king gave him

tians he found there, who were Nestorians. He also the city of Mo|[oderpatanam (Cranganore) for ever,

tells us they render special honours to the Apostle And the same king being in his great prosperity went

. St. Thomas, claiming to be descendants of the Chris- one day to hunt in the forest, and he nastilv sent for

tians begotten to Jesus Christ by that A^stle. By Thomas, who came and stood before the king in a

1680 when the Carmelite Vincenzo Mana di Santa propitious hour, and the king consulted the astrologer.

Catarina landed there he found Christianity quite Ana afterwards the king moko to Thomas that be

extinct, only funt traces yet lin^iering. The exUno' should build a town in t^ foreet, and he made rever-

tion of this primitive Cnristiamty is due to ihe op- enoe and answered the kii^: 'I require Una forest for

Eression of the Arabs, who now form the main popu- myself and the king granted it to him for ever. And
ttion of the island, and to the scandalous n^eet forthwith another day he cleared the forest and he
of the Nestorian Patriarchs who in former times were cast his eyes upon it in the same year on the eleventh
wont to supply the bishop and clergy for the island, of April, and in a propitious time gave it to Thomas
When St. Francis visited the island a Nestorian for a heritage in the name of the king, who laid the
I^est was still in charge. first stone of the church and of the house of Thomas
VI. There is one incident of the long period of iso- Cana, and be built there s. town for all, and he en-
lation of the St. Thomas Christians from the rest of tered the churdi and prayed there <m the same day.
the Christian wwld which they are never tired of re- After these tbijua Thomas himself went to the feet of
lating, and it is one of conuderable importance to the kii^ and o^red his ^ts, and after this he asked
them for Uie civil status it conferred and secured to the king to ^ve that land to him and his descendants:
them in the country. This is the narrative of the ar- and he measured out two hundred and sixty-four e\e-
rival of a Syrian merchant on their shores, a certain pbant cubits and gave them to Thomas and his de-
Mar Thoma Cana — the Portuguese have named him scendants for ever, and jointly sixty-two houses which
Cananeo and styled him an .£inenian, which he was immediately were erected there, and gardens with
not. He arrived by sUp on the coast and entered the their enclosures and paths and boundaries and inner
port of Cranganore. The King of Malabar, Cheru- yards. And he granted him seven kinds of musical
man Peruma^was in the vicinity, and receiving infor- instruments and all honours and the ri^t of travel-
mation of bis arrival sent for turn and admitted him ling in a palanquin, and be conferred on him dignity
to his presence. Tlumiaa was a wealthy merchant and the privilege of spreading carpets on the ground
who had probably come to trade; the king took a liking and the use of sandals, and to erect a pavilion at his
to the man, and when he expressed a wish to acquire gate and ride on elephants, and also granted five
land and niake a settlement the king readily acceded taxes to Thomas and his companions, both men and
to his request and let him purchase land, then unoc- women, for all bis relatimiB and to the foUowm ol hb
cupied, at Cranganore. Under the kmg's orders law tor ever.

Thomas soon collected a number of Christians from The said king gave his name and these princes wi^

the summndii^ country, which em^led him to start a nessed it. . .

town on the ground marked out for his occupation. Then follow the names of ei^t witnesses, and a
He is said to have collected seventy-two Christian note is added bv the Portuguese translator that this is
families (this is the traditional number always men- the document which the £mpm>r ot all Malabar
tioned), and to have installed them in as many gave the land of Cranganore to Thomas Cana and also
separate houses erected for ^em: attached to each to the Christians of St. Thomas. This document,
dweUingwasasufficientpieceoflandforvegetableculti- transcribed from the MS. "Report", has been
ration for the support of the family as is the custom carefully translated into English, as it forms the
of the ooimtry. He also erected a dwelling for him- "Great Charter" of the St. Thomas Christians. Hie
self and eventually a church. The authorization to *'Report" adds: "and because at that time they
possess the land and dwellings erected was granted to reckoned the era in cycles of twelve years according
Thomas by a deed of the paramount Lord and Rajah to the course, therefore they say in the OUa [Malay-
of Malabar, Cheruman Perumal, said to have been alam term for a document written on pahn leiaf] that
the last of the line, the C0L:ntry having been subse- the said settlement was founded in the year of Mer*
quently divided among his feudatories. (The details cury . . . that mode of reckoning is totally forgot-
given above as well as what fo!low8 of the copper plate ten, because for the last seven hundred and seventy-
grant are taken from the "Report".) The same re- nine years in aD this Malabar time has been reckoned
cords also speak of several privileges and honours by by the Quilon era. However, since the said PenmiaL
the king to Thomas himself, bis descendants, and to as we have said above, died more than a thousand ana
the Thomas Christians, by which the latter commu- two hundred years, it follows: that the same number
nity obtained rank and a soci&l status above the of years have elapsed since the Church and Christians
lower classes, and which made them equal to the were established at Cranganore. " The writer of the
Nayars, the middle class in the country. "Report" had previously stated "it is one thousand
The deed read as follows: — " May Cocurangon [per- and two hundred and fiftv and eie^t years since Feru-
sonal name of the king) be prospatnu, eaut^ a long mal died on the first of Inarch". Deducting the date
life and live 100,000 years, divine servant or uie gods, of the "Report" this would give a. d. 346 for his
strong, ^e, just, fuU of ^xkI deeds, reasonable, pow- death. Di^ de Couto (Decada XII), quoting the
erful over the whole earth, hi^py, conoucring, uori- above grant in full, says that the Syrian Christians fix
ous, rightly prosperous in the service oi the gocb, in a. d. 811 as corresponding to the date borne on the
Malabar, in the city of the Mabadeva [the great idol grant; the first is tar too early, and the second is an
of the temple in the vicinity of Cranganore] reigning approximately probable date. The "Report" in-
in the year of Mercury on the seventh day [Portu- forms us that the copper plates on which this deed or
guese text: elle no t^ de Merourio de feu to no dia, grant was inscribed were taken away to Portugal by
etc.] of the month of^ March bef<n« the full moon the Franciscaa Fathers, who left behind a translation ot
same king Cocuran^n being in Camallur theare landed the sune. It is known that the Ssrrian Bishop of Ma^
Thomas Cana, a chief man who arrived in a ship wish- abar. Mar Jacob, had deposited with the Factor <rf
ing to see the farthest parts of the East. And some Cochin all the Syrian copper grants for safe eufftody:
men seeing how he arrived informed the king. The providii^ however that when necessary access oouid
king himself came and saw and sent for the chief man be had to the same. Gourea at p. 4 of his "Jornada"
Hiomas, and he disembatked and came b^ore the says that after having remaiaea there for aome kag

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time they could not be found and vera lost throush
Bome eareleesnesB: de Couto asserta the same in the
passage quoted aoove and also elsewhere. In 1806
at the suggestion of Rev. Claude Buchanan, Colonel
Macaulay, the British resident, ordered a carefnl
seiUMsh for them and they tiumed up in the record room
of Cochin town. The tables then found contained (1)
the grant to Irani Gortton, of Cranganore, and (2) the
set of plates of the Rrant to Mam van oopir Iso of
Quilon, but those of the grant to Thomas Cana were
not among them: had they not been removed they
would have been foimd with the other plates; this con-
firms the statement of the writer of the ' ' Report " that
they had been taken to Portugal. From what is
stated in the royal deed to Thomas Cana it may be
taken for granted that the latter brou|^t with him a
small colony of Syrians from Meeopotttnia, for the
privileges conceded include his compantons, both
men and women, and all his relations.

VII. Besides the arrival of Thomas Cana and his
colony, by which the early Christians benefited con-
siderably, the "Rc^rt" also leoords the arrival on
this coast o{ two mdhriduafa named Soper Iso and
Prodho; they are ssid to have been btothera and are
supposed to nave been Syrians. The "Report" gives
the foUowing'details: they came to possess a promon-
tory opposite Paliport on the north side, which is
called Maliankara, and th^ entered the port with a
lai^e load of timber to build a church; and m the Chal-
dean books of this Serra there is no mention of them,
except that th^ were brothers, came to Quikm, built a
ohun± there, and woifeed some miracles. After
dciath they were buried in the church ih^ had erected;
it is said that they built other smaller churches in the
country: ihey were regarded as pious men and were
later called saints, their own church was eventually
dedicated to them as well as others m the onmtry.
Archbi^op Alexis Menezes afterwards changed the
dedication of these churches to other saints in the
Roman Calendar. There is one important item that
the "Report" has inreserved: " the wid brothers built
the chun^ of Quilon in the hundredth year aftor the
foundation of Quilon. " (This era commences from 25
August, A.D. 825, and the date will thus beA. D. 925).
The second of the aforesaid coppeivplates mentions
Meruvan Sober Iso, one of the above two brothers.
The "Report" also makes mention of pilgrims com-
ing from Mesopotamia to visit the shrine of the Apos-
tle at Mylapur; some of these at times would settle
there and others in Malabar. It miqr be stated here
that the Syrians of Malabar are as a body natives of
the land by descent, and the Syriao trait in them is
that of their Uturey, which is in the Syriac languajge.
They call themselves Syrians by way of distinction
from the other body of Christians on the ooast, who
belong to the Latin Rite. The honoriBc appellation
bestowed upon them by the rulers of the country is
that of Mapla, which signifies great son or child, and
they are oommonly ao odled by the people; this ap-
pellation had also been e^ven to the deacCTdants of
Arabs in the country: the St. Thomas Christians now
prefer to be called Jva«ram (Nasarenes), the designa-
tion given by the Mohammedans to all Christians.

VIII. There are certain stone crosses of ancient
date in southern India, bearing inscriptions in Pahlavi
letters. Extraordinary l^nds have been spread
about them in some parts of Europe; the present
writer was shown an engraving purporting to repro-
duce one of them, with a legend of the Apostate and
martyrdom of St, Thomas, a reproduction of the in-
acription on his cross. This was attached to the cal-
endar of one of the dioceses of France, and this writer
was asked if it were authentic.

To prevent the spreading of such reports it may be
useful to state here that of these crosses one is in the
Churoh of Mount St. Thomas, Mylapur, disoovo^ in
1M7 after the airival of the Portagocee in India; tiie

other ia in the churdi of Kottayam, Malabar. Both
are of Nestorian origin, are enpaved as a bas-rehef
on a flat stone with ornamental oeoorations around the
cross, and bear an inscription. The inscription has
been variously read. Eh:. Bumell, an Indian an-
tiquary, sa3^ that both crosses bear the same inscrip-
tion, and oner the following reading : " In punishment
by the cross was the suffering of this one. Who is the
true Christ, God above and Guide ever pure. " These
crosses bear some resemblance to the Syro-<?hine8e
Nestorian monument discovered in 1625 at Singan-fu,
an ancient capital of China, but erected in 7S1. and
commemorating the arrival in China of Chaldean
Nestorian missionaries in 636.

IX. Of the prelates who governed the Church in
India after the Apostle's death very little is known;
that little is collected and reproduced here. John the
Persian, who was present at the Council of Nice (325},
is the first known to histoiy claiming the title. In his
signature to the decrees of the council he styles him-
seU; John the Persian {presiding] over the churches in
all Persia and Great India. The designation implies
that he was the [primate) Metropolitan of Paaia and
abo the Bishop of Great India. As metropolitan and
chief bishop of the East he may have represented at
the council the Catholics of Seleucia. His control of
the Church in India could only have been exercised
by his sending priests under his jurisdiction to min-
ister to those Christians. It is not known at what
date India first commenced to have resident bishops;
but between the years 530-35 Cosmas Indioopleustes
in his "Top^raphia" informs us of the preeence o[ a
bishop residing at Caliana, the modem Kalyan at a
short distance froAi Bombay. That residence was,
in all probfdbility, dioam because it was then the chia
port of commerce on the west coast of India, and had
easy access and communication with Persia. We
know later of a contention which took place between
Jesuab of Adiabene the Nestorian Patriarch and Sim-
eon of Ravardshir, the MetropoUtan of Persia, who
had left India ui^mvided with bishops for a bmg
p»iod. The patnarch rqiroached him severely for
this nosa negleet. We may take it that up to the
period 650-60 the bishops sent to India, as Cosmas
has said, were consecrated in Persia, but after this
gross neglect the patriarch reserved to himself the
choice and consecration of the prelates be sent out to
India, and this practice was continued till the arrival
of the Portuguese on the coast in 1604.

Le Quien places the two brothers Biypee Iso and
I^odho on the list of bishops of India, but uidian tradi-
tion gives it no support, and in this the British Museum
MS. Report ana Gourea (Jornada, p. 5} concur.
The brothers were known as church-builders, and
were reputed to be holy men. Moreover, to include
Thomas Cana in the list of bishops is preposterous on
the face of the evidence of the copper-plate grant.
The "Report" mentions a long period when there was
neither bishop nor priest surviTii^ in the land, for
they had all oied out; the only clerical survival was a
deacon far advanced.in ag^. The ignorant Christians,
finding themselves without prelates, made him say
Mass and even ordain others, but as soon as prelates
came from Babylon they put a stop to this disorder.
The next authentic information we nave on this head
comes from the Vatican Libraiy and has been pub-
lished by Assenuuu (Bibl. Or., Ill, 580). It consists
of a statement conconing two Nestorian bishops and
their companions and a letter from the former written
in Syriac to the patriarch announcing their arrival,
dated 1504; there is a translation in Latin added to
the documents. In 1490 the Christians cf Malabar
despatched three messengers to ask the Nestorian
Patriarch to send out bishops; one died on the jour-
ney, the other two presented themselves before the
patriarch and ddivered their message; two monks
were seleoted and the Patriarch consecrated them

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TB0MA8 6

bishops, aamgning to one the name of Thomas and to
the other that of John. The two bishops started on
their journey to India aocompamed by the two messen-
gers. On arrival they were received with great joy
by the pec^de. and the bishops oommenced oonseara-
ting altars and ordaining a lai^ numlm' of priests " as
they had been for a long time deprived oi bishops".
One of them, John, remained m India, while the
other, Thomas, accompanied by Joseph, one of the
two messengers, returned to Mesopotajuia, taking
with them the oflteringa collected for thepatriarch.
Joseph returned to India in but Thomas re-

mained in Mesopotamia.

After about ten years, when the nextpatriarch or-
dained three other bishops for India, Thomas went
back with them. These new bishops were also chosen
from the monks, one was named Jaballa (he was the
metropolitan), the second was named Denha, and the
third Jacob. These four bishops took ship from Or-
mus and landed at Kananur; they found there some
twentv Portuguese who had recently arrived and pre-
sented themsiSves to them, said they were Christians,
exfdained th^ oonditicm and rank, and were kindly
treated. Of this large number of bishops only one
remiuned to work, and this was Mar Jacob; the other
three, including tne metropolitan, after a short time
returned to their country. Gouvea adds that they
were either dissatisfied with their charge or did not
like the country. The Portuguese wnters mention
on^ two bishops as residents, John who had come
before their arrival in India and Mar Jacob. Nothing
further is known of John, but Jacob lived in the coun-
try till his death. St. Francis Xavier makes a very
wetty elogium of him in a letter written to King John
in of Portugal on 26 Jan., 1549. "Mar Jacob [or
Jaoorae Abuna, as St. Francis styles him] for forty-five
years has served God and your Higlmess in these
parts, a very old, a virtuous, and a holy man, and at
the same time unnoticed by youi Highness and by al-
most all in India. God rewards him ... He is no-
ticed only by the Fathers of St. Francis, and ifaev
take so good care of him that nothii^ more is wanted.
... He has laboured much among the Christians of
St. Thomas, and now in his old age ne ia very obedient
to the customs of the Hol^ Mother Church of Rome. "
This elogiwn of St. Francis sums up his career for the
forty-five years he worked in Malabar (1504-49). He
came out as a Nestorian, remained such during his
early years, but ^adually as he came in touch with
the C^^lio missionaries he allowed them to })reach
in his churdies and to instruct his people; in his old
age he left Cranganore and went to live in the Fmn.-
oiBcan oonvMit at Cochin and there he died in 1549.
There remain two others — the last of the Mesopota-
mian prelates who presided over these Christiana-
Mar Jos^h and Mar Abraham; their career will be
detailed further on.

X. When Cosmaa gave us the information of the
existence of a Christian conununity in "Male (Mala-
bar) where the pepper is grown" he also supplied us
with additional details: that they have a bishop resid-
ing at Kalyan; that in Taprobano [Ceylon] "an island
of interior India where the Indian Ocean is s tuated"
there is a "Christian Church with cler^ and the
faithful; similarly in the island of Dioecordis [Socotra]
in the same Indian Ocean". Then he enumerates
the churches in Arabia Felix, Bactria, and among the
Huns; and all these churches are by him rqireaented
to be oonlvoUed by the Metropolitan of Prnia. Now
at that time the hold» of this dignity was Patrick,
ibB tutor, aa Assemani de8if|nateB him, of Thomas of
Edessa, a prominent Nestorian to which sect Cos mas
also belonged; hence his interest in supplying all these
details. The bishop and clergy whom the Metropoli-
tan, Patrick, would send out to all the above-men-
ticMied places and churches would and must have been
undoubtedly infected with one and the same heresy.

t2 TaoKAS

Heooe it is quite safe to conclude that at the time of
the visit of Costuas to India (a. d. 53I>-35) all these
diurches, as also the Church in India, were holding
the Nestorian doctrine of their bishops and priests.
Nor should this historical fact cause surprise when we
take into consideration the opportunities, the bold at-
titude and violent measures adopted by the promoters
of this heresy after expulsion from the Roman Em-
pire. When the Emperor Zeno ordered CSrus, Bishop
of Edessa, to purge his diocese of that heresy (a. d.
489), the Nestorians were forced to seek refuge across
the Roman boundary into Persia. Among them were
the banished professors and students of the Persian
School of Edessa, the centre of the Nestorian emv,
and they found refuse and protection with Barsumas,
Metropolitan of Nisibis, himself a fanatical adherent
of Nestorius. Barsumas at this time also held from
the Persian king the office of governor of the frontier.

With the influence Barsumas possessed at court it
was an easy thing for him to make the king, already so
disposed, believe that the actual bishops holding sees
in his territory were friendiv to his enemies, the Ro-
mans, and that it would be better to replace them
men he knew who would owe all^jance only to the
Persian monarch. This stratagem r^idly succeeded
in oq>turing most of those sees; and the movement be-
came so strong that although Barsumas predeceased
Acka (Acacius), the occupant of the chief see of Seleu-
cia, a Catiiolic, yet a Nestorian was selected to suc-
ceed the latter (a. d. 496). Thus within the short
space of seven years the banished ho^sy sat mistress
on the throne of Seleucia, in a position to force every
existing see eastward of the Roman Empire to em-
brace the heresy and to secure its permanence. Thus
the Indian Church suffered the same fate which befell
the Churches of Persia, and by 530-35 we find that she
has a Nestorian prelate consecrated in Persia and pre-
siding at Kalyan over her future destiny. If further
proof is wanted to uphold the above finding, we offer
the following historical facts of the controPexercised
by the Nestorian Patriarch. In 650-60, as above
stated, Jesuab of AtUabene claimed authority over
India and r^roacbed Simeon of Revardshir, the Met-
ropolitan of Persia, for not having sent bislu^ to
India and so deprived that Church of the succession
of her ministry. In 714-28 Saliba Zacha, another
Nestorian Patriarch, raised the see of India to metro-
politan rank. A^ain in 857 Theodosius, another Nes-
torian Patriarch, mcluded the See of India among the
exempted which, owing to distance from the patrt
archal see, diould in future send letters of communion
but once in six years. This ruling was subse-
quently incorporated in a synodal canon.

If we look to the general tradition of the St. Thomas
Christians it will be found that all their prelates came
from Babylon, the ancient residence as they say, of the
Patriarch or Catholicos of the East. It is further
known and acknowledged by them that whenever
they remained deprived of a biBhcm for a kpg time
they used to send messengers to that Patriarchate
asking that bishops be sent out to them. Sufficient
proof of this practice has been given above when dis-
cussing the arrival of four bishops in 1504. The Holy
See was fully aware that the MaUbar Christians were
under the control of the Nestorian Patriarch. When
Julius III save Sulaka his Bull of nomination as the
Catholic Chaldean patriarch, he distinctly lud down
the same extmt of jurisdiction which had been claimed
and oomtiolled by his late Nestorian predeoeeaor;
hence in the last clause it is distinctly laid down: "In
Sin Massin et Calicutb et tota India." It beoomes
necessary to fix this historical truth clearly, because
during this dtibade some of the younger generation in
Malabar have begun to deny this historical fact.
They would wish people to believe that all the Portu-
guese missionariee, bishops, priests, and writers were
otHnpletely mistaken irtien thqr styled them Nttbt^

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THOMAS

683

THOMAS

iIkm in belief, «d because of this false report all uub-
sequent writers continued to call them Nestorians.
The reader who has gone throu^ the statement of
facts above related must be conscious that such an at-
tempt at distortingor boldly denying public facts is
utter^ hopeUeo. Th^ maintain, in support of their
false view, tbsA tiiere alwn^ had be«i a smaU body
among tbe Chaldeans in Mesopotiunia who remiunea
attached to the true Faith, and from them they re-
c^ved their bishops. Ttiis plea is historically false
for the bishops th^ receivea all came to them from
the Nestorians, and as to the hypothesis of the exist-
ence during all these centuries back of a Catholic party
among the Nestorian Chaldeans, it is too absurd to be
discussed. It was only after the conversion of Sulaka
in 151^2. that the Quwleans in part returned to tbe
unity of faith. Hie truth is that the Malabar Church
remained from a. d. 496 up till then in heref^.

XI. During the centuries that these Christians were
isolated from the rest of Christendom their sole inter-
course was limited to Mesopotamia whence the Nes-
torian Patriarch would from time to time supply them
with prelates. But from the close of the thirteenth
century Western travellm, chiefly missionaries sent
out by the ptqies, sent to tba West oceaaional news of
their existence. Some of these it will be useful to re-
produce here. The first who informed the world of
the existence of theee St. Thomas Christians was Friar
John of Monie Corvino. After be had spent several
years as a missionary in Persia and adjoining coun-
triee, he proceeded to China, passing through the In-
dian ports between the years 1292 and 1294. He tells
UB in a letter written from Cambales (Peking) in 1305
that he had remained thirteen montlu in that part of
India where the Church of St. Thomas the Apostle
stood (Mylapore) ; he also baptized in different places
about one hundred ^rsons. In the same letter he
says that there were m Malabar a few Christians and
Jews, but they were of little worth; he also says that
"the inhabitants persecute much the Christians"
(Yule, "Cathay and the Way Thither", I).

The next visitor is Marco Polo^ who on his return
from China (e. 1293)touched the India of St. Thomas.
Of his tomb he tells us: "The body of Messer Saint
Thomas the Apostle lies in the province of Malabar,
at a certain Uttle town having no great population;
'tis a place where few traders go . . . Both Christians
and ^racens however greatly frequent it in pilgrim-
age, for the Saracens also hold the Saint in ^reat rev-
erence. . . . The Christians who go in pil^mage
take of the earth from the place where the Samt was
killed and give a portion thereof to any who is sick*
and by the power of God and of St. Thomas the sick
man is incontinently cured. . . . Tbe Christians",
he resumes later, "who have cha^e of the church have
a great number of Indian nut trees [oocoanuts], and
th^eby get their Uving" (Marco Polo, Yule's, 2nd
edit., II, 338). Friar Jordan, a Dominican, came to
India as a missionary in 1321; he then had as com-
panions four Franciscan friars, but on approfwdung
India he had parted from them to make diversion; in
the meanwhile the vessel conveying the others was by
stress of weather compelled to enter Tana, a port on
the west coast, where the Khasi of the place put them
to death as they would not embrace Mohammedan-
ism; the feast of Blessed Thomas of Tolentino and his
companions is fixed on 6 April in the "Martyrolo^um
Romanum". Later Jordanus, hearing what had hap-
pened, rescued their bodies and gave them burial. He
must then have gone back to Europe, for he is next
heard of in France in 1330, when Pope John XXII
oonseerated him at Avignon Bishop of Quilon. He
left for the ^st the same year with two letters from
the pope, one to the chief of the Christians of Quiton
and the other to the Christians at Molephatam, a
town on the Qulf of Manaar. In the first the pope
beseeohes "that divisions cease and douds of error

stain not the bri^tnessof faith of alt generated by the
waters of baptism . . . and that the phantom of
schism and wilful blindness of unsullied faith darken
not the vision of those who believe in Christ and adore
His name".

Much the same in oth(>r words is repeated in the
second letter^ and they are urged to unity with the
Hoty Catholic Roman Church. The pope recom-
mends the bishop to the kindness of the people, and
thanks them for that shown to the friars who are
working among them. All we know is that Bishop
Jordanus was sent out with these letters, but nothing
further is heard of him. He wrote a small book
named "Mirabilia", edited by Col. A. Yule for the
Hakluyt Society, published in 1863 (see also "Cfr>
thfQr",I, 184). The next visitor is Blessed Oderie of
Fordoione, who about l324r-25 landed at Tana, re-
covered the bodies of the four friars, Thomas and his
companions who had there suffered martyrdom, and
conv^ed them to China. On his way he halted at
Quilon, which be calls Paltmbum; thence he took pas-
sage on a Chinese junk for a certain city called Zayton
in China. He mentions the Christians at Quilon, and
that at Mylapore there were fourtera houses of Ne»>
torians ("Cathay", I, 57). A few yean later Gio-
vanni de MariguoUi, the papal del^ate to Chimu ar-
rived at Quilon. He stayed there at a church dedi-
cated to 3t. George, belonging to the Latin Rite, and
he adorned it with nne paintings and taught there the
Holy Law. After dwelling tnere for upwu^s of a
year he sailed to visit the shrine of the Apostle; he calls
the town MirapolU. After describing the culture of
pcpp^ on the coast he adds: "the pepper does not
grow in forests but in gardens prepwed for the pur-
pose; nor are the Saracens the proprietors, but the
Christians of St. Thomas, and these are the masters of
the public weighing-office" {custonU* office]. Before
quitting Quilon he erected a monument to commem-
orate his visit, and this was a marble pillar with a
stone cross on it, intended to last, as he says, till the
world'send. "It had the pope's arms", he says, "and
my own engraved on it, with an inscription both in
Indian and Latin diaraeters. I consecrated and
blessed it in the presence of an infinite multitude of
people. " The monument stood there till late in the
nineteenth century, when by the gradual erosion of the
coast it fell into the sea and disappeared. He con-
cludca his narrative by saying that after staying
a year and four months he took leave of the
brethren, i. e. the missionaries who were working in
that field.

Xn. The two last Syrian bishops were Mar Joseph
Sulaka and Mar Abraham; both arrived in Malabar
after the arrival of the Portuguese. Their ease pre-
sents two questions for discussion; were th^ canoni-
cally appointed, and had they completely rejected
Nestonanism? As to the first there is no doubt that
his appointment was canonical, for he, the brother of
the first Chaldean patriarch, was appointed by his
successor Abed Jesu and sent out to Malabar, and
both the above patriarchs had their jurisdiction over
the Qiurcb in Malabar confirmed by the Holy See.
Mar Jos^h was sent to India with letters of introduc-
tion from the pope to the Portuguese authorities; he
was besides accompanied by Bishop Ambrose, a Do-
minican and papal commissary to the first patriarch,
by his goeim Father Anthon;^, and by Mar Elias Hor-
maz, Archbishop of Diarbelar. They arrived at Goa
about 1563, and were detained at Goa for ei^teen
monlhs before being allowed to enter the diocese.
Proceeding to Cochin they lost Bishop Ambrose; the
others travelled through Malabar for two and a half
years on foot, visiting every church and detached set-
tlement. By the time they arrived at Angamale war
broke out. Then Mar Ehas, Anthony the sodva of
the decMsed prelate, and.one of the two Syrian monks
who had acocmipanied them, left India to return; the

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THOMAS &

other woak remained whh Archbishop Josaoh Sulaka.
For some time the new prelate got on well with the
Portuguese and the Jesuit missionaries, in fact, they
praised him for having introduced order, deconun,
and propriety in the Church services and all went har-
moniouuy for some time. Later, friction arose be-
cause of his hinderinff the locally-ordained Syrians
from saying Mass and preaching and instructing his
flock. EventualN^ an incident revealed that Mar
Joseph had not dropped his Nestoriaa errors, for it
was repCHrted to Kshop of Cochin that he had at-
tempts to tamper mth the faith of some young boys
in his service belonginK to the Diocese of Cochin.
This came to the knowledge of the bishop, through
him to the Metropolitan of Goa, and thence to the
viceroy; it was decided to remove and send him to
Portugal, to be de^t with by the Holy See.

The following is the nature of the incident. Taking
these youths ap^, he instructed them that they
should venerate the Blessed Vinin as the refuge of
sinners, but were not to call her the Mother of God, as
that was not true; but she should be styled Mother of
Christ (Nestorius, refusing at the Council of Ephesus
the term Theotokos propraed by the council, substi-
tuted that of ChristoKos, which the Fathers refused to
accept because under this designation he could cloak
his error of two persons in Chnst). Mar Joseph was
sent to Portugal; arriving there he succeeded in se-
curing the KOCKl-will of the queen, then resent for her
yotmg son; ne abjured his error before Cardinal Henry,
exiHT^sed repentance, and by order of the queen was
sent back to his diocese. Gtouvea tells us that as he
continued to propagate his errors on his return he was
again deported and Cardinal Henry reported his case
to St. Pius V. The pope sent a Brief to Jorge. Arch-
bishop of Goa, dated 15 Jan., 1567, ordering nim to
make enquiries into the conduct and doctrine of the
[»date; in, consequence of this the first provincial
eoundl was held; the charges against Mar J<ne^
w^ found to be true and he was sent to Portugal in
1568, tlienoe to Rome, where he died shortly after his
arrival.

While the former was leaving India there arrived
from Mesopotamia an impostor named Abraham,
sent by Simeon the Nestorian Patriarch. He suc-
ceeded in entering Malabar undetected. At the ap-
pearance oS another Chaldean who proclaimed himself
s bishop tiie people were greatly delighted and re*
ceived him with applause; he set about at once acting
as bi^op, holding episcopal functions, and conferring
Holy orders and quietly established himself in the dio-
cese (Gouvea, p. 7, col. 2) . Later the Portuguese cap-
tured him and sent him to Portugual, but en Ttrute he
escaped at Mozambique, found his way back to Meso-
potamia, and went straight to Mar Abed Jesu, the
Quddean Palariarch, having reahzed from his Indian
experience that unless he secured a nomination from
him it would be difficult to establish himself in Mala-
bar. He succeeded admirably in his ' devices, ob-
tained nomination, consecration, and a letter to the
pope from the patriarch. With this he proceeded to
Rome, and while there at an audience with the pope
he disclosed his true position (Du Jarric, "Rer. Ind.
Theeaur.", torn. Ill, lib. 11, p. 69). He avowed to
the pope witii his own lips that he had received Holy
orders invalidly. The pope ordered the Bishop of
San Sevcrino to give him orders from tonsure to the
priesthood, and a Brief was sent to the Patriarch of
Venioe to consecrate Abraham a bishop. The facts
were attested, both as to the lesser orders and the
episcopal consecration^ by the origin^ letters vAuch
were found in the archives of the Church of Ar^amskle
where he resided and where he had died.

Pope PiuB IV used great tact in handling this case.
Abed Jesu must have taken Abraham to be a priest;
he is supposed to have abjured Neetorianism, and pro-
feraed uie Oatbolifi faith, and eonforad on hfm opiseo-

$4 THOMAS

pal oonaeoration; ihe pope had to emiBider the posi-
tion in which the patriarch had been placed by his
consecration and nomination of the man: the ddTeets
were supplied, and Abraham succeeded also in ob-
taining nis nomination and creation as Archbishop
Aiwamale from the pope, with letters to the Ardi-
bishop of Goa, and to the Bishop of Cochin dated 27
Feb., 1565. Such was the success of this daring man.
On arrival at Goa he was detained in a convent, but
again escaped and entered Malabar. His arrival was a
sunnise and a joy to the people. He kept out of Uie
reach of the Portuguese, living among the churches in
the hilly parts of tne country. As tune passed on he
was left m peaceful occupation. As is usual hi such
cases the old tendencies assumed once more their as-
cendency, and he returned to his Nestorian teaching
and practices. Complaints were made: Rome sent
warmngs to Abraham to allow Catholic doctrine to be
preached and taught to his people. At one time he
took the warning seriously to heart. In 1^ Father
Valisnano, then Superior of the Jesuit Misdons, de-
vised a means of forcing a reform. He persuaded Mar
Abraham to assemble a synod, and to convene the
clervy and the chiefs of the laity. He also prepared a
profeaion of faith which was to be made pubficly by
the bishop and all present. Moreover, urgent reforms
were sanctioned and agreed to. A letter was sent by
Pope Gregory XIII, 28 Nov., 1578, laying down what
Abraham had to do for the iniprovement of his dio-
cese; ^ter the above-mentioned synod Abr^am sent
a long letter to the pope in reply, specifying all that
he had been able to do by the aid of the Fathers (see
letter, pp. 97-99, in Giamil). This is called the nrst
reconciliation of the Syrians to the Church. It waa
formal and public, but left no improvement on the
general body, the litui^ical books were not corrected
nor was Catholic teachmg introduced in the Church.

In 1595 Mar Abraham fell dangerously ill (Du Ja>
ric, torn. I, lib. II, p. 614). Unfortunately he survived
the excellent sratiments he then had and recovered.
After about two years, in 1597 (Gouvea, p. ii) he was
a second time again dangerously ill; Arcobishop Al-
eixo de Menezes wrote and exhorted him to rcHfonn his
people, but for answer he had only frivolous excuses.
He would not even avail himself of the exhortations of
the Fathers who surroimded his bed, nor did be receive
the last sacraments. Thus he died. The viceroy
made known his death to Archbishop Menezes, then
absent on a visitation tour, by letter of 6 Feb., 1597.

XIII. Archbishop Menezes received intelligence of
the death of Mar Abraham while on a tour of pastoral
visitation at Damfio. Fearing the work on hand could
not be postponed, he decided to act on the powers dele-
gated to him by the pope in his last Brief, and nomi-
nated Father Francisco Roz of the Society of Jesus
who undoubtedly fulfilled the requirements demanded
by the pope for the appointment. On receipt of the
letter and the instructions accompanying it, the su-

' perior, knowing that the late Abraham before hia
death had assigned to his archdeacon the government
of the church pending the arrival of another bishop
from Babylon, and the same had been accepted by the
people, and foreseeing also the insecurity of the posi-

- lion, decided that it would be prudent to await the re-
turn of the ardibishop before taldngany further step.
The archbishop on returning to Goa weighed the
gravity of the case, and felt Dound in conscience to
put aside every other duty for the time beins, and
safMjuard the Syrian Christians from falling again into
the hands of a new heretical intruder. He decided on
visiting the Serra personally. Father Nicbolfio Pi-
menta, then the superior of the Jesuit missions in
India, writing to the General of the Society, Father
Claudiufl Aequaviva, takes up the nurative as fol*
lows: "It was not small comfort to all that Alexius
Meneses, the Lord Archbishop of Goa, moved bv his
Mai for the aalvation of eouls and at^onr peraiasiioii

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undertook to visit tbe aaoieut Christians of St.
Thomas, spread through the hilly parts of Malabar.
There was great danger that after tne death of Arch-
bishop Abraham at An^amale, and the auGQession of
tbe Anduteacon George to the goTonment of the
Ghoroh on the demise of ihe prelate, she would lapse
uain under the sway ot Nestorian prelates; nor were
tEere wanting persons of ecclesiastical rank possessed
of means who prc^osed to proceed to Babylon and
bring thence another archbishop. To the Archbishop
of Goa not on^ by metropolit^ right, but also in vir-
tue of Apostolic letters appertained the r^t to as-
sume the administration of that Church seoe vacanie;
and he took upon himself the task of retaininc the
vacillating archdeacon in due submission to the noly
See and avoiding schism."

He therefore issued instructions to the rector of the
Vaipicotta College, enclosing a letter of appointment
yt^tning the archdeacon administrator of tne diocese
provided he in the presence of the rector made a
solemn profession of faith. The archdeaccn ex-
prrased bis satisfaction on receiving the intimation
and invmised to make the profesmon donanded on a
feast day. But laAet on he would neither make the
profession, nor would he accept the nomination of
administrator as coming from the ardibishop of tbe
diocese. Afterwards be caused it to be reported that
he had so acted on the advice of others. The Arch-
bishop of Goa, after taking counsel with the Fathers,
decided on starting on the visitation of the Archdio-
cese <rf Ajigamale to induce that Church to receive a
prelate from tiie Sovereign Pontiff. On tiiis coming
to be known all sorts (tf difficulties were raised to in-
duce him to abandon his project, even from ecclesias-
ties, with such pertinacity that the archbishop wrote
to Pimenta: 'OSeaven and earth have conspired
against my design." But he manf ull^^ faced the work
before him, and went through it with singular firmness
of character and prudence, and supported by Divine
aid he began, continued, and completed the arduous
task he had undertaken with complete success.

During the viatation (full details of which are given
by Gouvea in the "Jornada"^ the one source whence
au otlwr writers have obtamed their information,
some even going so far as entirely to distort the facts
to satisfy their prejudice) the archbishop underwent
all sorts of hardships, visiting the principal parishes,
additssing the people, holding services, and every-
where conferring tt^ sacraments, of which these peo-
ple were deprived. He caused the Nest<nian books
m the possession of tbe churches and in the hands of
the people to be expurgated bf thdr errors, and they
were then restored to th^ owners. All the books
then, existing among the Syrians were in MS. form;

frinted boo^ among them did not exist at this period,
'assages that denied the supreme authority of the
Apoetolie See of tlome were similarly deleted. He
also caused capable priests to be sought out, and iheep
he placed in char^ m paiiahefl. Eventualhr he estate
fished eighty {mnshee. Thus he prepared bis nound
for tbe reform of this Church which he intended to
cany out. The synod was opened with great solem-
nity and pomp on 20 June, 1599, attheviUageof Udi-
amparur, whence it is known as the Synod of Diam-
per. The Acts were published in Portuguese aa an
appendix to the "Jornada"; they were a3so translated
into Latin. The opening Act of the synod was the
profession of faith. The archbishop was the first to
make his profession, then followed the archdeacon
who made his in Malay^am, a translation of the
former jvepared for the purpose. Subsequently the
clergy m turn made theirs in the hands of the arch-
bishop as the archdeacon also had done. The Latin
text may be found with the Latin text of the ^od,
and separate in "Juris Pontificii de Propaganda
Fide", Pars. I, vol. VI, part U, p. 243. Besides the
srchbuluv and cotain Jesuit fathers .who ap^ited

him Hntn were Mine IK Syrian priests and about 600
laymen deputed by the congregation to represent
tt^m; an these signed the decrees that were passed
by the Q^od and proclaimed the orthodox faith em-
bodied m the act of profession takm by tiie entire
clei^. The arohbish(n> addressed ihe synod on the
falsity of the errors of Neatorhis up till then held by
that Church, the assembly denounced them, anathe-
matised the Nestorian Patriarch, and promised obedi-
ence and submission to the Roman Pontiff.

Among the calumnies spread against Mene2K8 and
the synod the most promment is that all tbe Syriac
books of the community' were burnt and destroyed by
order of the ^ynod. What was done in this matter
under the decree passed in the fifth session is thus
described in tbe "Jornada" (tr. Glen, book I, ch.
xxiii, p. 340). After the above condemnation of er-
rors it was decided that certain books which bad born
named and were current in the Serra and full of errors
should be burnt; that others were to be censured only
untH they were corrected and expui^ated. The list
of books to be burnt is given in tbe 14th decree of the
third session. The books consist: (1) of those expro-
feaao teaching Nestorian errors; (2) containing false
legends; (3) books of sorceries and superstitious prac-
tices. . None of these were capable of correction. In
all other books that had any statements containing
doctrinal errors, the latter were erased. The "Jor-
nada" (p. 365) gives the system adopted during the
visitation of the chimihes for the correction of books :
after Mass was said all books written in ^riac,
whether tlui prc^Kirty of the Church or of private in-
dividuals, were han^d over to Father Francisco Ros,
who with three Calhanars (Syrian priests) specially
sdected for tbe purpose would retire to the vestry and
there correct the books in conformity with the direc-
tions given by the eiyuod; those that were condemned
and forbidden were banded over to the archbishop,
who would order them to be burnt publicly. Under
his orders no book capable of being pui^ed from heret-
ical error would be destroyed, but those ex vrt^e$»o
teaching heresy would be des^yed. After the con-
clusion of the synod Archbishop Meneses continued
his visitation of the churches down to Quilon and then
returned to Goa. He did not forget to send from
thence a letter of warm thanks to Father Pimenta for
the continuous and important ,aid given him by the
Fathers of the Society all through the work he had to
perform in Malabar.

XIV. In makingoroviskHi for the future govern-
ment of the Syrian Cnureh in Malabar Clonent VIII
had to adopt such measures as would secure its per-
manency in the faith and exclude the danger of a re-
lapse. He decided that it would be the safest course
to fq>point a Latin prelate in sympathy with tbe peo-
pte and f uUy acquainted with their liturgical language.
Tlie selection fell on Father Box, no doubt after hear-
ing the <qunion of Archbishop Menexee. Father Ros
was oonsecratod by the Archbishop at Goa under the
title of Bishop of Angamale in 1601. Four years later
Paul V transfeired him (1605) to the new Bee of
Cranganore, ^ch he created an archbishopric in or-
der tmit the faithful brought to unity should not feel
that the honour of their see had suffered any duninu-
tion of honour. The new prelate made a visitation
tour through the diocese, correcting tbe lituivical
books at every church where this had not been done,
and enforcing everywhere the rules sanctiraied by the
Synod Diainper. In 1606 he convened and held a
dioceaan synod; no further details of his administra-
tion are Banded down to us. Mt&c twenty-three
years of strenuous episoopato he died at Parur, his or-
dinary reeidenoe, IS Feb., 1624, and was buried in the
diurch. Besides the Latin. Canon of the Mass he had
also translated the lAtin ritual into Syriac for the ad-
ministration of the Holy Sacraments by the clergy.
Years later, on the oocaaion of the first pastoral viut of

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tie ftnrt VioftT ApoatoHr of Trichur to the church of
Parur in 1388, on enquiring after the tomb of the
archbishop, he was told that no tomb oi his was
Imown to exist there, but after careful search had
bem made the tombstone, with ita Malayalam in-
scription in aacient Tamil characters, was found and
is now affixed to the inner wall of the church. The
loss of all knowledge of the tombstone was caused by
the socking and burning of this church with many
others by the soldiers of Tippoo Sultan on his second
invasion of the coast. Paulinus a Sancto Bartho-
lomso, who had visited the church in 1786 and had
taken a transcript of the inscription at the time, of
which he ovea a Latin tranmtion in his "India
Christ. Onent.", p. 64, did not read the name Ros
oa the stone, however the name is there in a flaw of
tbe stone and has been read on rediscov^.

Father Estevflo de Brito, also a Jesuit, was desig-
nated successor, and was consecrated by the Arch-
bishop of Goa in the Church of Bom Jesus, Goa, on
29 Sf'pt., 1634, and left Goa for his diocese on 4 Nov.
He died on 2 Dec., 1641 , having governed the see for
over se\'enteen years. The third of the series was
Francisco Garcia, of the same society. He was con-
secrated Bishop of Ascalon on 1 Nov., 1637, with
right of succession by the Archbishop of Goa in the
Jesuit Church of Bom Jesus, Goa, and succeeded to
the See of Cranganore in 1641. Under this prelate a
frightful schism oroke out (1653) and his entire flock,
with all his clergy and churches, withdrew from his
alliance. Out of the entire body of 200,000 Syrian
Christians only some 400 individuals remained faith-
ful. This misfortune has hy most writers heea at-
Mbuted to Garcia's want of tact, obstinatnr, and sar-
castic disposition: as to the latter defect there is one
instance, and that at the last opportunity for recon-
ciliation, which fell through owing to his harsh treat-
ment of the delc^tes sent to him by his revolted
flock. But he was not responsible for the schism. This
had been hatched many yeara previously duiiiw the
lifetime of -his predecessor de Brito, secretly and un-
known to him. Here the dates only of (focuments
can be quoted. On 1 Jan., 1628 (see Gernutn, p.
440) the Archdeacon George wrote a letter to the
papal nuncio at Lisbon complaining that no answer
was given to a letter sent some twenty years earUer
regarding the spiritual wants of this Christian people.
In 1630 Rome was infonned of these complaints the
substance of which was that Jesuits only controlled
these Christians, that they were unsuited, and had
oontToIled them for over forty years, and they wanted
other religious orders to be sent. The Sacred Con-
gregation sent instructions that other orders should
be admitted into the diocese.

Paulinus (op. cit., pp. 70 sq.) adduces further evi-
dence of the trickery and treachery of Archdeaoon
George. In 1632 a meeting was convened by him at
Rapolin consisting of clergy and laity, when a letter of
complaint was seat to the King of Portu|:al against
the Jesuit Fathers; these very same oomplamts formed
the heads of their grievances in 1659, when open
schism was proclaimed to secure indep^dence and
oust the Jesuits. The plot had been natched for a
good number of years; it was begun by Archdeacon
George (d. 1637) who was succeed in office by a rela-
tive, another TnomaB de Carapo (Thoma Parambil)
who in 1653 headed the revolt. Ait«r the schism bad
broken out the intruder Ahatalla, a Mesopotaroian
prelate, was deported by the Portuguese, who took
hhn hy ship on Cochin and there lay at anchor.
The Christians, coming to know of the fact, threat-
ened to stonn the fort, which the governor had to man
with his soldim, while the ship sailed awa^ to Goa
during the night. The revoltwl seeing then* last at-
tempt to secure a Bagdad prelate frustrated, leaders
:ind people took a solemn vow that th^ would never
again submit to ArcUiiBbop Qan^. Finding thraa-

selves in this position they thought of c^Ung to their
aid the Carmelite Fathers who nad \isited Malabar
but were then at Goa. When Alexander VII came to
know the calamity which had befallen the Syrian
community, he sent out (1656) the Carmdites,
Fathers Josi£ de Sebastiani and Yincente of St. Cath-
erine, to woric for the return to unity and tesubmission
to their archbishop of this revolted church. Later
other Carmelite Fathers joined in the good woric.
Within a year of their amval (1657) the Carmelites
had succeeded in reconciling forty-four diurches.
Although Archdeacon George had remained obdurate,
a relative of his. Chandy Perambil (Alexander de
Campo) , headed tne return movement, but they would
have nothing to do with Archbishop CSarda.

XV. Under these circumstances Fatho* 3oa6 de
Sebastiani decided to return to Rome and inform the
pope of the real difficulty which stood in the way of
permanent reconciliation. The pope on learning the
state of the case had Father Job6 consecrated and ap-
pointed him Commissary Apostolic for Malabar, with
power to consecrate two other bishops, naming them
vicars Apostolic. Provided with these powers he re-
turned to Malabar in 1661 and took up his woric. By
this time Archbishop Garcia had been removed from
the scene by death. Between 1661 and 1662 the Car-
melite Friars under Bishop Job£ had reclaimed the
large number of eighty-foul- churches, leavinir to the
leader of the revolt, the aforesaid Archdeacon Thomas,
only thirty-two churches. Both these figures are of
great importance for the subsequent history of the
Malabar Syrians. The e^di^-four churches and their
conp^pttions were the body from which all the Romo-
Synans have descended, while the other thirty-two
represent the nucleus whence the Jacobites and their
Buodivisions, Reformed Syrians, etc., have originated.
In Januap', 1663, the political situation r^arding
these Christians was entirely changed. The Dutch
bad arrived on the coast and had captured Cochin.
The Portuguese power fell. The new mssters ex-
pelled not OD\y all the Portugese clergy but also
forced Bt^vop Jas£ and his reli^ous to leave the coun-
try. In this predicament the bishop selected and con-
secrated the native priest Chandy PerambU (Alex-
ander de Campo) and made him a vicar Apostolic
over the flock he was forced to leave.

Before departing, however, he handed to the
Dutch Government of Cochin a list of the eighty-four
churches that were under his control and commended
Bishop Chan^ and the Christians of these churches
to his protection. This the governor undertook to
fulfil. Thou]^ the Dutch did not trouble themaelvee
about the Sjrian Christians, yet they would not per-
mit any Jesuit or Portuguese prelate to reside in Mala-
bar, uthough simultaneous^ with Bishop Jos^ de
SebEkstiani the other Carmehte missionaries had also
to depart. However, they were not dbsent long, for
eventual^ th^ returned byones and twos and were
not molested. Later, in 1673, they established them-
selves at Ver^M^ and built a church there, having
obtained the iMid rent-free from the Rajah of Cochin;
it is yet the headquarters of the Carmelites in Mala-
bar. One of the Carmelite Fathers named Matth<>w
even came into friendly relations with the Dutch
Governor van Rheede, and aided him in compiling his
voluminous work on local botany known as "Hortus
Mal^aricus". The Carmelites working among the
Syrians under Bishop Chandy remained on good temna
with him; the bishop died m 1676. Raphael, a prieFt
of the Cochin diocese, was selected to succeed the for-
mer, but he turned out a failure and died in leo.'S.
The year following. Father Peter-Paul, a Carmelite,
was created titular Archbishop of Ancyra, and was
appointed vicar Apostolic for Malabar. With his ar-
rival in 1678 there was a considerable improvement in
the relations between the Dutch Government and the
Carmelite Fatbea. The Archbishop Peter-Paul was

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• pnioe of the House of Parma, and his mother was

ihe sister of Pope Innocent XII; before ooming out to
Malabar he had obtained a decree from the Govern-
ment, of Holland authorizing the residence in Mala-
bar of one bishop and twelve Carmehte priests who
had to be either Italians, Germans, or Belgians; but
th^ were not admitted into Cochin.

The French traveller Anquetil du Perron, who
Tisitod Malabar in 1758, offers the following statistics
r^arding the number of Christians on the coast
wmch he had obtained from Bishop Florentius, the
Carmelite Vicar Apostolic of Malabar. He tella us
that the bishop believed the total number ctf Chris-
tians to amount to 200,000; of these 100,000 were
Catholic S>'rians, another 50^000 were of the Latin
Rite: both these were under his jurisdiction, while the
revolted Syrian^who may be classed as Jacobites,
were under Mar Thomas Vl (who on his consecration
in 1772 assumed the name and style of Dionysius I),
and numbered 50,000. From the death of Archbishop
Garcia in 1659 the See of Cranganore bad no resident
bishop till 1701, when Clement XI appointed Jofio
Rebeiro, a Jesuit. When the latter assumed charge
the Carmelite Vicar Apostolic, Angelus Francis, told
his Syrian flock that his jurisdiction had ceased and
they must now pass over to that of the new Arch-
bi^op of Cran^nore. The S^yrians refused to ac-
knowledge the new archbishop and sent a petition to
Rome that they preferred to r^ain under the Car-
melites, who had seventy-one churches in complete
submission and eighteen in partial union (i. e., the
parish was divided and part had submitted to Rome),
while only twenty-eight churches remained altogether
separate. Pope Clement, after iitf<Hining the King of
Portu^ of the state of things, extended in 1709 the
jurisdiction of Bishop Angelus over the dioceses of
Cranganore and Cochin, and the pope assigned as a
reason for doing so that the Dutch would not tolerate
any Portuguese prelate in the country, and the Chris*
tians threatened rather to return to schism than ac-
cept the bishop sent out. For fuller particulars of
period the reader is referred to: G. T. Mackeniie,
"History of Christianity in Travancore", in Census
Report of 1901, Trevandrum; and Paulinus a Sancto
Buihoh»ueo, "India Orientalis Christ." (Rinne,
1794.)

On the arrival xji the Dutch and the capture of
Cranganore it became impossible for the Jesuits to re-
tain the college at Vipicotta; they abandoned the
place and removing to the interior b^ond the reach fA
th«r open enemies, opened a new college, callCHi St.
Paul's CoUe^^ at Ambalacad, whence they controlled
thdr new missions on the east coast. Bisfaop Rebeiro
returned there and carried on his work; -eventaaUy
several of the Syrian Catholic parishes went over to
the succeeding Archbishop of (>anganore, and tiiese
, eventually lapsed under the «ontit>l of the Arch-
bishops of Goa. Bishop Rebeiro died at the college of
Ambalacad on 24 Sept., 1716, is buried in the church
of Puttencherra and nas a tombstone with an inscrip-
tion in Portuguese. His successors fixed Puttencherra
as their residence, and the parish church became a
pro-cathedral. Ttte foUowmg particulars their
nomination and death are here recorded. Andibiriiop
Rebeiro was succeeded by Antonio Carvallo Pimental
also a Jesuit, consecrated as the former had been at Uie
church of Bom Jesus, Gioa, by the archbishop on 29
Feb., 1722, d. at Puttencherra on 6 March, 1762.
Paulinus says of him: "vir doctus et Malabarensibus
gratiita, qui eum nomine Budhi Metran, sapientis et
oruditi prsBsulis oompellebant. " He has a tomb-
stone with inscription. Jo8o IaUs Vasooneellos, abo a
Jesuit, was consecrated at Calicut by Bishop Cle-
mente of Cochin in 17SS, and d. at I%ttencherra in
1756; the church contains his tomb-stone with inscrip-
tion. Salvadw Reis, the last of the series wbo resided
in India, was also a Jesuit; he was oonsecrated by the

same BUiop Clemente at Angengo on 5 Feb., 1758, d.
on 7 April, 1777^ at Puttencherra and has his tomb-
stone with inscnption in the same church. Paulinus
records of him "vir sanctimonia vit» prsRclarus"; he
survived the suppression of his order. This closes the
list of the bishops who have governed the See of Cran-
ganore.

To complete the historical account of the Syrian
Malabar Qiurch, brief mentitoi shcnild also be made of
the line of prelates who ruled over the schismatics who
eventually became Jacobites, embracii^ that error
through their prelates: Thomas I, proclaimed a bishop
by those he had led (1653) into the aforesaid schism
after the imposition of the hands of twelve priests his
followers, and the placing on his head of a mitre and
in his hand a ]>astoral staff. He continued obdurate
and died a sudden death in 1673. Thomaa II, brother
of the former, proclaimed b 1674, died eight days
later struck b^ Ivhtning. Thomas III, nephew ot the
former, received the mitre in 1676, a Jacobite.
Thomas IV of the same family, succeeded in 1676 and
d. in 1686, a Jacobite. Thomas V, a nephew of the
former, made every effort to obtain consecration but
failed, d. in 1717, a Jacobite. Thomas VI received
the mitre from his dying uncle and the imposition of
hands of twelve priests. He wrote to the JacoUte
Patriarch <A Antioeh to send bislu^ Eventually
the Dutch authorities helped him and obtained for
him three bishops, on condition of his defraying the
expenses. Three Jacobite bishops came out to India
in 1751, Mar Basil, Mw Gregory, and Mar John.
The first named died a year after arrival ; the second
years later consecrated Mar Thomas VI a bishop in
1772, and he assumed the name of Dionysius I. The
Dutch auth<nities found great difficulty in obtaining
payment for the expenses incurred; a suit was inst^
tuted against the Jacobites in the Travanoore
Rajah's court in 1775 and payment oS the amount,
twelve thousand pounds, was obtained. Bb died
in 1808.

For the long period between 1678 and 1886, the
Catholic Syrians remained under the uninterrupted
control of about fifteen Carmelite Bishops as vicars
ApostoUc. During this period there had often uiseu
severe troubles which cannot here be detailed, quiunreb
between Syrian and Latin Christians, agitatiMi
against the control of some bishoiw; over and above
these the ordinary trials of controlling such a Ib^ba,
factious, and difficult bod^. There had also been two
most serious schismatical mtrusionB within this Syrian
fold by Catholic Chaldean prelates who had come
from Mesopotamia with the full connivance of the
Chaldean I^triarch and a^Jnst the express orders of
the Roman Pontiff. The Carmelites had to fare aod
surmount all these difficulties and keep the flook tn
due submission to ecclesiastical regime. Of the two
intrusions, the first was that of the Chaldean Bishop
Mar Roccos, who entered Malabar in 1861. Pius IX
denounced him to the faithful as an intruder, yet he
met with a complacent reception in many of the
churches, succeeded in stirring up the dormant hydra
of schism, and caused a great agitation. Fortunately
fOT the peace of the Church he was persuaded to return
to Mesopotamia within ^e year. The second, who
came to Malabar in 1874, caused much greater barm,
the evil effects of which seem to be {permanent in the
principal church of Trichur, though elsewhere^ in
process of time those evil effects have been remedied.
This was the Bishop Melius, whom the patriarch had
sent over in spite (h the strict prohibition oi the same
pope. It was only when after repeated admomtkwe.
the pope had fixed a limit of time after which should
he continue refractory he would be excommunicated,
that he yielded and sent Bishop Melius instructions to
return. When the troublesome character df then
people is taken into oonaideration it reflects gnst
credK on the Cannelite Order that the bishops fr*

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charge were suooesaful in retaining them as a body in

the unity of Holy .Church.

XVI.' The Mellusian schism, though broken by the
adverse judgmepts of the Madras Hi^ Court, was by
no means vet extinct when in Uie autumn ct 1878 ma
^ly See aeoiddd on placing the Syrian Christians un-
der separate administration, appointing two vicars
Apostolic of the Latin Rite for ^e purpose. These
were Rev. A. £. Medlycott, Fh.D., Military Chaplain
in the Punjab, educated in the Propaganda College,
Rome, and consecrated by the ApostoUc Dele{;ate
Mgr. A. Ajuti on 18 Dec., 1887, at Ootacamund, titu-
\ar Bishop of Trioomia, appointed to the Vicariate
Apostolic of Trichur; and the Rev. Charles Laviene
SJ., former private secretary of the late Father BecKx,
General of the Society, consecrated in Belgium before
eoming out, appointed to the See of Kottayam, later
called of Changanacherry. Under the Concordat of
Leo XIII with the King of Portugal an important
advantage had been gained by the suppression of the
Padroado jurisdiction (Cransanore Ansnbishops) over
the Syrian churches. The &rst tads, the new bishops
had to face was to amalgamate into one harmonious
whole the two sections ofthis Chiuvh, that whioh had
been under the Carmelites with that which had be-
longed to the Goan or Padroado jurisdiction, for the
two had been for long years in open antagonism.
This union fortunately was succesefully effectea. The
other task was to establish something Uke a pr2P^
administration and control over the churches. This
took longer time. The northern churches belonging
to Triohur had. not aem their prelates for perhapr a
omtury, the two Chaldean Bishops had utilized the
fact to th^ own advanti^, and the troubles caused
by them in these churches can be easily imagined; but
with firmness and patience a fair working administra-
tion was introduced.

The result may thus be briefly summed up. The
Vicariate of Trichur had a Catholic Syrian popula-
tion of 108,422 with eighty-three parish churches and
twenty-two chapels-of-ease, served by 118 priests of
the Syrian Rite, besides 23 Syrian Carmelite Tertiary
mcmks, in two monasteries; there was also a convent of
24 native Tertiary nuns with a middle-class school of
33 girls. The bishop on taking charge found that
there were practically no schools, except one provided
for clerics; be took early steps to open as mMiy ele-
moitanr parish sohoola as poenble; within nine years
(1888 -96) the vicariate was provided with no lees than
331 elementary parish schools for both sexes, educat-
ing over 12,000 children, besides a high school (St.
Thomas's College), with 95 students: there were also
56 boys in St. Aloysius's High School, under the Ter-
tiary monks. A catechumenate was opened, where
annually about 150 heathen converts were baptized; a
fine building was under construction for a suitable resi-
dence, and plans were prepared to house the above
oollege in a handsome stnieiure. This was the condi-
tion of things when the bishop went to Europe on uck
leave. The Vicariate of Kottayam bad a Catholic
population of 150,000, with 108 parish churches and
60 dependent chajiela, served by a numerous cleigy of
over 300 priests; it had 35 Tertiary monks, besides
novices, in five monasteries; also three convents of na-
-tive Tertiary Carmelite nuns educating girls, two or-
phanages under Tertiary Sisters of St. Francis, four
oateehumenatee, two seminaries, with 96 students.
The higher cla^ clerical students of both vicariates
attended the central Pontifical Seminary at Putten-
pally. The parochial schools numbered 200, but the
number of pupils was 'not published. There were
three Englisifi Schools: Mananam, 60; Oampalam, 80;
and another with 20 students.

In 18B5 both vicars Apostolic happ^ed to be absent
on leave. During this period the w>ly See decided
on a change of regime, yielding to the wishes <tf the
people to grant them native bishops.

XVil. The two vicariates described above were
split into three, and they were styled Trichur, Erha-
kulam, and Changanacherry; the new vicariate was
formed of the southern p(»tion <^ that of Trichur and
the northern portion of Changanacherry. The
ehanges were earned out undw Leo XIII by Bri^ of
28 July, 1896, "Quie Rei Sacne". Rev. John Mena-
chery, as Bislmi of Parous, was appointed to Trichur.
Rev. Aloysius Par^iarambil, titular Bishop of Tio, was
appoints to Emakulam, and Rev. Matthew Makil,
Bi^op of Tralles, was appointed to Changanacherry;
all three received consecration from the Apoa-
tohc Delate Mgr. Zaledu, at Kandy on 15 Oct.,
1896.

The latest ecclesiastical returns of these three
vicariates (1911) give: Trichur: Catholic population,
91,064; children being educated. 19,092; Emakutam:
Catholic population, 94,357; children bemg educated,
•9950; Chan^nach&ry: Catholic population, 134,791;
children being educated, 2844.

The future of this people depends very lu^ly on
education for their welfare and technical training for
their development.

A88E1UN1, BMicthw Orimtali* (Rome, 1719-28); db Souu,
OnetUe Conmiatado (2 vols., Indiu) rapriot, Euminer Pnaa,
BombuO: GouvEA, Jornada do Arabitpo AUixo d« Mmexet
miando foil aa Serrat do Malawtar (Coimbra, 1606); Fr. tr. db
Olkn, HiatoinOrumtaUvlo. (Brusaela, 1609); duJauuc, Thna.w
rut rtrum mirabHium in India Oriont (3 vols., Colosne, 1615);
Padunub a Sancto Bartholoilko, India OrienMit CkriMana
(Rome, 1794) ; Macxbniib, ChritUanibf in Tranncort, with Cfln-
3UB R^rt of 1901 (TrevBoditun); KUDLTOon, Mia and (Ai
Apo^ SL Thmat (toadoa, 190$).

A. £. Mbdltccvt.

moDAM OotUm* BussBD, martyr, b. 1549, in
Lancashire; executed at Tyburn, 30 May, 1682.
His parents, Laurence Cottam of Ddworth and Anne
Brewer, were Protestants. Having completed his
studies at Braaenose, Oxford (M.A., 14 July, 1572) he
became master of a grammar school in Ltmdon.
Converted there to the faith by Thomas Pound he
went over to Douai, and was ordained deacon at
Can^rai, Dec., 1577. Demrous of the Itulian mis-
sion, he wait to Rome and was zecaTod (8 ApriL
1579) as a Jesuit novice at Sant* Andrea. Attacked
by fever about October, be was sent to Lyons to re>
cuperate, and went thence to the CoU^ at Reiins,
conridering himsdf as accepted for India, if his health
improved by a visit to England. In May (probably
28ui), 1580, be was ordained priest at Soissons, and
stfljted (6 June) with four companions for England.
Through the treachery of an English q>y by the name
of SleiM he was immediately anestea Dora-, but
by a ruse of Dr. ESy, one of his feUow-tvavdkrs,
reached Loodnx safdy. Ely being imperilled through
this friendly act, Cottam voluntarily surrendered
himself and was committed "close prisoner" to the
Manhalsea, where he perhaps said his first Mass.
After being tortured, he was removed, 4 December,
1680 (CathoUc Record Society, 111, 10) to the Tower,
where he endured the rack and tiie "Scaveaiger's
Daughter". He was arraigned with Cami^ and
others and (16 November, 1681) condwnned to death.
His execution was defvred till 30 May,- 15^ (see
MundMT's "Breefe Reporte"), when with William
Filby, LAike Kirl^ and Laurence Richardson, secular
priests (all beatified 29 Dec., 1886), he was drawn to
Tyburn and executed. His portrait, with martyrdom
misdated, is reproduced in Foley, "Recorch", VII
(1) 174; bis rebcs are the Mass corporal used ^ him
and four other martyrs in the Tower (cf. Camm,
Endish Martyn, II. 563) and perhi^ his autognqih
in the legistsB m Sant* Andrea.

Cuiunnm, iiemain; Four, Rttordu. II. 14S mm., wtdi
•note bibliMnplnr nd vn (1)174: OiUAw, WU. DicL Aw.

VAvaKX Rtan.

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680

ThomM Tatdt Bubsbd, b. m Deronahln; d. at

Tybum, 28 May, 1682. He incepted MA. at Trin-
ity Coll^, Oxford, 14 July, 1667, and waa a fellow,
Woods s^rs president, of the college. He went to the
English GoUoge, Douai, in 1570, and was one of the
first three of its studfDts to be ordaiDed. receiving aU
OTders in March, 1573, at Brussels. Alter becominf
B.D. at Douai he left for England, 2 May. 1576, and
soon became chaplain to Edward Yate ana his Bndg-
ettine guests at Lyford, Berkshire. Arrested with
Blessed Edmund Campion (q. t.) 17 July, 1581, and
committed to the Tower 22 July, he was thrioe tor-
tured. He was brou^t before the Queen's Bench
16 November, with his fellow martyr Blessed John
Shert, on an atieurd cbar^ of conspiracy at Rome and
Reinis, nbste he had aenr hcea, on dates irbax he
was in Endand, and both were condemned 21 No-
vember. With him suffered John Shert and Rdbert
Johnson.

John Shkb't, Blesuid, a native of Cheshire, took
the degree of B. A. at Brasenose College, Oxford, in
1566. Successively schoolmaster in London, and ser-
vant to Dr. Thomas Stapleton at Douiu, he entered
the soninary in 1576, and was ordained subdeaoon.
-He was ordained prieat bom the English College,
Rome, (tf which he was aesaat of the first six schokvs.
He left Reims for England 27 August, 1579, and was
srait to the Tower, 14 July, 1681.

Robert Johnson, Blbssbd, b. in Shropshire, en-
tered the Qerman College, Rome. 1 Oct., 1571. Or-
dained priest at Brussds from the English Collie
Douai, m April, 1676, he started immediately for Eng-
land. After a pilgrimage to Rome in 1579 he re-
turned to Eni^and m 1680, mad was committed to the
Poultrr Counter 12 July, whence he was transferred
to the Tower 5 Dec. On 16 December he was terribly
radlted, and then thrust into an undei^ound dimgeon.
He was brought before the Queen's Bench 14 Nov.,
and condemned 20 Nov.

Kkoob and Camm, lAMt of the BngU*h Mariyri (London,
1904-5), II, 443-490; Haht in Appendix to Sandik, De Origint,
tU. SehitmalU Anglieani (Rome, 1BS9); Au.en, Brieft HUtorie,
«d. POLLKK (London, 1906), S7-66; Challoneb, MUtionaiy
PrUtU, Tum. 9, 10, 11; Oillow, BM. Did. Etta. Cath., b. v.. Ford.
Thoma*, Johnson. Robert; Cckipkb, in Diet. Nat. Biog., b. v.,
Forde. Thomat: Cath. Ree. Soc, I. II. Ill, IV, V, IX; BlimON.

Bdmmd Camplo» (LoidoD, 1896).

J(

OHN B. Waimswuoht.

ThomM Qrma, Blesobd. See Thomas John-
son, Blbsbbd.

ThomM Johnson, Blsbbeo, Carthusian martyr, d.
in Newpte gaol, London, 20 Sept., 1637. On 18 May,
1537, the twenty choir monks and dghteen brothns
remaining in the London Charteiiiouse mre required
to take the Oath of SiQiremaoy. Of these c^oir monks
Thomas Johnson, Richard Ba%, Thomas Greco
(priests), and John Davy (deacon), refused; and of the
brothers Robert Salt, William Greenwood, Thomas
Redyng, Thomas Soiyven, Walter Pierson, and Wil-
liam Home. On 29 May all were sent to Newgate,
where they were chained standing and with their
hands tied behind them to posts in the prison, and so
left to die of starvation. However Mai^uvt Clement,
who as Margaret Oif»a had been brouriit up in the
household of Blessed Thomas Mcne, bribed the gaoler
to let her have access to the prisoners, and disguised
faersdf as a milkmaid and carried in a milk-can full of
meat, wherewith she fed them. After the king's in-
quiry as to whether they were not already de^, the
gaoler waa afraid to let her enta again; but she was
allowed to go on the roof, and uncovering the tike, she
let down meat in a basket as near as she could to their
mouths. However they could get little or nothing
from the basket, and as the gaoler fewed discovery
even this plan was soon discontinued. Greenwood
died first (6 June), then Davy (8 June), Salt (9 June),
Pierson and Green (10- June), Scryven (15 Jime),
Redyng (16 June). It is probable that then Cromwell
XIV.-

interfered and ordered thoee still ttvtng to be ^vco

food in order that they might be preserved for execu-
tion; for Bere did not die till 9 August, nor Johnson
till 20 September. Home survived, and, though he
could never be induced to quit his religious habit^ wan
not attainted till 1640, when he was nanged, disem-
bowelled, and quartered at T^bum (4 August) with
the five Prmtfrmitsi Robot Bird (layman), Lawrenee
Cook (Carmelite Prior of Doncaster), Thomas Emp
son (Bcaiedictiue), Giles Heron German), and prob-
ably with William Bird (Rector of Fittleton and Vicar
of Bradford, Wiltshire). All ten C^arthuaians were
beatified by Leo XIII on 29 Dec., 1886. Blessed
Richard Bere was a nephew of Richard Bere (Abbot
of Glastonbury 1493-1625}. and became a Carthusian
on 20 Feb., 1623. Blessed Thomas Green has been
identified by Dom Bede Camm with Thomas Green-
wood ^B. A., Oxon, " ■ " ' ' "~
came

and D.D. in 1532.

KsooH AKD Cauh, in Litet of the En^fh Jfafton, ad. Cum, X
(London, 1904), 257-68; Hzn&wxs, n< Lemhn CkorlarAMiM
(London, 1889),

J<mN B. WAnrawBiGHT.

: (B. A., Oxon, M.A^ Cantab, 1511), who be-
Fellow of St. John's CoUe«e Cambridge in 1516

ThftmM Mtfihfilli RiHBimn

BUBSBD.

See Bkhx, John,

ThomM More, BLBsasD, knight. Lord Chancellor
of England, author and martyr, b. in London, 7
February, 1477-78; executed at Tower HiU, 6 July,
1536. He was the sole surviving son of Sir John More,
bjurifltiT :in<! hitfz judge, by his first wife Agnes,
duughler of Thomas Graunger. While still a child
ThfHDW waa sent to St. Anthonv's Schod in Thread-
needle Street, k^t by Nicholas Holt, and when
t^]irti?^Ti vi-iirs o\(i wris placed in the household of
Crtrdiniil Moi ton. .\rchbishop erf (Canterbury and
].(>r<l Chsmi'i'llnr. Ifi-Te his meixy character and bril-
Ji:iiit intclli ci ii(ir;ici.'d the notice of the archbishop,
wlio sflnl liini to Hxfiird, where he entered at Canter-
I)iiry imbt^i'iiumdy absorbed by Christ Church)
:&K.mt liSH. His futher made him an allowance barely
atitlicsient toiMS^ the neoesaaries of life and^ in con-
sequence, he had no omMrtunity to indulge in " vain
or hurtful amusements to the detriment of his stud-
ies. At Oxford he made friends with William Grocyn
and Thomas Linacre, the latter becoming bis first
instructor in Greek. Without ever becoming an
exact scholar. he mastered Greek "by an Instinct of
genius" as witnessed by Face (De fructu qui ex
aootrina percipitur, 1617), who adds "his etotjuence
is incomparable and tw<^old, for he speaks with the
same faoility in Latin as in his own language". Be-
sides the claflsics he studied French, nistory, and
mathematics, and also learned to play the flute and
the viol. After two years' residence at Oxford, More
was recalled to London and entered as a law student
at New Inn about 1494. In February, 1496, he was
admitted to Lincoln's Inn as a student, and in due
course was called to the outer bar and subsequently
made a bautho'. His great abilities now b^can to
attract attentim and the gov^ors of Linoohrs Inn
appointed him "reader" or lecturer on kw at Fumi-
vaTs Inn, his lectures being esteemed so highly that the
appointment was renewed for three successive years.

It is clear however that law did not abscffb all
More's energies, for much of his time was given to
letters. He wrote poetry, both Latin and English, a
considerable unount of which has been preserved and
u of good quality, though not particularly striking,
and he was especially devoted to the works of Pico
della Mtrandola, of whose life he published an English
translation some years later. He cultivated the
acquaintance of scholars and learned _ men and,
through his former tutors, Grocyn and Linacre, who
were now living in London, he made friends with
Cdet, Dean of St. Paul's, and William lilly, both

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THOMAS

690

THOMAS

nnowned scbolarB. Colet became More's confessor,
and Lilly vied with him in translating epigrams from
the Greek Anthol<^ into Latin, their jomt produc-
tions bebg published in 1518 (Proeymnasmata T.
MoreetGm. Uliisodalium). bi 1497M<w« was intro-
duced to Erasmus, probably at the house of Lord
Mountioy, the great scholars pupQ and patron. The
friraidwip at once became intimate, and later on
Erasmus paid several long visits at More's Chelsea
house, and the two friends corresponded r^ularly
imtil death separated them. Beeidee law and the
Classics More read the Fathers with care, and he
delivered, in the Church of St. Lawrence Jewry, a
aeries of lectures on St. Augustine's "De civitate Dei"
Trhich were attended by many learned men, among
whom Qroeyn. the rector of tne church, is expressly
mentioned, ror such an audience the lectures must
have been prepared with great care, but unhappily
not a frt^^ent of them has
survived. These lectures were
given somewhere between 1499
and 1503, a period during
whidi More's mind wsa occu-
pied almost wholly with re-
ligion and the question of his
own vocation for the priest-
hood.

This portion of his life has
caused much misunderstand-
ing among his various biogra-
phers. It is certain that he
went to live near the London
Charterhouse and often joined
in the spiritual exercises of the
monks there. He wore "a
sharp shirt of hair next his
skin, which he never left off
wholly" (Cresacre More), and
gave himself up to a life of
prayer and penance. His
mfaid wavered for some time
between joining tlw C^rtiiu-
sians or the Observant EVan-
ciscans, boUi of which orders
nhafitrved the religious life
with extreme strictnesB and
fervour. In the end, apparently
with the approval of Colet, he abandoned the hope of
becoming a priest or religious, his decision being due
to a mistrust of his powers of perseverance. Erasmus,
his intimate Mend and confidant, writes on this
matter as follows (Epp. 447): "Meanwhile he applied
his whole mind to excises of piety, lookii^ to Euid
pondering on the priesthood in vigils, fasts and
prayers and similar austerities. In wnich matter he
proved himself far more prudent than most candidates
who thrust themselves rashly into that arduous pro-
fession without any previous trial of their powers,
rhe one thing that prevented him from givii^ him-
self to that kind ot life was that be could not shake off
the deure (rf ^e married state. He chose, therefore,
to be a chaste husband rather than an impiue pnest.''
The last sentence of this passage has led certam writ^
ers, notably Mr. Seebohm and Lord Campbell, to
expatiate at great length on the supposed corruption
of the leli^oiiB orders at this date, which, they de-
clare, di^usted Hore so much that be abandoned his
wish to enter reluppn on that account. Father Bridg-
ett deals m& this questjon at considerable len^
(Life and Writings of Sir Thomas More, pp. 23-^),
but it is enough to say that this view has now been
abandoned even by non-Catholic writ^, as witness
Mr. W. H. Button: "It is absurd to assert that More
was disgusted with monastic corruption, that he
'loathed monks as a disgrace to the Church'. He
was tluxiu^out his life a warm friend of the relinous
urdeas, and a devoted admirer of the monastic idenL

He condemned the vices of individuals; he said^ as
his ^at-grandson says, 'that at that time religious
men in England had somewhat d^nerated from their
ancient stnctnees and fervour of ^irit'; but there is
not the sUfditeBt sign that his decision to decline the
mmiaBtic me was due in the smallest degree to a dis-
trust of the system or a distaste for the tlwology of tbo
Church."

The Question of religious vocation being disposed of.
More threw himself into his work at the Bar and
scored immediate success. In 1504 he was elected a
member of Parliament, but as the returns are missmg
his constituency is unknown. Here he immediatdy
began to oppose the large and unjust exaotiras a
money vAmh King Henry VII was making fnnn his
subjects through the agency of Empson and Dudley,
the latter beii:^ Speaker of the House of Commons.
In this Parliament Heniy demanded a grant of three-
, fifteenths, about £113,000,
but thanks to More's protests
the Commons reduced the
sum to £30,000. StHne yeare
later Dudley told M<ae that
his boldness would have cost
him his head but for the fact
that he had not attacked the
king in person. Even as it
was Henry was so enraged
with More that he "devised
a causeless quarrel against his
father, ke«>ing him in the
Toww till he had made him
pay a hundred pounds fine"
(Roper). Meanwhile Mm
had made friends witii one
"Maister John Colte, a gen-
tleman" of Newhall, Essex,
whose eldest daughter, Jane,
he married in 1505. Roper
writes of his choice: "albeit
hk mind most served hun to
the second daughter, for that
he thought her the fairest
and best favoured, yet when
he considered that it would
, „ . „ ., be great grief and some

,vftl Dmyermty. MontrwU. ^j^g also to the eldeaV L„

see her younger sister preferred before her in mar-
riage, he then, of a certain pity, framed his fancy
toirards" the eldest of the three sutws. The unicm
proved a 6upret9ely happy one; of it were bora three
daughters, Margaret, EUzabeth, and Cecilia, and a
son, John; and then, in 1511, Jane More died, still
aimoet a chUd. In the epitaph which More himself
composed twenty vears later he calls her "uxorcula
Mon", and a few unes in one of Erasmus' letters are
almost all we know of her gentle, winning personality.

Of More himself Erasmus haa left us a wonderful
portrait in his famous letter to Ulrioh von Hutten
dated 23 July, 1519 (Epp. 447). The deocriptkm ie
too long to give in full, out some extracts must be
made. "To OMiin then with what is least known to
you, in stature he is not tall, though not remarkably
short. Bis limbs are formed with such perfect
symmetry as to leave nothing to be deeireoT His
complexion is white, his face fau- rather than pale and
thmiigh by no means ruddy, a faint flu^ of pink a^
pears beneatii the whiteness of tus skin. His haar is
dark brown or brownish black. The eyes are greyish
blue, with some spots, a kind which betokens smgiilar
talent, and among we E^igUsh is considered attract-
ive, whereas Germans genendly prefer black. It is
said that none are so free from vice. His countenance
is in harmony with his character, being always ex-
pressive of an amiable joyousnees, and even an in-
cipient laughter and, to speak candidly, it is bettor
framed for ^adness than for gravity at dioiitr.

BuMaas Taoiua Mobs

From ftn etohiny by Wlekraden of the Dflrer portrait
preaerved ID Lk

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601

TB0IU8

UwDgh wfthout any approach to folly at buffoonenr-
The ri^t shoulder is a little hi^er than the left,
eepecifiUy when he walks. This is not a defect of
birth, but the result of h^it such aa we often con-
tract. In the rest of his person there is nothing to
offend. ... He seems bcHu and framed for friend-
ship, and is a most faiUifuI and enduring friend. . . .
When he finds any sincere and acccwding to his heart,
he so delights in their society and conversation as to
place in it tha principal charm of life. . . . In a word,
if you want a perfect model of friendship, you will
find it in no one better than in More. ... In human
affairs there is nothing from which he does not extract
enjoyment, even from things that are most serious.
If he converses with the learned and judicious, be
delights in their ta)ent, if with the ignorant and fool-
ish, lie enjoys their stupidity. He is not even offended
by professional jesters. With a wonderful dexterity
he acoonunodatos himself to every diBpositioo. As a
rule, in talking with women, even with his own wife,
he is full of jokes and banter. No one is less led by the
opinions of the crowd, yet no one departs less from
common sense. ... (see Father Bridgett's Life,
p. 5&-60, for the entire letter). More married again
very soon after his first wife's death, his choice being
a widow, Alioe Middleton. She was oldor than he by
seven years, a good, somewhat commonplace soul
without beauty or eaucstion; but she was a capital
housewife and was devoted to the care of More's
young children. On the whole the marriage seems to
have been quite satisfactory, although Mistress More
usually failed to see the point of her husband's jokes.

More's fame as a lawyer was now very great. In
1510 he was made Under-sheriff of London, and four
years later was ehosai by Cardinal Wobey as one oi
an embassy to Flanders to protect the mtereste of
Endish merchants. He was thus absent from Ene-
lana for more than six months in 1515, during which
period he made the first sketch of the "Utopia", his
most famous work, which was published the following
year. Both Wolsey and the king were anxious to
secure Mote's services at Court. In 1516 he was
granted a penaon ot £100 for life, was made a mem-
ber of the embassy to Calais in the next year, and
became a privy councillor about the same time. In
1519 he resigned his post as Under-Sheriff and became
complete^ attached to the Court. In June, 1520, he
was in Henrys suite at the "Field of the Cloth of
Gold", in 1521 was knighted and made sub-treasurer
to the king. When the Emperor Charles V visited
London m the following year, More was chosen to
ddtTOT the Latin address of weloome; and grants of
land in Oxford and Kent, made then and three years
later, gave further proof of Henry's favour, la 1523
he was elected Speaker of the House of Commons on
Wolsey's recommendation; became High Steward of
Cambridge University in 1525; and in the same year
was made Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, to
be held in addition to his other offices. In 1523 More
had purchased a piece of land in Chelsea, where he
built himself a mansion about a faoiKbred yards from
the north bank of the Thames, with a large garden
stretching along the nver. Here at times the king
would come as an unbidden guest at dinW time, or
would walk in the garden with his arm round More's
neck enjoying his briUiant conversation. But More
had no illusions about the royal favour he enjoyed.
" If my head should win him a castle in France, he
said to Roper, his son-in-law, in 1525, "it should not
fafl to go." The Lutheran oontrover^y had now
sptmA tfiroughout Europe and, with snne reluctance,
More was drawn into it. His controversial writings
•re mentioned below in the list of his wwks, and it is
sufficient here to sa^ that, vriaie far more refined than
most polemical wnters of the period, there is stiU a
certain amount that tastes unpleasant to the modem
reader. At first he wrote fai Latin but, when the

bodes of Ttndal and other English Refmmers began
to be read by people of all classes, he adopted Engnsh
as more fitted to 1^ purpose and, by doing so, gave
no little aid to the development of English prose.

In October. 1529, More succeeded Wolsey as Chan-
cellor of England, a poet never before hela by a lay-
man. In matters political, however, he in nowise
succeeded to Wolsey's position, and his tenure of
the chancellorship is chiefly memorable tor his un-
paralleled success as a judge, ffis despatch was so

Si&t that the supply of causes was actually ex-
uated, an incident oommemorated in tiie wdl-
known rhyme,

"When More some time had Chancellor been

"No more suits did remain.
"The like will nevtf mne be seen,

"Tin Moi« be there again."
As chancellor it was his duty to enforce the laws
agfunst heretics and, by doii^ so, he provoked the
attacks of Protestant writers Doth in his own time
and unce. The subject need not be discussed here,
but More's attitude is patent. He E«reed with the
principle of the anti-heresy laws and nad no hesita-
tion in enforcing them. As he himself wrote in his
" Apokwia" (cap. 49) it was the vices heretics that
he natea, not tn^ persons; and he never proceeded
to extremities imtil he had made every effort to get
those brought before him to recant. How successful
he was in this is clear from the fact that only four
persons suffered the supreme penalty for heresy
during his whole term of office. More s first public
appearance as chancellor was at the opening of the
new Parliunent in Novanber, 1520. The accounts
of his speech on tiiis occaoon vary conuderably,
but it is quite oertiun that he had no knowledge of
the long series of encroachment* on the Church much
this very Parliament was to accomplish. A few
months later came the royal proclamation ordering
the clergy to acknowledge Henry as "Supreme
Head" ca the Church "as far as the law of God will
permit", and we have Chapuy's testimony that More
at once proffered his redgnation of the chancellorship,
whi(^ however was not accepted. His firm oppoet-
tion to Hemys deogns in regard to the divorce, the
papal aupreoMcy, and the laws agunst heretics,
q)eedily lost him the royal favour, and in May, 1532,
he reogned his post of lord chancellor after bolting
it less than three years. This meant the loss of all
his income except about £100 a year, the rent of
some property he had purchased: and, with cheerful
indiffoence, he at once reduced his style of li^dng to
niftteh lus stzaitened means. The eintt^A idiich he
wrote at. this time for the tomb in Ghetsea diurch
states that he intended to devote his last years to
prniaring bimsdf for the life to come.

For the next eagbteoi months More lived in seclu-
fflon and gave much time to controversial writing.
Anxious to avoid a public rupture with Henry he
stayed away from Anne Boleryn's coronation, and when,
in 1533, his nephew William Rastell wrote a pamphlet
aapptauag the pt^ wUch was attributed to More,
he wrote a letter to Cromwell tfiaclaiming any share
therdn and declaring that he knew his duty to his

Erinoe too well to criticise his policy. Neutrality,
□wev^ did not suit Hem^, and More's name was
included in the Bill of Attamder introduced into the
Lords agidnst the Holy Mud of Kent and her friends.
Brought before four members of the Council, More
was a^ed ndiy he did not approve Henry's anti-
papai action. He answned tnat he had several
times e]q)liuned his poritimi to the king in person and
without incurring nis displeasure. EventuaUy, in
view of his extraordinary popularity, Henry tho^ht
it expedient to remove his name from the BUI of
Attainder. The iQctd«it showed what he might
«qpeot, however, and the Duke of Norfolk personally
muned him of nil grave danger, addine|'m(Ugna4K>

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arincaplB mors eat''. "Is thai all, my lord, "answered
More, "then, in good faith, between your grace and
me is but this, that I shall die to-day, and you to-
monow." In March, 1534, the Act of Suocessioa
was passed which required all who should be caJled
upon to t^e an oath acknowledging the issue ot
Henry and Anne as Intimate heirs to the throne,
and to this was added a clause repudiating "any
foreign authority, prince or potentate". On 14
April, More was summoned to Lambeth to take the
oath and. on his refusal, was committed to the cus-
tody of the Abbot of Westminster. Four days later
he was remored to the Tower, and in the fojlowing
November was attainted of misprision of treason,
the grsnts of land made to him in 1523 and 1525'
b^Dg resumed by the Crown. In prison, though
suffering greatly from "his old disease ot the chest
. . . gravel, stone, and the cramp", his habitual
gaiety renuuned and be joked with his famil^r and
friends whenever they were permitted to see mm as
jwrrily as in the old days at Chelsea. When alone
his time was ^ven up to prayer and penitential ex-
ennses; and he wrote a "Dialogue of comfort
against tribulation", treatise (unfinished) on the
Pasmon of Christ, and many tetters to his familjr and
others. In April and May, 1535, Cromwell visited
him in person to demand his opinion of the new
statutes conferring on Heniy the title of Supreme
Head of the Church. More refused to pve any
answer beyond declaring himself a faithful subject
of tluB king. In June, Rich, the solicitor-general,
held a conversation with More and. in reporting it,
declared that More had denied Parliament's power
to confer ecclccuastical supremacy on Henry. It
was now discovered that More and Fisher, the Bishop
of Rochester, had exchanged letters in i>rison, and a
fresh inquity was held wnich resulted in his bang
deprived of all books and wri^ig materials, but he
contrived to write to his wife and lavourite daughter,
Margaret, on str^ scraps ai paper with a charred
stick or piece of coal.

On 1 July, More was indicted for high treason at
Westminst^ Hall before a special conumssion of
twenty. More denied the chief charges of the in-
dictment, which was enormously long, and denounced
Ri^, the s^citorfiencral and chief witness against
him, as a perjuror. The jury found him guilty and he
was sentenced to be hanged at Tyburn, but some days
later this was changed by Henry to beheading on
Tower Hill. The story of his last days on earth, as

K'ven by Roper and Cresacre More, is of the tenderest
tauty and should be read in full; certainly no
martyr ever surpassed him in fortitude. As Addison
wrote in the Spectator (No. 349) "that innooei)t
mirth which had beoi so conspicuous in bis life, did
not forsake him to tiie last ... his death was
of a piece with his life. There was nothing in it
new, forced or affected. He did not look upon the
severing of his head from his body as a circumstanoe
that ought to produce any change in the disposition
of his mind". The execution took place on Tower
Hill "before nine of the dock" on 6 JvHy, the body
being buried in the Churdi of St. Peter ad vinculo.
The head, after bdng parboiled, was exposed on
London Btidg? for a montlt wb^ Margaret Roper
bribed the man, whose buainess it was to throw it
into the river, to ^ve it to her instead. The final
fate of the rehc is somewhat uncertain, but in 1824 a
leaden box was found in the Bxnier vault at St.
Dunstan's, Canterbuir, which on bdng opened w^as
found to contain a head presumed to be More's.
The Jesuit Fathers at Stonyhiust possess a re-
markable ooUeotioo of seoondi^ leBcB, most ot which
came to tiiem from Father Thomas More. SJ. (d.
179jE), the last male heir of the martyr. 'Theae in-
clude his hat, cao, chicifix of sold, a silver seal,
"Geotgi", and other artides. :The hair shirt, worn

by him for many years and sent to Margaret 'Rope r
the day before his martyrdom, is preserved by the
Augustmian canonesses of Abbots Lei^, Devonshire,
to whom it was brou^t by Margaret Clements,
the adopted child of Sir Thomas. A numb^ of
autograph letters are in the British Museum.
Several portraits exist, the best being that by Hol-
bein in the possession of E. Huth, Esq. Holbem also
painted a large group of More's household which has
disappeared, Dut the original sketch for it is in the
Basle Museum, and a sixteenth-century copy is the
property of Lord St. Oswald. Bl. Thomas More was
formally beatified by Pope Leo XIII, in the Decree oi
29 Decembfflr, 1886.

Warrmos. — More was a ready writer and not a
few of his works remained in manuscript until some
years after his death, while several have been lost
a1t(%ether. Of all his writings the most famous is
unquestionably the "Utopia ', first published at
Louvain in 1516. The volume recounts the fictitious
travels of one Raphael Hythlodaye, a mythical charac-
ter, who, in the course of a voyage to America, was left
behind near Cape Frio and thence wanderra on till
he chanoed upon the Island Utopia riras or
"nowhere") in which he found an ide^ constitution
in operation. The whole work is really an exercise
of the imagination with much brilliant satire upon
the worid of More's own day. Real persons^ such
as Peter Giles, Cardinal Mortoiu and More hunself,
take part in the dialogue with Hythlodaye, so that
an air of refdity pervades the whote which leaves the
reader sadly puzzled to detect where truth ends and
fiction b^ns, and has led not a few to take the book
seriously. But this is predsely what More intended,
and there can be no doubt that he would have been
as delighted at entrapping William Morris, who
cUscovered in it a complete gospel of Socialism; or
Cardinal Zigliara, who denounced it as "no less
foolish than impious"; as he must have been with hia
own contemporaries who proposed to hire a ship
and send out misdonaries to his non-existent island.
The book ran through a number of editions in tlu
original Latin version and, within a few veais, was
translated into German, It^ian, FrencAt, Dutch,
Spanish, and En^ish.

A collected edition of Mm^'s F-ngliBh works was
published by William Rastell, his nephew, at London
m 1557; it has never been reprintecf and la now rare
and costly. The first collected edition of the Latin
Works appeared at Basle in 1563; a more complete
collection was published at Louvain in 1565 and again
in 1566. In 1689 the most complete edition of all
appeared at FrankfortK>n-Main, and Leipsig. After
the "Utopia" the following are the most imfiortant
works: "Luciani I^ogt . . . oompluria opuo-
cula . . . ab Erasmo Roterodamo et Thoma
Moro interpretibuB optimis in Latinorum lingua
traducta . . ." (Paris, 1606); "Here is con-
teigned the lyfe of John Hcus, Earle of Myrandula
. . ."(London, 1510); "Historic of the pitiful
life and unfortunate death of Edward the fifth and
the then Duke of Yorke his brother . . . ", printed
incomplete in the "English Works" (1567) and re-
issued wi^ a completion from Hall's Chronicle by
Wro. Sheane (London, 1641); "Hiomae Mori v. c.
Dissertatio EpistoUca de aliquot sui temporis U)eo-
k^astronun ineptiis . . (Leaden, 162Gi); Ept-
grammata . . , Thomae Mori Britanni, plera-

3ue e Graecis versa. (Basle, 1618) ; Eruditissimi Tin
lul. Rossi Opus el^ans quo puloherrime ret^t ac
rcfellit insanas Lutheri calumnias (London, 1523),
written at the request of H^uy VIII in answer to
Luther's r^ly to the royal "Defenno Septem
Sa(Tamentorum"j "A dy^oge of ^ Thomaa More
Ettt .... of <Bvav maters, aa of the vateration
and worshyT) of ymages and relyques, prayinj; to
aeyntyi aiui goyng on p^^ynafe . . .* (Lon-

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BLESSED THOMAS MORE

BUBESS, TBE PBADO, HADBID digitized by

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TH0HA8

doo, IflW); "The 8upply«wyoD of Soulvi" (Lon-
don, 1629[?1). written in answer to Rsh's ''Supplica-
tion of the Beggars"; "Syr Thomas Mope's answer
to ih.9 fjTste parte of the poysoned booke . . .
named 'The Souper of the Lorde'"(Lond(m, 1532);
"The Second parte of the Confutacion of lyndal's
Anawere . . ." (London, 1533); these two worka
together form the most lengthy of all More's writings;
bcndes Undal, Robert Barnes is dealt with in the
last book of the whole; "A Letter impugnjnige the
erronyouse wrytyng of John Fryth against the
Bleaaed Sacrament of the Aultare" (London, 1533);
"The Apolf^e of Syr Thomas More, Knyght, made
by him anno 1633, iHfter he had given over the office
of Lord Chaneellour of Englande" (London, 1533);
"The IM>ellacyon oi Salem and Bisanee" (t/mdon.
1533), an answer to the anonprmous work entitled
"Salem and Bisance", and vrndicating the severe
punishment of heresy; "A IHal<M;ue of Comfort
agwist Tribulation . . ." (London, 1553).
Arnong the other writings in the collected volume
of "EngHsh "Works" are the following which had not
been preriouBly pidilished: An uimnished treatise
"ujipon liioee words d Holy Scripture, 'Memorare
noviBoma et in etemum non peccabls ' ", dated 1522;
"Treatise to receive the blessed Body m our Lorde,
sacramentally and virtually both"; "Treatise upon
the Passion " unfinished: " Certdn devout and
vertuouse Instruccions, Meditacions and Prayers";
besides some letters written while in the Tower, in-
cluding his touching correspondence with his dauf^ter
Marauet. A complete bibuo^aphy of More's writings
will Be found in GIUow, " Biblit^^phical IKcti<mary
of EngKsh Catholics" (London, s. d.), V. 99-116.

For fullest list yet published Me Calalogtie of hookt of or on
air Thomai More, eolUetod by Alfred Cock, Q.C., and now at tk*
QuildhaU IMran/ (London, 1003}, aiaa TrantaOwu of the Bibl.
Soc.. V (1901). 177-180.

Ori{[inBl eovipoee, Leaiilf.i flii.' .ilirAi.; /..■tt.T* of
tkr rcMpi 'nf HfVti VIIJ, tJ. Biiuu i n i ; ^[|■rlMlf^, avd Hjujuiki
III-VTlI a«iidon. 187S-ft:.i; r.i/, ..f /■■.^j,..-.-, WfiNi^t;.
0i]. Bm.^NC. [I!, IV iJ-'iii'lrn. ]'^>i:i,~'. Il.i-.m. H^.th'.-l in '^jftiiVi,
ecJ. IU;ii.ieMi..rFi .l^^> 'i iv.iv.;.-, Il-V ' [.i>ii<l(^n, lM>j-S(.H :
t/. AVjKiii !ii'\<('\-r, r-.|, Clijc i [j-vili-n. l?'."!!, i^nlniua
leckm Iruiii Mtirr l;j Krn.-'jnij-' iiib'l ^-1 ir-^iii ICruiiniia U> More;
£<u-i df Sirrrii-!, t-WiipIi 7, liiiri.llr .1, cim iiiii.' siii' n'c-ijnJaaf tbattlil.

C->tnpltW Ijvcn: Ropiiit, !'!,<■ iAi', ArriiUm^mftt amd DtM
c}tSuilAlirr'jar <-if<fUirfu fvl Vt^t\it, Sir T. Wor* (Paris,

l&2(il, rp-«I. (rent! a b*/«iT .M.S. «iLli valiialjLe notes Iiy Lbwth
(172Etl, rcprintt'si Ln tlic King'r Clasiici (11)03); H*HP4FIf;i.S,
LiJ'' of Sir T, Mitrt, fDUiidcil on RniM-r. m'verikl copiii' ■r\i^t id
MS.. g. Briiidti Munruiu, Hwk'(;irb M^. d^ri:?; STjkfr.BT"iN. Trtt
Jh:.ui:i'^ (.\ni.wiT[i, J58S); flfcav-TA f>i p i?., Lip nf Siorr,
pTiLJt'.'d in L*Ti. IVfjHpuwiiiiTit 's K-'i'lr'-'ii'-'.i''/}! Bit'i;., 11, 181,
tS'Jni u Ma. in the ].rtinit't-l!l l.il'frify tin" lirrinc?- lo wlitcli ia
BanpiJ R^i-. Ba., wlii'?!'! 'in.i.""' f>r'ip"ri"i t" r'"'ii-i| -ii" Ttol'i-rri Rmtj-
Slu[)k;CHBnAmB Mori,, I.iJ' ■ni.'i licitK cif Sir Thvnii' M\"-i- . . .

ip!ina, icSSilJj rMfli- Hi sTJiii niih vafujibLe uotiw (l-^oii-jn,

flir Hiitt. ■)/ thf Lljf iiftiJ Dfilh iif Air T. M'rre ^London, IGflJ) ;
Y'.tKN'Ei^, SfiiTiiiiff It/ ih« Lift r>/ Sir Tii^inas Morn CLundna,
Ci,V»J£t, -Vtmtnr* o/ 5»r r. AfiV* {London. IflOB); vo?r
RrmiACir, T. M'lrtM aim drt Qn^rH hmrb<ntH fNlHVmb*'!"!!,
182M); WAi-fcH, Sir T. .W»rr, hn L,ffin-i Timer {Lowlda. IMOT;
KUrxiNTUMi, Life of Sir T. Mfr^ i Ijuculun, l^t-tl); UhiouutI'.
Lift arul ffrifiru;!! of Sir Th-'ni<!,i M'-rf- quite
tb? inM( valuable [ife yt( prMlucfwl: Ipem. TKi IPfl and Wiidom
of Sir Thomu Mori (LandoD. 19B3) ; Hfrm?*. tif* of Sir T.
ilare (LoadDia, l!l0fi>; BREUoxb, tr. Cbiu>, Sir TAnnwi Mort
(London. IIKH}; nssayB add ehoplcr!) in loTEef wtiflu, abo.^
bUndeb [nl. LEWt!«\ Ritt and Orn-ulh af ihe A'm^ican orMfm
(London. i877>L Camphei.i, iAte* of the Lord CiiantMan, \

i London, l^i^i. 'jcH^^VI; N'ift,hnt>, Studtt lur la &enai*Mamta
Paiia, 1877). pt. II: S Er-innriM. O^f^rd HW^wr-jfl/J^fif (toBdua,
SOY) I. fAiit&st'.^c tin'

W'A'^'i'n. WnynfirJr. .If'-rt (\^in<}'\a. IS!H»;; r,M i r, HtnitvaaM*

5" l/JJi'- I [.'.HJi-i'iEi.

Jfpf(,rjjyrff'in, I (Loiidijti, 10<W) ; Irinv, Thf Eni}!iik CKvrA in Ae
leih C*nliirV (Lflndnn, iiVii): Diton, ffW. ^ iht Ckursh of
Srmlsnd, t (LgfiduM. OA^mr, H^nrv Vllt and ilm

griliah UoruuttriM (L-jEt'Lon. IMS); TfE^J. Thr of lli*

Effomtatiori (London, liKHJl, iarM. TK- Ol-i F.nnH^h IIH-!'
(I^QdfWi, 1897): BBPTKica, n^- ffn-jn -/ /-f-rrv V!!F ■ !,..ri L i
ISBI); tll4 foltpwiU WT" jn^rp- nr traf r.ifii-ilill : H E:vnTi>->Ti, H

j^WBWtt ™ jSliiiiBK of .lir T-Anxi?* V.>r.> iLr.sdfn. 1»5L).

G. 'R'"K1KH HrDT.EBTON.

Thomai of Beokdnffton (Bektntoh), Bishop of
B«th and WaD^ b. at Beokington, Someiaet, about

1390; d. at Wells, 14 Jan., 1405. He was educated at
Winchester (1404) and New College, Oxford (1406).
After his ordination as priest he acquired much eccle-
siastical preferment, including^the archdeaconry of
Buekin^uun and a canonry at Wells. Being a alolled
canon lawyer he was made dean of the Ardies in 1423.
He was also freqaently employed as Ti'.ngTjah ambas-
sador abroad. Hia influence with the young King
Henry VI was so great that he was appointed lord
privy seal in 1442; and in the following year the pope
nominated him Bishop of Bath and Wells. He was
consecrated, 13 Oct., 1442, at the new foundation of
Eton College, in which he took great interest. As
bidiop he rebuilt the episcwal puace at Wells, and
peatQ' improved the city. He was a lovn- of kam-
mg and a munificent .patron to houses of educatran^
particularly Winchester School and Linoofai College^
Oxford.

BBCsnrOTOK, OJiciat Corretpondme* of Beekington, leerttary
to Honnf VI in R. S. (London, 1873) ; Ntcous, Jovma' bvona^
th* tuiio oT BoekingUm durMf r embaaay to nogotiaU mtarriofio bitutm
Bonry Vt and the Count of davfhttr (IxindoD, 182S) ;

HoMBO, L«eer« of Margaret of Anjou, Buhop Beekinatan and
atiun (CMndea Soeietr, Londoo, 18S3): Oaibdmkb in Ditt. KaL
Bia0., m. t. JBcdbinftm or Bakyntan, Tkomaa.

Edwin Bdhton.
Thunu of Bndwardlna (Bragwabdin, BRANn-

NARDINTJS, BrBDWARDTN, BraDWARDTN, DB BrEDE-

wardina), b. about 1290; d. in London, 26 August,
1349. His birthplace is variously assigned to Brad-
warding Hertfield, or Cowden; but he hinudf states
that he was bwn at Chichester. He was educated at
Moinn CoU^, Oxford, and in 1325 was one of the
proctors of the university who took part in the litiga*
tion between the university and Cardinal Galhardus
de Mora, Archdeacon of Oxford. As a theologian he
attained great fame, being known as the Doctor Pro-
fundus. His theological lectures delivered at O^ord
were expanded into the famous treatise on grace
known as "Summa Doctmis Profundi" or "De causa
Dei contra Pelaghim et de virtute causarum ad suos
Mertonensee". Chaucer couples him as a theologian
with St. Augustine and Boethius, — a testimony to his
popular reputation. In 1335 he was called to Lon-
don by Richard de Bury^ Bishop of Durham, who ap-
pointed him his chaplam and obtained for him the
chancellorship of St. Paul's Cathedral. He also be-
came one of the king's chaplains, and accompanied
Edward III on his eimtinental journeys and FVench
wars. To his apostolical labours among the Kngligh
soldiers many attributed the success achieved. Alter
the victories of Cr^y and Neville's Cross, he acted as
a commissioner to treat of peace with King Philip.
In 1348 the chapter of Canterbury elected Brad-
wardine to the vacant archbishopric; but the king,
offended by their omission to wait for the congS d'Slire,
requested the pope to appoint John Ufford instead.
Ufford, however, died of tne Black Death before con-
secration, and Bradwardine was then elected with the
king's approval. He was consecrated at the pope's
court at Avignon on 19 July, 1349; and iJien re-
turned to England. But the pestilence was raging
there, and immediately on hia arrival in London he fell
a victim to it. His European reputation as a scholu*
was based not only on his famous theological treatise
but also on his mathematical works : " De proportioni'
bus" (Paris, 1496}; "De quadratura cumUi'' (Paris,
1405); "Arithmetica speculativa" (Paris, 1502); ana
"Geometriaspeculativa" (Paris, 1530). Otherworics
of a similar nature exist in MS.

Savilb, Prafaee to BnAnwASDiira'B D* Cauta Dai (London,
1018); Pirn, Dt iUuUriini* Analia teriptoribut (Psris, 1S23)
Hook, Liw of the Arehlyiihopi of Canterbury (London, 1860-84)
Lbchuu, De Thoma Bradtcardino CommmtaHo (Leipsijc. 1882)
Baumm, In DUt. Hat. Biag^ s. t., BradmarMnt, Wwwat.

Edwin Bditom.

Thunu of Cantimpr6, medieval writer, preacher,
and tiieologian, b. of noble parentage at Leuw St-
Tierre near Brussels, in the Duchy (tf Brabant, 1201;

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TBOMA*

694

TB01U8

d. 15 M&y. 1272. At the age of five hia education be-
ran at Li^e, where he spwt eleven years mastering
ue difficulties of the trtvivm and gvmirimian. At the
age of sixteen he received the habit of the Canons
Regular of St. Augiistine in the Abbey of Cantimpr^,
where he was eventual elevated to the )wieethood.
In 1232, after fifteen years at Cantimpr^, durinj;
which he was a constant source of edification to his
religious brethren, he entered the Order of St. Dom-
inic at Lou vain. Immediately ^ter his profession in
the following year, he was sent to Cologne to piuvue
the higher theological studies of the order, under the
tutek^ of the illustrious Albert the Great. From
Cologne, where he sprat four years, he went to Pans^
to the Dominican atudivm of St. Jaines, to perfect him-
self in the sciences and to prepare for tiie apoetolate
of preaching. Returning to Louvain in 1240, he was
made professor of philosopher and theology — an office
he filud with rare distinction. He achieved e<iual
success in the apostolate of preaching, in recognition
of which the titie of "Flreacher General" was con-
ferred upon him. His missionary activities extended
thnn^hout Brabant and into Germany, Belgium, and
FVance. To his rmutation for missionarir zeal and
eloquence he added the fame of authorship. In all,
seven works, treating of philosophy, theok^, and
hagiology, are attributed to his pen. His first and
most important work is entitled "Opus de natura
renim". In the composition of this great work,
vhieh contains twenty oooks, he 8i>ent fifteen years.
"Bonum universale de apibus" is an allegory in
whioh, employing the figure of bees, he treats of pre-
cepts oonceminp; conduct and of the duties of su-
periors and subjects. This work, which had a wide
vogue amo^ spiritual writers for many centuries, was
printed at Deventer (before 1478), at Paris, and three
times at Douai (1597, 1605, 1627). His other works
treat of hagiology and are as follows: (1) "Vita Chris-
tins virginis mirabiUs dietta"; (2) "Vita B. Mar-
earitffllprensis"; (3) "VitaReLutgardia"; (4) "Vita
Joannis abbatis primi monasterii Cantimpratensis et
ejus Ecclesis undatons"; (5) "Supplementum ad
Titam B. Maris d'Oignies a B.M. Jacobo de Vi*
triaco".

Qo*m^EcHARD, Seriplmm «rdMi prtmUcatorum, I, 250;
Annie Dominie., V (ISQl), 433; ApMB, Mvkigim Aw*-A« wwv.
it^^'.^lU'Tm' 1%' ^'^^^ (l^Tm; Tnmi. Bom,

John B. CComhor.

ThomM of Celano, Friar Minor, poet, and hagio-
graphical writer, b. at Celano in the Province of Uie
Abruzzi, about 1200; d. about 1255. Hewasoneof the
first disciples of St. Francis of Assisi and joined the
order probably in 1215. Inl221Thoma8accoinpanied
Cssar of Speyer on hia mission to Germany. The fol-
lowing year he became cmUn of the oonvents at
Mayenoe, Worms, Speyer, and Cokigne, and soon
after Cssar of Speyer, on his return to Italy, made
him bis vicar in tne government of the German prov-
ince. Before September, 1223, Thomas returned to
Italy, and lived there in familiar intercourse with St.
Francis. Soon after the canonization of St. Francis
(16 July, 1228) he wrote his "Vita prima", or "First
Life" of St. Francis of Assisi, by order of Gr«K>ry IX.
Between 1244 and 1247, he compiled his "Vita se-
cunda", or "Seoond Ufe" of St. FMnois, whioh is in
the nature of a 8ui>plemait to the firat one, by com-
mission of Crescentius of Jessi, then minister general of
the order. About ten years later Thomas wrote a
treatise on the miracles of St. Francis at the bidding
of Blessed John of Parma, the successor of Crescen-
tius as minister gweral. In addition to these works,
around which a hu^ controversial literature has
' grown iw in reoent years, Thomas of Celano wrote two
Beautiful sequenoes in honour St. PVancis: "Fregit
▼icstor virtualls" and "Sanotitatis nova ngna". and,
in a& imbability. he is abo the author of the "Die*

Irs" and of the "Life of St. Clan of Assisi". written
between 1255 and 1261 (of. Robinson, "Life of St.
Clare", Introduction, pp. xxii sq.). The best critical
edition of the works of Thomas of Celam> is that oi
Pdrs Edouard d'AlcncoD.

HowBLL, TheLiwo/SC Franeit of A$»iwt, bti Brother Thomatot
COmo, I (London, 190S), 24; Robinbon, L^e of 8t. Clare, at-
criM to Thomat of Cdano (PhiladalphiA, 1910), 22 aq.; Idbh. A
Sitari Iidrodwiion io ^ranciwan hii«roXvTe (New Vorlc, 1907), 7-9;
Dubois, Thomat of Cdano, the Hielorian of St. Frandt, in Calh,
Vnit. BtdUtin. XIII. no. 2 (April, 1907), 2S0-208; D'Alxncon, S.
Praneiui Aeeitienrit: •ila el miraeula, additi* optueuUt UtwipieU,
auctore Fr. Thoma d« COano, IX (Rome, 1908), 22: Babiah.
Tommaeo da Celano eleew opere (C«a«lbordiuo, 189u; AnaUata
Boa.. XVIII, 81-176: Waddinq, Serift. USn.. S9S: BBAauu,
SitppUm.adterift.ii»n.,6T2'74.

Fbbdinand Hbckhanv.

Thomas of Dow, marWr; d. 2 or 5 Aug., 1295.
On the above date the French ravaged Dover with fire
and sword, and eventualhr attacked the Benedictine
priory of St. Martin. All the inmates fled, with the
exception of one, an old and infirm monk named
Thomas Hales or de Halys, whom the sailors found in
the dormitory, and slew for refusing to disclose the

Slaoe wlwre the treaaures of tiie ohunh were hidden.
fumerouB miraolee gor which see Horstmann, "Non
j^enda Ai^is " (Oxford, 1901), and Bisbop Chal-
loner's work cited below] are recorded by John <A
Tynemouth as having been wrought through bis
relics. Friar Simon Simeon, in the narrative of hu
pilgrimaose to the Holy Land about 1322, bears wit-
ness to the honour paid to him as a martyr at "the
Black Monks under Dover Castle" C'ltin. Sim. Sim-
eon. etWiU.de Woro.",ed. Naamith, Cambridge, 1778,
p. 7). RiehBrd II at the instance of his mother re-
quested the pope to canonize Thomas; but though an
enquiry was set on foot in 1382 nothing further aomm
to have been done. He was, however, popularly re-
garded in the neighbourhood as a saint. In 1500
Thomas Rich, Vicar of Buckland, near Dover, left
eightpence for the altar of Blessed Thomas de Ha^
at Dover Priory. His own church contained a chapel
of St. Thomas, whioh may possib^ have been dedi-
cated to Thomas of Dover. He is veiy generally
given the title of saint, and it is remarkable that he is
represented (fig. 26) in the oopper-plate reproduction
of the pictures formerly at the English College, Rome,
which resulted in the equivalent beatification of sixty-
three martyrs mentioned by name therein (see Eng-
lish CoNrEsaoBS and Martvrs). On neither day is
he mentioned in the " Acta Sanctorum ".

Supplement to Stanton, Slenolom of Etigtand and Walm
(Lonacm, 1892), 666; CBAiMmmtt, Britannia Mitcta, II (Ltmdon,
1745), 78: Hunnr, Tetlamonta ConIuum.: Satt Kent (Loiuhn.
1907). z, 891, lOt.

John B. WAiHBWBiQBir.

Thomu of Hereford (Thohab de Cantblups),
Saint, b. at Han^ledon, Buckinghamshire, Ekij^and,
about 1218; d. at Orvieto, Italy, 26 August, 1282. He
was the son of William de Cantetupe and MilUcent de
Goumay, and thus a member of an illustrious and in-
fluential family. He was educated under the care of
his uncle, Walter de Cantelupe, Bishop of Worcester,
first at Oxford then at Paris, During his studies he
attended the Council of Lyons in 1245, when he be-
came a papal chaplain. Retumine to Oxford, he
taught canon law, and in 1262 was elected chancellor
<^ the univerrity. In Uw Barons' Wars he took liie
popubff 8i<te and stated the Barons' case before St.
Louis at Amiens, 1263. After the defeat of Henry
III at the battle of Lewes he was made Chancellor of
England (22 Feb., 1265), gaining wide renown for hia
judicial wisdom and fairness. Deprived of the chan-
cellorship on the death of Simon de Montfort, be
went into exile, lecturing at Paris on theolon^ and
Scripture (1265-72). He then resumed teaching at
Oxford tin 1274 when he attended the second CounoH
of Lyons. He held several benefices which he ad-
ministered moet xeaknisly, appointing responsible

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THOMAS

vioars, vinting them regularly, and showing himself a
model pastor oy his holiness and wide charity. In
June, 1275, he was appointed Bishop of Hereford, and
was consecrated by nis friend Cardinal Kilwardby
(8 Sept., 1275). Ab bishop he continued his apos-
tolic me, labouring incessantly for the good of his
people, maintainins the privileges and property of his
dioeeBe against Gilbert of Gloucester, Llewellvn, and
others, supporting Edward I in his stnigue with
UeweUyn, combating the imjust practices oftne Jews,
and reformine the derey, secular and regular. He
came into conflict with Archbishop Peckham on ques-
tions of jurisdiction, and at the Council of Reading
(July, 1279) led the resistance of the bishops to the
policy of Peckham. (For the articles embodying the
points in dispute see Wilkins, "Concilia", II, 75.) His
personal differences with Peckham led first to his with-
drawal to Normandy that he might avoid an interdict
and appeal to Rome, and subsequently in 1282 to his
actual excommunication by the archbishop. He then
went to Rome to plead his own cause before Pope
Martin IV, who received him kindly. But his failine
health succumbed to the fatigue of the journey and
the summer heat. He was buried at Orvieto, but
subsequently his relics were brought back to Here-
ford^ where many miracles were wroucht by his inter-
cession and his shrine became secona only to that of
St. Thomas of Canterbury. He was canonized by
John XXn (17 April, 1320), and his festival, formerly
observed on 2 October, is now kept in Enghmd on
3 October.

SnuNGE, Life and 0—ta Tlumiu of CanMupe (Olwiit, 1S74 ;
LoDckm, 1879); BoLLANDins, Aeta SS., I Oct. (baaed on tba
ProeeMu* CanmitationU (Vuicftm MS. 4015) also Bib. Baa. LaL
(IdOl) ; Capokavb, JVota leatnda Anglia (Oxford, 1001); SutuoB,
2>« probatit tartelorum vitU (Turin, 187&-80) ; Butlxb, Live* of
Oil Saint; Oct. 2; CsAUXtHn, Britannia taneta (Londut, 1746) ;
Tout in DieL Nat. Bion.. a. v. ConWiipt, Tkoma* de (ctvioc
list of the abuodant medievft] materials too numerous to be
quoted here); Habdy, Dneriptiv Catalocut (for MSS. souroea),
I and UI (London. 1862-71); BibL dt I'huiUdt cAortM, IV
0^1803).

Edwin Bubton.

Tbomu of Jesus (Thomas de Andrada), re-
former and preacher, b. at Lisbon, 1529; d. at Sagcna,
Morocco, 17 April, 1582. He was educated by the
Augustinian Hennits from the age of tcn_, entered the
order at Lisbon in 1534, completed his studies at
Coimbra, and was appointed novice-master. In his zeal
for primitive observance he attempted a thtvou^ re-
form of the order, but the opposition was such that he
was obliged to desist. Howeven the eventual establish-
ment of the Discalced or Reformed Augustlnians is
attributed to the initiative of Thomas de Andrada (see
Hermits of St. Augustine). High in favour at
Couri;, Thomas assisted, in 1578, at the death of John
III, of which he has left an interesting narrative in a
letter still extant.

John's successor, Sebastian, fanmediately aet out
on his ill-starred expedition to Africa (see Pobtugal),
and he insisted that Thomas should accompany the
forces. The holy Hermit laboured among the sol-
diery with his accustomed zeal until wounded and
taken captive at Alcacer, 1578. A Mohammedaq
monk became his master and^ first by kindness then
by torture, strove to secure his perversion. Into the
dungeon where he was confined a faint gleam pene-
trated for a shortperiod at mkld»r, and by ^at uf^t,
day aft^ da^, TiKHnas composed for the comfort cl
his fellow-^nsoners his great wivk, "Os trabalhos de
Jesus", contemplations on the sufferings of Jesus,
which have since proved the nourishment and edifica-
tion of countless souls. The Portuguese ambassador,
learning of his pitiable plight, rescued Thomas and

B laced liim under the care of a Christian merchant.
>ut he begged to be sent on at once to Sageoa, where
some two thousand of the poorest captives were
detuned. There he commenced an apostolate which
was soon bleised with marvellous fruit; the }bS\

seemed transformed inlo a monwtety, numbers were
saved from apostasy or reconciled, and several of his
penitents suffered a glorious martyrdom. Mean-
while vigorous efforts were being made to procure his
complete liberation, but Thomas declared that, cap-
tive or free, he would remain to the end in the service
of the Christian slaves of the Moors. His enfeebled
frame at last succumbed to the combined effects of his
sufferings, toils, and austerities. He spent his dying
breath in reassurii^ some poor Christians on the point
<tf apostasy that their ransom would arrive by a ce>
tain date if they persevered, as indeed it dirf.

Since early in the eighteenth centuiy there have
been several English editirais <tf Thomas's famous
work on ^e Passion, but the last complete verdon
has long been out of print.

For biography twe Itttroduetion to Sufftringt of JttuM (tr., Loo-
don, 18S3). For intereating and oompiete aeoonnt of Tariout
Rngliith veraion* of Of irabaihot lit Jtiu nee Pbbstaos in BtUUm
da ttovnda eia—e: Aeademia daa Seieiuiaa d» LUboa, IV, No. 1
(Uabon. 1911).

VlNCKNT BCCIXT.

Thomas of Jon (often but erroneously called
JoTCE and frequently referred to as Anolub or Anqli-
cns), theologian and cardinal, date of birth and cir-
cumstances of his education unknown; d. at Grenoble,
13 December, 1310. He entered the Order of Preachers
in England, and was remarkable for his piety, au-
dition, and executive ability. He was master of th^
ology at Oxford, acted as prior of the Dominican con-
vent there, and afterwards served as Provincial of the
English Province for seven years (1296-1303). He
stood in special favour with Edward, King (rf Eng-
land, acting as his confessor and executing several
commissions for him. While at Lyons on a commis-
sion t<x the king, 16 Dec., 1305, he waa created Car-
dinal Priest of Santa Sabina by Ckment V. This
pope also appointed him legate to Houy VII, King
of G«many, out in fulfilling the appointment he was
taken sick and died. His body was afterwards trans-
ferred to Oxford and buried under the choir of the
Dominican church. His writings are often confused
with those of Thomas of Wales, O.P., also called An-
glus or Ad^ous. His most important work is "Com^
mentaria m IV libroa Sratentianim". The com-
mentary on the first book (Venice, 1523) still enjoys
popularity, and offers a concise and ctHnplete refuta-
tion <A the attacks made by Scottu on the teachings of
Saint Thnnas.

<}u4tiv^Ecbabo, BeriT^ ard. P., I (Paria, 1719), A08-10;
TocRON, Hvm. iU. Domin., t (Paris, 1743), 745-53; Di.loxb,
Vita pap, Aven., I (Paris, 1698), 582-4: Kinosford in Diet. NoL
Biog., a. v. Jon, hmu>K9. Bm. aae.. II (Paria. 1723), 799, 988;
Takhee. BibL bHL-hib. (LoDdoo. 1748). 749; HtrnsB. No-

Ignatius Smith.

Thomas of Strftsburg, a fourteenth-century
scholastic of the Ai^pistinian Ordo-, b., according to
some writers, at Hagenau in Alsace, accwding to others,
at Strasbuig; d. 1357. It was probably at Strasburg
that he entered the Augustinian Order, and there he
b^an his career as a teacher. About the year 1341
he went to Paris and became famous as a teacher in
tiie university. In 1345 he was elected eenerat of
his order, a position which he held until his death.
As generalj he undertook the revision of the consti-
tution of his order, and published the revised statutes
under the title "Constitutiones Ordinis Sui". He
interested himself also in the promotion of study
among the members of his order, and was instru-
mental in founding; at Verona in 1351 a stutiium
generale, or universityLfor the study of logic, philos-
ophy, and theology. His best known work is a com-
mentary on the "Books of Sentences" of Peter the
Lombard, published at Strasbui^ in 1490 (other
editions: Venice, 1564 and 15)^; Genoa, 1586; Goieva,
1636). He was also the author of sermons, medita-
tions, and letters, still unpublished.

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TB0MA8

Aa a teacher and eommentator he adhered ekwely to
the doctrines of Giles of Rome (.^gidius Romanue. or
de Columna), who since 1287 hiul oeen recognized aa
the doctor ordinis of the Augiistinians. He opposed
the innovations of Henr^^ of Ghent and the abstruse
distinctions of tiie Scotista. For example, on the
question of the distinction between the nature of God
and th» Divine attributes, he taught that there can
be no formal distinction, nor any distinction cS any
khid except by compariaon of the external effects m
those attnbutes. Smiilarly there is, he maintained,
no formal distinction between God and the Divine
ideas; whatever distinction exists among the ideas
themselves or between the ideas and the Divine
essence is Che work of the Divine intellect. Id regard
to the origin of the imiverse, he maintained that the
doctrine (tf creation can be proved by strict demon-
stration, the BtartingH>oint (» Uie proof being the fact
that the power of God, being unlimited, could not
poatulate a material as a necessary condition of action:
just aa ibe existence of God does not postulate any
oihet being, so the Divine action does not postulate
a material on which to act. This refers, however, to
creation in general. Whether the material universe
was created m time or with time, or, on the contrary,
was created ab eetemo, is a question which, he believed,
the human mind cannot solve without the aid of
revelation.

SiAcKh Oetch. dtr PhO. <tw MUtMttn, II (Mains. 1866).
1045 mn-i FABBicim, BOUoth. lot. mtd. tt infiimu latin.. V
(Florense. 18SS), 637 Kiq. Ominobb, Bibt. auovtiniana,
(laccrfaudt. 1768). 71, aqq. Dm Wirv, tr. Comr. Bitt. e/
AMTm. {N«w Yoik. 1809). 4S7, 488, l»a • panvaph <» ^
AaMiu Solwol.

WiujAM Turner.

ThoniM of Tillaium, Saint, educator, ^iUui-
thropist, b. at Fuentellana, Spain, 1488; d. at valen-
oia, 8 Sept., 1555. Son of Alonzo Tomas Garcia and
Lucia Martinez Castellanos, the saint was brought up
in the jmtctioes of religion and charity. Every Fri-
day his father was wont to give in alms all the meal he
earned at his mill, besides his usual daily dole of
bread. On great feast-days he added wood, wine, and
mtmiry; while to poor fanners he loaned money and
seed. On Uie death of her hud»and, Lucfa continued
the usual alms, and supplied indigent maidens in the
ne^bouriwod with clothing and money. When
sixteen years old, Thomas entered the University
AicaU, wha%, after proceeding master of arte and
licentiate in theobgy, he filled the chair (1514) of arts,
logic, and philosophy. Among his auditors were the
famed scholars Ferdinand de Encina and Dominic
Soto. With AlcaU, however, ended his university
associations, he having declined the chair of natural
philosophy at Salamanca, where he joined the Augua-
tintansm 1516, his vows following a year later, and his
ordination to priesthood the year after; his first Mass
was celebrated at Christmas, 1518. At Salamanca
Convent Thomas was given the class of Scholastic
theology because of his attachment for books, chiefly
the Lombard and St. Thomas, and his exemplary Ufe.
Preaching in the chief pulpits of E^win was soon added
to his duties, among otn^ placea at Valencia, the
field of his later trials, and Valladolid, seat of the im-
per^ Court and residence of the Emperor Charles V
when on his visits from the Low Countries. In this
last-named city St. Thomas was named by the em-
peror his court preacher, and one of his councillors of
State. Rarely, however, did the saint pay visits of
ceremony to the then master of Europe, though his
written correspondence with Charles, who held his
opinions in high esteem, was voluminous. Towards
the close of his life, while at Valencia, he had all the
emperw'a letters destroyed ; his own letttta to the em-
peror, however, are now stored at Simancas.

Apart from these burdens Thomas held many offices
of trust in his ordw, e. g. as convent prior in various
cities, among others at Valladolid in 1644, the very

vear he was called to the See of Valencia. Moreover,
he was twice provincial-prior, first of Andalusia and
Castile in 1527, then six years later of Castile alone,
whence the first mission band of his brethren was sent
across the Atlantic in 1533 to establish houses of their
order in Mexico. On 5 Aug., 1544, he received his
nomination to the Archbishopric of Valencia, a poat
that for well-nigh a hundred years had witnessed no
bi^op in residence, an appointment that was con-
firmed by Paul III. Previously St. Thomas had d^
clined the See of Qranada, offered him by the emperor,
while that of Valencia he ad^ipted only through obe-
dience to his superiors. He was consecrated in the
church of his order at Valladolid by Juan, Cardinal
Tavera de Pardo, Archbishop of Toledo. On his en-
trance to his see on 1 Jan., 1545. of which he was
thirty-aecond bishop and eighth archbishop^ St.
Thomas opened hia career as ledalator and fuuliui-
thropiat, which won for him the titleaof " AlmsgiTw",
"Father of the Poor", and "Model of Bishops",
nven him at hia beatinoation in 1618 by Paul V.
During his eleven years of episcopal rule hia most
noteworthy deeds were as follows: a visitation of his
diocese, opened a few weeks after entrance into hia see.
Among other amendments he inhibited his visitatora
from accepting any gifts whatever. He t^en held &
synod, the first at Valencia for many years, when^y he
sought to do away with a number of abuses, as blood-
ahed, divorce, concubinage, and many exoeasive privi-
leges or unreaaonable exemptions; he abolished the
underground prisona; rebuilt the general hospital at
Valencia which had just been destroyed by fire;
foimded two colleges, one for young eccleeiastice, the
oth«- for poor students; laboured for the conversion of
the nuevoa CritHanot, whose profeaaion of Christianity
was lai|;ely mere outward show; established a cr^he
near his palace for foundling and the offspring of
indigratt parents; had Mass said at early hours for the
working-classes; and in brief, by statutes, by preach-
ing, and by example, strove to reform the morals of
churchman and layman.

Towards the poor especially his heart was ever alive
with pity; to them his palace gate was alwtqra opoi;
daily ne had a repast for every poor paw)n that ap-
plied for help, aa many even as four to five hundred
thus getting their meals at his hands. In everr disbiet
of the city he had almoners appointed with orders espe-
cially to search out the respectable persons who shrank
from asking alms: these he had supplied with money,
food, clothing, while as to indigent workmen , poor farm-
ers, and mechanics, he replenished their stock and
bou^t them tools, thus puttii^ th^n in the way of
making a living. Hia whole lifewaa replete with acts (rf
practical kindness. He spent his spare time chiefly in
prayer and study ; his table was one of simple fare, with
no luxuries. His dress was inexpensive; he mended
with his own hands whatevo* needed repairs. Num-
berless are the instances of St. Thomas's super-
natural gifts, of his power of healing the sick, of mul-
tiplication of food, of redressing grievances, (rf hia
eestaaies, of his conversions of sinners. He was taken
ill in August, 1555, of angina pectoris, of whieh he
died at the age of 67, at the termination of Masa in
his bedroom. His last words were the versiclea: "In
manus tuas, Domine", etc.; his remains were en-
tombed at the convent Church of Our Lady of Help
of his order outside the city walla, whence lat^ tb^
were brought to the cathedral. The saint was of well-
knit frame, of medium height, with dark complexion,
briUiant ^cs, ruddy cheeks, and Roman nose. He
was beatified by Paul V (7 Oct., 1618). who set his
feast-day for 18 Sqyt., and canonized by Alexanda
Vn on 1 Nov., 16M.

Various reasons are given to account for St.
Thomas's non-appearance at the Council of Trent,
among them that he was ill, unable to stand the
fatigue ftf travel; that hia people would not brook Us

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697

THOMASUN

aboence; and that the emperor felt unable to do

without his aid at home. The writings of St. Thomas,
mainly sermons, are replete with practical norms of
mystic theology. Some twenty editions have been
published, the oest and most complete bdng prob-
ably that of Manila, 1882-1884, in 5 tomes.

Salon, Vila (Milan, 1880); Mawtouw), Lif*, rapubVahed is
LoodoD by tba Oratoriana, and in Philadeli^ia in 1874; DAasn,
HiMMn (Paria and I^om, 1SB3); drndad de IKm (VallKlolid and
Madrid, 1882). EdWABD G. DoHAN.

Thomu P«re7i Bijissed, Earl ot Northumberland,
martyr, b. in 1528; d. at York, 22 August, 1572. He
was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Perw, brotho' of the
<^dle88 Henry Percy, oxth Earl of Northumberland,
an>i Eleanor, daughter of Sir Quisoard Harbottal.
When Thomas was eight years old his father was
executed at Tyburn (2 Jime, 1537) for having taken
a leading part in the Pilgrimage of Grace, and he
also is coDsidered a martyr by many. Thomas and
his brother Henry were then removed from titeir
mother's keeping and entrusted to Sir Thomas
Tempest.

In 1549, when Thomas P^y came of age, an
Act was paased "for the restitution in blood of Mr.
Thomas Percy". Shortly afterwards he was knitted,
and, three years later, in Queen Mary's reign, ne re-
gained his ancestral honours and lands. Declared
governor of Pnidhoe Castle he beaiwed and took
Scarborough Castle, widch was soied by rebels in
1557. In reward the Earldom of Nmlhumberland
tt^ther with the Baronies of Percy, Poynings, Lucy,
Bryan, and Fltzpuie were restored to him. He was
installed at Whitehall with great pomp, and soon
after was named Warden General of the Marches, in
which capacity he fought and defeated the Scoto.
In 1558 he married Anne Somerset, daughter of the
Earl of Worcester, a valiant woman who Bubsequently
suffered much for the Faith.

On Elisabeth's accession the earl, whofe steadfast
loyalty to the Catholic Church was known, was
kept m the North while the anti-Catholic measures
of Elisabeth's first Pariuunent were passed. Elizabeth
continued to show him favour, and in 1563 gave him
the Order of the Garter. He had then reogued the
wardensbip and was hving in the South. But the
systematic persecution of the Catholics rendered iimi
podtkin most difficulty and in the autumn of 1509
the Ca^Bc gentry m the North, stirred up by
rumours of Qie approaduu excommunication (tf
Elizabeth, were planning to liberate Mary, Queen of
Scots, and obtain liberty of worship. Earl Thomas
with the Earl of Westmoreland wrote to the pope
aslring for advice, but before their letter reached Rome
circumstances hurried them into action against their
better jud^ent. After a brief success the rinng
failed, and Thomas fled to Scotland, where he was
captured and, alter three years, sola to the EngUsh
Government. He was conducted to York and be-
headed, refusing to save his life by abandoning his
relioon. He was beatified by Leo XlII on 13 May,
18^, and bis festival was appointed to be observed
in the Diooeees of Hexham and Newcastle on 14 No-
vember. IHb daughter Mary founded the Benedictine
convent at Brusseb from wmch nearly alt the existing
houses of Benedictine nuns in England are descended.

PmLUPB in CAinf, IAvm ofth* Sngluh Martyr*, cspanding and
ooirectinff the sama aathor'a pamphlet BUited Tnomtu Pereu
in Caihotie Truth Sodelv, II (London, 1905), iii, 185; Suut
Paptri of BUfobaA, especially Donutiie. Addenda, 1566-79;
De FoiraiAifaux, Annul* tif th* Hrnut of Ptrey (London, 1)487);
Pekct in CoLUMa, Peeraii« qf BriiflaTtd, II (Londoa, 1779);
Deporitioni and EedMiattieal Proeeidinga from the Courti of
Durham (London, 1845); BbidokwaTer, CtmcerUUio eceUna
eaUtoliea in AngUa (Tner. 1588): BaARPB. MemoriaU a} Uu
RtbtUion of 1660 Qjaadaa, 1640). Edwin BniTTON.

Thomas Beddyng, Blbssiid. See Thomab
JoBNsoN, Blessed.

Thomu SOTTMI, Blsssid. See Thomas John-
son, Bimbwd.

TbomH SlMrwood, Bucssbd, martyr, b. in Lon-

d(xt, 1551; d. at Tyburn, London, 7 Fdiruaiy, 1578.
His parents also suffered for their conscience, both
enduring imprisonment for the Faith. After leaving
school in 1506, Thomas assisted his father, a London
vooUen driq>er, for about ten years; then, lecling that
his vocation was to the priesthood, he made arrange-
ments to go to Douay College and was in London
settling his affairs, and obtainii^ the means for his
support and education. While so engaged he was
recognized in Chancery Lane and betrayed by George
Marten, son of Lady Treaonwell Being examined
before the Recorder as to nis opinion of the Bull of
Pius V and as to whether an excommunicated queen
held lawful sovereignty, he denied all knowledee of
both Bull and excommunication, but expressed his
opinion that if the queen were indeed excommuni-
cated her rule could not be lawful. He was detained
at Westminster, where the attorney-general visited
him and found him constant in that opinion. On
17 November, 1577, he was committed to the Tower
by the Privy Council to be retained close prisoner,
from conference whh any person, and if he did not
willin^y oonfess such tniius as were demanded of
him, he was to be oommittedto the dungeon amongst
the rats. He was repeatedly examined, and twice
racked in order to eUcit where he had heard Mass and
who had been meeent thereat, but his constancy was
unshaken. After being nicked, he was cast into a
dark and fetid dungeon, where he was kept abso-
lutely without cfethK, without food, and with noth-
vag but the ban earth to lie upon. His friends were
not allowed to saj^ly his needs, and the utmost con-
cession that Willuun Romper could obtain was pw-
mission to supply him with straw to lie upon. He
was brot^ht to trial on 3 February, and pronounced
guilty of high treason for denying the queen's su-
premacy; four days later he was executed. He was a
man of good wit and judgment and, being well in-
structed in relwious matters, was very helpful to
many poor Catholics. Small in stature, he was of
healthy ouutltutkui wid of a che^ul disposition,
which ne maintained even amidst his torture.

KotKon ArdAet; Paanm, Mtmmn in CaOi. fUe. 8oc., II
(London. 1906). dooumenU ia the PuUia Record Offioe; Tovnr
BiSt ia Calk. Sac. 8oc. Ill; Pollbh, Acta of Ei>gli*h Mnrtipt
(London. 1891) ; CuLLOmB, Memoin of Ihe Miationarg Pritla,

J. L. Whitfield,

Thomas sin, Lotjib, theologian and French Ora-
torian, b. at Aix-en-Provenoe 28 Aug., 1619; d. in
Paris, 24 Dec., 1095. At tiie age frftJiirteen he entered
the Oratory and
for some years was
[HofeaBor of litera-
ture in various
colleges of the
congregation, of
theology at Sau-
mur, and finally in
the seminary cf
Saint Magioire, in
Paris, where he re-
mained until his
death. His chief
works are: "An-
cienne et nouvelle
discipline de
r^glise touchant
les b^n^fices et les
b^n^ficiers" (3
vols . in f ol.,
Paris, 1678-79),
which passed
through several
French and Latin editions and several abridg-
ments; "Donnatum theoloeicorum de Incar>

oatione, de Dei {voprietatiDUi etc." (3 vcta

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tn fol., Paris, 1080-69), likewise re-edited Beveral
times (the treatise on uie Incarnation is retarded
as Thomassin's masterpiece); a series of "Trait€s
histonques et do^atiquee" on ecclesiastical
fasts, leasts, the Divine Office, the unity of the
Church, truth and lying, alms, business and usury
(168Ot07), a aeries of methods of studying and teach-

rique aes ^its et d autres moyens dont on s'est

aervi pour ^tablir et maintenir I'unit^ de I'^glise"

(3 vols, in 4°, Paris, 1705). The last-named two pos-
thumous works were published by P. Bordes, who
wrote a life of Thomassin at the beginning of the
"Glossarium". ThomasBin was one of the most
learned men of his time, "Vir stupendfe plane em-
dilionis", as Hurter says, in his "Nomenctator", II
(Innsbruck, 1S93), 410.

Inoold, Bfoi tU WWomoAic ontorimnt <P«ria, 1880),
ITChTfli iifmata d« BaUmi, III. 477-S15.

A. lHd<»j>.

Thomai WoodhoiiM, BLsaaBD, martyr, suffered
■At Tyburn 19 (not 13) June. 1573, bemg disembowelled
alive. Ordained in Mary's reign, he was a Lincoln-
shire rector for under a year, and in 1660 acted as a
pnvate tutor in Wales, On 14 May, 1561, he was
committed to the Fleet, London, having been ar-
rested while saying Mass. Fw the rest of bis life he
remained in custody, unoompromising in his opposi-
tion to heresy, saying Mass in secret daily, recitmg his
Office regularly, and thirstily for martyrdom: but
treated with considerable lemeacy till on 19 Nov.,
1572, he sent the prison washerwoman to Lord But]^
ley's house with his famous letter. In it he begs mm
to sed£ reconciliation with the pope and earnestly to
"persuade the Lady Elisabeth, who for her own
great di^bMlience is most justly deposed, to submit
herself unto hxr siHritual prince ana father". Some
days later in a personal mterview he used equally
definite language. Confined then by himself he
wrote "divers papers, persuading men to the £rue
faith and obedience", which he s^ed, tied to stones,
and flung into the street. He was repeatedly ex-
amined both publicly and privately. Once, when he
had denied the queen's title, someone said, "If you
saw bar Majesty, you would not sqr so, for her
Majesty is preat''. "But the Majes^ ca Ood is
greater, " he answered. After being sentenced at the
Guildhall either in April or on 16 Jime, he was taken
to Newgate. He was admitted to the Society of Jesus
in prison, though the Decree of the Cong, of Rites, 4
Dec., 1886, describee him as a secular priest. He is
not to be confused with Thomas Wood (q. v.).

KsooB and Pollen in Lite* of tk4 Bngliih Martyra, ed. Camm.
II (London, 1905), jx, 186-203; Carltlb in DieL Ifat. Biog..
■. V. Woo 'hautt, Thoma$; Hdhb, Calmdar StaU Papen: SpanUh,
1868-79 (Loodoo. 1894).471: Lawn, Satdar'a AngUem <ScAum
(London, 1877). 817.

John B. Wainswugbt.

Thomlim.— I. The Doctrinb in General. — In a
broad sense, Thomism is the name given to the sys-
tem which follows the teaching of St. Thomas Aqui-
nas in philosophical and theological questions. In a
restricted sense the term is applied to a group of
opinions held by a school callea Thomistic, composed
principally, but not exclusively, of members of the
Otder of at. Dominic, theee same opinions being at-
tact»d by other philosophers or theologians, many of
whom profess to bo followers of St. Thomas. To
Thomism in the first sense are opposed, e. g. the
Scotists, who deny that satisfaction is a part of the
proximate matter (materia proximo) of the Sacrament
of Penance. Anti-Thomists, in t^is sense of the word,
reject opinions admittedly taught by St. Thomas.
To Thomism tn the second sense are opposed, e. g.
the MoKniits, as well as all who defend the monU in-

strumental causality of the sacraments in producing
grace against the ^tem of phjysical instrumentu
causality, the latto* being a doctrme of the Thomisttc
School. Anti-Thomism m such cases does not neces-
sarily imply opposition to St. Thomas: It means op-
position to tenets of the Thomistic School. Cardinal
Bilfet for instance, would not admit that he opposed
St. Thomas by rejecting the Thomistio tbewv on the
causality of the sacraments. In the Tnomistic
School, also, we do not always find absolute unanim-
ity. Ba&es and Billuart do not always agree with
Cajetan, though all belong to the Thomistic School.
It does not come within the scope of this article to de-
termine who have the best right to be considered the
true exponents of St. Thomas.

Tbe subject may be treated under the following
headings: A. Thonuam in gmeral, from the thirteenth
century down to the nineteenth; B. Tbe Thomiatic
School; C. Neo-Tbcunism and the revival of Scholas-
ticism.

A, Thomiam in General. — (1) Early opposition
overcome. — Although St. Thomas (a. 1274) was
highly esteemed by all classes, his opinions did not at
onoe sain the ascendancy and mfluence which they ac-
quired during the first half of the fourteenth centui^
and which they have since maintained. Strange as it
may appeaTj the first serious opposition came from
Paris, of which he was such an ornament, and from
some of his own monastic brethren. In the year 1277
Stephen Tempier, Bishop of Paris, censured certain
philosophical propositions, embodying doctrines
taught by St. Thomas, relating e^cially to the prin-
ciple of individuation and to tne possibility of creat-
ing sevoral an^b of the same species. In the same
year Robert Ejlwardby, a Dommican, Archbishop of
Canterbury, in conjunction with some doctors of Ox-
ford, condemned those same propositions and more-
over attacked St. Thomas's doctrine <A the unity of
the substantial form in man. Kilwardby and hia asso-
ciates pretended to see in the condemned propositions
something of Averrobtic Aristoteleanism, wbilst the
secular doctors of Paris had not fuUy forgiven one
who had triumphed over them in the controvravy as
to the rij^ta cm the mendirant friars. The storm
excited by these oondmnations was of short dura-
tion. Blessed Albertus Magnus, in his old age, has-
tened to Paris to defend his beloved disciple. Tlie
Dominican Order, assembled in general chapter at
Milan in 1278 and at Paris m 1279, adopted severe
measures against the members who had spoken in-
iwiously of the venerable Brother Thomas. When
William de la Mare, O.S.F.^ wrote a "Corr^torium
fratris Thonue", an English Dominican^ Richanl

Cli4)well (or Clapole), replied in a treatise ''Contra
oorruptorium fratris Tboma". About the same time
there appeared a work, which was afterwards printed
at Venice (1516) under the title, "Correctorium cor-
ruptorii S. Thomse", attributed by some to j^eidius
Romanus, hy others to Clapwell, by others to Father
John of Paris. St. Thomas was solemnly vindicated
when the Council of Vienna (1311-12) defined,
a^nst Peter John Olivi, that the rational soul is the
substantial form of the human body (on this definition
see ZigUara, "De mente Cone. Vienn.", Rome, 1878).

The canonization of St. Thomas by John XXII, in
1323, was a death-blow to his detractors. In 1324
Stephen de Bourret, Bishop of Paris, revoked the cen-
sure pronounced by his predecessor, declaring that
"that blessed confessor and excellent doctor, Thomas
Aquinas, had never believed, taught, or written anj;-
thmg contrary to the Faith or good monis*'. It ie
doubtful whether Tempier and his associates acted in
the name of the University of Paris, which had always
been loyal to St. Thomas. When this university, in
1378, wrote a letter condemning the errors of John de
Montesono, it was explicitly declared that the con-
demnation was not aimed at St. Tbomaa: "We have

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ISOMZBH

siJd a thousand times, and yet, it would seem, not
cli/ea enough, that we by no means include the doo'
trim (tf St. Thomas in our condemnation." An ao>
count oi these attacks and defences will be found in
the following works: Eehard, "ScriDt. ord. prsHL",!,
279 (Paris, 1719); De Rubeis, "Diss, crit.". Due.
xxT, xxvi, I, p. cclxviii: Leomne edit. WOTks fA St.
Thomas; Denifle, "Chart, univ. Paris" (Paris,
1890-91). I, 543, 558, 566; II, 6, 280; Dupleesis
d'Aigoitre, "Coflectio judiciorum de novia errori-
bus'^(3 vols., Paris, 1733-36), I, 175 sqq.; Du Bou-
lay, "Hist. univ. Par.", IV. 206, 436. 618. «22, 627;
Jourdain. "La phil. de s. Thomas d^Aquin" (Paris,
1858), II, i; Douais, "Essu but I'organikation des
Etudes dans I'ordre des S. prficheurs" (Paris and
Toulouse, 1884), 87 sqq.; Mortier, "Hist, des maltres
g^n. de I'ordre des ff. pr6ch.", II, 115-142, 571;

Acta cap. gen. ord. pned. ed. Reichert (9 vols.,
Rome, 1893-1904, 11; Turner, "Hist, of PhiL" (Bos-
ton, 19(3), xxxix.

B. Profreu ^ Thomim. — ^llie gsneral chaptn ot
&e Donunican Order, held at Carcassonne in 1342,
declared that the doctrine of St. Thomas had been
received as sound and solid throughout the world
(Douais, op. cit., 106). His works were consulted
from the time they became known, and by the middle
of the fourteenth century his "Summa theologica"
bad supplanted the "Xiori auatuor sententiarum"
of Peter Lombard as the text4)ook of theology in the
Dominican schools. With the growth of the order
and tiie widenii^ at its influence Thomism qn«ad
tiirouglwut the world ; St. Thomas became the great
master in the universities and in the alydia of the re-
Ikioiisorders (seeEncyc. "^temiPatri8"of LeoXIII).
Tne fifteenth and sixteenth centuries saw Thomism in
a triumphal march which led to the crowninx of St.
Thomas as the Prince of Theologians, when hk
"Sunoma" was laid beside the Sacred Scriptures at
the Council of Trent, and St. Pius V, in 1S67, pro-
claimed him a Doctor of the Univosal Church. The
publication of the "Plana" edition of his works, in
\B70f and the multiplication of editions of the "Opera
omnia" and of the "Sununa" during the sevraiteenth
eenturv and part of the eighteenth show that Tho-
mism nourished during that period. In fact it was dur-
ing that period that some of the conamentators
(for example, Su^bi^z, Sylvius, and Billuart) adf^ted
his works to the needs of the times.

C. Decline of Schohaicism and qf Thomiem. —
Gradually, however, during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries, there came a decline in the study
of the works of the ece&t Scholastics. Scholars be-
lieved that there was need of a new system of studies,
and, instead of building upon and around Scholasti-
cism, they drifted away from it. The chief causes
whicn brought about the change were Protestantism,
Humanism, the study of nature, and the fVenck
Revolution. Poutive theokwy was considered more
necessary in discussions witn the Protestants than
Scholastic definitions and divisions. Elegance of dio-
tjon was sought by the Humanists in the GrecJc and
Latin Classics, rather than in the works of the Scholas-
tic^ of whom were far from being masters of
style. The discoveries of Copernicus (d. 1543), Kep-
ler (d. 1631), Gablei (d. 1642), and Newton (d. 1727)
were not f avourabfy received by the Scholastics. , The
experimental sciences were in htmour : the Sdiolastics,
induding St. Thomas, were neglected (cf . Turner, op.
dt.,^ 433). Finally, the French Revolution disor-
ganized all ecclesiastical studies, dealing to lliomism
a blow from which it did not fully recover until the
last quarter of the nineteenth century. At the time
when Billuart (d. 1757) published his "Summa
Sancti Thorns hodiemis academiarum moribus ac-
cmmodata" Thomism still held an important place in
all theoIo(pcal discussion. The tremoidous upheaval
vtaid) disturbed Europe from 1708 to 181fi affected the

Church as well as the State. The University of Lou-
vain, which had been largely Thomistic, was compelled
to dose its doors, and other important institutions of
learning were mha closed or seriously hampcrrd in
their work. The Dominican Order, which naturally
had supplied the most ardent Thomists, was cruslfd
in France, Germany, Switzerland, and Belgium. Tl c
province of Holland was almost destroyed, whilst the
provinces of Austria and Italy were left to strunle for
their very existence. The University of Manila
(1645) continued to teach the doctrines m St. Thomas
and in due time ^ve to tbe world Cardinal Z<n>by-
rinus GoncAlez, OJP., who contributed in no smaU <&•
gree to the revival of Thomism under Leo XIII.

D. Dieiinctive Doetritm of Thomism in Gena-€U. —
(1) In Philosophy, (a) The angels and human souls
are without matter, but every material composite be-
ing (compoeitum) has two parts, prime matter and
suDstantuil form. In a composite being which has
substantial imity and is not merely an a^regate of
distinct units, then can be but one substantial form.
The substantial fonn <rf man is his soul (omma ro-
tianalia) to the exdusion of any other soul and of any
other substantial tarm. The prindple of individua-
tion, for material composites, is matter with its dimen-
sions: without this there can be no merely numerical
multiplication: distinction in tbe form makes specific
distinction : hence there cannot be two angels of the
same species, (b) Hie essences of tbin^ do not de-
pend on tfiafree will of God, but on His mteUeet, and
ultimately on His essence, which is unmutable. The
natural law, being derived from the eternal law, de-
pends on the mind of God, ultimately on the essence
of God; hence it is intrinsically immutable. Some
acti(His are forbidden by God because they are bad:
they are not bad simply because He forbids them [see
Zi^ara, "Sum. phil.''^ (3 vob.. Paris, 1889), ccx, xi,
11, M. 23, 24, 251. (c? The will moves the intellect
quoad exerottiwn, i. e. m its actual operation: the in-
tellect moves the will quoad 9pec\ficationem, i. e. by
presenting objects to it: nil volitum nisi proecognitum.
The befpnninK of all our acts is the t^prehension and
desire of good in general (bomm in (xmmvni). We
desire hwpiness (oonum in eommvni) naturally and
necessarily, not by a free deliberate act. Particuhu"
goods {bona parlicidaria) we choose freely; and the
will is a blind faculty, alwi^ following the last prao-
tioal judgment of the mteUect (Zig^ara, 61). (d) The
senses and the intellect are passive, i. e. redpient,
faculties; they do not create, but receive (i. e. per-
cdve) their objects (St. Thomas, I, Q. Ixzviii, a. 3; Q.
Ixxix, a. 2; Zigliara, 26, 27). If this principle is borne
in mind there is no reason for Kant's "Critique of
Pure Reason". On the other hand those faculties
are not like wax, or the sensitive plate used by photcg-
ri^herSf in the sense that tb^ are inert and receive
impressions unofmedously. The will controls the ex-
ercise of the faculties, mi the inooesB of acquiring
knowledge is a vital process: toe moving cause is
always within tbe living agent, (e) The Peripatetic
axiom: "Nihil est in mtellectu quod non prius in
sensu" (Nothing is in the intellect tiiat was not first in
the senses), is admitted; but St. Thomas modifies it by
saying: first, that, once the sense objects have been
perceived, the intellect ascends to the knowledge of
bigbn- tilings, evm of God; and, seooiHlly, that the
soul knows its own existence by itsdf (i. e. by its own
act), idthou^ it knows its own nature only by re-
flection on its acts. Knowledge begms by sense per-
ception, but the range (A the mtellect is far beyond
that of the senses. In the soul as soon as it b^ms to
act are found the first principles (prima prinajna) of
all knowledge^ not in the form of an objective illu-
mination, but in the form of a subjective inclinati<Mi to
admit them on account of their evidence. As soon as
they are proposed we see that Uiey are true; there is
no mwe reason for dotd)ting them than there u for

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denying the existence of the sun when we see it shin-
ing (see Zigliara, op. cit., pp. 32-42). (f) The direct
and primary object ot the intellect is the universal,
which is prepared and presented to the {passive intel-
lect (iHMIecfiu pets&nUa) by the active intellect
(inttmctua agent) which illuminates the phantas-
mata, or mental images, received through the eenses,
and divests them of all individuating conditions.
This is called abstracting the universal idea from the
phantasmata, but the termmust not be taken in a mate-
rialistic sense. Abstraction is not a transferring of some-
thingfrom one place to another; the illumination causes
aU material ana individuating conditions to disappear,
thai the untv^sal alone ahines out and is perceived by
the vital action of the intellect (Q. Ixxxi v, a. 4 : Q. Ixxxv,
a. 1, ad 1^, 3"°>, 4t>™) . The process throughout is so
vital, and so far elevated above material conditions
and modes of action, that the nature of the acts and of
the objects apprehended proves the soul to be imma-
terial and spiritual, (g) The soul, by its very nature,
is immortal. Not onfy is it true that God will not
annihilate the soul, but from its very nature it will
alwa^ continue to exist, there bdng in it no principle
of disintegration (Zigliara, p. 9). Hence human rea-
son can prove the incorruptibility (i. e. immortality)
of ihe soul, (h) The existence of God is not known
by an innate idea, it cannot be proved by arguments
a prion or a simuUaneo; but it can be demonstrated
by a posteriori arguments. Ontolopsm was never
tau^t by St. Thomas or by Thomists (see Lepidi,
"Exam. phiL theoL de ontologirano", Louvain. 1874,
c. 19; Ziraiara, Theses I, VIII). (i) There are no human
(i e. deliberate) acts indifferent in indii/idm.

(2) In Theology, (a) Faith and science, i. e.
knowled^ by demonstration, cannot co-exist in the
same subject with regard to the same object (Zigliara,
O., 32, Vll) ; and the same is true of knowledge and
opinion, (b) The metaphysical essence of God con-
sists, according to some Thomists, in the inteUigere
adualiawnum, i. e. fulness of pure intellection, ac-
cording to others in the perfection of aseitas, i. e. in-
dependfent existence (Zigliara, Th. VIII, IX). (c) TTie
happiness of heaven, formally and in the ultimate
analysis, consists in the vision, not in the fruition. <tf
Crod. (d) The Divine attributes are distinguished
from the Divine nature and from each other by a vir-
tual distinction, i. e. by a ditHndio rationis cumjunda-
mento a parte rei. The diaUru^io actualis fonnalie of
Scotus is rejected, (e) In attempting to explain the
mystery of the Trinity—in as far as man can conceive
it — the relations must be considered perfediones tim-
plicUer simi^icea, i. e. excluding all imperfection. The
Holy Ghost would not foe distinct from the Son if He
did not proceed from the Son as well as from the
Father, (f) The angels, being pure spirits, are not,
properly speaking, in any place; they are said to be in
the place, or in the places, where they_ exercise their
activity (Summa, 1, Q. lii, a. 1). Strictly speaking,
there is no such thing as an angel passing from place to
place; but if an angel wishes to exercise its activity
first in Japan and afterwards in America, it can do so
in two instants (of angelic time), and need not pass
through the intervening space (Q. liii). St. Thomas
does not discuss the question 'How mmy angels can
dance on the point of a needle; " He reminds us that
we must not think of angels as if they were cor-
poreal, and that, for an angel, it makes no d^eren(»
whether the sphere of his activity be the point of a
needle or a continent (Q. lii, a. 2). Many ai^els can-
not be said to be in the same place at the same time,
for this would mean that whilst one angel is producing
an effect others could be producing the same effect at
the same time. There can be but one angel in the
same place at the same time (Q. lii^ a. 8). The
knowledge of the angels comes through ideas (species)
infused by God (QQ.lv, a 2, Ivii, a. 2,Tviii, a. 7). They
do not naturallv linow future oontingenta, the aecretA

<^ souls, or the mysteries oi grace. (Q- Ivii, aa. 3, 46).
The angels choose either good or evil instantly, and
with fuu knowledge : hence their judgment is naturally
final and irrevocable (Q. Ixiv, a. 2). (g) Man waa
created in the state of sanctifying grace. Grace was
not due to his nature, but God granted it to him from
the be^ning (I, Q. xcv, a. 1). So great was the per-
fection of man in the state of original justice, and so
perfect the subjection of his lower faculties to the
higher, that his first sin could not have been a venial
sin (I-U, Q. Ixxxix, a. 3). (h) It is more probable
that the incarnation would not have taken place had
man not sinned (HI, Q. i, a. 3). In Christ there were
three kinds of knowledge: the aderUia beata, i. e. the
knowledge of things in ^e Divine Essence; the sc^
entia infusa, i. e. the knowledge of things through in-
fused ideas (tpeciet), and the sctentia CKmiisita, i. e.
acquired or experimental knowledge, which was noth-
ing more than the actual experience of things which he
already knew. On this last point St. Thomas, in the
"Summa" (Q. ix, a. 4), enihcitly retracts an opinion
which he had once held (III Sent., d. 14. Q. iii, a. 3). (i)
All sacraments of the New Law, indudii^ confirma-
tion and extreme unction, were imtituted inmiediately
by Christ. Circumcision was a sacrament of the Old
Law and conferred n-ace which removed the stain oi
original sin. The children of Jews or of other unfoe*
lievers may not be baptized without the consent of
their parents (III, Q. Ixviii, a. 10; Il-II, 9. x, a. 12;
Denzmger-Bannwart, n. 1481). Contrition, confes-
sion, and satisfaction are the proximate matter
(ffloteria proxima) of the Sacrament of Penance.
lliomiBts hold, against the Scotists, that when
Transubstantiation takes place in the Mass the Body
of Christ is not made present per modum addudionis,
i. e. is not brou^t to the altar, but they do not agree
in selecting the term which should be used to express
this action (cf. Billuart, "De Euchar.", Diss, i, a. 7).
Cardinal Billot holds ("De eccl. sacr.", Rome, 1900,
Th. XI, "De euchar.", p. 379) that the best, and the
only possible, explanation is the one given by St.
Thomas himself: Christ becomes present by transub-
stantiation, i, e. by the conversion of the substance
of bread into the substance of His body (III. Q. Ixxv,
a. 4j Sent., d. XL Q. i, a. 1, q. 1). Mtex the conse-
cration the accidents (accidentia) of the bread and
wine are preserved by Almighty God without a sub-
ject (Q. bixxvii, a. 1). It was on this question that the
doctors of Paris sought enlightenment from St.
Thomas (see Vaughan, "Life and Labours of St.
Thomas", London, 1872, II, p. 544). The earlier
Thomists, following St. Thomas (Suppl., Q. xxxvii,
a. 2), taught that the sub-diaconate and the four minor
orders were partial sacraments. Some recent Tho-
mists— e. g., Billot (op. cit., J). 282) — and Tanquerey
(De codine, n. 16) defend this opinion as more prob-
able and more in conformity with the definitions of
the councils. The giving of the chalice wiUi wine
and of the paten with bread Thomists generally held
to be an essential part of ordination to the priesthood.
Some, however, taught that the imposition of bands
was at least necessary. On the Question of divorce
under the Mosaic Jaw the disciples "of St. Thomas,
like the saint himself (Suppl., bmi, a. 3), wavered,
some holding that a dispensation was granted, otberc
teaching that divorce was merely tolerated in order to
avoid neater evils.

II. The Thomistic School.— The chirf doctrines
distinctive of this school, composed principally ^
Dominican writers, are the following: —

A. In Philosophy. — (1) The imity of substantial
form in composite beings, applied to man, requires
that the soul be the substantial form of the man, so as
to exclude even the forma corvoreitatis, admitted by
Henry of Ghent, Scotus, aiod otners (cf. Zigliara, P. 13;
Denzinger-BannwBTtj in note to n. 1655). (2) Ii
<7eated Deings there is a real distinction between the

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eaaeruia (caamoe) and the exittentia (existence); be-
tween the etaetUia and the mtbrisUtUia; between the
real relation and its foundation: between the soul and
its faculties; between the several faculties, lliere can
be no medium between a distinctio realis and a
tinclio rationis, or conceptual distinction; hence the
distinctio farmalu a^arte rei of Sootus cannot be ad-
mitted. ¥oT Thomistic doctrines on free will, God's
knowledge, etc., see below.

B. In Theology. — (1) In the beatific vision God's
essence takes the place not only of the specie* im-
presaa, but also of the species expreesa. (2) All moral
virtues, the acquired as well as the infused, in their
perfect state, are interconnected. (3) According to
Billuart (De pecc, diss, vii, a. 6), it has been a
matter of contravene between Thomists whether the
malice of a mortal sin is absolutely infinite. (4) In
choosing a medium between Rigorism and Laxism,
the Thomistic school has been ADtiixrobabiliBtic and
generally has adopted Pn^abiliorism. Some de-
fended .^kjuiprobabilism, or I^babilism cum com-
venaaiume. Medina and St. Antoninus are claimed
by the Probabilists. (5) Thomistic tbeolojpans gen-
erally, whilst they defended the infallibihty of the
Roman pontiff, denied that the pope had the power
to dissolve a malrimonium ratum or to di^nse from a
solemn vow made to God. When it was urged that
some popes had granted such favours, they cited other
poutins who declared that they could not grant them
(rf. Billuart, "De matrim.", Disa. v, a. 2), and said,
with Dominic Soto, "Factum pontificium non facit
articulum fidei" (The action of a pope does not con-
stitute an article of faith, in 4 dist., 27, Q. i, a. 4).
Thomists of to-day are of a different mind, owing to
the practice of the Church. (6) The hypostatic
union, without any additional grace, rendered Christ
impeccable. The Word was nyijoetatically united
to the blood of Christ and remained united to it.
even during the interval between His death and
resurrection (Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 718). During
that same interval the Body of Chnst had a transitory
form, called/onna cadaseriea (Zi^ara, P. 16, 17, IV).
(7) The sacraments of the New Law cause grace not
only as instrumental moral causes, but by a mode of
cai^ity which should be called instrumental and
physicaL In the attrition required in the Sacrament
of Penance there should be at least a beginning of the
love of God; sorrow for sin springing solely from the
fear of hell will not suffice. (8) Many theologians
of the Thomistic School, especially before the Council
of Trentj opposed the doctrine of Mary's Immaculate
Conception, claiming that in this thev were following
St. Thomas. This, howev^, has not Been the opini<m
either of the entire, school or of the Dominican Order
as a body. Father Rouard de Card, in his book
"L'ordre des frfires prAcheurs et I'lmmacul^e Con-
ception" (BruBeeH 1864), called attention to the fact
that ten thousand professors of the order defended
Mary's great privilege. At the Council of Trent
twenty-five Dominican bishops signed a petition for
the deBnition of the dogma. Thousands of Domini-
cans, in taking degrees at the Univereity of Paris, sol-
emnly pledged themsehres to defend the Immaculate
Conception (see bibli<ffi. to Thoius Aquinas, Saint;
also Kennedy, "The Imm. Con." in "Cath. Univ.
Bulletin", ^farch, IftlO). (9) The Thomistic School
is distinguished from other schools of theology chiefly
by its doctrines on the difficult questions relating to
God's action on the free will of man, God's foreknowl-
edge, grace, and predestination. In the articles on
these subjects will be found an exposition of the differ^
ent theories advanced by the different Bchools in ihsas
effort to explain thrae mysteries, for such they are in
reality. As to the value of these theories the follow-
ing points should be IxHiie in mind : (a) No theory haa
as yet been proposed which avoids all difficulties and
wmm all doubts; (b) on the main and most difficult

oi these questions some who are at times listed afi
Molinists — notably Bellarmine, 8u<rez, Francis de
Lugo, and, in our own days, Cardinal Billot (" De deo
uno et trino", Rom^ 1902, Th. XXXII)— agree with
the Thomists in deluding predestination ante pnr-
viaa merita. Bossuet, after a long study of the ques-
tion of physical premotion, adapted the Thomistic
opinion C'pu libre arbitre", c. viii). (c) 'niomists
do not claim to be able to e:^lain, except by a gen-
eral reference to God's 'ommpotence, how man re-
mains free under the action of God, whidi they con-
sider necessary in order to preserve and explain the
univffl'sality of God's causMity and the independent
certainty or His foreknowledge. No man can explain,
except by a reference to GocTs infinite power, how the
world was created out of nothing, yet we ao not on
this account deny creation, for we snow that it must
be admitted. In like manner the main question put
to Thomists in this controversy E^outd be not "How
will you explain man's liberty?'' but "What are your
reasons tor claiming so much for God's action?'' If
the reasons assigned are insufficient, then one great
difficulty is removed, but there remains to be solved
the proolon of God's foreknowledge of man's free
acts. If they are valid, then we must accept them
with their necessary consequences and humoly con-
fess our in^ility fully to explain how wisdom ''reach-
eth . . . from end to end mightily, and ordereth all
things sweetly" (Wis., viii, 1). (d) Most important
of all, it must be clearly understood and remembocd
that the Thomistic system on predestination neither
saves fewer nor senos to perdition more souls than
any other system held by Catholic theologians. In
regard to the niunber of the elect there is no unani-
mity on either side; this is not the question in dispute
between the Molinists and the Thomists. The dis-
cussions, too often animated and needlessly sharp,
turned on this point: How does it happen that,
although God mncerely desires the salvation of all
men, some are to be saved, and must thank God for
whatever merits they may have amassed, whilst
others will be lost, and will know that they them-
selves, and not God, are to be blamed? — Tbe facts in
the case are admitted by all Catholic theologians.
The Thomists, aroeidiDg to the autiiinity of St. Au-

Cine and St. Thomas, defend a system vdiich fol-
I the admitted facts to theur logical conclusions.
The elect are saved by the grace of God, which oper-
ates on their wills efficaciously and infallibly without
detriment to their liberty; and since God sincerely de-
sires the salvation of all men, He is prepared to grant
that same grace to others, if they do not. by a free act,
render themselves unworthy of it. The faculty of
placing obstacles to Divine jgrace is the unhapi>y
faculty of mnning: and the existence of moral e\*u in
the world is a problem to be solved by all, not by the
Thomists alone. The fundamental difficulties in this
mysterious question are the existence of evil and the
non-salvation of some, be they few or be they many,
under the rule of an omnipotent, all-wise, and all-
merciful God, and they miss the point of the contro-
versywho suppose that these difficulties exist onty fta
the Thomisto. The truth is known to lie somewhere
between Calvinism and Jansenism on the one hand,
and Semipelagianism on the other. The efforts made
by theolo^ans and the various explanations offered
by Augustinians, Thomists, Molinists, and Congruists
snow how difficult of solution are the questions in-
volved. Perhaps we shall never know, in this world,
how a just and merciful God provides m some special
manner for the elect and yet sincerely loves all men.
The oeldtirated Congrecatio de AuxHiis (q. v.) did not
forever put an end to the controversies, and the ques-
tion is not yet settled.

in. Neo-Thouibu and the Revival of Scholas-
ticism.— When the wwld in the first part of the nine-
teenth century bc^ to ODjoy a pcnod^ pesos aid

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rest after the dlBturbaaees caused bv the French
Revolution and the Ni^leonic Wars, closer attention
was given to eccleaiastical studies and ScholasUcism
was revived. This movement eventually caused a
revival of Thomism, because tjie great master and
model proposed by Leo XIII in the Encyclical
"^term Patris" (4 Aug., 1879) was St. Thomas
Aquinas. (For information oonc^roing this move-
ment, its leaders, and their work, see Neo-Scho-
LABTiciSM. The principal works pertaining to this
period will be mentioned below in bibliogn^iby.)
The Thomistic doctrine had received stroi^ nipport
from the older universitieB. Among these the Encyo-
lical "iEtemi Patris" mentions Paris, Salamanca,
AlcaU, Douai, Toulouse, Louvain, Padua, Bologna,
Naples, and Coimbra as "the homes of human wis-
dom where Thomas reigned supreme, and the minds
of all, teachers as well as taught, rested in wonderful
harmony under the shield and authority of the Angelic
Doctor". In the universities established by the
Dominicans at lima (1651) and Manila <1645) St.
Thomas always held sway. The same is true of the
Minerva school at Rome (1255), which ranked as a
university from the year 1580, and is now the inter-
national CoUegio Angelico. Coming down to oiu:
own times and the results of the Encyclical, which
gave a new impetus to the study of St. Thomas's
works, the most important centres of acti^nty are
Rome, Louvain, Fribourg (Switzerland) j and Wash-
ington. At liouvain the chair oi lliomistic philoso-
phy, established in 1880, became, in 1880-90, the
"Institut sup^rieur de philoeopliic" or "Ecole St.
Thomas d'Aouin," where Professor Mercier, now
Cardinal ArcDhisbop of Mechlin, ably and wisely
directed the new Thomistic movement (see De Wuli,
"Scholasticism Old and New", tr. Coflfey, New York,
1907, append., p. 261: "Irish Eccl. Record", Jan.
1906). The theological department of the University
ot Fiiboaxg, Svitserland, established in 1889, has been
entrusted to the Dominicans. By the publication
of tlie "Revue thomiste" the professors of that
university have contributed greatly to a new knowl-
edge and appreciation of St. Thomas. The Coneti-
tution of the Catholic University of America at
Washington enjoins special Veneration for St. Thomas;
the School of Sacred Sciences must follow his leader-
ship ("Const. Oath. Univ. Amer.", Rome, 1889. pp.
38, 43). The Univern^ of Ottawa and Laval Univei^
sity are the centres of^ Thomism in Canada. The
appreciation of St. Thomas in our diQrs, in Europe
and in America^ is well set forth in terrier's excellent
"Revival of Scholastic Philosophy in the Nineteenth
Century" (New York, 1909).

IV. Eminent Thomibts. — After the middle of the
fourteenth century the vast majority of philosophical
and theolo^cal writers either wrote commentaries
on the works of St. Thomas or based their teadiings
on his writings. It is impossible, therefore, to give
here a complete list of the Thomists: only the more
important names can be given. Unless otherwise
noted, the authors belonged to the Order of St.
Dominic. Those marked (*) were devoted to Tho-
miam in general, but were not of the Thomistic SchooL
A more oomplete list will be found in the works cited
at the end of this article.

Thirteenth Century. — Thomas de Cantimpr6
(1270); Hu^ of St. Cher (1263); Vincent of Bau-
vais (1264); St. Raymond de Pennafort (1275): Peter
of Tarentaise (Pope Innocent V— 1276); GUes de
Lassines (1278) ; Reginald de Pipemo (1279) ; William
de Moerbeka (1286): Raymond Marti (1286);
Bernard de Trilia (1292); Bernard of Hotun, Bishop
of Dublin (1206): Theodoric of ApoMia (1299);
Thomas Sutton (1300).

Fourteenth Century. — Veter of Auvergne (1301):
Nicholas Boccamni, Benedict XI (1304); Godfrey of
Fontaines (1304); Walter of Wtntecbuin (1306);

iEgidius Colonna (^Ggidius Romanus), O.BjL
(1243-1316); Wmiam of Paris (1314); Geranl of
Bologna, Carmelite (1317); four biographers, via.
Peter Calo (1310); William de Tocco (1324); Barto-
lommeo of Lucca (1327); Bernard Guidonis* (1331);
Dante (1321); Natalis Eervseus (1323): Petrus de
Pajude (Paludanusi — 1342) ; Thomas Bradwardin,
Archbishop of Canterbuiy (1349); Robert Holkott
(1349); John Tauler (1361); Bl. Henry Suso (1365);
Thomas of Strasburg, O.S.A. (1357); Jacobus Faas-
avante (1357); Nicholas Roselli (1362) : Dijrandus
ot AuziUac (1382), aometlmes called Duraodulus,
because he wrote against Durandus a S. Forttano*,
who was first a Thomist, afterwards an independent
writer, attacking many of St. Thomas's doctrines;
John Bromyard (1390); Nicholas Eymeric (1399).

Fifteenth Century.— Manuel Cafecas (1410); St.
Vincent Fener (1415); Bl. John Dominici (1419J;
John CJerson*, chancellor of the University of Paris
(1429); Luis of Valladolid (1436); Raymond Sabunde
(1437); John Nieder (1437): Cuweolus (1444), called
the "Prince of Thomists"; John de Montenegro
(1445); Fra AngeUco (1455); St. Antoninus (1459);
Nicholas of C!uBa*, of the Brothers of the Common
Life (1464) ; John of Torquemada (de Tiirrecrematai,
1468); Bessarion, Baoilian (1472); Alanus de Rupe
(1475); John Faber (1477); Petrus Niger (1471);
Peter of Bergamo (1482); Jerome Savonarola (1498).

Sixteenth Century.— Felbc Faber (1502); Vincent
Bandelh (1506); John Tetsel (1519); Diego de Dexa
(1523); Sylvester MaisoUni (1523); Francesco Sil-
vestro di Ferrara ^1628); Thomas de Vio Cajetan
(1534); commentanes by these two are published
in the Leonine edition of the works of St. Thomas.
Conrad Koellin (1536); Chrysostom Javelli (1538);
Santes Pagoino (1541); Francisco de Vitoria (1546);
Franc. Romieus (1552); Ambrosius Catherinus*
(Lancelot Politij 1553); St. Iniatius of Loyola (1556)
enjoined devotion to St. Thomas; Matthew Oiy
(1557); Dominic Soto (1560); Meldiior Cano (1660);
Ambrose Pelargus (1561); Peter Soto (1563); SixtuB
of Siena (1569) ; John Faber (1570): St. Pius V (1572) j
Bartholomew Medina (1581); Vincent Justiniam
(1582); Maldonatus* (Juan Maldonado, 1583): St.
Charles Borromeo* (1584); SalmenSn* (1585); Ven.
Louis of Granada (1588); Bartholomew of Braga
0690); Toletus' (1596); Bl. Peter Canisius* (1597);
Thomas Stwletou*. Doctor of Louvain (1608);
Fonseoa (1599); MoUna* (1600).

Seventeenth C^tury.— Valentia • (1603); Do-
mingo Bafiez (1604) : V^uez* (1604); Bart.Ledesma
(1604); Sinches * (1610); Baronius • (1607); Capponi
a Porrecta (1614); Aur. Menochio • (1615); Petr.
Ledesma (1616) ; Su&rez * (1617); Du Perron *, a con-
verted Calvinist, cardinal (1618): Bellarmme * (1621) ;
St. Francis de Sales * (1622); Hieronymus Medicea
(1622); Lessius * (1623) ; Becanus * (1624); Malvenda
(1628) ; Thomas de Lemos (1629) ; Alvarez ; Laymann*
(1636) ; Joann. Wigeers *, doctor of Louvain (1639) ;
Gravina (1643); John ol St. Thomas (1644); Serra
(1647); Ripalda*, S. J. (1648); Sylvius (Du Bois),
doctor of Douid (1649): Petavius* (1652); Goar
(1626); Steph. Menochio*, S. J. (1655); Franc.
Pignatelli* (1656); De Lugo* (1660); Bollandus*
(1665); Jammy (1665); VaUgomera (1665); Labbe*
(1667); Pallavicini* (1667); Busenbaum* (1668):
Nicohii • (1673); Ckmtenson (1674); Jac. Pignatelli *
(1675); Passerini" (1677); Gonet (1681); Bancel

Si85); Thomaasin * (1695); (3oudin (1695); Sfron-
ti* (1696); Qu«if (1698); Rocaberti (1699);
Casanate (1700). To this period belong the C^arme-
lite Salmanticenses, authors of the "Cursus theologi-
cus" (1631-72).

Eighteenth (>ntury. — (3uerinois (1703); Boasuet,
Bp. of Meaux; Norisins, O.S.A. (1704) : Diana (1706) ;
Tliyrsus C^nz^lez * (1706); Massouli^ (1706); Du-
bamel* (1706); Wigandt (1708); Piny (1709);LacnHx*

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(1714): CarriSres • (1717); Natalis Alexander (1724);
Echard (1724); Tourney*, doctor of the Sorbonne

(1729) ; Livarius de Meyer * (1730); Benedict XIII *

(1730) ; Graveson (1733); Th. du Jardin (1733);
Hyacintha Serry (1738); Duplesaia d'Argentr6 *
(1740); Gotti (1742); Drouin * (1742); Antoine *
(1743); LaUemant* (1748); MUaute • (1749);
Preingue (1752); Concina (1759); Billuart (1757);
Ben^ct XIV • (1758); Cuiliati (1759); Orsi (1761):
Charlevoix * (1761); Reuter • (1762); Baumgartner *
(1764); Berti* (1766); Patuizi (1769); De Rubeis
(1775); Touron (1775); Thomas de Burgo (1776);
Gener * (1781); Roeelli (1783); St. Alphonsue Liguon
(1787); Mamachi (1792); Richard (1794).

Nineteenth Century. — In this century there are
few names to be recorded outside of those who were
connected with the Thonustic revival either as the
forenum^ the promoters, or the writers of the Neo-
Scholastic period.

See also Free Wnx; Grace; Phiu»ofht; Pbb-
dbstination; Nbo-Scholasticisu; Scotish and
ScoTisTs; Theology.

For riae and igogrew of llioiiunn see woska rtttmd to in the
first part erf thii article.

For Tbomists, » complet« Urt of theolotpoal writcn of all
whoob ia found in Hcrteb, Nommdator Iiterariua, in Tabida
ehrmmtogiea at otd of eaoli volnnw. For writers of the Domini-
can Otder, down to the flnt quartor of the a^teenth eoitury , see
QsAtif^Echabik Script, ori. prod. (2 vds.. Paris, 1710-21).
Many writers of this school are mentioned in the arUole Pseach-
BU. Oaam aw, AeaJemie OmaniMaHon, Doctrinal attMiu; tiao in
Oucu. aVsiiMW If Nt^Tomitma (Ban Luis Potoei, 1S05).

For ThonisUo Philoscqdiera: HAQR*Ati, Ui»t. de ia phU. toh
lufjffue (Paris, lS72-Wh Da Wtrur, Hitt. da la phiL miditvdt
(Lonvain, 1900; 4th ed., 191^; Jotibdain, La phil de S. Th.
(TAmtK Q vob,, ^ris, 1858} ; GoNaiuu, Hiat. ds la pAtT. (4 rola.,
Paris, 1800-ei): UxBsnwio-HEtKan, OMcA. dtr pkil. (Berlin,
1902); TrmmB, Hitl. of Phil (Boston, 1903).

Neo-Tliomlsm. — ^Lists of publioatioiu pertMaiiis Ur this penod
are found in UsBBBwEO-Hsnnn, II, 297 sqq.: IV, 209 sqq., 561

liosrttpby

Mid the moat available for EnsliBh readers).

Publications on Tbomiiim in Kcncrol and on the doctrinen of the
Thomistic school have been multiplied so rapidly since 1870 that
volumes would be required for a complete list. The principal
works reviving diaput«e coneeming apeeial doctrines of the
Thomistio school are: Schnkxman, Contrownarum de ditiiue
gratia liberiqne arbilrii eoncordia inilia et progreeius (Frriburg,
1881); DuMHKmtrTH, Thotmu H dodrina pramatiemie pAymcn
(Louvain, 1886); Fams, Thmnae Aquinatia dodrina de eooperor-
tione Dei cum omni ertatum pratertim libera (Paris, 1893); Dum-
HRRMIITH, Defeneio doeirxTue S. Thoma Aiptin. (Louvain, PaHh,
1895) ; DiT Pont, La predetermination phynque et la doctrine d» S.
Thomas in Set. Cath. (Louvain, 1882-83); Ds Rbonoh, Banma
et idolina (Paris, 1883); Lessebtcr, S. Thomae et le Ihomitme;
8. Th. et Ui prtdettinalion (Paris, 1888); Gatraud; Le thomieme
et le mMniame (Paris, 1889-92); loEU, 8L Thomae tt le prfdeter-
prinime (Paris, 1895); GotU^RiaM, St. Thmnae tt le prideter-
minieTne (Paris, ISOu ; Del Phado, De gratia et libera arbitrio
(3 vols.. Fribourg, IwniDe xeritaU fundamenlalt vhileiopMa
chrietianm (FVIbowg, 18siO< 1911, the latter ed. treating the dis-
tinction between essence and existenoe.

See also Tbouas Aquikas, Saint, for list of reviews devoted to
Thomistn. For comparison of St. Thomas and Scotus, see
Vacant, Bttide* eompartee sur la vhiloeophie da S. Thomaa
d'Aviin et «w edit de Dtau Sect (Pans and Lyons, 1890; Andes
Annoucatnst (Jan., 1912): Revue nio-aeolaeligue, Aug-, 1911, 430;
Feb., 1012. 136. D.J. Kennedy.

Thompson, the name of two EnKliah converfa:
(1) Edwanl Healy and (2) Harriet Duuia.

Edwahd Healt, b. at Oakham, Rutlandshire,
Ei^and; d. at Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, on 21
May, 1891. He was educated at Oakham Bcm>ol and
Emmanuel 0>11^, Cambridge; and having taken
Anglican orders, obtained a curacy at Calne, Wilt-
shire. After some years of the Anglican min-
istry at Marylebone, Ramsgate, and eteewhere, he
became a Catholic in 1840 and published a« his de-
fence: "Remarics on certain Aiu;tican Theories of
Unity" (184«); "The Unity (rf the Episcopate con-
Bidered" (1847); and "A few earnest thoughts on the
Duty of Communion with the Catholic Church*'
(1847). In 1851 jointly with Jamee Spencer North-
cote (q. V.) he undertook the editorship of the valuable
series of controversial pamphlets known as "The Clif-
ton Tracts". The rest (tf his lifei tiie latter yean of

whidi were spent at Cheltenham, be devoted to re-
lieioua literature. His chief works were: lives of M.
Olier (1861), Marie Harpain (1869), St. StaiuBlaufl
Koetka (1869), Baron de Rentz (1873), and H^-
Marie Boudon (1881); "Devotion to the Nine Choiiq
of Holy Angds" (1869): "The Life and Glories of St.
Joseph" (1888); and "Before and After Gunpowder
Plot^' (1890). Most of this useful work consisted in
the skilful adaptations of foreign books which be
thought were of value to English-speaking Catholics.

Habribt Diana, wife of Edwwd Healy Thwnp*
son, and daughtw of Nicholson Calvert of Humsdon,
b. at Humaiten, Hertfordshire, 1811; d. at Chelten-
ham, Gkmoestersbire, 21 Aug., 1896. On her hus-
band's conversion she also joined the Catholic Church,
and like him devoted herself to literary work. Her
chief work is Uie "Life of Charles Borromeo", but her
stories of Catholic life won consid^able popularity.
These include: "Mary, Star of the Sea" (1848):
"TheWitchof MaitonHiU": "Mount St. Lawrence''
(1850); "Winefride Jonee" (1854); "Maigaret Daa-
vers" (1857); "The Wyndham Family" (1876); and
others, as well as articles in "The Dublin Review".

OiLLOw, BibL Diet. Eng. Cath., a. v.; OoBHAit, CaiuerU to
RatM <L(Hidon, 1910); Oomxiit, Motif* ds convereion da dik
mmWrM oiVitaiiMs. EdWIN BuBTON.

Thompson, Francis, poet. b. at Preston, Lancft-
shire, 18 Dec., 1859: d. in Ix>ndon, 13 Nov., 1907. He
came from the middle classes, the classes great in im-
aginative poetry. His fatho- was a provincial doctor:
two paternal uncles dabbled in literature; he himself
referred his heredity chiefly to his mother, who died in
his boyhood. His parents being Catholics, he was
educated at Ushaw, the college that had in former
years Lingard, Waterton, and Wiseman as pupils.
There he was noticeable for love of literature and neg-
lect of games, though as spectator he always cared for
cricket, and m later vears remembered the players of
his day with something like personal love. After
seven years he went to Owens Collie to study medi-
cine. He hated this proposed profession more than he
would confess to his father; he evaded rather than re-
belled, and finally disappeared. No blame, or attri-
bution of hardships or neglect should attach to his
father's memory; every careful father loiows his own
anxieties. Francis Thompson went to London, and
there endured three years of destitution that left him
in a state of incipient disease. He was employed as
bookselling ^ent, and at a shoemaker's, but very
bnefly, and became a wanderer in London Btreets,
earning a few i)ence by selling matches and calling .
cabs, often famished, often coU, receiving occasional
alms; on one great day finding a sovereign on liie foot-
way, he was requested to come no more to a pubhc
library because he was too ragged. He was neverthe-
less able to compose a little — 'TDream-Tryst'', written
in memory of a child, and "Paganism Old and
New", with a few other pieces of verse and prose.

HavingseensomenumDeraof anew Catholic maga-
siue, "Menx ^Sluid", he sent these poems to the
editor, Mr. Wilfrid Me^wll, in 1888, giving his ad-
dress at apost-office. llie manuscripts were pigeon-
holed for a short time, but when Mr. Meynell read
them he lost no time in writing to the sender a wel-
coming letter which was retum«i from the post-office.
The only way then to reach him was to publish the
essay and the poem, so that the author mignt see them
and disclose himself. He did see them, and wrote to
the editor giving his address at a chemist's shop.
Thither Mr. Meynell went, and was told that the poet
owed" a certain sum for opium, and was to be found
hard by, selling matches. Having settled matters be-
tween the dru^ist and his client, Kir. Meynell wrote a
preflsii^ invitation to Thompson to call upon him.
That day was the last of the poet's destitution. He
was never again friendless or without food, clothing,
shdter, m fire. Hie first step waa to ratoie him to

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better health and to overcome the ophim habit. A
doctor's care, and some months at Storrington, Sus-
sex, where he Uved as a boarder at the Premonstra-
tensian monastery, gave him a new hold upon life.
It was there, entire^ free temporarily from opium,
that he began in earnest to wnte poetry. "iMisy
and the ma^puficmt "Ode to the Setting Sua" were
the firat fruits. Mr. Meynell, finding him in better
health but Huffering from the loneliness of his Ufe,
brought him to London and established him near him-
self. Thenceforward with some changes tooountry
air, he was either an inmate or a eonitaat visitCMr until
his d^th nineteen years later.

in the years from 1889 to 1896 Thompson wrote the
poems contained in the three volumes, "Poems",
^'Sister Songs", and "New Poems". In "Sister
Son^" hi c^efarated his affeotioa for the two Ma
of the little daughters of his host and more than brotho*;
" Love in Dian s Le^ " was written in hcHiour of Mrs.
Meynell, and expressed the great attachment of his
life; and in the same book "The Makii^ of Viola" was
composed for a younser child. At Mr. Meynell'a
house Thompson met Mr. Garvin and Coventry Pat-
more, who soon became his friends, and whose great
poetic and spiritual influence was th^ceforth pre-
eminent in all his writings, and Mrs. Me^ell intro-
duced him at Box Hill to Geoi^ Mereditn. Besides
these his friendships were few. In the last weeks of
his life he received ma.t kindness frtnn Mr. Wilfrid
Blunt, in Sussex. During all these years Mr. Mey-
nell encouraged him to practise journalism and to
write BBB^B, chiefly as a remedy for occasional melan-
choly. The essay on Shelley, published twenty years
later and immediately famous, was amongst the ear-
liest of these writings: "The Life of St. Isnatius"
and "Health and Holiness" were produced subse-
quently.

Did Francis Thompson, unanimously bailed on the
morrow of his death as a great poet, receive no full re-
cognition during life? It was not altogether absent.
Patmore, Traill, Mr. Garvin, and Mr. William Archer
wrote, in the leading reviews, profoundly admiring
studies of his poems. Public attention was not yet
arouB^. But that his greatness received no stinted
praise, ihm and since, may be seen in a few citations
following. Mr. M^neU, who perceived the quality
<^ his genius when no other was aware of it, has writ^
ten of him as "a poet of high thinking, oi 'odestial
vision', and of imaginings that found hterary images
of answering splendour'^ Mr. Chesterton acclaimed
him as "a great poet", Mr. Fraill as "a poet of the
first order' ; Mr. William Archer wrote, "It is no
minor Caroline simper that he recalls, but the Jaco-
bean Shakespeare''; Mr. Garvin, "the Hound ot
Heaven seems to us the most wondoful ^ic in our
language"; Bume-Jones, "Since Gabriel's FRossetti's]
' Blessed Damozel ' no mystic^ words have so touched
me"; George Meredith, "A true poet, one of a small
band"; Coventry Patmore, "the'Hound of Heaven'
is one of the very few great odes oS which the
language can boast". Of the essay on Shelley (Dub-
lin Review) a journalist wrote tniXy, "London is
ringing with it . PVaiuus Thompson died, after re-
ceiving an the saeraments, in the exceUmt can
of the Sisters of St. John and St. Elisabeth, aged
forty-dght.

Carboll B. Cbii/tom.

Thompf on, Riqht Honoubable Sib John Spar-
Row David, jurist and first Catholic Premier of
Canada, b. at Halifax, Nova Scotia, 10 Nov., 1844; d.
at Windsor Castle, Eo^and, 12 Dec., 1894. He was
the eon of John Sparrow Thompson,, queen's printer
in Nova Scotia, superintendent of the money order
system, and native of Waterford, and of Catherine
Pottinger. who was of Scottish descent. Theparents
<m both vdes were npd Flotestuts Young Thomp-

son made a short course in the common schools and in
the Free Church Academy in hie native city. At the
age of fifteen he b^an the s^udy of law and at the
same time of stenography. He was admitted to the
bar in 1865 and for a short period he assisted in re-
porting the debates in the Nova Scotia L^islature.
In 1870 he married Miss Annie E. Affleck and shortly
afterwards became a Catholic. His progress in pub-
lic life was rapid and brilliant. B^iiniung as an alder-
man in Halilax in 1871, he became a member of the
House of Assembly in 1877, attorney-general in 1878,
Premier of Nova Scotia in 1882, and a judge of the
Supreme Court in the same yew. In 1886 he became
Mmister of Justice of Canada, and from the time of
his first great speech on the Riel question in 1886, his
position as one of the ^eatest of Canadian parliap
raeatarians was never disputed. In the federal arena
his successes wete brilliant and unbroken. In 1887
he went to Washington as les»l adviser of the Briti^
Government in connexion with the Fisheries Commis-
sion, and for this service was knighted by Queen Vic-
toria. In 1892 he became Premier of Canada, and a
year later he sat as one of the British arbitrators on
the Behring Sea Commission at Paris. In recogni-
tion of this service he was ^pointed a member of the
Privy Council of Great Britain. He died suddenly at
Windsor Castle whither he was summtmed hv the
queen, and his remains were conveyed to Halinuc on
H.M.S. Blmheun. A state funonl attoided by
state and church dignitaries from all parts of Canada,
took place on 1 Jan., 1896. His remains were buriea
in Hoty Cross cemetery. "All thinps considered",
says Mr. J. S. Willison, a distinguislied Canadian
writer, "his is the most remarkable oarew which
Canadian politics have developed."

Hopkins, T>u Life and Work of the Right Hon. Sir John Thomf
•m (Toronto, 1896); HonM of Commont Debater (Ottawa, 1886-
M)i MouuB, An Ehgy (Londoo, 18M); O'BusN, Funeral Ser-
mon on Sir John Tkompaon CBMix, 1906): Bourikot. BuiUtn

of Una Seetia (Tonoto, 1900).

Joseph A. CHisHouf.

Thompion BiTer Indifcm (Thohpson Indians),
an important tribe of British Columbia of Salishao
linguistic stock, also known as Knife Indians, occu-
pying the oountiy i^XHit the junction of ThtmuMcm
and Fraser Rivers, Yale district, from about Yale up
neariy to Lillooet on the Fraser, and as far as Ash-
croft on the Thompson. They surrounded the cog-
nate Lillooet, and Shuswap on the north; the Sechelt,
Squamish, Cowichan, and Songish on the west and
south-west; and the Okanagan on the south-east.
They are now gathered upon a number of small reser-
vations under jurisdiction of the Kamloops-Okanagan
Bgeni^, oS which the principal are Lytton (470),
Lower Nicola (356), Cooks Ferry (183), Boothroyd
(168), SpuEzum (157), Coldwater (107). Thear orig-
inal population may have been near to 4000 souls, but
is now reduced (1910) by smallpox and other causes,
consequent upon the adivent of the whites, to 1782.
The proper name of the tribe is Ntl^cyapamuk or
Nhlakapmuh, and they reco^ise five subtribes among
themsewes. In their primitive condition they sub-
nsted chk^ Inr huntmg and fi&hia^ together with
the gattioing of wild roots and hemes. In arts, or-
ganization, religious belief and ceremou'al, and gen-
tnl custom th^ resembled in all essentials their
neu^bouring kindred, particularly the Lillooet,
Shusw^, S^helt, and Souamish (q. v.), with whose
history also their own is closely intCTWoven. In 1808
Simon Fraser in descending the river which bears his
name passed through their territory, and shortly
afterward the Hudson's Bay Company established
poets throudiout the r^aon. In 1846 the Jesuit mis-
sionaiy Father John Nobili visited the Thompflnn
River, Okanagan, Shusw^, and otho- tribes of the
Fraaer River oountoy, prraching and baptivm; in
tempwary ahapels hniU. Kv tb# TodMpi

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About 1860 the noted miamonary ObUto iMAer
(afterwards bishop), Paul Durieu, spent a short tunc
with the tribe. In 1861 Rev. John B. Good, acting for
the EpiBOopahans, established a r^ular mission work
amcmg them, oontinuing for nearly twenty years
with the result that most of the tribe are now
of that denomination. In 1862 in common with tiie
other Fraser River tribes, they were terribly wasted
bjy smallpox. In 1880 the distinguished Oblate mia-
Bionaiy and philolo^t Father John M. R. Le Jeun&
best known for his invention of a Salishan system of
shorthand, began work among the Thompson River
Indiana extended after some >;ears to the Okan^^
and Shuawap. The entire tribe is now Christian,
about 1500 being Episcopalian, the rest Catholic, in-
duding all of the Coldwater band. Valuable ethno-
k^c studies of the Thompson River tribe have be^
made by Teit and Hill-Tout. Important linguistic
contributions are a grammatic sketch and voc^ulaiy
and several religious publications b^ Rev. Mr. Good
of the Episcopalian (Anglican) mission, and a number
(rf prayw> hym% catechism, and primer compilations
hv FathOT Le Jeune, all in the Salishan shorthand
characters of his own invention. The official report
for the Coldwater band (Catholic) will answer for alt:
" They have a good class of buildmgs and are steadily
improving them. They are industrious, steady and
extremely law-abiding. They have made good prog-
ress in farming. They class among our most tem-
perate and moral Indians."

Tkt, llumptOH tndiam of B. C. in Memoir Am. JVtu. ^al.
BUt. (Nnr York, 1900) : Idih, Traditiont of the Thointan Rnar
/ndtaiu in Afcmov Am. ^o£Uor< 5oe. (Boston, 1898): Hili^Tout,

Thomson Riw Indiana in Rept. Bthnol. Surm Canada. Brit.
AtMoe. Ad*. SeUnc* (London. 1889): Annual Rtpt. .

faira (OttaWk) ; Bancboft, Hial. Brit. Columbia (San FranoMO,

ISST); MOKic*. CatkoKe Chwdt in Weatem Canada (2 toIs..
Toronto, 1910); Piluho, Bibtiagraphi/ Saiiahtm Lanffva^ea (Bit-
Mu Am. Ethwriosr. Wuninston, 1803).

Jambs Moonxt.
Thomson, William, Vhnhrablb. See Sbbobaht,

RlCBABD, VSNKBABLB.

numlnen, Jban-Josbph, professor of law at the

University of Louvaio, minister in the Belgian
Government, b. at H^sett, Limbourg, 21 Jan., 1817;
d. at Louvain, 17 Aug., 1891. After a brilliant career
as a student he fir^t performed duties in the magis-
tracy and the administration <^ the province, but
even then was occupied with juridical works on penal
law. When disnuased by the Liberal (anti-clerical)
mimstiy, tiie University oS Louvain appointed him
in 1848 to the chair 'of criminal law. In 1863 he
was elected to-Jlarliament. It is difficult to sum-
marise briefly Thonissen's activity. Although he
achieved his tame in his chosen field of penal law, his
writings covered the moat varied points of history
and social science, as was evidenced b^ the fact that
in 1886 the national jury of social sciences awarded
him the prize. In penal mattos he beuui with
oommentaries on the penal code and devoted himself
eqiecially to the reform of the penal procedure which
be advocated while he was minister, and for the
history of which he wrote important works. He had
otmceived the vast plan of a history of criminal law,
Iwt realized only a part of it. llie first part, which
met with considerable success, dealt with Brahmin-
ical India, Eg^t, and Judea, and contained a
"Penal Code ^ the Pentateuch". He published a
woi^ on the penAl law (tf the Athenian Republic.
Coondering tlie Roman period as Bufficientljr well-
known, he took up the Frankiah period, which he
was unable to finim. These works are hia chief title
to fame from the scientific standpoint as are his
reports on penal procedure from the practical stand-
point. He aroused lively controversy by advocating
the suppression of the death penalty, which hia influ-
ence brought about in Belgium. While not rejectii^;
it ju abmutely unbwfuL Pioniann eouidend it
TTV— -W

useless in the social condition of the time. In fact,
although the death sentence is still legal, c&piw
punishment ia no longer inflicted in Belgium.

Detailed lists of Thonissen's numerous publica-
tiona are given in the Bibliography of the Acad&mie
Royale and in that of the Catholic University of
Louvain, to which the reader is referred- He showed
a marked preference for national political history,
his principal work on the subject being the "Hiatoiy
of the Reign of Leopold I^'. He also published
biognuthiea of prominent Belgians such as F^lix de
M^rode. He had been impressed by the events
1848 which determined his career and he deyoted
himself to a laborious study of innovating systems,
e^ciall^ of those men who are aometimes ctJled the
romanticists of Socialism, St. Simon, Fourier, Cabet,
Owen, Louis Blanc^
and others, being
led eventually to
write a history of
Socialism from an-
cient times to 1852.
These works and
many others se-
cured hia admission
to the Royal Acad-
emy of Be%ium and
the Institute of
France ; he was
commissioned by
the former institu-
tion to write the vol-
ume devoted to its
centenary (1872).

Thonissen's political life began in 1863 and was
never interrupted by his constituents. In the
Chamber his value as a jurisconsult was mucii
appreciated and he drafted many of the parlia-
mentary reports. He occupiedaunigueposition owing
to his characteristic independence which made him
disagree with the Right on certain points, for instance,
on military matters. He was deeply attached to the
Belgian Constitution of 1831, which contained articles
proclaiming liberty of worship, of the press, etc.
Although profoundly religious he was imbued l&e
many men of hia gencaution with the errors ol Liberal*
iam, and he wrongly rwarded these liberties as o£
natural right and defended this opinion in his com-
mentary on the Constitution (1844). After tJie papai
deciiioDS on these matters, be corrected his ideas^ but
always had a leaning towards solutions favourinp
broad tolerance. Although tempered by great gnu?
ality Thonissen's independence of character Ttas sueh
that even the Right feared him and did not desire
his participation in affairs. Thus when the king duM
ing a period q£ stress entrusted him with the form^
tion of a ministry (1872), he was not supported by his
party, which dreaded ooncessions to the Left or to
the Crown. When he finally entered the jnii^stiy
(1884), age had rradered him unfit f<» labniouamric,
though be was able to enforce the new school la«r
whicn the victorious Right had aubatituted for the
lay regime of 1870; this task consumed the last of hia
strength and left him unable to resume bis sclentifio
pursuits in his retirement (1887); his faculties soco
became clouded. Thonissen was an intrepid worker,
h firm Christian, an upright and simple man, wiUi
just a touch of arUeas vanity, though sometimes
brusQue in manner and givrai to ocoaeDonal ouiU
bursts. He was one of the most important members
of the faculty of law at Louvain and he will be chiefly
remembered in the sphere of penal law, where hn
name is destined to survive.

Numeroiu artJolea have been devoted to Thoninen and to bia
works. The list of the latter will be found in the bibliognoln'
mentioned above. See aleo Lamt in Annitaira da tAeadfrnaa
royale da Babriqua (1892): Ntuhm iA Annvaira da Fimitamli
coAoliRM da Uuaoin (186i). VlcrOR B RANTS,

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Thomay Abbej (\. e. "the isle of thonu", ai>>
ciently called Ancabio), in Cambridgeefaire, England,
was for some three centuries the seat of Saxon her>
mits, or of anchori1}eB living in community, before it
was refounded in 972 for Benedictine monks by Ethet
wold, Bishop of Winchester, with the aid of King
Edgar. The founder brought thither the body of St.
Botulph and of other Saxon saints, including, possi-
bly, St. Benet Biscop; and the church, origiiiaify dedi-
cated to JeeuB Christ and Hia Blessed Mother, became
known (hereafter as St. Mary and St. Botulph'a.
The structure built by Ethdw<dd stood for a century,
And was replaced after the Norman Conquest by a
new church 290 feet long, whidi was finished in 1108.
Tlie long wHes of charters granted to Hiomey in ttie
twelfth and ■thirtpenth centurieB attests the pros-
pHity <jf the at>l)L»y pjid the nujnbcr of its bcne-
lafltors. In Dorapariay Book its valiifi is reckoned as
equal totliaf. of Pctcrborfmgti ;!inil William of Mahnes-
bury deacribeB it, in. the rei^ of Henry 11, as "an
jmageof Paradise'', aadflourtshinginallrespeotB. Of
the thirty-eight abbots whose tuunes are reoraded, the
first was Godeman, and tibe last Robtft Blyth, who
was also Bishop of Dawn and Conrun*, in Ireland.
Blyth and hie community of nin^tc-en monks sur-
rendBTBcl the abbey to Henrv' VIII in 1539, receiving
a pension in pxchaTiB;p, The buililinf andmostof the
pronertv Vrun |iJ-;>ntcrl by Etlwar-I Vi to John Elarl of
BedfuFclt whosi^ fuuiily still owns ih&m. The original
Nonnan nave of fire bi^, wHh Ha perpoidicular
fAeteSUtty, remains, and is used as the parish chureh.
'SbA ^uiT has disappeared, and the nave aisles were
detnoliilbed in 1636, the cmitcriii] bi?in>; used to fill up
thp nave arn lirH. T)h- west fnmt. fliiitked by square
turr^'l-^ I* il li I'l'liLpiTLfil lrrniin!ilir!n.'i 1 IHI feet highj and
diaplayiDg fin elabara,te screen, with niches contaming
nine statues over the west window, is extremely
picturesque.

DtroDAU. Moiuut. aneKcan., II (LoadoD. 1S17), M3-618;
Takhmh, t/oliiia nionatUca: Cambrid^hir* (CKinbriilce, 1787),
uvi: WiLUS, HitL of Mitred Partiamentary Abbin, I (Loodon,
1718), 187-191; Wilublh. Malmesb.. D« irMtic emfiftniM,. ed.
BuuuroN (LondoD, 1870), 320^20; QiavJVl, The OnaUr Ab-
hnt ofSn^and (Loodon. 1B08), 305-210.

D. O. Huntbr-Blair.
Hkonii, Fbast or thb Cbown or.— The first feast
in htmour of the Crown of Thorns (Feattm waeep-
tionit cermm Domini) wsb instituted at Paris in 1239,
when St. Louis Inou^t thither the relic of the Crown
of Thorns, which was deposited later in the Royal
Chf^iel, erected in 1241-8 to guard this and other
relies of the Passion. The feast, observed on 11 Au-
gust, though at first special to the Royal Chapel, was
gradually observed throughout the north of France,
u the following century another festival of the Holy
Crown on 4 May was instituted and was celebrated
ftlmg with the feast of the Invention of the Cross in
parts of E^win, Germany, and Scandinavia. It is still
kept in not a few Spanish dioceses and is crfieerved by
the Dominicans on 24 ^ril. A special feast on the
Monday after Passion Sunday was granted to the
Diooeee of Freising in Bavaria by Clement X (1676)
and Innocent XI (1689) in honour of the Crown of
Christ. It was celebrated at Venice in 1766 on the
seoond Friday of March. In 1831 it was adopted at
RtHne as a double major and is oheerv«d on the Fri-
day foUowine Ash-Wednesday. As it is not kept
tiinu^out the universal Chureh, the Mass and
Office are placed in the appendices to the Breviary
and the Missal. The hymns of the Office, which m
taken from the seventeenth-century GaUican Bre-
viary of Paris, were composed by Habert. The
" Analeeta l^mniea" of Dreves and Blume contains a
large number of rythmical offioei, hynuis, and «e-
quenees for this feast.

^,Itouvur Di Fwm, ImUnmmtt it la Awrim (Fvi*. 1870);
NiujMji^^aMiariim^iMiHMti (InnSbniak, 1897); QaonmiD,

7. O. HOLWBCX.

Thoitpe, RoBEirr, Venerable, priest and martyr,
b. in Yorkshire; suffered at York, 15 May, 1591. He
reached the English College at Reims 1 March,
1683-4^ was ordained deacon in December following,
and pnest by CardiniU Guise in April, 1585. He was
aent on the mission, 9 May, 1585, and laboured in
Yorkshire. He was arrested in bed very early on
Palm Sunday, 1595, at the house of his fellow-ms^yr,
Thomss Watldnson, at Menthorpe in the East Rid-
ing of Yorkshire, someone having seen palms being
gathered the night before, and having iuionned John
Gates of Howden, the nearest justice of peace, Wat-
kinson, an old Catholic yeoman who lived a soKtary
life, is described by the treacherous priest John Cecil
as a clerk, so it is possible he was m minor orders.
Both, though naturally timorous, met their deaths
with great fortitude. Thorpe, condemned as a traitor
mere^ for being a priest, was hanged, drawn, and
quartered. Watkinson, condemned as a felon merely
for harbouring priests, was only hanged. He was
offered his life if be would go to cnurch.

Cbaixohbk, Mi—ionan/ Priul; I, no. 88; Poi,lsn, Bm^itk
Martara, 1U4-1903 (L(m£oa,l90&),X>a~2-. Knox. OoMwOwnM
(Lcndoo, 187S), piMuii.

John B. Wainbwright.

Thou, Jacqueb-Auqustb de, French historian, b.
at Paris, 8 October, 1553; d. there, 7 May, 1617. The
son erf Christophe ae Thou, first president of the Par-
lemerU of Paris, he studied at several French universi-
ties, especially at
Valence, where be
knew Scaliger.
Both when he ac-
companied the am-
bassador Paul de
FoixtoItaly(1672-
76) and when he
went to live in
Quienne (1581), it
was always his aim
to make the ac-
qmuntance of the
most celebrated
men of intellect,
such as MuretuB,
P. Manutius, the
Pithous, and Mon-
taigne. During
his sojourn in
Guienne he knew
HeniT of Navarre,
the future Henry
IV. As Master
of Petitions of the
ParlemerU of Paris in 1585 and in 1588 as coun-
cillor of State, he was the opponent of the League.
After the assassination of the Duke of Guise he
did much to further the reconciliation between
Henry III and Henry of Navarre (April, 1589)
and set out for Germany with Gaspard de Schomberg
to adc the help of Protestant princes against the
Lea^e. After the death of Henry III he entered the
service of Henry of Navarre, with whom he lived for
five years in camp. He had an important share in the
conferences of Surfinnes, which prepared the entry of
Henry FV into Paris (22 May, 1594) and eepecialty in
compiling the Edict of Nantes (1598) which estab-
lished the religious Uboty and political influence of the
Protestants. IDuring ttie regency of Maria de' Mediri
he took part in the negotiation of the Treaties of Sainte
Menehould (1614) and Loudun (1616) between the
Court and the rebellious Cond6. His influence in the
royal councils was exercised in behalf of Gallican ideas
and he was victorious in his opposition to the reoei^
tion in France of the Tridentine decrees.

An eminent Latinist, De Thou publi^ed seveni
ooDeetions of Latin poems, but his fame Is ebieQy diw

jAi)QinB-A.DOD8Ta Da Thou
From • oontempoiaiy putol portntit

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to his "HistOTue" written in Latin. Hii father,
Christophe de Thou (1508-82), havmg left numerous
materials for a national history, De l^ou set to work
writing it in 1591. His correspondence with foreicn
■oholara procured for him valuable documents. In
16(H he published the first part, 1546-60; in 1606, the
second, to 1572; in 1607, the third, 1672-74; and
in 1608, the fourth part, 1574-84. He intended
canyine it down to the end of the reign of Henry
IV (1610), but his narrative had reached onl^ the
year 1607, when he died. The last and unfinished
portion of his work was published in 1620 by
his friends Dupuy and Rigault. The best edition
of the Latin text was prepared in the eighteenth
century by the En^ishman ThcMnaa Carte, pub-
lished at London m aevm volumea by Samuel
Buehley (1733); there are French translations and
summaries. At first the influence of Cardinal d'Ossat
and of Du Perron put off the condemnation of his
work at Rome, but in 1609 to De Thou's great sorrow
the Congregation of the Index pronoimced against it.
The Parlement of Paris repUM by condemning Car-
dinal Bellannine's book on the power of the pope. In
his work De Thou oommitfl errors of fact and of ap-
preeiallion. In his judgment of Mary Stuart, for ex-
ample, he is too often influenced by Buchanan, an im-
pa^oned enemv of the queen's memory. But suoh
as it is his work has a certain value; Bossuet often
made use of it in his "Histoire des variations", and he
Bpe»ks of De Thou as a "great author, a faithful bi»*
torian".

In 1620 were published lus "Memoirs" in Latin:
they oover the period between 1653 and 1601 and are
an important source for the religious and literarv his-
tory of the period. Some writers have claimed that
bis friend, Nicolas Rigault, was their chief author.
The eldest son of Jacques-Auguste de Thou, Fran^ois-
Aiiguste de Thou (1607-42), was beheacfed at the
command of Richelieu for having kept secret the con-
miracy betwem Cinii-Mars and the ^laniards. The
IiDTary collected by Jacquee-Auguste was famous |it
was open to scholars and forei^ers. In his will De
Thou appointed Pierre Dupuy his children's libruian.
The library remained in the family until 1680 when it
was btAtght almost entirely by President de Menars
and in the eighteenth century passed to the Rohan
Soubise fami^. It then contained 12,720 works.
Successive catologues published durinff the seven-
teenth century are vccy in^Mntant lm>Uogrq>hioai
documents.

Patin, Bloge d* D» Thou (Puia, 1824) ; DdmsK, De Thou't Le-
bm, Sehififltn u. hiataritekt Kuntl (Dsrmatadt, 1837) ; Huuumb,
L§ prindtnt de Thou 4t m* daomdanU, Uur ctlitn MUoMtut,
Jfm vmoifim (Parii, 180B).

Gtoboks Gotau.

Thou, Nicolas db. Bishop of Chartres, uncle of the
historian Jacques-Auguste de Hiou. b. at Paris, 1528:
d. at Villebon, 6 Nov.^ 16»8. He becam e a cuion of
the cathedral of Paris m 1547, and Bishop of Chartres
by a Bull of 8 April, 1573. His antipathy for the
League, shared by his brother. President Christophe
de Thou (1508-82), made the bishop's position diffi-
cult when the people of C^iartres, who were devoted
to the League, shut their gates (17 Jan., 1589) to the
troops of Henry III, subsequently welcomed Uie Duo
de Mayenne, and rect^tuzed the aged Cardinal de
Bourbon as king. Nicolas de Thou temporised, and
on 20 April, 1591, received in his palace Henry of
Navarre, the future Henry IV. On 21 Sept., 1691, he
attended the assembly <A bishops which declared
"null, unjust and suggested by the malice of the ene-
mies of Rrance" Or^ry XlV's Bull of excommuni-
cation against Henry of Navarre, and on 25 July^593,
he assisted at Henry IV's abjuration in St.-Denis.
As Reims was still in the power the Due de May-
enne, Chartres was the city chosen for the coronation.
To eoa the diq>ute with Roiaud de Beause, ArdH

17 TBan

bishop of Bourges, who had just been appointed Arcb-
bishcn) of Seas and who claimed the honour of anoint-
ing the king, de Thou hy a skilful move had himsdt
appointed by the Archbishop of Reims as his repre-
sentative and was thus commissioned to proceed witii
the owtntation. Instead of the Sainte Ampoule Ham
was Inougbt from Tours a miraculoua ofl preserved in
the Abbey ol Marmoutier. The anointing took place
27 Feb., 1504. and the next day Nicolas de Thou
bestowed on the king the Collar of the Order of the
Holv Ghost. He left various pastoral writings and a
book entitled "C^^onies observe au sacre et
counMmement d'Henri I\'', roi de France".

C*nT, ChmMtoct* nmmnairt, bk. VI; Fimubt, La Fraitea
vmtifieaU: Chartru (Pui^ 1S78).

Geobokb Gotau.

Three Chapters.— The Three Chapters {rpU
iM^<tX«Mi) were propositions anathematixing: (1) the
person and writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia;
(2) certain writings of Theodoret of Cyrus; (3) the
letter of Ibas to Maris. At a very early stage of the
controversy the incriminated writings themselves
came to be spoken of as the "Three Chapters". In
consequence those who reused to anathematize these
writings were said to defend the Three Chapters; and,
vice versa^those who anathematized them, to con-
demn the Three Chaptos. Thus, that most impbr-
tant work, the "Deiensio trium capitulorum" by
Facundus, Bishop of Henniane, was an attack on the
anathematiiation of the writings of Theodore, etc.
The history of the controversy may be divided into
three periods: the first ending with the arrival of
Vigilius at Constantinople; the second with his ratifi-
cation of the Second Counral of Constantinople in
which the Tlffee Chapters were condemned ; the third
with the final healing of the schisms in the West
caused by the papal ratification of the aforesaid coun-
cil. We sh^ treat very cursorily of the second and
third periods, referring tne reader for fuller details to
the articles on the oouneil, Pelagius I, Fdi^us II,
' and Vigilius.

At the end of 543 or the bc^mning of 544 an edict
was issued in the name of the Emperor Justinian in
which the Three Chapters were anathematized. Jus-
tinian's purpose was to facilitate the return of the
Monophysites to the Church. These heretics ac-
cused the Church of Nestorianism, and, when assured
that Nestorius was regarded as a heretic, iMinted to
the writings <A his teacher Theodore of Mopsuestia,
whidi were quite as incorrect, and yet had never been
condemned. They added that Theodoret, the friend
and defender of Nestorius, had been restored to his
see by the Council of CThalcedon, and that the epistle
of Ibas had even been treated as harmless by the
coimcil. It was sincerely hoped by Justinian that
when grounds of complaint against the council had
been removed, the Monophysites might be induced to
accei^ the decisions of the council and the letters of
St. Leo, which they now insisted on misintopretiiw
in a NeetOTian sense. As a temporal ruler he widbed
to heal religious divisions which threatened the se*
curity of the empire, and as a good amateur theologian
he was probably rather pleased wiUi himself at beii^
able to lay his finger upon what seemed to him an
important omission on the part of the Council of Chal-
oeoon. But upright as he was, he was re^ly being
M^eered by Ongenista who were denrous of escap-
'm.% his attention. (For Justinian's campaign against
tibeOrigenistsseeXI.Sll.) Evagrius(Hi8t. eccl., IV,
xxviii) teUs us that Tbeodorus Ascidas, the leader ot
iht Origeaiets, came to Justinian who was consulting
about further measures against the Ongenists, and
raised the question of the Three Chapters to divert
the attention of the emperor. According to Liberatus
(Breviarium, c. 24) Ascidas wished to tfdce his revenge
<ni the memory of Theodore <A Mraguestia, who had
written much aaninst OrigeD: ancKfindug ^ ero-
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j>eror engaged upon & treatise which was to oonvert a
sect <^Monophysite8 known as the Acephali, sug-
gested a more expeditious plan. If the writing of
Theodore and the epistle of Ibas were anathematiEed,
the Council of Chaicedon being thus revised and ex-
purgated (Synodus . . . retractata et ei^UKata)
would no kmger be a stumbling block to the M<hk>-
physites. The adnussionB, quoted ^ Facundus
tCief 1, 2; rv, 4), made by Dcunitiao, Kduip An-
cyn, to Vigihus, tell the same atoiy of an Origenist
mtrigue.

The leading Eastern bishops were coerced, after a
short resistance, into subscribmg. Mennas, Patriarch
of Constantinople, first protested that to sign waA to
condemn the Council of Chaicedon, and then yielded
on the distinct understanding, as he told Stephen the
Roman apocrisarius at Constantinople, that his sub-
scription should be returned to him if the Apostolic
See disapproved of it. Stephen and Dacius, Bishop
of Milan^ who was then at Constantinople, broke off
commxmion with him. Mennas had next to coerce
his suffragans. They also yielded, but lodged protests
with Steiuen to be transmitted to the pope, in which
th^ declared that they acted under compulsion.
Ephraim, Fa^iarch of Alexandria, resisted, ihm
yielded and sent a meeaase to Vigilius, who was in
SicUy, affirming that he had signed \mder concision.
Zoilus, Patriarch of Antioch, and Peter, Bishop of
Jerusalem, made a like resistance and then ^^ie: Ided
(Facundus, "Def.", IV, 4). Of the other Wshops,
tboee who subscribed were rewarded, those who re-
fused were d^osed or had to "conceal themeelves"
(liberetus, "Brev.", 24: Facundus, "Def.", II, 3
and"Coiit.Moo." inGailandi,XI.813). While the
reeistanoe of &e GreekHspeakmg bishops collapsed,
the Latin, even those like Dacius of Milan and
Facundus, who were then at Constantinople, stood
firm. Their general attitude is represented in two
letters still extant. The first is from an African
bishop named Pontianus, in which he entreats the
emperor to withdraw the Three Chapters on the
^und that their condenmation struck at Chaicedon.
^e other is that of the Carthaginian deaoon, Fer*
randus: his opinion as a most learned canonist was
asked by the Roman deacons Pelsgius (aft^wards
pope, at thb time a strong defeoder of the Three
Quy>ters) and Anatolius. He fastened on the epistle
(rf Ibas — if this was received at Chaicedon, to anathe-
matize it now was to condemn the council. An even
stronger use of the benevolence of the council towards
this episUe was made by Facundus at one of the ccm-
ferenees hdd by Vigilius before he issued his "Judi-
eatum". He wished it to protect the memory of
Theodore of Mopsuestia because Ibas had spoken of
Inm inteimsof commendation (Cont. Moc, foe. cit.).
When in Januaiy, 547, Vigilius arrived at Constanti-
nople white Italjr, Africa, Sardinia, Sicily, and the
countries of Illyricum and Hellas through which he
journeyed were up in arms against the condenmation
erf &B Three Chapters, it was clear that the Greek-
qwaking bidiops as a whole were not ptepend to
withstand the emptor.

With regard to the merits of the conUoversy, tbeo-
logioal errors and, in the case of Theodore, very seri-
ous ones, were to be found in the incriminated writ-
ings (Theodore was practically a Nestorian before
Neetoriua) ; the mistakes of Theodoret and Ibas were
chiefly but not wholly due to a misunderstanding of
St. Cyril's language. Yet these errors even when ad-
mitted did not make the question of their condemn»^
tion an ewy one. Thexe were no good precedeata fon
thus dealing har^y with the memory of men who
had died in the peace of the Church. St. Cyprian,
as Facundus argued ("Ctmt. Moc.", in GallaiMli, X,
815), had erred about the rebaptism of heretios, yet
no one would dream of anaUiematisii^ him. The
etmdflnmatioii was not demanded to crush % heresy.

but to oonciliato heretics who were implacable enemies
of the Council of Chaicedon. Both Ibas and Theo-
doret had been deprived of their bishoprics by here-
tics, and had been restored by the Hol^ See and the
Council of Chaicedon on anathematijnng Nestorius.
Yet the counoil had their writings before it, and, in
the case of the i^isUe of Ibas, things were said which
oould «a8ily be construed into an improval of it. All
this made the condemnation \oak like an oblique blow
at St. Leo and Chaicedon.

The matter was further complicated by the fact
that the Latins, Vigilius among them, were for the
most part ignorant of Greek and therefore unable to
judge the incriminated writings for themselves. Pela-
gius II in his third epistle to Elias, probably drawn
up b;^ St- Gregory the Great, ascribes all the double -
to this ignorance. All they had to go upon was tiie
general attitude of the Fathers of Chaicedon. These
facts should be remembered in judging the conduct <tf
Vigilius. He came to Constantinople in a very reso-
lute frame of mind, and his firet step was to excommu-
nicato Mennas. But he must have felt the ground
was being cut from under his feet when he was sup-
plied with tran^tions of some of the worst passoKes
m the writinn ^ nieodrae. In 54S he issued his
" Judicatum'Hn which the Three Chapters were con-
demned, and then temporarily withdrew it when the
stonn it raised showed how ill-prepared the Latins
were ior it. Next he and Justinian a^^d to a gen-
eral council in which Vigilius pledged himaetf to bring
about the condemaation of the Three Chapters, it
being understood that the emperor should take no
further st^ till the council should be arranged. The
emperor broke his pledge by issuing a fresh edict con-
demning the Chapters. Vigilius had twice to take
sanctuary, first in the Basilica of St. Pet^, and then in
the Churcn of St. Euphemia at Chaicedon, from whidi
he issued an Encyclical to the whole Church describing
the treatmrat he had received. Then an agreement
was patohed up and Vigilius agreed to a general coun-
cil fcnit soon withdrew nis assent. Nevertheless, the
oounoil was held, and, ^ter refusmg to accept the
"Oonntutum" of Vwiliiu (see VxaiuuB» Popm),
it then emdemned t£e Three Chaptw. FinalQr
Vigilius succumbed; confirmed the council, and was
set free. But he died before reaching Italy, leaving
his successor Pelagius the task of dealing with the
schisms in the West. The most enduring of these
were those of Aquileia and Miliui. The latter came
to an end whoa Trontoi the schismatical bishop, died
about 581.

OnsnTAL Sooaon,— The -writmsi of Fiovmn in PX.,
LXVn. S27-«78, Galuhdi. XI. 8fll-«21: PuLo»im0» Fm-
munma, SpiMt. vl in P.L., LXVII. Oallandi, XI; Libbsatdb,
Br«^Mim»ia P.L., LXVIII, Manai. IX (Florence. 1759), 65»-
700, Oallandi. XII; PtHmAMua. Bpitt. la PX., LXVI, 995!
HABDomi, CtmeOia. IIL The Chronieon of Viotok Tdho-
NXN5IB u contained in P.L., LXVIIl, 957 sqq., and QALtAifDi,
XII; this is espeoiallT viJuable for the history of the nipprariM
erf the Dcbism in Africa. For the Mhinn in Italy (he moat iiii>
portant dooumeDta an oertain epistles of Pelacius I, Pelagius II.
and St. GreKory the Great. For editiooa see Pklaoidb I. Pon;
PBLAomB II, Pofk; Gkhoobt I (tub Gbbat), Baint, Popk.

OncKAL LiTBKATDU. — DvGHXSN*, VigiU U P&aae in Bn,
da vussl. kitt. (October, I8S4>; Hisfkle, HiaL. of the Church
Cotmeila, tr, Clark, IV CEdinbu^, 1895), 220 eqq., where alro
abundant references to older Kteratuie of the subieot will be found ;
OSAPHAX, The flrel Eiaht Oenerai CwnciU (LoodonJ. 48-59;
Ddddkn, OrtQoni Hi* areat: Mank, lAtn of tha Popw in tht
eartv MtddU Agee, I. pt. i (London, 1903): BoDOKiMS, Ttoly and
her InMdert, IV. V, VI; Gusaii, Biel. efnama and Iks Pvpe*
tkt Middle Agee. I (LoDdoc, 1911).

F. J. Baocbub.

Tbne BlTCn, Dioobsi or (Tbipluvianxn8Ib),
formed from the Archdiocese of Quebec, to which it is
now suffragan, founded on 8 June, 1852. The dncese
at first comprised on the northern shore of the St. Law-
rence, the Counties of Champlain and of St. Maurice
—the County of Maakinong^ oeing at that time a part
of the County ctf St. Maurice ; on the southon bank,
tlM Counties of Yamaskai Ni«^ Drummond, am

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709

THUBUKBO

twenty-four townahipe in the County of Sierbroofce.
Later on, this territory was divided, enieciaUy for the
ereetion of the Dioeeae of Sherbrooke and of the
Vieariate-ApoBtolio oi Poptiao. Lastly, in July
1885, all the wishes of the southern dwre were
erected into the Dioeeee of Nioolet. It now oomprises
forty-three parishes and edght missions. The Catho-
lic population is 84,000; non-CathoUe 800, tA whom
600 are Protestants.

The first bishop. Mgr. Thomas Cooke, died in 1870
and was sucoeeded by Mgr. hom^-VmujoiB Lafl^he,
administrator of the diocese from 1869 to 1808, year
of his dea^. Ntor. F.-X. C^utier is tiie in^sent and
third Bishop of Hiree Riven: bom at Ste-Genevidv«
de Battsean^ Chunplain, Quebec, 2 November, 1848,
be was ordained priest, 22 September, 1 872, ^pointed
Bishop of Three Rivers, 8 May, 1899, and conse-
crated on 25 July following by Mgr. L.-N. B^n,
Archbishop of Quebec. The diocese contains 100
secular pnests; 1 convent of IVanoiscan Fathers; 1
house of Oblate Fathers; 10 schools of brothers; com-
mercial colleges, acadonies, etc., 4 under ihe direction
of the Brothers of the Christian Schools, 3 under the
direction of the Brothers of Christian Instruction,
2 under the direction of the Brothers of St. Gabriel, 1
under the direotion of the Brothers of the Sacred
Heart. There is also a juniorate in cAikrge of ^e
Brothers of Christian Instruction.

The institutes of women are: Ursulinee, 7 oonvents;
Sisters of Uie Congr^tiou of Notre-Iteme, 2 oon-
vents; Sisters of the Assumption, 4 oonvents; Sisters
of the Good Shephad, 1 convent; Gray Nuns ttf the
Ooss, 1 oonv^t; Daughters of Jesus, 2 convents, 1
kindergarten for boys and 13 schools for f^rls and
boys; uie Sisteis of Charity of Providence, with 4 or-
pbana^, 2 boarding-schoob for girls, 4 asvlums, and
1 hospital; Dominican Sisters of the Holy Rosary,
1 orphanage, they also have charge of 2 relinous in-
stitutions; Sisters Adorers of the Precious Blood, 1
monast^.

The churdies, mostly aU of ihem remodeled, are ro-
maricable in structure and in sise. The cathedral,
erected in 18M, and restored in 1904, is a magnificent
monument of Gothic architecture. The schools in
each parish are numerous and well conducted. The
Seminary of Three Rivers, founded in 1860, has a
yearly attendance of 300 students. Religious and
benevolent societies are numerous and ffouri^iing.
The cUocese has lUso literary cireles, Youn^ Men's
Anooiatiofis, savings' banks, paroehial Hbnuics, and
temperance societies.

N. Marchand.

Three Witnesies. See John, Eputtuis of Saint.

Throndhjam. See Tbondhjem.

Throne (Lat. Ihronus, cathedra, sedea epitcapalia),
the seat the bishop uses when not engi^ed at the
altar. If the ahar stands near the entrance to the
c^ir, then, according to the "Csremoniale episco-
porum", the throne is to be placed at the apex of the
apse in the centre of the stalte of the canons that join
it to the right and left. If, however, the altM- is
placed close to the wall of the apse, or is only a short
distance from this wall, the throne must be placed on
the Gospel side of the choir. Accordii^ to the "Cse-
remoniale episcoporum" the tluone is to be made in
modum cathedrce et tJironi immobilu (in the fashion of
an immovable chair or throne) such as is still to be
seen in many old churches. Conseouently an or-
dinary chair, used temporarily or only for the mo-
ment, does not suffice as the throne of a bishop.
Further directions are forma prtsalta et mblimis, that
is, the chair must have a high back and arms, and be
raised above the floor so that three steps lead up to it.
The steps are to be oovered by a carpet, the throne
Hself is to have Bfo^fwl over it » pilk oover of tb9 ewne

colour as the bishop's vestments, but not oi cbth of
gold, unkes the bishop should be a cardinal. The
throne can be surmounted by a baldachino only when
there ia a baldachino above the altar, or when the
ahar has a dborium altar over it. When in another
diocese, a bishop can only use the throne by virtue of a
letter oi dispensation from the diocesan bishop.
Should a cardinal be present, the bishop must yield
the throne to the cardinal and use a faldistorivm
placed on the Gos^ aide of the altar, that is, a four*
legged faldstool with arms. Auxiliary bishops must
always use a.faIdistorium. Abbots have the right to a
throne in their own churches, but this throne can only
have two steps
leading to it, and
cannot have a bal-
dachino over it.

Time has made
no essential
changes in the
episcopal cathedra.
At different pe-
riods, e^Meially in
the twelfUi and
thirteenth centu-
ries, the throne
bad the form of a
faldietorium, but
as a rule it always
showed the ancient
duuraoteriBtie type
of a seat, secnued
to the spot where
it stood, with ums
and a back of
some height. The
modifications that
it underwit in
the course of

EnaoorAL Tbsoio, wtra Mosaic Dao
oxATioN, CaracK or S. Cmuamo
IN Palauo, Roin

time resulted solely from the changes in the styte
of the art, and were therefore merely conventiotud.
The episcopal throne in the pro-Carfovinnan period
has been already treated in the article Cathsoha.
Other examples of the same era are the throne at
Naples in the Church of St. Januarius, and the <Mie in
the Church of Suita Maria della Samt&; at Rome in
San Pietro in Vincoli, San Gregorio in Calio, San
Alessandro, in the Via Nomentana; at Ravenna, in
San Apollinare Nuovo, besides other thrones that are
in part ancient stools, especially stools for the bath.
Thrones belonging to the Middle Ages and the twelfth
omtury are to oe found at Canossa, Bari, in the grotto
church of Monte Gargano, in St. Emmeram at Rati»-
bon, in Santa Maria in Cosmedin and in San Cle-
mente at Rome. Excellent examples of thirteenth-
century thrones are those in tiie Churches of San
Cesario, 'SS. Nereo ed Achilleo, and San Lwenio
fuori le mora, at Rome. There are surprisin^y few
thrones of the late medieval period still in existence.
Episcopal thrones that are or were surmounted W a
structiire similar to a baldachino are those at Tor-
cello, Orado, and Augsburg. That as eariy as the
eighth or ninth centtiry the throne did not always
stand at the apex of the ap8e^ but was also placed to
the right of tne altar, is evident from the Roman
"Ordines" of that era. However, what may have
been less usual at that period became from the twelfth
century customary, because it became usual to plaoe
the altar near the wall of the apse, and also to place a
reredos upon the table, at least on feast days.

Car. tpiieop.. I, zii, 10; aii, 1 aqq.; Thalhoito, Liturfik, I
(Fi^boTb laira) ; LccumCQ in Cauou Diei. d'ardi. ekrU. . s.t.
Chain tpiieojt^: tta bibU. to Catddba.

Joseph Bbaun.

Thubuibo Minus, a titular see in Africa Prooon-
BuIariSiSuffruanofCarthi^. ThuburboMinusismen-
tion9dio(li9 Itinerar.Antonui.'',44yaadtli«"T»bula

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THUOOA

710

THUOUT

Peutingsr. It ii to-day Tebouiba. a oity of 2500 in-
habitant, on the Irft bank of the Medjerda (ancient
Bagradaa), 21 miles by railway west <d Tunis. %tu-
ated on a hill, the city proper occupies only a part of
the ancient site. It was rebuilt in the ^teenUi cen-
tury by the Andahisian Moora. The Roman amphi-
theatre was still standing at the end of the sevente^th
century, when it was destroyed in order to build a
bridge. It was at Thuburbo Minus that the illustri-
ous martyrs St. Perpetua and St. Felicitas with their
oompanions wwe arrested. The two bishops of this
lAtif of wttem w« Imow anything tm: Vietor, prasent
at the Confemnce of CarthaeQ (111), where hti bid W
his competitor the DQnaitatMaxmtjniUB;andQflmianufl,
whOBipnfi ili-lfii ihf l<^t1<T of thc^ bishops of the pn>-
eOBfeulliU' !n ihc (';irriLirr-h PiiilI nf CV.iiistanlUlopte
ft^^iu^t. rhi> Moiiorhi-liua. TlMiburbo Mutjut*. anotfitr
bishopric of Afrii-a rnj(?nrL^iiSarifi. n-jii w li-jmrui < t l-
0ny tae f till naoie of which was Jutia.\urc)iuOjiiiiuiida
ThidHirbo Majue. Its meajkii^m iiuigF be oeea at
Hecu^ KaeHt, on the HaoRf <olf thti uwd M^on
about 34 inil^ south of T'lviiji-lin. ll is the rountiy
of St, Servus (7 Decpmlir-r, ili in.-tn Mu,rt.yrolo(n'>, who

iniTir.

Four of hi.sh.)pti ;iri- kiL'>wti: Hrih^us, iin^yml jil tlii>
Council uf Ciitth/iK":. F-T-nstiis, at ihi' Cotirii'il of
Arlta, 314; Cypriajiiii+, at the Conference of CarthnRe.

with hia competitor, the Donatisi., RufinuB;
BeimjAtan, exUed by Hunertc, 4S4. It ia tmposaible
to dfldSde to whioh of thma two citiee beknogB the nrat
number of mutyr^, known eqmasttr tiw ^''luv'
t.vrologiiim jOisnn^fiDiaiiiiim" M W^ag sUstSFeft iti

S. P£tiuDte.

Thuffga, titular see of Numidia, perhaps the Numi-
diim fortress of Tocai mentioned id>out 306 b. c. by
DiodoruB Siculus (XX, v, 4). King Masinissa prob-
ably captured Thugga from Carthage in the second
century B. c. A pagus under Claudius I, Thug^ was
dependent on the Roman colony of Carthage. Under
Marcus Aurelius it included a pagus and a eunttu;
Septimius Severus erected it into the municipium,
Septimianum Aurelium liberum Thugga, which be-
came a colony in 261 under Galtian. Justinian built
a fcntress there which is still parthr preserved (Pro-
oopius, "De sdifieiis", VI, 5). The existence of a
pagus and a efpfttu'explainfl why th^ were two bish-
ape, Saturn in ufl wd Honoratua, who assisted at the
Council of Carthage in 256. A Donatist bishop, Pas-
chasius, went to the Council of Carthage in 411.
Thu^a is now Dou^ga, a village of Tunis, famous for
its rums, among which are the temple of the Capitol
built under Marcus Aurelius, a theatre, three tri-
umphal arches, Roman necropoli, and a Punic
mausoleum.

Tonofrn, Otog.dgrA/ti^udiTUimaa. Prpcontulaut. 28I^-8S;
Idhi, Bjuadnt tt TripolilaiM, 208; SaLuiin in Nrrutdlet arehicea
des mittumt teimtiflouu, II, 448-fi29; Cabton, Dougga (Tunii,
1911). 8. Vaslh±.

ThUffUt, JoHANN Amadbctb Franz og Padla, Aus-
trian statesman, b. at Linz, 31 March, 173G; d. at
Vienna, 28 May, 1818. He was the son of ft paj^-
master of the imperial army. Johann Thugut. Until
the time of his grandfather the family name was writ-
ten ' ' Thunichtgut ' ' . Although baptized Johann
Amadeus, Thugut was called tnrough life Franz. A
great many mythical stories are told of his childhood,
such as the following. One day Maria Theresa found
an abandoned infant on the steps of the Hofburs at
Vienna, had compassion on it, and named the infant
"Thugut". Another tale relates that the empress
while crossing the Danube to Maria-Taferl was at-
tracted by the large eyes of the boy who steered the
boat. She was toul mat he was a foundling, a «x>d-
for-oothing {Thunuditgvt). The trutli is that A$ari»

Theresa, on aooount of the services of the father, had
the boy educated at the academy of Oriental lan-
guages that had just been opened. In 1754 Thugut
entered the unpmal seryice, first as a translator at
Constantinople. Kaunitz praued his linguistic knowl-
edge and abilities and made him secretary of the state
chancery. While here he accepted an annual income
of 13,000 livres from Louis XV as a secret agent of
France. He still received the same pension from
France when secretary from 1769 of the Austrian
embassy at Cnastantinople. In 1771, at the request
of Kaunits, he was raised to the ranks of the lower
nobility on account of his meritorious services.
Joseph II greatty desired to obtain the Province of
Bukovina, as this would make a connexion between
GaUoia and Transylvania. Thugut persuaded the
Turkish Gtovemment in 1775 to cede the province.
To reward him Thugut was made a Freiherr or bartm.
During the war of the Bavarian succession Maria
Theresa employed Thugut to n^otiate with Fred-
erick the Great, but the negotiations led to nothing.
His employments vaned greatly during the reign of
Joseph II. During the years 1780-86 he was Am-
bassador at Warsaw, and during 1787-S9, Ambassador
at Naples; in the intervening years he had an official
position at Paris where he was on terms of friendship
with MirabsMi and Lafayette.

Emperor Eranols II first used Thugut as a military
diplomat in Beloum, and finally in 1794, after the
death of Prince Kaunitz, appointed him ministn' of
foreign affairs. While holding this office his aim was
to check the growth of Prussia's power, and to subdue
the wild forces of the French Kevolution. Austria
was to become a well-rounded, compact whole. C^n-
sequently, after the unfortunate occurrences in EleU
gium, which was too far from Austeia to be easily held
and ruled, he sought to cdstain emnpensation in the
Third Partition of Poland and in Italy. In 1795 he
was able to make an offensive and defensive treaty
with Russia that opened the way for Austria to gain
Bosnia, a part of Smia, and the territories on the
Venetian coast. At the same time, during the n^otia*
tions oonceming the Rhine as a boundary between
France and Germany, and on t^e question of seculari*
sation, Thugut spc^ emphatical^jr in rward to ju»*
tice, morality, and the unoom{>romising duties of the
emp>^r as the head of the empire. It was imponible
for him to consent to the robbing of spiritual prmces
and other estates of the empire of their possessions.
After strong opposition he only yielded to necessity
when he agreed in the Treaty of Campo Formio to
cede the left bank of the Rhine to France and to give
compensation in Cxennany to the princes whose pos*
sessions had been encroached upon. He called this
peace "an unfortunate peace, the infamy of which
would make an era in the annals of Austria, unless,
what was much to be feared, the annals of Austris
did not soon themselves disappear". Thugut's great-
est success, the alliance of Austria, Russia, and Eng-
land in the second French war, led to his overthrow.
In 1801 he resigned his position.

Both in life and in histonr Thugut seems to have
been a kind of Jekyll and H^de. Baptized Johann
and called Frans, in the service of the emperor and
sold to France, (gasping and yet often rejecting op-
portunities with indignation, passionately hatecf and
genuinely honoured, it is dimcult to consider "Thu-
gut" and "Thunichtgut" as one and the same per-
son. Concemii^ Thugut, whom he succeeded uter
eight years as mmisto- of foreim affairs, the courtly
Mettemich said: "France owed ner enormous success
above all to the inconsistency of the ministries tliat
had charge of the conduct of affairs. The ideae
which underlay the Austrian policy were clearly con-
ceived by them, but probably at no time were they
carried out more negligently. The ministry of Baron
Thugut shows only an wibroken sucof^noa of blu>

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THVJLI8

711

THDN-BOHINSTKIN

den and false calculatioas. Spnnu from th« lower
olaases Hiiwut was educated in the Cnriental AeaAaby
and trainea fw the mibordmate service of the State.
Skilful and cunning he owed the eood luck of hia
political life to these qualities^ which, aided by fpreat
talent for dissimulation and molination to intrigue,
pass current onW too easily for real talents" (Aus
Metternichs nach^el. Papieren, I, 29 oq.). Count
Fraru Dietriohtrtem on the other habd was an en-
thusiastic admirer of Thugut. He had Tbugut
buned in the Dietriohitein anoeetral vault, and in an
obatuary expressed the hope that history nu^t finatiy
do honour to Hiunit's great quafities. Thu was the
aim of ViTOiot's oiography oi Thugut, on which the
author Bpeat many years.

Von Vitxnot, Tkugut, CUr/myt m. WurmMr CVimm, 1800):
Idbm, Thuout u. win polititehet flMtom ia Ardi. mr iltterr.
Gfek.-QitMm, XLII, XLIII (ViDnna. 1870); Idbm. Ymtmaidi»
BHtfa MK FNiktmt won Tfmul (Vieniw, ISn); buu, OwilM mr

franaOtitehm RmolUionikrieg t790-lKH, I (Vienns, -isra, cover-
ing Jan.. 1790: April. I792t II (1S74). ocmrina Amfl, 1793,
Mamh. 1793; III, M. tok ZEUuEBad^S!), (»v«niigMuf^O«D.,
1793; TV (1885), oonrisc Jnt.-S(vt.. n9i.\ V (1890), ooverinc
~ ' ~ „, 1798: BAiu>m, P^MiUeatumtn an

Oct., 1794,-Sept., 1798: Baiu-bh, P^MiUeatumtn aiu dm btn,,
wMMtacAm AaatoarcAnm, I (L«piiE, 1881), ooreriiis 179&-
1800; Habowbmbo, />«niwllnfHntncm, ed. ton Raku (5 vol*.,
Leipnc 1877).

C6LE8TIN WOLFSQBUBBR.

Thulis, John, Yenbrabui, English martyr, b. at
Up Holland, Lancashire, probably m>ou( 1568; suffered
at Lancaster, 18 March, 1615 or 1616. He amved
at the English CoU^, Reiins, 25 May, 1683, and re-
ceived tonsure from Cardinal Guise on 23 8ept«n-
ber foUowing. He left for Rome, 27 March, 1690,
where he was ordained priest, and was sent on the
mission in April, 1692. He seems to have been a
prisoner at Wisbech, Cambridgeshire, when he signed
the letter of 8 November, 1598, m favourof the institu-
tion of the archprieet, and the letter of 17 Novem-
ber, 1600, against it. Later he laboured in Lancashire,
where he was arrested by William, fifteenth earl oi
Derby, and was committed to LancaatO' Castle, where
his feliow-raartyr Roger Wrenno, a weaver, was con-
fined. They managed to escape one ev^i^ just be-
fore the Lent assizes, but were recaptured the next
day. After that he was imprisoned with thieves,
four of whom he converted. These were executed
with ttie martyrs. Thufe suffered after three thieves.
Hig quarters were set up at Lancaster, Preston, Wi-
gan, and Warrington. Wrenno was hanged next^ and,
the rope breaking, he was once more o£f«red his life for
conformity, but ran swiftly to the ladder and climbed
it aa fast as he cfnild, sayii^ to the sheriff, who remon-
strated, "If you had seen that which I have just now
seen, you would be as much in haste to die as I am
now . A curious metrical account of their martyr-
dom, as well as portions of a poem composed by
Thulis, are printed by Father Pollen in his "Acta of
the En'felish Martyrs^' (London, 1891), 194-207.

Challonsr, Miatumarj/ iVtoto, It, noe. 155 and 166; Kirox,
thmau Diariu (London, 1878), 190, 19B, 229, 296; Pollen, gng-
lUh Marbfl-a ISS^ieOS (LomloD, 1908), 384; Law. yennU and
Seaihn (London, 1859), no. 93.

John B. Wjumxwbight.

Thundering Legion (Ugiofidminatat mfidminm,
not /uZmuiofrtv). — ^The stoiy of the Thundering Le-
gion is in substance as follows: When the Emperor
Marcus Aurelius led an expedition against the Quadi in
174^ his army, exhausted by thirst, was on the point of
fallmg an easy prey to the enemy. It was then that
the soldiers of the Twelfth Legion, which was com-
posed of Christians, prayed to their God for help.
Forthwith a heavr thunderstnm aros^ bringing the
desired rdi^ to the Romans, but ten^Qring ana dia-
poaing the barbarians. Hereupon the emperor
HBUed a decree forbidding the persecution of the
Quistiansand to the Twelfth Legion be gave the sur-
name otfidmineUa, or ftdminea, that Is, "thunder*
ing". TueearUntnfareDOfrtotfakoccurramftQm

Christiatt aouroe was made by TertuUian (" Apologeti-
flum", v» and "Ad Scanuiam", iv). He is quoted by
EuB^MUS (Hist. eocL, V, v), who also cites ApaBinaru
of Hierapolis, a eontemperary of AureliiM, as an
authority for the alleged miracle. Later Quistiao
authorities are Orosius (Hist. adv. paganoe, VII, xv),
Gregory of Nyssa (Oratio II in XL martyres), Jerome
(Eusebu Chron., adn. 174), and Xiphilinus (Dionia
Nicsi rer. Rom. epitome, LXXI, ix, x). Pagan
writers also teetify to the miracuIoiiB thunderstonn,
but the}r asoibe it either to Uie prayers <A the em-
peror (Julius CapitoIinuB, "Vita Marci Antonini phil-
oaophi" xxiv; Themistiua, "Oratio XV", ed. Har-
duin, 191; Claudianus, " In VI consulatum Honoiii",
carmen 28; "Oraoula SibyUina", ed. Alexandre, XII,
194-200) or to the incantations of the Egyptian
magician Amuphis who accompanied the Roman
Mmy (Dion Cassius. "Hist, rom.", LXXI, viii-x;
Suidas, 8. V. Iov^i>^). On a coin, struck by the
empcsor (Eckhd, "Dooteina nummomm vet.'. Ill,
64), and on tbe Antonine Column in Bcone, t^ "mir^
acle of the thunderstorm" is represented as wrought
by Jupiter.

The mass of historic^ evidence, as aeai above,
leaves no room for doubting the occurrence of the
thunderstorm, but there has oeen a long controversy
ooneeming various drcumgtances which early Chris-
tian writers mention as connected with it. The le-
■earohes <ii Moyle, Moeheim. and especially the man
recent ones of Lightfoot, Hamack, and otiun (we
biblk)Kraphy) have led to the following almost uni-
versally acoepted results : A detachment of tbe Twelfth
Legion, which was r^ularly stationed at Melitene in
Araienia and comprised many Christians, took part
in the expedition against the Quadi, and it is prob-
able, though not certam, that the "miraculous thun-
derstorm" was an answer to th^ prayers. The
nwne fidminairix was not ^ven to the ledon <u
tluB oeeasion, but thrae existed since tiie time oi
Augustus (EHon Cassius, LV, xxiii) » kgio fid^
minaia or fyilmaiea, probably called thus Irani the
representation of Ughtning on their armour. Hie
letter (^nerally appended to the "Apology" of Jus-
tin), wMoh Marcus Aurelius is said to nave written to
the Senate, eonceming the miraculous thunderstorm,
and in which he is said to have forbidden the further
poaeeution of the CSiristians, is either a for^eay or it
was interpolated to suit the Christians. It is an es-
tablished fact that the peraecution of the Christians
bwame evaa more crud i^rtly after this incident. .

LioBTTOOT, Bt. IgnatiM and St. Polycarp.l (London, 1888),
487-492; Morxx, Workt, II (London, 1726), 79-388; Latin tr. by
MosHXiU (Le)pi'K, 1733} ; Harnack, DU Vu«U« der Beriehie tbtr
dot ReotntBwtdar tm Fdatugt Mare Aunlt gtatn dit Quodm In
SilMHno^KriehU dtr Akad. d«r Witmuck. (B«rUn, 1894), 835-82;
WeiesXcxkb, AkadtmxKhe Rede (TDbingeo, 1894) ; Domaszkwsu
in Rhein. Afiumm far PhilotogU (Frankfort. 1894), 612 sq.;
PrreBSEif, ib. <1896), 458-474; Mouusmf in Htrmf (Berlin,
1896), 90-106; QnmnN in NtM Jakrb. Mr dot Mom. AlUrlMm.
(Oh ^9^ 1^^268 aq.; Allabd, Hut. da ptrtteuHoM, I

MicEABL On.

Than-Hohensteitt, Count Leo, Austrian state»-
man, b. at the famiW castle of Tetaohen in Bohemia,
7 April, 1811; d.atVienna, 17 December, 1888. He
received his eu-ty education under the direotim of the
dtstiagiiBhed teacher, John Rohrwerk, and later
stndira law and philosophy at the University of
Prague. After graduation he travelled throu^ Ger-
many, France, and England. The bent of his mmd
was towards politics, and he studied with especial in-
terest the political system of England. In Paris he
studied the prison system and the various ba)«vol«Lt
institutions fbr wowing^nai. Aa soon m he reat&ed
home he began to make use of the kno«4edge he had
acquired and issued hia first publication: "Die Not-
wen^l^eit der moralischen Reform der Oeftfngniwo
mit Euaweisiuig auf die sur ESnfilhrung denolbea in
Lftndem gptrtdbnen MasBEBC^L^deuohts^".

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TUUUIBLI

712

Ebiwtljr aftemarda he entered poUfioallifa and b»-
eamef <a mmUter of the' Bohemian Diet. He also inr
t«testod himself in the revival of Csech language
and literature, and in 1842 published a treatise en-
titled: ^'Uebear den gegenvfirtigen Stand der bdhmi-
sehenLiteraturundifireBedeutung". InlS46arevott
broke out in G^Ucia, and Thun was appointed a mem-
ber of the administrative board under Francis Sta-
dion. He took up his residaiee at Lemberg with his
wife, Countess Caroline Clain-Martiniti,irimn he had
recently married. At ihe outbref^ of the revoki^n
in the spring of 1848, Thun was appointed president
of the administrative board and became the actual
mler of Bohemia, fca the Archduke Francis Joe^h,
who had been selected as viceroy, was unable to a»-
sume Hie position. During the outbreak at Prague
Thun was captured by the insurgents and inqtris-
oned; Uwy were willii^ to release him if he woidd
|dve certain assurances, which he reused to do.
when fiiullT 4Wt free he siQiported the commander of
the troc^ m fti^ue in qudHng the revolt by foroe
of arms.

Thun rose rapidly, and in 3uW, 1849, was ai>-
pointed by the emperor minister of^ worship and edu-
cation, the two offices beinK united for the first time
in the person of lliun. He immediately set about
rafommiK Uie methods oi instraction to meet the de-
mands m the times. He improved the primary
•ohoob and practically reorganized the administra-
tion and courses of study cm the f^ymnasia and ihe
universities. He took a special interest in industrial
education and was the first to place trade and tech-
nical schools on a firm basis. He also did much to
encourage art, especially by making an art university
<ft the Academy of Fine Arts, and by giving empkloy-
ment to artists. Thun'a woA. as mmister of wonlup
deseme equal attention. In his memorials to the
emperor of 7 and 13 April, 1850, on ^e religious con-
di^on, he made his first attempt to loosen the fettras
ia Yrtueh Joaephinism had bound the Church. In his
first paper he d^nanded the annulment (rf the Pla-
eitum regium, in the second he insisted that no
tc^icher of relision or professor of tfaec^gv riiould be
appointed without the consent of the oisbop. In
September, 1852, the emperor appointed Archbi^op
Rauacher as bis plenipotentiary for drawing up a
concordat, and Pius IX appointed the nuncio Viale
Pr^la as hia r^resentative. The agreement between
the two wai laid before the committee of ecclesiastical
a^aiiB composed of five members, among which the
predominatmg influence was naturally that of the
minister of worship and education, lliun sud him-
self that his share m the drawing up oi this agrecMnent
was one the "proudest and hf^piest recollections"
of his life.

Thun acted both in his capacity as minister of edu-
cation and minister of worship entirely in accordance
with a rigid sense of dut^, but he kept the two de-
partments during his adnunistration entirely distinct,
so that Rauscher, who was associated a great deal with
Thun, sud of him: "Thun has a Catbdid hoit anda
Protestant head." GrillparEO-, who was less in
agreement with Thtm's policy, said: "I faaveasuicide
to announce. The minister of WOTship has killed the
minister of education." Austria now entered on a
new era; it became a eonstitutional monarchy oa 20
October, 1860, and Thun's office was aboHshed. The
next year, however, the emperor appointed him a life
member of the XJppa House of the Imperial Parlia-
mont and he was a raember of ^ Bohemian Diet fw
Mvend terms. In both bodies he was always the

C~" r of the eonsOTvative Catholic party, was the
er of the Federalist party in Bohmia, aiad upheld
the clfums of Bohemia for a full autonomy. He
founded the "Vaterland", the organ of the Federalist
^ty, and a powerful invienc« in the politics of the

raAMDinn In AOgmmbu rfmfcdU Biogrmpkit, XXXVm
(LeijMic 18H). ITS-aia; Hairaai. OraflMThM (1891).

COUSTIN WOUBOBUBEB.

Thurible. See Censes.

Thoringi*.— The mam Thuringia is given to a
large part of Central Germany, bounded on the west
by the Werra River, on the east by the Saale, on the
north by the Hars Mountains, and on the south by
ibe Thurin^an Forest. The extent of territory is not
exactly defined. Besides the Thnringian siatea,
wUeh indude the Grand Dudiy of Baxe-Weimar-
Eisenach, the Duchies of 8ax&-Ooburg and Gotha,
Baxe-Altenbu^, and Saxe-Meiningen, Thuringia
comprises some parts of Prussian temtory, as the
cities of Erfurt, Mersebuig, Naumbui^ etc.; the two
principalities of Schwarzoui^ and the two princi-
p^ties of Reuas extend branmd the natural limits of
lliurinna, especially in the south and east. The
early iSiabitants of Thuringia were a German tribe
called Hermunduri^ about a. d. 420 they became
known as Thuringians. The powerful tdngdom of
the Thuringians, which at the beginning of the sixth
century extended to the Danube, was overthrown in
531 by the Franks. Christianity had been introduced
in various places tlffou^ the intermarriage of the
royal families of the Thuringians and .the Viof^ths.
The Gospel was preabhed in Souths Thuringia by
the Apostles of the Franks, Kilian and his two com-
panions Coloman and Totnan, and in Northern Thur-
ingia by Willibrord, the Apostle of the Frisians; but
theee mis^onaries had little success. The real Apos-
tle of Thurincia is St. Boniface. From the monas-
teries of Fulda and Hersfeld in Hesae, Christianity
spread throi^out this r^on. In 742 St. Boniface
ertablidied Erfurt as the See of Thuringia, making it
an impOTtant centre <^ civilization. After the death
<tf the first Bishop of IHurt, St. Adelar, the diooese
was suppressed and Thuringia was united with the
Archdiocese of Mainz. The episcopal assistants of
tiie Archbishop of Mainz, who once the fourteenth
century had been auxiliary bishops, resided at Krfurt
and in the course of time became almost entirely
independent of Mainz. The extreme southernpart
of Thuringia always belonged to' the Diocese of Wurz-
burs, the extreme northern to the Diocese, of Halber-
stadt, and the central or main part to Erfurt-Maini:
in the tenth century Eastern Thurinraa was divided
between the newly-found Dioceses of Merseburg and
Zeitz-Naumburg.

The first monastery established by St. Boniface in
Thurin^ proper was Ohrdruf, now a city of the
Duchy of Sajffl-Gotha. Contisjry t9 canon law, no
church tithes were paid by the iohabitanta of Thurin-
gia up to the time of the Reformation, and they
obstinately maintained this right, that had become
theirs by custom, against the Archbishop of* Mainz.
Tlie tribal characteristics of the Thurii^ians gradu-
ally disappeared. The southern Thuringians were
absorbed by the Franks, the northern Thuringians
ad<^ted the charaoto* and racial peculiarities cn the
Saxons, whose territory closely adjoined theirs. In
804 Chariemagne established the Tnuringian mark as
a defence agunst the advance of the Slavs. In the
tenth century the country was seized by the Duke of
Kaxony, and during the reign of Emperor Otto I it
came under the suzerainty of the Margraves of Meis-
sen. The Saxon dynasty founded the monasteries of
NOTdbausen, Memleben, and Wahlbecdc In the
cAerentb oentury a family of counts from Tnoeemtt
arose to great imp(vtanoe in Thuringia. The ancea*
tor of this family was Louis the B«trded (d. 1066),
His son Louis the ^ringer built the Oastle of Wart*
bui^ near Eisenach. In 1069 he foimded the Bene*
dictme Abbey of Reinhardabnmn near Friedridiroda,
which waa the burial ^|aoe at the Unniiman land-
pvm wtit 1440. Thil iMnaitaqr, irtiioh Ini

Digitized by VjOOglC

become known through a aenee of much ooctro-
verted histoncal wwks called the "Reiiihairdabnumfv
Annalen", was badly damaged in the Feasante War oi
1525 and was turaed into a hunting. oaatle in 1543: it
now bekmgB to the Duke of Sam-Oobwg and Qirtha.
Other important Benediotine aUxys founded by the
l&ndgraTee during the eleventh century were the
Abbeys at Heiligtuoatadt and Saalfeld, and durinc the
twelfth century those at PaulinzeUa. Gosek, andfio-
sau. The Cistercian Abbeys of Votkenroda, Pfortfw
and Georgenthal were of great value in civilizing the
cfMintry, especially Eastmi Thuringia.

In 1130 the Emperor Lothair appointed Louis I
(d. 1140), son of Louis the Sprineer (d. 1128). Land*
KraT* of Thuringia. Landgrave Louis IV of Thur*
ingta (1217-27) married St. Elisabeth of Himgarv
(q. V.) ; he was succeeded by his brother Henry {d.
1247), with whom the first dynasty of Thuringian
landgraves became extinct. The war of sucoeasioii
which now broke out raged until 1263, when the
branch of the Wettin family that ruled Saxe-Meissen
assumed control of Thuringia. In 1440 a quarrel
arose as to the possesnm of theoountnr, and the
family compact made at Lmpsig in 1^ Thunngia
was aasigned to the Ernestine branch of the house of
Wettin. Thuringia now formed a ooostituent part
of the Electorate of Saxony (q. v.), where the ^reat
schism of the sixteenth century had its b^^nnmga.
As early as 1620 the Catholic Faith was abolished,
priests that remained loyal were driven away ana
churchee and monasteries were largely destroyed,
eepecially during the Feasanta War of 1525. The
Anabaptists found many adhemits in llnirinraai par-
ticularly at MQlhausen where tiie founder irf uie sect,
Thomas Mtlnser, laboured for it. t^tbin the borders
of Thuringia the Catholic Faith was maintained only
in the district called Eichsfeld, which was ruled by
the Archbishop of Mainz, and to a small degree In the
city and vicinity of Erfurt, a result also due to the
ener^tic measures of this archbishop. 3y Capit-
ulatum of Wittenbei^ of 1547 that dosed the Smal-
kaldtc War, Jtdm frederick the Magnanimous lost
both the electoral dignity and the country of Saxe-
Witt«nberg, retaining only Thuringia, which was

tartitioned by his sons into numerous duchies (see
AXE-Al/rENBUBO; SAXB-CoBTmaANDGoTHAJ Saxe-

Mkintnqen; Saxe Weiuar-Eibenach). While Thu-
ringia still remained a landgravate, there were a num-
ber of independent counts and nobles in the country
whose possesions were finally absorbed dther by the
Saxon-Thuringian duchies or by Prussia. _ Only the
principalities of Sdiwarzbui^ and the principalities
of Reuss have remained independent.

Knochxnhaukr, OmduehU Thilrinomi in der karotitioUehen u.
•dcAwcAen Zeit (O^tha. 1863); Idem, Gegchichtt r&«n'ni7«TU w
Zoit dm arUm LandgToJmthauia (OothW, 187 1) ; Scobil, Tfdtrit\iitn
(3t>id «d.. Bielefeld, ItXU); TkOrtnum in Wort und Bild, ed. by
Um PMtsbii! Socis^ (2 Tob., Leipiig, 1900-02) ; Oebhabdt,
Tk»^tgMta KMuHiaA. (3vob., Ootba, 1880-82), Proteotut.

Hesicann Sacbeb.

ThurmavT, Johannes (called Avbntinus from
the place of his birth), b. at Abensberg, Bavaria, 4
July, 1477; d. at Ratisbon, 9 January, 1534. He
studied at the Universities of Ingolstadt, Vienna>
Cracow, and Paris. In 1507 he returned to Ingol-
stadt, and in 1509 was appointed tutor to the younger
brothers of Duke Wilham IV of Bavaria. In his
zeal for learning he founded the "Sodalitas Utteraria
Angilostadensis , which, however, soon ceased to
exist (1520). In 1512 he wrote the "Rudimenta

Sammaticfe latime". In 1517 he was aiipointed
storiographer of Bavaria and was commissioned to
write the history of the country. Many of the im-
portant authorities which he collected for this purpose
have been preserved only in his copies. He embodied
a critical treatment of them in a complete history of
Bavaria, " Annales Bojonim", down to the year 1460.
Wm ooDoensed German veraon of it, the "BaiyeriBelie

Chronik", is the first important history in the Gennan
language. Though ho ranked as a Catholic, Thur-
mayr was in sympathy with the Humanists, inclined
to the oiMnicHis of the Reformers, rejected auricular
oonfearion, objected to pilgrimages ajid mdulcenoes,
ud <mpoaed in vif^t langua^ the daima of the
hierarchy as excessive. For this reaacm his history
was not published at Ingolstadt until 1564, and then
only witn omission of the passages hostile to the
Church. The "Bayerische Chromk" was publislied
at Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1566. The Bavarian
Academy issued a critical complete edition his
wcwIqs in five volumes (Munich, 1880-86).

See the blopaphiei by Wikouann f Freimoe, 1868) ; DimtAB
<N9rdlin«en, 1862); Wkobub (Bambere, 1890); DfiLUNaBB,
w. (MM Ztit <Muniah, 1877; NOrdlingen, 1888).

PAT&ICIDS SCHUOEB.

ThirliU', EnwABD, Venerable. See Nutter,
Robert, Vbhbbablb.

Th'wIiU', Thomas, Venekable, martyr.'b. at He-
worth Hul, near York, in 1635; suffered at York,
23 Oct., 1680. His father was George Thwing, Esq.,
of Kilton Castle and Heworth, nephew of Venerate
Edward Thwing; his mother was Anne, sister of tJie
venerable confessor Sir Thomas Gascoigne, of Bam-
brow Hall. Educated at Douai, he was sent to the
mission in 1664 and laboured in his native county.
Until April, 1668, he was chaplain at Cariton Hall, «he
seat of his oousins the Staptetons. He next opened a
school at Quosque, the dower-house of the Stapletons.
When in 1677 the "Institute of Mary" began their
foundation in Uie house given by Sir Thomas Gas-
coigne at Dolebank, Thwing became their chaplain,
three of his sisters being of the community, it was
there that he was arrested in the early part of 1679.
At the time of the Titus Oates scare, two soraiits
who had been dischai^ed from Sir Thomas Gaa-
coigne's employ for dishonesty, sought vengeance
and reward by aiaolofiing a pretended plot on the part
of Gasco^e and others to murder the king. In their
first allegation no mention was made of Thwing.
Gascoigne, Thwing, and others were removed to Lon- -
don for trial at Newgate. All were acquitted except .
Thwing, who was brought back, to York for trial id
March, 1680. Owing to his chaUo^png. the jurm,
his trial wat^ pu^tponed to the surnxner MsiisB, and he
was bnui^t to the bar on 29 July. He wao rtJufleiJ
an iicqparttal jury, and wm found guilty on the vety
same <»vulcncp upon TOhieh hin telativps had been nc-^
(])]itt£t)i. UiKin rf^C'ivifiK wnfciift;, wliifOi in c■<>rl^ilL^e^-
iiLi'ui '.'f his geiUl'^ birlli ^'i^ ptiPsnJ tm liini u|ijirt Wmn
ihv ff'ifirirt and rnuntrrpi^ fourtd piih> at \\if^ ftiLinEi
osaizea, humbly buwing hia head he replied " Innoceiig
ego sum. " The king At Orvt relieved him, but owin^- .
to a remonfitrajice of the Conunoos the death-war-
rant was issued on the day af tor the meeting Farlia-
nwrl. He was drawn from York Cutle, past the
oonvwit where his eietprB were 'Jweltiiig, to Ty-
barn, where the wiitfTir^; cirrii-'l "ut, lit iJi^
clarfwi his inmwur^-, prviro-si^-ii his luyjklly tn kini:;
and lij,'' ".'liMfHy f.t> lii-i iidnlihour; pruycd ut ihi' Jciiig'
and royal fatnily, tuid bujigi^d the i>r)tytrti of all true
Cathoha. Hie dying words were "Sweet Jesua, re-
ceive my soul'*. Hi" maaigled body was Kiren to oil
friends, and huried in the ohurchyaxd of St. Mazy,
CastlEmate. Relics of the martyr are nowjpresanred
at the Bar Conv«at, Yodc^ end At-Oaet>it C|4l!<e&

KnarsAomuih MSS.: COLEKt&aa^ St. Stmt'* CimvA^
Catmw7V,Slale TVioia, VII: FOUIT, Uedrde S. Vs WHMfOL-

Rtt. iSw.. IV, IX: nom>. Churrk "gMfeam; BHl Hl1t**J

.Vfn6irw 0/ Winian^n/ prfrtf (ESxAmgh. ISTTl,

J. 1,. fl'nlTTrELD,

Thyatira, a titular suffragan see of Sardes in Lydia.
Accoi^ing to Stophanus Byzantius, the name was
given to the city by SeleucuB I Nicator: it is more
piobaUe that it is <s I^rdian origin. A Macedonian'

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TUIIIIAB

ruMk

colony was efltabliahed there (Strabo, XIII, 4): sev-
eral divinitiee were worBhim>ed there, sueh as Mmi'
lapiua, Baochtu, Artemis, aoore all ApoUo, in whoee
honour zamee were uostituted. Vespasian bejran
mat undotakinsB at Thyatira; it waa viaited 1^
Hadrian in the year 123, and by Caraoalia in 216.
Lydia, the woman converted by St. Paul at PhiHppi,
was from Thyatira (Acts, xvi, 1^15); 9t. John ad-
dressed an epistle to the "an^of the church", to whom
be fp.vee great commendation, but after having oriti~
cised a fatee prophetess (Apoc., ii, lS-29). F^rylus,
martyred i^Kmt the year 250 at Pergamus. venerated
13 October, was also from this city: we know from
testimony given by St. Epiphaniua (Contra h»r., LI,
83), that at ttie bepnning the third cmtuiy aliDost
all Tbyatin was Christian, Among the bishops
mentioned Le Quien (Oriens christianus, I, 875-
78). we may note Seras, in 325; Fuscus. at the Council
of £^eBUsin431; Diamonixia, m45S: Baatlixis, in 878.
The iHshopric was suffragan to Sardes as late as the
tenth eoitury (Gelzer, "Ungedruckte . . . Texte der
notitiiB eoiscopatuum", 537, 563); it is not known
whea it <£sappeared. In the Mid^ Ages the TuHes
changed the name of HiyaUra to that of Ak-Hiasar
(the iiHbite fortress), whi(^ it still bears. It numbers
X!,000 inhabitants, 7000 of whom are Greek schisma-
tics, 1000 Armenians and Jews, and 14,000 Mussul-
mans; it is a caza of the sandjak of Saroukban and of
the vilayet of Smyrna.

SiflTR, Diet. OtmI and Raman Gtog., a. t.; Txxier, Ati»
UineuTi (Paria, 1862!), 2e&-^; BvUHin lU CorTg»pondanc« kd-
UntaM, X, 398-i23: XI. 46&-M7; CttlNST, la Tvnuu d'Ane,
III, H8-S2: Lahfakm, TAt 80t*n Stan at lh» Apoadvv-
(AtbmM, 1900), 301-36, in Oreak; R*iMjI.T, The Sttm CkurOs*
aS Ana (L<^on, 1909). 8. Vailh*.

Thynlas, a titular see, suffragan of Nioomedia, in
Bitbynia Prima. It is an island situated in the Black
Sea, mentioned by all ancient geogrc^hera, and whiidk
was only 1421 yards wide. Its original name was
ApoUonia, because it had a temple to the god Apollo.
It also bore the name of Daphne, whence came the
name Daphnusia, almost as ancient as that of Apol-
lonia, andwhich is theonly one met with in the " Notitis
CTiiscopatuum". Its name of Thynias is derived from
the Thynii, a people of Thracian origin, who occupied
all the coast ot Bithynia. Le Qtuen (Oriens Christ., I,
620) mentions three bishops of Daphnusia: St. Salras,
wnerated on 1 May; Leo, present at the Eighth (Ecu-
menic^ Council in 869; Anthony^ at the Photiiui
Council of 878. One John was exiled to Du>hnusia
and martyred under Copronymus; his feast is observed
on 28 November. In the lajtendary "Vita" of St.
Andrew the Apostle (P. G., C5CX, 221) it is said that
the relics of Sts. Zoticus, Anicetus, and Photius were
preserved in tbe isluid. He Dioceee of D^dmnaia
IS first mentioned in the"Notitia episoopatuum" of
Leo the Wise about 900 (Gelxer, "UnRdruclcte . . .
Texte der Notitis episoopatuum", 553), then in that
of Constantine PorpnyT<^:enittts about 940 ("Georgii
Cyprii Descriptio orbis romani", ed. Gelzer, 66), and
finaDy in "Notitia 13" of Parthw in the thirteenth
century (Hierocles Synecdemus, 247). In 1261 the
Latin fleet was engaged in the si^e of the iriand when
the Gi^ Emperor of Nicsa, Miehad VIII Palieo-
logus, captured Constantinople and thus put an end
to the Latin Empire. The island of Daphnusia is
now called Kefken or Kerpe-Adasi, and Uee west of
the mouth of the Sangarius in the caza of Chile and
the vilayet of Constantinople.

MOlim QtOQ. OrtK. miturrt*. ed. Dn»OT, I. 382, ootM; Idsh,
PteUHun Qtoffraphia, ed. Dnxn, I, 806, ootee; Smttb, Diet. Or«tk
and Roman Geog.. i. t.; Tomascbbz, Zur hittorUchtn Topofffo^ia
won Kinnatien m Uitttb$lltr (Viemft. 1891), 75; Paolt-Wis-
aowA, RaalrEneudovaiiU dtr HattitAin Abmtmiumtaun»aiaft

(Srd M.), ■. v., Apmonia, no. 14.

S. VailhI.

Thyrttus, Hermann, German Jesuit, b. at Neuss
on the Rhine, 1532: d. at Mains, 26 Octoberjl591.
He studied first at Colo^ke, and uien, after IBIZZt at

the CoUegium Germanicum at Rome. On 26 May,
1556, be was received into the Society of Jesus by St. .
Ignatius Loyola, two months before the latter's death.
In the same year, Thyrfius was made a professor of
theokwy at ugototadt, where he tanmt for three
years the " Magetw sententiarum", and in the fourth
year controvereial tbeokigy. In 1560 he became a
profesBCo- at Trier, and lectured on the Epistles of St.
Paul. He was rector of the ooU^ at Tnes (1565-
70), provincial of the Jesuit province of the Rhine
(1671-8), arid from 157S until his death rector of the
college at Mains. He did excelkxit service to the
Catholic cause and the Counter^Refoimation in Ger-
many. The "Liber da rdt^onis libertate", ascribed
to hmi, was written most ^bably by his younger
brother Peter, also a Jesuit. His "Confessio Au-
gustana", with controversial notes, appeared at
Dillingen in 1567J He also left several volumes of
sermons. According to the testimony of van Reiffen-
berg ("Historia Soc. Jesu ad Rhenum infer."), he
was sldlful, industrious, frank, unaffeoted, and not
lacking in shrewdness; and was in consequence highly
esteemed by tiie arohbishops of the ^ne, wfao wten
empk>yed mm in important matters. He was also a
noted preacher, uid left several volumes of sennoiu.
When he occupied the pulpit at Trier as mai^ as
4000 people often came together to hear him.

SomnKTOOEL, BiH. <U la eompasnie de Jiaut: Bibliographie,
VIII (Pwfa, 1898), lO-ll! 8t«inhubi;r. Oeaeh. dei CoOeaiMm. Grr-
manieum //uiwoHcum, I (FraiburK, 1896), 38: Di^hr. Getck. dtr
Jtnnttn in dm Londern d«ul*eher Zunge im X VI. Jahrhunierl, i
(Freiburg, 1007), puoim. KlemBNS L0FFLBR.

Tiant, the papal crown, a ctwtly covering for the
head, ornamented with precious stones and pearly
^cn is sha^ like a bee-hive, has a small cross at
its highest point, and
is also equipped with
three royal aiadems.
On account of the
three diadcma it is
sometimes called tri-
regnum. Hie tiara
is a non-liturgic^ or-
nament, which, there-
fore, is only worn for
non-litui^cal cere-
monies, ceremonial
processioa to church
and back, ceremonial
papal processions,
Bucn as took place
upon stated occa-
sions until Rome was
occu[ned b:^ the Piedmontese, and at solemn acts
of jurisdiction, as, for example, solemn dt^matic
decisions. The poiK, like the bisbope, wears a mitre
at pontifical liturgical functions. The tiara is first
mentitmed in tiie * Vita" of Pope Constantine (708-
716) contfuned in the "Liber Pontificalia". It is here
called camdaxtcum; it is then mentioned in what is
called the "Constitutum ConstAntini", the supposed
donation of the Emperor Constantine, probably forged
in the eighth century. Among the tnrerogativea
assigned to the pope in this document there is eepe-
cially a white ornament for the head called phrygium-f
which distinguished him; this naturally presupposes
that, at the era the document was written, it was cu»*
ternary for the pope to wear such a head-covering.
Three periods may be distinguished in the develop-
ment of the tiara. The first period extends to the tinoe
when it was adorned with a royal circlet or <£adem;
in this period the papal ornament for the bead was.
as is clear from the "^Constitutum 0>nstantim" and
from the ninth Ordo of MabiUon (ninth century),
merely a helmet-like cap of white material. There
may nave been a trimming around the lower rim ci
the cap, but this had still in no wqr the character of a

St. Gbeoobt tke Gbkat wcuunq
tse paf al cap op thitb material
From Ml Xl-wniury MS. in tb«
libnuy of the Univsraity of LsipBis

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TIBALDI

716

royal circlet. It is not pontlTdy known at what date
th« papal head-oorerine waa adorned with such a
circlet. At the time the Donation of Constantine
appeared, that is in the ei^th century, the papal head-
covering had still no royal circlet, as is evident from
tiie text of the document. In the ninth century also
Bueh circlet does not eeem to have existed. It is tzua
that the Ninth Ordo calls the papal cap regmim, but

in 1^ description
that the Ordo gives
of this cap we near
nothing at all of a
crown, but merely
that the remum was
a helmet-Uke oaip
made of white mate-
rial. The monu-
mental remains give
no clue as to the
period at which the
papal head-covering
became ornamented
with a royal circlet.
Up into the twelfth
centuTT the tiara was
not only seldom rep-
resented in art, but
it is also unc«-tain
whether the orna-
mental strip on the
lower edge is mtended
to represent merely
a trimming or a dia-
dem. This is espe-
cially true of the
representations of
the tiara on the coins
of Sergius III (904-
011) and Benedict
VII (974-983), the
only repreeentotions
of the tenth century
and also the earliest
ones. Pcobably the
papal head-covering
received the drdet at

BONtVAO VIII WPTH DoUBUi*
CBOWNID TiASA

XXV-Cmtiuy figure in the Lftteru

the time when the mitre developed from the tiara,
perhaps in the tenth century, in order to f^il^^^.iIlg^^iBh
the nutre and tiara from each other. In any case the
latter was provided with a circlet by about 1130,
as is learned from a statement of Suger of St. Doiis.
The first proven appearance of the word tiara as the
designation of the papal head-covering ia in the life of
Paschal II (1099-1118), In ihe "Uber Fontaficalia".

Hie second period <rf the development of the tiara
extends to the pontificate of Boniface VIII (1294-
1303). There are a large number of representations
of the tiara belonpng to this period, ana of these the
Roman ones have natm'ally the most value. The
diadem rem&ined a dmple although richly-oniamented
ring up into the second half of the thirteenth century;
it then became an antique or tooth-edged crown. The
two lappets (cawte) at the back <tf the tiara are first
seen in the pictures and aculpttiie in the thirteeotii
centiory, but were imdoubtedly customary before this.
Strange to say they were black in colour, as is evident
both trom the monumental remains and from the
inventories, and this colour was retiuned even into
the fifteenth century. When the tiara is represented
in sculpture and pamting as a piece of braiding, this
seems to arise from the fact that in the thirteenth
century the tiara was made of strips braided t(^ether.
Of much importance for the tiara was the third period
of development that bepan with the pontificate of
Boniface VlII. It is evident from the inventory of
the papal treasures of 1295 that the tiara at that era
had stall only one royal drdet. A change, however,

was rfoon to appmt. Durii^ ttie pontificate <rf Brad-
face VIII a second crown was added to the former one.
Throe statues of the pope which were made during his
lifetime and undra* his eyes, and of wiiich two were
ordered by Boniface himself, leave no doubt as to
this. Two of these statues are in the crypt of St.
Peter's, and tiie third, generally called erroneously
a statue of Nicholas IV, is m the Church of the
Lateran. In all three the tiara has two crowns. What
led Bcmiface VIII to maJte this change, whether merely
love of pomp, or whether he desired to express by the
tiara with two crowns hia opinions concerning the
double papal authority, cannot be determined. The
first notice of three crowns is contained in an inventory
of the papal treasure of the year 1315 or 1316. Asto
the tombs of the popes, the monument of Benedict XI
(d. 1304) at Perugia snows a tiara of the early kind;
the grave and statue of Clement V at Uxeste in the
Gironde were mutilated by the Calvinists, so that
nothing can be learned from them r^;arding the fonn
of the tiara. The statue upon the tomb of John XXII
is adorned with a tiara having two crowns. The
earUest representation of a tiara with three crowns,
therefore, is oflFered by the effigy of Benedict XII (d.
1342), the remains of which are preeerved in the
museum at Avignon. The tiara with three crowns is,
consequently, the rule upon the monuments from the
second half of the fourteenth century, even though,
as an anachronism, there are isolated instances of ^e
tiara with one crown up into the fifteenth century.
Since the fifteenth century the tiara has received no
chaises worthy of note. Costly tiaras were made
especialh' in the pontificates of Paul II (d. 1464),
Sixtus IV (d. 1484), and above all in the pontificate of
Julius II, who had a tiara valued at 200,000 ducats,
made by the jewdler Cuadoeso of Milan.

Various hypplheeeS; some very sirmilar, have been
proposed as to the on^n of the papal head-covering,
the discussion of which here is unnecessary. The
earUest name of the papal cap, eamelaucum, as well
as the Donation of Constantine, clearly point to the
Byzantine Eastj it is hardly to be doubted that the
model from which the papal cap was taken is to be
found in the eamdaucum of the Byzantine court dress.
The adoption \fy the popes of the eamdaucum as an
ornament for the head in the seventh or at the latest
in tile ^ghth century is sufficiently explfuned by the
important position
which they had at-
tained just at this
period in Italy and
chiefly at Rome;
though Uiey could not
assume a crown, as
they were not sover-
dgn, ihey could wear
a eamdaucum, which
was worn by the dig-
nitaries of the Bysan-
tine Empire.

Oabampi, lUuttwione
di vn antieo noiilo deOa
Omtmana (Rome, 17fi9);
Book, Oaaeh. d«r litwg.
Onedndsr, II (Bonn, I860) ;
RoHAUur DM Flscbt, La
Umn, VIII (Park. 1889);
MttMTt, La liart potd. iq
Mtmoim d» VAead. dta
InKHpHoM U BtUM-
LMrm, XXXVI (Paria,
1898); Bkaok, Di$ iitwry. Onoandnng im Occident v. OrUnl
(FrBOnirg, 1907). JoBEPH BbAUN.

Tibftldl, FBLLBoanro, known also as Pellegrino da
Bologna and as Pelh^no Pellwrini, decorator,
murai painter, and architect, b. at Bologna, 1527; d.
at Milan about 1592. Tibaldi was a pupil of Bagna
Cavello, and a profound student of the works of
Miohdangelo. His eariy decorative woc^ were exe-

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Tuba op Jvuus II
Mide hr CuadoMo of MOm

citted for Carduial Poa^, for whom he oanied out
a large number of commiaBions, in his paUoe at Bo-
logna, the ohapel orected in Lra^tto, his rooms

in Rome, and a

ehapel in the
Church of San
Qiacomo in Bo-
logna. In 1586
he went to ^>ain
on the invitation
of Philip II, and
painted in the
lower cloisters of
the Esoorial, after
first erasing the
vork of his prede-
cessors, with which
he professed to be
much dissatisfied.
His greatest work
was Uie decoration
of the library in
that building. Ba
resided for nine
years in Spain, re-
turned to Italy, settled at Milan, was appointed
architect of the cathedral, and died in that place.
His works can be studied in Bologna and Dresden.

r«MHa i^iM (Bolocna, 1841).

O. C WlLUAHSON.

TQkeriM, titular see, eaffnaan ot ScgrthiHiolifl. in
PabeatinaSecunda. The town (» Tiberias was toimded

on the lake in a. d. 17 by Kaod Antipas, tetrarch of
Galilee, who gave it the name of the reigning emperor,
Tiberius. As tombs were discoverea there at the
time of its foundation the Jews refused to dwell there,
and Herod was forced to populate it with for^gners
and people of low extraction (Joaephus, "Ant. jud.",
XVIII, li, 3). What it was previously called is not
known; St. Jennne makes it tne site now of Reccath,
now of Emath, now of Cenereth or Kinnereth, towns
of Nephthali (Jos., XIX, 35). The town seems to
have been a little more than three miles in circum-
ference. Although Tiberias gave its name to the
neighbouring lake and is mentioned several times in the
Go^ls, it seems never to have been dwelt in by
Chnst. At the death of Herod Antipas in 41, Nero
gave the town to Herod Agrippa the Younger who
made Sephoris or Diocnsarea nis capital. At the re-
volt of the Jews against the Romans the people of
Tiberias sided now with one party, now witn the
oliia', and the Jewish historian Josn>huB, who was
Governor of Galilee, only took it after several at-
tempts ("Bell, jud.'', II, xxi. 6; "Vita Josephi", 18
and 54). At the approach of Vespasian it submitted
without resistance and was not oisturbed; the Jews
secured the privilege of dwelling there alone, to the ex-
clusion of pagans Christians, and Samaritans. Tow-
ards the end of the seccMid century the Sanhedrin was
removed thither from Sephwis tc^ether with the
Talmudic school of Jamnia, whence issued many
celebrated Rabbis, amone them Juda Hakkodesh,
who shortly afterwarda codified the vast body of laws
and customs known as the M ishna. Between 230 and
270 Rabbi Jochanan composed the Gemara, supple-
ment of the Miahna, and these two codes are called
the Jtfosalem Talmud. In the sixth oentuiy the
school of Tiberias produced the eel^rated Maswah,
or fixed Hebrew text of the Bible. Rabbi Bar Anina
of Tiberias gave lessons in Hebrew to St. Jerome.

The introduction of Christianity dates from tlie
time of Constantine the Great. It was Count
Joeeph, a Jewish convert of this town Uving at
ScytnopoUs, who built its first church, perhws on the
nte of the Hadrianeum (a temple founded bv the
Emperor Hadrian and never completed). Under

Constantine also the Jewish patriarch HilM was con-
verted and baptised by the missionary bishop who
bore the title of Tiberias but resided elsewhere (P. G.,
XLI, 409-29). Among its bi^ps were: John, pres-
aat at the R«iber Synod of E^ieras and the Oouncil
<a Chaloedon in 449 and 451 ; John U. at the councils
of 618 and 636; George, in 553; Basil, in the eighth
century (Le Quien, "Oriens chriat.", Ill, 706-10);
Theodore, in 808 (Tobler, "Itinerar. hierosolym.",
L 304). Justinian restored the walls of the town
(Procopius, "De ledificiis", V, 9). Ancient pilgrims
gxak of its churches and aynagcwuea. At the
Prankish occupation it was given in fi^ to Tancred
who made it nis capital. A new town was built,
churches restored, and a Latin diocese was instituted,
Buffragui to Nasareth. Many of its residential or
titular bishops are known (Du Cange, "Families
d'outre-mer", 807; Le Quien, op. cit., Ill, 1301-04;
Eubel, "Hierarchia catholica medii nvi", I, 511; II,
276; III, 333). The Greek see never ceased to exist,
but has long been titular. In 1 187 after the defeat of
Hattin, better known as the battle of Tiberias, the
town and frntrasa fell into the power of Saladin. In
1239 it was givoi to Eudes de Montb61iard, but five
yean later the Sultan of Egypt recovered it and
massacred the garrison and the Christian inhabitants.
The last Jew died in 1620 at the passing of Quaresi-
muB, and only Mussulmans remained. Tne Jews have
since returned. Out of 6600 iDhabitants, 4500 are
Jews, 1600 Mussulmans, 186 Greek Catholica, 35
Latins, 42 Greek Schismatics, and about 20 Prot*
estants dwendent on the Scotch mission which has a
school and a boqutal. The fVanciBoana have a
church and an infirmary. The town^ called Tabs^
rieh, besides ramparts has only inrignificant niins and
is very dirty.

Smitb. Diet, of Or. and Rom. Oeog., a. v,; NEUBAma, La
fftograjihU du Talmud (Faria, 1868), 207-14: OcArin, De*erijiti*m
STb PtUMtinu: OaliU: lljfiuiM. 1869-8(0. 250-63; Thohben,
Loea maeb (Halle. 1007). 111.

S. VailhA.

TOMurla*, Su of, so called in John, xxi, 1 (of. vi, 1),
otho'wise Imown as "the sea of Galilee" (Matt., iv,
18; Mark, i, 16; John,vi, 1), or as "the lake of Gene-
sareth" (Luke, v, 1, and Rabbinical writings)^ or as
"the sea of Coiereth" (Num., xxxiv, 11; Joa., xiii, 27;
cf. Jos., xi, 2), or as "the water of Genesar" (I Mach.,
xi, 67), or, lastly, as "the Lake of Tarichea" (Pliny,
"Hist. Nat.", V, XV). It lies in the Jonlan gorge, 682
feetbelowthelevelof theMediterranean. Anure^ular
oval nearly thu>teen mike long, its maximum width,
near the northern end, is about seven and a half miles.
The l^e is enclosed on the east and west by moun-
tains; the former, a uniform wall 2000 feet high slop-
ing steeply to within half a mile oS the shore; Uie lat-
ter, lower and more broken, gradually apraoaofaing the
water as they advance northwards till, about half
way up the coast, they leave only a narrow strip of
littoral. At the north-west comer the mountain
inclines aome^at westward and the littend widens
into a triangular plain of marvellous fertility which
stretches eastwards for four miles — the Plain of Gene-
sareth. East of this the ground is broken and sterile,
overgrown with bush, and strewn with volcanic rock.
The lake is fed by several torrents and h}r copious hot
springs on the north and west, but principally by the
Jordan, which enters at the north-east comer and
rushee out at the aouth-westem extremity. The
depth ai the lake nowhere exceeds 150 feet. Its
water is sweet and good to drink. Fish are so abun-
diuit that catches of 600 pounds are not rare, and in
one exceptional season (1896) 9200 pounds of fish
were hauled ashore in one huge net. Storms are
^nningly suddoi and frequent. The hot atmos-
phere of the goive (averaging in the shade OS'F. in
summer, and 60 in winter) sucks down the cool air
of Uie heights through the narrow wadia to the east

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•od wset at the north &td, and in half an hour the
surface of the lake Umem furioualy. Half an hour
again mffioee to netoie the lake to a minor-Hke calm.

To-day the ^oree are barren and desdate, with
Kloom^ patches of Toloanio soil to the north and west.
There is scarcely a tree to be seen, nor even any ver-
dure except where an overflowing torrent wat^oB the
north-weetera plain, nor an^ human habitation save
the sombre housee of Tibenas to the west and a few
stragf^ing viDages. But in the dtaya ctf C^irist nature
and man united to render these sbores singularly
attraetive. Hib vine and the fig flooriahed trai
nionths in the year, and eveiy variety of fruit ripened
in the various seasons: thick woods suirounded the
lake even down to the eighth century of the present
era, and the plains yielded rich harvests twice in the
year. Nine, perhape ten, citiea encircled the lake
with an ^moat unraidno front at vbarvea and har*

Tnuan. Itaexaet site is unknown, but it waa situated
in tae regiim of Egri Gueua, eaia of Kutahia, vilayet
ci Bnisa. Ancient Oredc ''Notitis episoopatuum"
mention it among the suffragans of Laodicea. In the
eighth century it was attached to the metropolitan
See of Hierapolis and as such appears in the " Notitis
Mjjaoopatuum" until the thirteenth century. Le
Quien (Oriens christ., I, 797) mentions five of its
bishops known by their presence at oouncils: Eusta-
thius at Constantinople (536); Silas at Coastanti*
nople (653): Anastasius at Constantinople (692);
Michad at Nictea (787); Theootistus at Ctmatanti-
nople (879).

Smith, Diet, oj Oredt and Aomm oaeg- a V>E Rahut

Minor (London, 1800), 147. 4&8

TUmtIus, the seoimd Roinan emperor (a. d. 14-37),
b. 16 Norembar, 42 fc <fc; A Id Jtoah, p. 87. Be

Tbs Su or Tonus
Fran a Wstmolour by H. Fbnn

bours. Ruins of theatres, hippodromes, temples,
synagogue^ baths, and villas witness to the presence
of all the refinements of Grieco-Roman culture. Fish-
ing was an important industry (cf. Beth Saida='
"Fishing-House , and J'arK:Ae(E="Pickling Facto-
ries"), and the fishermen, though reputed- generally
pious by the Rabbis, were a force to be reckoned with
m troubled times. The fish were ei^rted to all parts
of the Roman world. The standing population of
the towns, oi which the smallest had at least 16,000
inhid}itants, was largely increased by multitudes of
sick who flocked, especially in summer, to the world-
renowned sprineB near Tiberias.

Beeidee the Bible Dictionaries, oonsult: Sidth, HitL Omto-
raphv of the Holy Laiui (London, 1909), 488-63; Mbuili., Boat
oi Jorian (London, 1881); OuiuN, DtaeriptUm dt la PoUiUm
(Paris, 1868-80), Pt. Ill, GolO^. 193-263; NxiTBAaxB, Gtog-
raMi> du Talmvd (Paria, IS68); Biever Au hard du Lae d4
TMriade in ConferencM dt Saini-EiitnrtM (Paris. 1910), 109-142;

i Paris. 1911), 261-307 (» third iMture before the same sudienee in
■nuftrv, 1912, has not yet been published): Bqbl, GeogfaphU det
oAm raiOMtia (Freiburg snd Leip'ig. 1896) ; Official Records
ajt lh» PaltMaa Exploration Fund and Dantaeh* AtUdino- Fsrem.

Jbrehiah Habtio&n.

Tlberlopolls, titular see in Phrygia Pacatiana.
Tiberiopolis is mentioned bv Ptolemy (V, 2, 25) ; Soc-
rates (Hist, eccl., VII, 46) ; and Herocles (Synec., 668,
9). It struck its own coins at least from we time of

was the son of TSberiua Claudius Nero and Livia.
By the marriage of his mother with Emperor Augus-
tus he became the latter's stepson, and was adopted by
Augustus in a. d. 4. In theyear 10 he was appointed
ooregent with Augustus. Hard and secretive by na-
ture and embittered by the n^ect with whicn his
step-father allowed him to be treated, he did not
arouse personal enthusiasm, and until recently was
described by historians as a bloody tyrant. It is ooly
during the last sixty years that be has hem more
fairly judged, and at present the opinion bwins to
prevail that he was a genuine Roman, a ruler &thful
to his duties, just, wise, and self-oootained. In his
internal policies especially he is one of the most dis-
tinguished of idl Roman emperors. like Augustus he
reformed and improved every department of the gov-
ernment, and promoted in every direction the pros-
perity of the empire of which Augustus had laid the
foundation. He developed imperial power by de-
clining to have his authority renewed from time to
time by the Senate, as Augustus had done. The
strong opposition which grew up against him was
due to his taciturn and domineering disposition, and
to the influence of the prefect of the guard, JEtiaa
Sejanus, who alone powessed his confidence. Tbo
peraeeutiona and ezecutiona for lese-majesty, iriiieh

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718

nuT

tnmmm
Antknu FntpDect in the LkteiMt
Miueam

rapidly increased during the seeond half of reign,
and the gloom which pervaded Rome induced Tibe-
riua to leave the capital altogether in the year 26 and to
live partly in Campania and partly on the Islajid of
Capri. Before this date the question as to the suc-
cession to the empire had led to a terrible family
tragedy. By his first marriage Tiberius had a son
called Drusus, while his second marriage with the
immoral JuUa, dau^ter of Augustus, was childless.
After the death of his nephew Germanicus (a. d. 19),

whom hehadbe^
obliged to adopt
at the command
of Augustus to the
exclusion of his
own son, he hoped
to secure the Suc-
cession for Dru-
sus. A low in-
trigue was formed
against this plan,
in which the wife
of Drusus^ LiviUa,
who had illicit re-
lations with
Sejanus, took

r. In the year
Drusus was
poisoned by Se-
janus and Livilla.
However, when in
31 Sejanus formed
a conspiracy to
secure the throne
for himself, Tibe-
rius was warned
at the last moment and had Sejanus executed. Tibe*
rius spent his last years in constantly increasing
seclusion, misanthropy, and cruelty on the Island m
Capri, where it is said he abandoned himself to de-
bauchery. However, these reports are at least
coloured by prejudice and have not been satisfac-
torily proved. Neither ia it probable that Tiberius
was murdered.

The ministry and death of John the Baptist and of
Jesus Christ occurred dunng the reign of THwrius.
Aceordii^ to St. Luke (iii, 1), St. John the Baptist
Was called by God, in the fifteenth year of the reign of
Tiberius, to prepare the way for Christ as His pre-
cursor. Shortly before his death Tiberius recalled
the procurator Pontius Pilate from Judea. Tertul-
lian (Apologeticum, v, xxi), from whom Eusebius and
Orosius take the st<Mrv, relates that Tiberius received
a rqwrt oonoeraioR Christ and that he called upcm the
Senate to place Christ among the gods. The Senate
lejeoied the request; Tiberius then threatened the
aecusers of the Christians with punishment. The
narrative is not worthy of beli^, still it is {ffobi^le
that Tertullian knew a document that professed to be
a report of Pilate.

Stabb. Tiberiut (Znd ed., Berlin, 1873); DouAMKwm.Geteh.
dtr rOmiteh. Kaiaer, I (Leipiis, 1909), 250-319: Tarvbb, TiUniu
Um Tyrant (London, 1902) ; Schillsb, OucA. der rdmUeh. Kainr-
uU, I (Gotha, 1S83), 348-304; Habnack. QMck. der aUehritlL
Liamlw, II (Leipiig, 1897). pt. X. 001-10; BABnxmuwn, '
Qeteh. der oitkwM. LiUeratw. I (Preiburg, 1902), 410-11.

Klemens LGftlbr.

Tibet, a vast plateau, about 463,320 square
miles, about 1240 miles in its greatest length from
east to west, and 740 miles in its ^atest breadth
from north to south, with an elevation from 13,000
to 16j500 feet, and with a population of some 6,500,-
000 mhabitants, according to Chinese estimates;
other estimates place it aa low as 2 or 3,000,000. It is
bounded on the north by Kan-eu and Sin-kiang; on
the west by India; (ki the south by India, Nepal,
Sikldm, and Bhutaa; on tiie east by Yun-nan, Sse-
oh'wan, and Kui-su; or rather Uw plateau on this

norUi is bounded by the Kwenlun Mountains which
limit on the south the Desert of Gobi; and on the
south by the Himalaya Mountains with their hi^
peak. Mount Everest, 29,000 feet.

Htdrookafht. — From this plateau Bow the follow^
ing rivers: to the south, the Indus, with its tributary
Sutlej, which runs into the Gulf of Oman; to tlw
north of the Himalayas, the Ts'anpo or Brahmi4>utra
River, which falls into the GiUf of Bensal after meet-
ing in an estuary the Ganges, which foUows a similar
course on the southern side of the Himalayas; to the
east, the great Chinese rivers, Hwang-ho or Manihu,
and Yang-tze: to the south-east, the streams of Indo-
China, the Lutze-kiang (Irrawadi), the Lu-kiang
(Salwen), and the Lan ts'an kiang (Me-kong). The
principal lakes are: on the north-east, the Kuku-nor
or Tslng hai; on the south, Lake Palti or Yamdok;
on the plateau, the Iki-Namur, the PanfrlEong, the
Tengri-nor, and the famed Mansarovar aira Ruas.

Geoqrapht. — Many roads lead to Lhasa: (1) by
Si-ning in the Kan-su Province and the Kuku-nor;
(2) from Sze-ch'wan to Ta-Tsienlu, Ba-tang, Litang
and Chamdo; (3) from Yim-nan by Li-klang (these
are the three main routes from China); (4) from Sik'
kim, in the south, through the Chumbi Valley and
Gvan-tze; (5) from the west, by Leh, in Ladakh;
(6) from Khotan, throu^ the Aksai Chm, to Ri^iok.
Tuiet includes five provmces: (1) Amdo, part of the
Chinese province of Kan-eu and «ie Kuku-nor r^ion
(Ts'ing-hai), inhabited by Tibetans and administered
by a Chinese official at Si-ning; the other four prov-
inces form Tibet proper which is controlled by the
viceroy of Sze-Ch^wan; (2) Ts'ien-tang, Eastern or
Anterior Tibet (or K'ang, Kham, Kbu, Khamdo,
Chamdo), which extends between the Chinese
Provinces of Sze-Ch'wan and Yun-nan, and the dis-
trict <tf Lhorong djong, frontier of liiasa; (3) Wei,
Wu, or Chung-Tsang, Central Tibet, Kingdom oi
liiasa; (4) Tsang or Hou Tsang, Ulterior Tibet, L e.
south-west Tibet, extending to Lake Mansarovar,
with the town of Shigatze, near which stands the
Tashilumbo Monastery at the junction of the Nyang-
chu and the Ts'an-po; (5) Ngari (0-li), Western
Tibet, which includes the upper courses of the Indus
and tlra Sutlej, and gmenuly narth-weston Tibet
widi the towns tif Gartok and Rudok, the KaJlae
Mountain, the Refuge of Siva; it is bounded by the
British district of Kumaun.

Lam aistHierarchtandSecttlar Administration.
— At the head of the lamaist hierarchv of Tibet are
the dalai lama and the panch'en erdeni lama; the word
"lama" is derived from a Tibetan word, in Chinese,
im ^umg, meaning "unsurpassed". The dalai lama
is a re-embodiment of one of the diacii^ ot the
reformer Tsong K'apa, and at the same time an
incarnation of the Bodhisattwa Avalokitecvara; he
lives at the monastery Po-ta-la at Lhasa; his title u
Cheptsun Djamts'o Rinpoch'i (Venerahle Ocean
Treasure). The panch'en erdeni lama lives at
TashUumbo. The supporters of the faith may receive
the title of Nomin 'Hdn (regent), or Dharmd Rdja.
Celibacy would render impossible the re-embodiment
if tile 'hut'ukht'u or saints were not chosen to rejn'eeent
Uie principles of the transmission of authority; these
saints are known as the "Living Buddhas^*. The
third lama in the hierarchy is the Cheptaun Dampa
'Hut'ukhi'u, Patriarch of the Khalkhas, hving at Urga;
the Ch'ahan Nomhi 'Han is the descendant of a coun-
sellor sent in the sixteenth century by the dalai lama
to the chief of the Ordos; his residence is at Kuku-
Khoto; the metropolitan lama, Ch'ang Kia 'Hut*-
ukht'u, has his see at Dolonnor; the head of lamaiat
monasteries is called K'anpu (abbot). The secular
administration of Tibet includes a council (ka kia)
of four ministers (kalon or kablon) of the third rank
of Chinese officiids, elected as a rule by the Pdcing
Cknrernment, on pnitentation by tJie G$aeN ambant

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the tresMry {shang thang) presided over by a katon
with three first-class oounciUmB {ttmpeng), and two
second-class coxinoillors {tkang ehoaha); two ooo-
troUers of the revenue (yertg' angba); two oontioUers
of streets and roads {hierbang); two superintend-
ente of police (ahediba); two controUera of the stud
(taping); there are six militftfy oommandtfa {taipttu),
with tne fourth d^^ree of Chinese rank, with twelre
commanders of 200 men (jvpiag), twenty-four
kiapir^, and 120 ting ping. Civil and military
officials are designed under the general twm at
fan muk,

HiaroBT. — Little is known of the anoient history
of Tibet, the first dynasty having been founded by
the Indian prinoe Rupati; but the historioal period
begins at tm end of the sixth century a. d. when the
6nt king, Luntaang, made inroads to India. Lunt-
sang's son is the celebrated Srong-tsang Gam-po, me
frf the greftt champions of Buddhism ; in 639 he mairied
BrU>(Aia) daughter of Ajocuvarman, sovereign of NciHd,
a&d In 641 the princess w Wco ch'eng, daughter ofUM
Chinese emperor T'ai-tsung. Under their influence,
the TUwtan prinoe gave a great extension to Buddhism
in his empire; he founded in 639 Lhasa, formerly
Lha>-ldan, where for centuries his heirs governed the
country with the title of gialbo in Tibetan, and of
tsamp'o in Chinese. The Tibetans were the allies of
the Khalif of Bagdad and they invaded the Chinese
provinces {rf Yun-nan, Sze-ch'wan and Ksn-su, as
far as Ch'ang ngan, capital of the Tang emperon.
The two moet ancient historical edicts have been
found by Dr. L. A. Waddell upon a lofty pillar of
victory which stands at the foot of Potala Hill, under
the castles of the ancient kings, now incorporated in
the palace of the dalai lama; they date between a. d.
730 and 763, are the earliest historical Tibetan docu-
ments hitherto discovered, and throw a sidelight on
the ancient history and geography of China. The
e^;hth century is the oulminatnig point <rf Tibetan
power, which was destroyed when ttw Uighurs became
the masters of the whole country betwo^ PeiVing
and Aksu.

Dunne the eleventh century the priests of the
Bakya Monastery began to be predominant in Tibet;
they were called Hung Kiao, Red Chxirch, <«i account
of the colour of their garments and of their faeai^ar.
The laxness of their morals, the marriage of monk^,
and Borcery were the chief causes of the reform under-
taken by Tsong K'apa or Je Rinpoch'e (b. at Amdo
near Ktuni-nor in 1358), founder of the Qdupa Sect
who adopted a yellow dress {kvxmg kiao), ana obliged
his followers to return to the primitive religion of
Buddha; he founded the Monasteries of Gadan and
of Sera, and died in 1418, having established the
lamaist hierarchy. His successor, Gedundub, built
Uie Monastoy of Tashilumbo, which became in the
seventeenth century the residence of the second lama^
the pttnck'en rinpoch'S, while the first lama or dalai
lama settled in 1641 to the west of Lhasa. The
panch'en lama, Paldan-yeshes, died at Peking on the
27 Nov., 1780, during a visit to the Emperor of China.
During the eighteenth centxuy the Chinese Em-
peror, K'ien-Iung, began to establish his supremacy
over Tibet; already in 1725 two high Chinese
commissioners had been appointed to control the
temporal affairs of the country, and in the first
moon of 1793 an imperial edict ordered that future
dalai lamas were to be chosen from the names of
children drawn from a "golden urn".

CaiNESB Admikistration. — The Chinese admin-
istration of Tibet includes an imperial resident (chu
laang ta ch'in) or amban (ngang pai) with an assistant
resident (j>ang pan ta chin)] araong^ their duties,
they act as intermediary between China and Nepal
(Ghorichas Country); a secretary (yi it'ing chang-
king) has to deal with native affairs. Three Chmese
waauasioneiB (Umng t'ai), of the class of sub-prefect,

ftti stationed at Lhasa, Tashilumbo. and N^ri. He
unperial rerident is CAaoEiMung Ovpointid March,
190S), former^ Direcicv^'General of the Sae-oh*van
Hu-Fe Railwio' and acting viceroy of Szech'wan.

Travblucbs in Tibet. — Marco Polo and Rubmk
mention Tibet but did not visit it; the first European
traveller who appears to have visited Lhasa is the
Franciscan Odonc of Pordenooe in the first half of
the fourteenth century. It was but in 1624 that we
have real information on this country in a letter of tho
Portuguese Jesuit, Antonio de Andrade, dated Agra,
8 NoVm 1624, relating the journey of this father to
Lake Mansarovar and to Rudok; Andrade erro-
neously called the country he visited, CaUiay. Two
years later, two other Jesuits, Gnieber and d'Orville,
(1661) left Peking, and by the route of Si-ning
reached Uiasa, where they resided two months: they
returned to India via Nepal. Two other Jesuits,
Desideri and Freyre, went (1715-16) from Leh to
Lhasa, where the former lived until 1729, when he
was ob%ed to leave on account of the inb^es of the
Capuchins, who had founded a mission which lasted
to 1760, when they were expelled by the Tibetans.
One of these monks, Francesco Orazio della Penna di
Billi, has written an account of Tibet. A most re-
mark^le journey was made by the Dutchman Samuel
.Van de Putte (d. at Batavia, 27 Sept., 1745), who
went from India to Peking via liiasa, and returned
by the same road. In 1774 Warren Hastings, Gover-
nor o( Bengal, sent Geoi^ Bogle to Uie Court of
the panck'an lama; Captain Ssunud Turner went
on a visit in 1783 to the Court of the new vanch^en
lama; finally the Englishman Thomas Manning
visited Lhasa in 1811. Next we come to the cele-
brated journey to Lhasa of the Lazariste Hue (q. v.)
and Gabet in 1844. For many years afterwards the ex-
ploration of Tibet was carried on by "pimdits" in
the Indian Government service, especially by Natn
^ng and the lama, Ugyen Gyatso. We must men-
tion also among the travellers to Tibet the Russian,
Prievalsky (1880-85); the American, W. W, Rock-
hill (1888-89, 1891-92), who went to the north-east
of Tei«ri-nor, 110 miles west of Lhasa; the French-
men, Gabriel Bonvalot and Prince Henri d'Orl^ans
with the Belgian missionary, De Deken (1889-9^;
Captain Hamilton Bower (1891-92); Miss A. R.
Taylor (1892); the Frenchman, Dutreuil de Rhins
(who was murdered, 5 June, 1894, at Tungbumdo by
the red lamas), and his companion, Femand Grenard
(who escaped); Sir Georee K. Littledale (1895);
Captain M. S. Wellby and Lieut. Malcohn (1896):
Captain H. H. P. Deasy (1896); the celebrated
Swedish explorer, Sven Hedin; and finally the Russian
captain, P. K. Kozlov.

Relations with Coina, Russia, and Enound. —
By a separate article of the Chfr4u Convention ^13
Sept., 1876) it had been stipulated that the English
Government might in the next year send a mission of
exploration by way of Peking through Kan-au and
Kuku-nor, or by way of Sze-ch'wan to Tibet, and
thence to India. The Tsung-li-Yaman, having due
r^ard to the circumstances, was, when the time ar-
rived, to issue the necessary pasqurts, and address
letters to the high provincial auUiOTities, and to the
imperii resident in Tibet. The English did not take
advantage of this article and countermanded the
mission oy Article 4 of the Convention signed at
Peking, 24 July, 1886, regarding Burmah and tlbet. A
convention with (jhina was signed on 17 March, 1890,
at Clalcutta, settling the boundary frontiers between
Sikkim wd Tibet, and trade regulations were also
signed in Decen^ier, 1893. But the Tibetans ocou-
DKd land in^e the treaty boundary; on the other
hsJid Russian activity in Tibet was causing great
anxiety bo the Indian Govenunent; Lord Curzon
had attenipted to open direct communication with
the dalai lama; ^ere were rumoura^ a RiW^

Digitized by VjOOglC

TIBUKTIUS

720

TIBUkTIUS

Tibetan a©«ement. Notwithstanding Ruasia'a pro-
test, the Indian Government propfMed sending a
mission to Lhasa. Finally this mission was organused
in JuW, 1903, with Majw Francis E. Youn^hiuband
atitaneadj tius first miasion was turned into a seoond
mission with Younghusband as a commisaaiy and
GenereJ James R. L. Macdonald as commander of
the mUitary escort. The Enghsh crossed the Jelep
Pass (12 Dec, 1903), occupied Phari (19 Dec.),
stormed Gyantse (12 April, 1904), and entered Lhasa
on 3 August; the dalai lama was in fl^;ht. A treaty
was signed on 7 September; the Briti^ troops left
IJiasa and Uiey were back in India on 25 October.
The treaty was ratified by the Viceroy of India
on 11 Nov., 1904; it included ten articles: The
Government of Tibet engaged to respect the Anglo-
Chinese Convention of 1890 and to recognise the
frontier between Sikkim and Tibet; imdertook to
open forthwith trade-marts, to which all British and
"nbetan subjects should have free right of access at
Gyantse and Gastok as well as at Yatui^; the roads
to Gyantse and Gastok from the frontier were to be
kept clear of all obstructions; an indemnity of
£500,000, reduced since to one-third this amount,
was to be paid to the British Government for the
expense inctured in the despatch of armed troops to
Lhasa: all forts and fortifications were to be razed
and all armaments removed which might impede the
course of free communication between the British
frontiers and the towns of Gv^ntse and Lhasa.
These terms were really very moderate. On 27 April,
1906, a conventioa was signed at Peking by Sir
Ernest Mason Satow for Great Britain andlsy Tang
Shao-yi for China, including six articles: the Lhasa
Convention was confirmed; Great Britain engaged
not to annex Tibetan territory or to interfere in the
administration of Tibet; China also undertook not
to permit any other fweign state to interfere with
the territory or internal administration of Hbet.
Finally, in 1907, Russia and Great Britain also signed
a convention: both parties engaged to respect the
territorial integrity of Tibet and to abstain from all
interference in its internal administration, not to
send representatives to Lhasa, neither to seek nor to
obtain, whether for themselves ox for their subjects,
any concessions for railways, roads, tel^aphs, and
mines, or other rights in 'Hbet. From tms time the
Tibetan frontier has been closed to all foreigners,
though the prohibition has been eluded by the daring
Swedish explorer, Sven Hedin. The dalai lama had
fled to Urga, in Mongolia, which he left in the summer
of 1907 to settle at the Kun Bum Monasterv; after-
wards, in 1908, he went to the celebrated pil^image
of Shan-ai, Wu tai Shan, whence he repaired to Peking.
An audience was granted to him by the emperor and
he was allowed to leave the Chinese coital on 21 Deo.,
1908, and return to Lhasa, where he was not to stay
longj a bo^ of Chinese troops invaded Tibet, the
dalai lama fled to Darjeeling, and the result of the
policy of both Great Britain and Russia has been the
virtual annexation of Tibet by China.

Missions. — Since the Capuchins were expelled
in 1760, except the Lazarists Hue and C^bet,
who paid a visit to Lhasa in 1844, no missionaiT en-
tered 'nbet proper. The Vic» Apostolic of mndu
Tibet, Giuseppe Antonio Borghi, Bishop of Batsalda,
begged to be relieved of part of his work, and conse-
quently on 21 March, 1846, Gregory XVI crMted the
Vicariate Apostolic of Lhasa. The new vicariate
was placed in charge of the Foreign Missions of Paris,
and in 1847 Mgr Pfirocheau, of Sze-ch'wan, sent
Father Charles-Ren^ Renou (b. 22 Aug., 1812; d.
18 Oct., 1893) through Bat'ang to Cha^mu-to, some
thirty days in the interior of Tibet, but being dis-
covered, he was sent back to Ch'eng-tu. RenouD^og
appointed Prefect Apostolic of Eaatem Tibet was to
enter his mission via Yun-nan, while Ralnn, Rntfeet

Apostolic of Southern Tibet, was to penetrate into
the country by the way of Northern India with Fathers
Krick and Bernard. Nicholas-Michel Krick (b. 2
March, 1819) and Auguste-Etienne Boorry (b. 26
Dec., 1826) were murdered by the Abon on 1 Sept.,
1854. Finally the vicariate was establi^ed in the
eastern portion of Tibet and the western portion of
Sze^ih'wan with Jacques-Lton-Thomine Desmann^
(b. 17 Feb., 1804; d. 25 Jan., 186^ Bishop oT
Binopolts £1857), who resigned in 1864. His successors
have been Joseph-Marie Chauveau (b. 24 Feb., 1816:
d. 21 Dec., 1877), Bishop of Sebastopolis (1850) and
VioBT Apostolic of "Hbet (1804r-77); f^lix Biet (b. 21
Oct.. 1838; d. 9 Sept.; 1904)^ Bishop of Diana. The
oreeent vicar Apostolic is Pierre-Philippe Giraudeau
(b. 17 March, 1850), since 1901, Bishop of Tiniade
(12 Dec., 1897), with his reeidraoe at To-Tsien-Iu.
The mission includes (1910) 21 European priests,
2407 Catholics, and 600 catechumens. It has en-
dured cruel persecutions during recent years. Among
the missionaries of Tibet must be mentioned the
Well-known traveller and scholar, Ai^uste Des-
godins (b. 1826), now living at Darjeding, author of
a h^e "Dictionnaire thibetain-latm-fran^ais", and
of a Tibetaii graninsttr, prini«l at Hong-Konc in

Ifi.T'?, a^alUrti'-'iir of a jouriKry- tfif-iusli Titflartr. Thihri, n-nd
i'hitui vNftw York. IMZ],; DiiaoiioiNU. Lr Thih^,

<i'!'l"(^ Jit ^■t'~rfJ'l•^•■l^■|i^!tKftSc^ laini-mn-iirrii ^Parii, Klkii;t£,
Ril/itiaw il'a.n vouiijr 'lu. Thihtt rn 1^-}? [PuDf, 1>*.>4I ; jV'fiTffii.if-" ■>/
Ihr Mittioruofdeuriie H-igle In T/i.\!'''( rs'iii -if ik' jiiur'ir-i n/ J'hfmiii
Itanninff ta t,lw\r<i. 1:4- Mmirfiam iLntiiilon. 1^77^: Ko-Ni'j,
£.« rfTrnWH mvT-T-'-- lAi'i. ■ ff' Tit'''' i-iri.-',!nl il'jin=i, HnuiTt,
r,-,i'-.i' .n'l ■!.'■* I r..rij.l.in, J'JU'IH T^-iKi'-Hinuilaita:

, .J.. ( ... 7'-VM -ii'w Y-ilt, tWD); kOi-.-KniLi:.,

7"^- oi i^Hijc. Nrv. V,].-k. ISiflj; Inr.u. Tk^ Didai

A.jTTi.n !i/ Lh.i'.jti ;! .'yiLfTL. lullii; riij.vvA.j.-nr, lir I'ni-ir -la
T '-iki't li Er.if.T' i' Ti''r-t jVi.-.iFi'i J I h'eri-i, ruij-^nv. Tibtt

awS Tiukf*ta.i, I'NVtt Vr.rk. l'.".>.J.i: BliTK, T!'" TfJ-lt -jlJ Rf-
fViTc^A !}{ T iM !Lot]iI^>n, 111*!'') , Mm dO.'^aI.D. JVirpuu'i fit llfiH
Tibtl (LiiiJun, irJlU}; I.hitux nni \t» Sft/^tinief

iBiiaa, ISa^K L&nikih, TIu Openmo »f TiM (Nf-k Vork,

Hbnri Cobdibr.

TibQithu, Val«rlu, and Miadmm, SAnm.
See CioiLiA, Saimt.

Tiburtitti Uid Sosuuuh, Saints, Roman martyrs,

feast 11 August. The story is related in the legend of
St. Sebastian that Chromatius, prefect of Rome, con-
demned sever^ Christians to death. The prefect,
however, was converted by St. Tranquillinus and
baptized by Polyoarp. Tiburtiua, the only son of
Clm>matius, was also baptized through the persua-
sion of St. Sebastian, who was his godfather in bap-
tism. Tiburtius dunng the persecution of Diocletian
lay hidden in his father's bouse. Accuwd by a
traitor, he was brought before the prefect Fabianus
and tried. He oonf^ed his faith which he confirmed
by a miracle, for protecting himself only by the sign of
the cross he walked over red-hot coala barefoot with-
out suffering any injury. But the miracle was as-
cribed to magic and Tiburtius was beheaded at the
third mile-stone of the Via Lavicana. This was in
the year 280. The spot of execution was called, "at
the two laurd trees".

Saint Susanna, virgin and martyr, is said to have
been the daughter of St. Gabinius. ^e was beheaded
about the year 295, at the command of Diocletian, in
her father's house. This house and the adjoining one
belonging to her uncle, the prefect Caius, which were
near tne two laurel trees, were turned into a church,
later the titular church of St. Susanna ad duaa dimo§
(cf. Kehr, "Italia pontifida". I, 61 sq.). The au-
thenticity of the Acts of Sts. Sdbastian and Susanna
has been rightly questioned; howeve-, the martyrdoms
and the day of death (11 August) are established by
the witness of the oldest Martyrologies and the earliest
places of worship.

Acta 8S.. a F«b., 271-7: in April. 14-4; and U Aogwt,

6i«-aa. TT

Digitized by

noiLU.

7S1

TIOUNA

Tloaliftt titular see, euCFra^an of Oynne, in Hie
Libya Pentapolis. Under this Bame it is not found
ID any "Notitia episoopatuum", nor in any geogra-
phy sacred or profane. Nevertndaa^ at the Robber
Sjnood of £^heeu8 (449), we find a TheodiiluB, Bishop
<A Ticelia in Libya (Mansi, "Concilioram Golleetio'',
VI, 610) ; the name of the city LB'muoh oomipted in the
Greek text. It is doubtful if Tioelia is the oorreot name
of this city or see. Ina"NotitiaepiBCopatuum'',pub-
liafaed by Gelzer (Byiantinische Zestmhrift, II, 26),
we find the see'of Sioelia, evidently the same as ours.
Which is the correct name? At the Council <^ Bphe*
BUS (4S1), among the si^tMwribera is Sosipatsr, Knop
of SeD^miaoe, a-oity otherwise unknown, which
oeems likewise to have been situated in Libya (M anai,
op. dt.. IV, 11^ 1221). Just now it is impossible to
say if these various names rdate to tiie same city, or
vma,t is the oorreot name of this dioeeeo.

S. Vailh*.

TltAbome, Nicholas, Venebablsi, martyr, b. at
Hartley Mauditt, Hampshire; suffered at Tyburn,
London, 24 Aug., 1601. He was a recusant at large
in 1592, but by 14 March^ 1597, had been imprisoned-
On that date he gave evidence against various mem-
bers of his family. Before 3 Nov^ 1508, he had ob-
tained his liberty and had effected the release of his
tHOthu*, Venerable Thomas Tiohbome, a prisoner in
the Gatehouse, Westminster, by assaulting his lueper.
He is to be distinguished from the NicholM Tiohbome
who died in Winbheeter Gaol in 1587.

With him suffered Vbnerabi<b Thomas Hackshot
fb. at Mursley, Buckinghamshire), who was con-
demned on the same charge, viz. that of effecting the
escape of the priest Thomas Tichbome. During his
long imprisonment in the Gatehouse he was "afiBicted
witn divers torments, which he endured with great
courage and fortitude".

COAUiONBR, Mitaionary PHetU, I, no. 127; PoLUur, EnoUak
Martyn ISS^-ISiXt (Lonaon, privately printed for tba Catbolie
Ksoord Soo.. 1908), 361, 395; Hittoneal M33. CommUnm. Ctdt
U88., IV (Lratdon, 1882), 270.

JOEN B. Wainxw&iqht.

Tiohbome, Thomas, Vsniirablii, b. at Hartlnr.
Hampshire, 1567; martyred at Tyburn, London, 20
ApriL 1602. He was educated at Rheims (1584-87)
and Rome, where he was ordained on Ascension Day,
17 May, 1592. Returning to England on 10 March,
1504, ne laboured in his native oounty, where he
escaped apprehension till the earhr part of 1697.
He was sent a prisoner to the Gatehouse in London,
but m the autumn of 1598 was helped to escape by
his brother, Yen. Nicholas Tichbome, and Yea.
Thomas Hackshot, who were both martyred shortly
afterwards. Betrayed by Atkinson, an mostate

Eriest, he was re-arrested and on 17 April, 1002, was
rought to trial with Ven. Robert Watkinson (a
young Yorkshire man who had been educated at
Rome and ordained priest at Doiud a monl^ before)
and Ven. James Duckett, a London bookselltf. 0^
20 April he was executed with Ven. Robert Watkin-
son and Ven. Francis Page, 8. J. The last named was
a convert, of a Middlesex famUy though bom in
Antwerp. He had been ordained at Douai in 1600
and received into the Society of Jesus while a prisoner
in Newgate. Ven. Thomas Tichbome was in tJie last
stages of consumption when he was martyi«d.

Challonkb, Mtmairt of MUnmaru Pritttt (Loodon, 1741-2(1;
FoixT, Accord! £rw. Pro*. & J., I (London, 1S77); Polum,
cf ike fnffluA Mariir' (tiondoD, 1901); Idiu, VnpvblUhed doeu>
incTtU Tetaiing to the BnalM Martj/ra in Cath. Ree. Soc.. V (London,
1908); Dabknt, AM o/ At Priti/ Cmtneil, 199S~7 (Loadoa, 19021;
Dctiav I>iarif4, 1st and 2nd (London, 1878), Srd (London. 1911).

Edwin Burton.

Tloonlua (also Ttconitjb, Ttchonidb, etc.), an
African Donatist writer of the fourth century who

Spears to have had some influence on St. Ai^ustine.
) detoded a milder form of Dcmatism than Par*
menianus. He admitted a church oatnde his cnm
XIV,— 46

fleet and rejected Uie r»baptism of CathoKca. Par*
menianus wrote a letter agiunst him, quoted br St.
Augustine (Gon^ ep. FuTneniani, I, i; P. L., XVIII,
33). Otherwise almost all we know of him is con-
tamed in Gennadius (De vir illustr., XVIII) : " Ticho-
niuB an African was learned in theology, sufficiently
iostzucted in history, not i^orant of sec^tr knowledge.
He wrote books, ' De bello intestino ' and ' £xp<witiones
diverrarum causarum' [theee are both Donatist apolo^
^ee]: in which, to defend his side, he quotes ancient
synmfa; from which he is seen to have been of the
Dtmatist party. He composed eight [should be seven]
rules for dtsoovermg ^he meaning of the Scriptures,
which he arranged in one book . He also explained the
whole Apocalypse of John, understanding ul of it in a
qpirituM sense, nothing carnally. In this exposition
he stud that the body [of man| is the dwelling-place of
an angel. He denied the idea of a kingdom of the
righteous on earth lasting a thousand years after the
resurrection. Nor did he admit two future resur-
rections of the dead in the flesh, one of the good and
one of tiie bad, but only one of all, in which the mis-
batten and deftnmed will rise too, bo that no part of
the human race ever animated by a soul ^all perish.
He showed the distinction of the resurrection really
to be that we must believe that there is a revelation
of the righteous now in this world, when those justi-
fied by faith rise by baptism from the death of sin to
the reward of the eternal life, and the second [resur-
rection] to be the general one of all flesh. He flour-
ished at the same time as Rufinus; in the reign of
Theodosius and his son" (ed. Bonoulli, FVeiburg
and T*ipzig, 1895, pp. 68-69). This gives us
379-423 as extreme dates. Ticonius'd best known
work is the "Seven rules of interpretation" (for
the Bible). They are quoted and e^^lained by
St. Augustine in "De doctrina Christiana" (III,
30-37; P. L., XXXIV, 81-90) and his authority gave
them great importance for many centiuiee in the
West. St. Bede too quotes them (Explanatio- apo-
calypsis; P. L., XCIII, 130-132). Ticonius's "Com-
mentary on the Apocalypse" (Bede, op. cit., 132-134)
is now lost. It was extant in the libruy of St. Gallen
in the ninth century (No. 242; cf. G. Becker, "Cata-
logi biblioth. antiqui." Bonn, 1885. p. 48) and is
used by Primasius of Hadrumetum (P. L., LXVIIl,
793-936), Ambrose Autpert (Bibl. Max., XIH, 403-
657), and others. The "Commentary" ascribed to
St. Augustine (P. L., XXXV, 2415-52} is believed to
be a modified vernon of Ticonius. St. Augustine re-
pro aches 'Hconius with an anticipation oi Pelagian
ideas (De doctr. Christ.. Ill, 33).

BuBKiTT, The Book of Rum of Tieoniui (CunbridKe, 1894);
P. L., XVni, 15-66; Schanb, Oetch. der rom. LOl., IV (Munich,
1904), 350-53; HAUBLKiTaK, Die Kommentart da Victorinxa.
Tieoniut u. Hieronvmvt «ur Apolealt/pte in Zlachr. fUr hireU.
Wiumteliafl w. Lebm (1886), 230-fi7; Hahn, Tvcmita-Studim
1900); TiLLBHONT, litmoireM pour ttrvir, etc., VI, 145-
uni-JuNouAMN, ItuHhUiorw Pabvtogia, II (Inn^ruok,

I. A,3ia. v~» , V

Adrian Fobtescux.

Tietma Indiana, a tribe of Indians of some impor-
tance, constituting a distinct linguistic stock, inhariit-
ing tne river settlements or wandering in the forests
along the north bank of the upper Amazon (Marafion
or Solimoes), about the confluence of the Javari,
ranging from about Loreto in Pmi to below T^>a-
tinga m Brasil. Thev number about 2500 souls,
nearly equally divided between the two governments.
About one-third are more or less Christianized, the
others retaining their primitive wild habits. Physi-
cally they are one of the finest tribes of the upper
Amajson. In character they are frank, honest, and
of affectionate disposition. The wandering Ticuna,
some of whom at times reside temporarily in the river
villages, go n^ed except for the G-string and a
collar cis jaffuar or monkey teeth, to which is added a
painted robe on ceremonial occasionBY^~llievwei»
Digitized by VjOOQlC

TUmSTALLIB

722

TlirflHTALm

the hair cut acroas the forehead and hanging down
fuU length behind. They wear armlets of bright-
coloured feathers and paint and tattoo their faces in
various patterns. They live by hunting and fishing,
and tlie preparation and sale of the curari poison,
here called from them the "'rieuna" poison, for use
upon blow-gun arrows. In ihia manufacture they are
recognized experts and hold the process a secret,
although it is known that Strycknos caatdneana and
Coccuim toxico/era are among the ingredients. The

poison is kept in
cane tubes or clay
pots of their mak-
ing, and is the chief
^ ^^^H objoclof intertribal

^1 „ ..^^^^B^A triide throughout

the upper Amazon
region. They also
gailior the forest
products, aa wax,
rubbco-, gum, and
saraaparilla, for
sale to the traders.
They believe in a
good spirit, Nanu-
ola, and a dreaded
evil spirit, Locad.
There is a sort of
circumcision and
baptismal cere-
mony in connexion
with the naming of
cliiidren. Theyare
fund of elaborate
masked dancee.
Cirls on arriving at
puberty are closely
secluded for a long
period, terminat-
ing with a general
feast and drinking orgy, the liquor being the masato,
or chicha, prepared from cliewed and fermented com
or bananas. Wives are ubrained by purchase. The
dead are buried in great eartiien jars, together with
food and, in the case of a warrior, broken weapons,
the ceremony concluding with a drinking feast.

Some effort at the conversion of the Ticuna was
made by the Portuguese Carmelites from BrazU about
the middle of the eighteenth century, but without
result, owing to the Indian dread of the Portuguese
slave-hunters. About 1760 the Jesuit Father Fran-
ciscus, of the neighbouring mission of San Ignacio
among the Peva, friends and allies of the Ticuna,
succeeded in gathering some of the latto* into a new
mission village which he called Nuestra Sefiora de
Loreto (now Loreto, Peru)^ one of the "lower mis-
sions" of the Jesuit provmce of Mainas. At the
time of the expulsion of the Jwuits in 1768 it was in
charge of Father Segiindo del Castillo and contained
700 souls, being one of the Ingest of the province.
After the withtvawal of the Jesuits the missions were
given over to the Franciscans, under whom the work
was continued until interrupted by the long Revolu-
tionaiy struggle beginning m 1810. Under the new
repubucan government the missions were neglected
and rapidly declined, but the Christian Ticuna aie
still served by resident priests at Ldoreto and Taba-
tinga, including the auxiliary villages. Marcoy
gives a vocabulary of the languaf^e.

From the American officer, Lieut. Hemdon, we
have the following interesting account (condensed) of
the Ticuna mission village of Caballococha near
Loreto, as he found it in 18.51 : "The village, is
situated on the cafio (river inlet), about a mile and a
half from the entrance and at the same distance from
the lake. It contains 275 inhabitants, mostly Tiou-
nas Indians. These are darker than the gonemlity

A TicnjSA iNDtAX, Cahrvi vQ R LowauN
From a NarriitivB of llie F.xploral ions
of Smyth and Lowe, publinhed Id 18'JQ

of the Indians of the Marafion, though not so dark
as the Maniboa^ and they are beardless, which frees
them fn»n the negro look that these last have. Their
houses are geneTuIy plastered with mud inside, and
are far neater looking and more comfortable than the
other Indian rcBidraces that I have seen. This is
however entirdy owing to the activity and energy of
the priest, Father Flores, who seems to have them in
excellent order. They are now buikling a diureh fct
him, which will be tne finest in the Montafia (forest
region). The men are all decently clad in frocks and
troiisera; and the women, besides the usual roll of
cotton cloth around the loins, wear a short tunic
covering the breast Father Flores keeps the Indians
at weak, sees that they keep themselves and houses
clean, and the streets of the village in order, and I saw
-none of the abomimU>le drinking and dancing with
which the oUier Indians tnvariabhr wind up the Sun-
day." Through the kindness <h Fatho- Flores he
was able to witness a heathen incantation over a sick
man. On approaching the house they heard a num-
ber of persons singing inside, and, says Hemdon, "I
was almost enchanted myself. I never heard such
tones, and think that even instrumental music could
not be made to equal them. I have frequently been
astonished at the power of the Indians to mock ani-
mals, but I had heard nothing like this before. The
tones were so low, so faint, so guttural, and at the
same time so sweet and clear, tnat I could scarcely
believe they came from human throats, and they
seemed fittmg soimds in which to address spirits of
another world." When they entered, the 8ingers
fled, and they found only two men sitting by a fire
of blazing copal gum, filling an earthen }X)t with the
juice of chewed tobacco, and plainly showing by their
manner that the ceremony was not intended
for strangers.
Bbimtom. Anuriean Race (New Yorii, 1891); CAsncLKAD,

ExpSdMondatu rAmMfpuduSnd (flvola., Paria, IS60-1>;

Csantbi t Hsnau. Hitbtna d* lu Misionea d* la CompoAia
de Jena m d If oration BipaHot (writtco before ISOl) (Madrid,
1901} ; Hebndom, Exrlonlim nf tht VaOev 9f Uu Amiuon (Wuh-
■DStoa, ISS4){ Maxcot, Ycyaca d trmert FAmMque du Sud (2
voIb., Paris, 1S09); von Muawt, Ethnoanphi^ und SpracA«n-
hund* Amerikat, I (Ldpiic 1867); Raihondi, Et Pari, It fLima,
1870); Ideh, ApunUa aebn la pmincia lUanal d» hvrtto (Linm,
IS62): Mabkbaii, TVjbe* in lha VaBeu of the Anuuon in Jmtr.
AnOmp. InaHMa, XXIV (Lcmdon. 1896).

James Mooney.

Tieflentaller, Joseph. Jesuit missionary and
noted Roographer in Hindustan, b. at Bozen in the
Tyrol, 27 August, 1710; d. at Lucknow. 5 July, 1786.
He entered the Society of Jesus 9 October, 1729, and
went in 1740 to the East Indian mission where he
occupied various positions, chiefly in the empire of
the Great Mogul. After the suppression of tne So-
ciety he remamed in India, and on his death was
buried in the mission cemetery at Agra, where his
tombstone still stands. He was a fine scholar with
an unusual talent for languages; besides his native
tongue he understood iMin, Italian, Spanish, French,
Hindustani, Arabic, Persian, and Sanscrit. He was
the first European who wrote an exact desoription of
Hindustan. A brief list of his works is the best proof
of his extraordinary power of work and his vuied
scholarship.

In geography, he wrote a "Descriptio Indite", that
is a circumstential description of the twenty-two
provinces of India, of its cities, fortresses, and the
most important smaller towns, together with an exact
statemmt of geographical positions, calculated by
means of a simple quadrant. The work also contains
a large number of maps, plans, and sketches drawn by
himself, and the list of geographical positions fills
twenty-one quarto pages. He also prepared a laree
book of maps on the basin of the Ganees, entitled:
"Cursus Gangs fluvi Indiffi maximi, inde Priaga seu
Elahbado Calcuttam usque ope acus ma^ietice ex-
pkoatUB atque litieris mandatus a X/T. S. J." (1765).

Digitized by VjOOglC

TIEPOLO

123

TUSNET

The original map of the lower course of the river
measures 15', that of the middle course, from Benares
to Patna, measures 4' 3" square. In addition there is
a map oi similar dimensions of the Chwra, the whola
accompanied by numerous notes, sketches of particu-
lar parts, and maps giving details — an "enormous la-
bour ", as Bernoulli calls it. He also wrote a work on
the nsions containing the sources of the chief rivers
of India. In the field of religions he wrote on Brah-
minism a work directed against the errors of the Eng-
lishmen Z. Holwell and Alexander Dow. Others of
his writings were on Indian idolattr, Indian asceti-
eism, the religion of the Parsees, Alohammedanism,
the relations of these religions to one another, etc.
Hia writings in the department of the natural sciences
are: astronomical observations on the sun-spots and
the zodiacal lightj studies on the astronomy, astrology,
and cosmology of tiie Hindus, descriptions and obser-
vations of the flora
and fauna of Indiii.
The department of
history is represented
by writing in Latin
on the origin of the
Hindus and of their
religion, an account
in German of the ex-
peditions of Nadir
shah to India, the
deeds of the Great
Mogul Shah Alam in
Persian, and in
French the incursions
of the Afglians and
the conquest of Delhi,
and the contempo-
rary history of India
for the yew3 1757-64.
In linguistics he
wrote a Sanscrit-
Parsee lexicouj trea-
tises in Latin on the
language of the Par-

The son of a sea-captain and marine merchant, wh*
left behind him a considerable fortune, Tiepolo mar-
ried, in 1721, Cecilia, the sister of the painter Guardi,
by whom he had nine chiMren. His earliest master
was Lasserini, but his artistic career was derived from
a careful study oi the works of Titian, Piazseta, Ricci,
and especially Veronese. Up to 1750 he worked in
Venice and various places m the north of Italy,
painting some remarkable works at Milan, in Brescia,
and in one or two villas near Venice. He then, ac-
companied by his son, travelled to WUrzburg, where
he resided for three years, executii^ some magnificent
cei&ng paintings in the palace of the archbishop. He
was back again in Venice in 1753, full of commissions,
elected President of the Academy of Pad'ia, and hold-
ing high distinction in his native town. In 1761 he
accepted the invitation of Charles III, King of Spain,
to come to that country to decorate the royal palace

of Madrid. Unfor-
tunatelj', during his
residence there he in-
curred the jealousy
and the bitter oppo-
sition of Raphael
Mengs. He is the
last of the great Vene-
tian painters ; his
works fure magnificent
in force, briUiance,
and skill. Aa a
draughtsman and
colounst, few have
approached him; as
an etcher, he took a
high position.

Giovanni Dohb-
Nico, son and pupU of
the elder Tiepolo, b.
in Venice, 30 August,
1727; d. there, 8
March^ 1804. He
was his father's as-
sistant but far

ApoTHKOsia or Sr. DowNia
Qi&mbattista Tiepolo, Churah of the Geniatl, Vantoe

seeSj on the proper pronunciation of Latin, etc. ferior in everv respect in draughtsmanship and col-

Tieffentaller sent these works in manuscript partly ourine. His Best work is the ceiling in the Palazzo

to the Danish scholar Dr. Kratzcnstein at Copen- Ducale at Genoa. In his latter years, having satis-

hagen, partly to the celebrated French Orientalist factory means, he retired to a villa near Venice and

and geographer A. H.Anquetil-Duperron (1731-1805). lived m comfort. His marriage had taken place in

The latter gave due creoit to the value and impor-
tance of the works, especially those on geograjihy, in
hia addresses before the French Academy of Sciences
("Journal des Scavans", Dec, 1776), and made the
writings of TiefFentaller partly accessible to the
learned world in his "Recherchea hist, et g^ogr. sur
I'Inde" (1780), and also in his "Carte g6n6rale du
cours du Gange et du Gagra dress^e par lea cartes
particuU^ du P. Tieffenthaler" (Paris, 1784). A
part of the manuscripts at Copenhagen were obtained
by the German scholar Johann Bernoulli of Berlin
wno used them in connexion with the "Recherches"
of Anquetil for the great work "Des Pater Joseph
Tieffenthalera d. Ges. Jesu und apost. Missionarius in
Indien hiatorisch-geographische Beschreibung von
Hindustan . . ." (3 volumes, quarto, Berlin-Gotba,
1785-87). The ^reatra' part of the first two volumes
is devoted to Tieffentaller's writings, his m^, and
sketches. The French edition, entitled : " Description
hist, et g^ogr. de I'Inde . . appeared at Berun in
three vou., 4to (1786-91). A lar^e ptui of his manu-
scripts are probably still extant m Paris and Copen-
hfwen.

HroNDBR, Deulteh* JeaviUnmiuunUlrt du 17. vnd 18. Jahrh.
(TniboTg. 1899), 179; Non, Jot. TieffatHaUtr, 8.J., A ForgoUen
Geoipripher of India (Bombay, 1906); HoarEN, Jentil MiuUinaritt
in Nankem India (C^cuttn, 1907). A. HUONDXR.

Tiepolo, GlOVANKI BaTTIBTA (QlAHBATTieTA), b.

in Venloe in 1606; d. at Madrid, 27 March,' 1770.

1776, and was a scene of ^eat pomp and magnificence.
His widow married again after his decease, and the
male linn of TCi poIo liivd out with him.

Sack. Ci.is,/-:- .th.j />,,,», /.,V,. r;./..,,'.. (Rcrlin, lOH^;

MOLMBNTI, ii. y. y\--l'n>.. iMiliiii, I'.ili'.li, .Sf-.hrid t'lKarva

dOJa ItaUm i'&vmtaa. l-^yiii . I-^it'^n:. !'■ I l\<<;,i A>-!iati Vi.r.rJi
(Berguno, IW).

Geoboe Chaelzs Williamson.

Tlonur, Mark Aij^tsitts, b. at Briehton, Sept.,
1795; d. at Aninrlt.1, 10 Feb., 1862. After his early
schooling ihc Friin^^iriCflas at Budcicaley Green,
Warwicks[iirc, he was educated at Si , Ktlmujid's Oal- ■
\G%e,Oh\ M;lII, wliirh hi' entpreii in IMO iintl where
was ordaiii'd prii?st. 19 Kept., ISIS. lie n^iiiainM
at the Coll"tj)' profrs'sOr iiiid proeuratnr in iSlS-lQ.
He then terved as assistant priijst at Warwick ^itreet,
LondoiL and afterwards at LmcolnVlnn Fields till his
ill-healtn necessitated hia removal to the country mis-
sion of EQindou in Sussex. In 1824 he waa appointed
chaplain to the Duke fif Nrn ff Ik at Arundel, where
he spent'the rt-st of hie IJff, ilcvotitip himself to his-
torical auH ariliqiiarinn tsTudif-. Ui=. fhief objePt wag
to bring nui :i MiWoiL uf Dntirl'-! "Chiircli His-
tory of England", which should incoiporate all the
documents collected by himself and Kirk. The first
volume appeared in 1839, but on the publication (rf
the fifth volume in 1843 the work was unfortunate^
discontinued, as the revival of the hutoiy of the seven-
teenth-centmy disputes between seoularsMd r^pilan

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724

vu thought inopportune and gave ofFenee. Mean-
while hifl poaitioQ as an antiquarian had received
public recogoitioD. for in 1833 he was elected a Fellow
nf the Society of Antiquariea and in 1841 a Fellow of
the Royal Society. He alao acted as secretary to the
Sussex Archsological Society. After the restoration
of the hierarchy he became the first canon peniten-
tiary of the Diocese of Southwark, having long been
a member of the old chapter. Shortly afterwwda,
his relations with Cardinal Wiseman, whose poli<nr
he disliked and mistrusted, became very strainea.
Arising out of Tiemey's bic^aphical sketch of Lin-
gard, a controversy began between them on the well-
known question whether Lingard had been created a
oiudinal in peUo^ by Leo XII, and Cardinal Wiseman
addressed to his chapter s letttf complaining of
Tiemey's criticism <tf nis "Recollections of the last
Four Popes". In answer to this Tieme^ wrote the
" Reply to Cardinal Wiseman's Letter to his Chapter "
(1858), which was not published. He also wrote
"The History and Antiquities of the Castle of
Arundel" (London, 1834) and several controversial
pamphlets. For a time he acted as editor of the
''Dublin Review", succeeding Quin the first editor.

Lower, Worthia o/5tu««z (Lewes, 1865), 341; B. Ward, HM.
of St. Sdmvnd't CotUgt (Ixmdon. 1803) ; Idem, The Bte o} CaiAotie
Bmancipatiim, III (Loodon, 1912), kppoadis: W. Wakd, Lift of
ConUial WUtman (LwmIoq, 1897}; 0*61. Diet. Bng. Cath., ■. v.

Edwin Bubton.

Tigris, Saint, Irish saint, sister of St. Patrick.
Mudi obscurity attaches to her life, and she has been
frequent^ comounded witJi St. Darercfu anoth^ of
thenve sisters, who are treated oS at length by Colean.
St. Tigris was the mother of five sons, all of whom
became bishops: Sts. Lomam of Trim; Munis of
Forgney; Broccaid of Erotagh: Broccen of Breaghwy;
and Mugenoc of All Duimi Gluin. Jocelyn credits
the saint with seventeen sons and five daughters,
but Tirechan and the "Tripartite Life "are preferable
authorities. Her husband's name was Gollit. The
time andplace of her death are uncertain.

ftrOKH. TVtportite tAf« of St. Patriek (London, 1887); Hsalt,
Ufa tmd Writiitt <4 SL Fiitriek (DubUn, 1905).

W. H. Gbattan-Flood.

TUlemont, Lonift^^BAS-riEN Lb Nain db, French
historian ana priest, b. at Paris, 30 November,
1637; d. there, 10 January, 1698; he was educated at

the petitea 6cotes of
Port-Royal, where
Nicole instructed
him in logic. His
natural inclination
was towards his-
tory. In reading
Baronius he con-
ceived the idea of
going back to the
sources from which
that historian had
drawn. At the age
of eighteen, there-
fore, he began to
make notes and ex-
tracts— a work he
continued through-
out his life. He
spent several years
at Beauvais, partly
in the -seminary
ftlBiiniiii |j M<» wt ^wuHWT and partiy with
Aftor » pBinOng by L« Tim Caoon Hemumt,
who was an authority on the early ages of
Christianity. He received l^ly orders somewhat
late in life, becoming a subdeacon in 1672 and a
priest four years later, when be was 39. At that time
be resided in Fort-Royal, but a littk Later, in 1679,
wheD its oommonily waa di^pflmd, he whhdtaw to his

small estate at Tillemont, between Montreuil and
Vincennes, where he remained till his death twenty
years later in 1698, devoting his time to exercises of
piety and to historical work. He supplied several of
his learned friends with much material for their writ-
ings. Thus he spent two years collecting notes on St.
Louis for Lemaistre de Lacy, who did not live, how-
ever, to make use of them. They were published by
the Soei^t^ de Thutoire de France in 1847 (6 vols.).
TiUeoooat wrote in addition: "Histoire des empereiUB
et autres princes qui ont r^gnd pendant les six pre-
miera sidles del'Eglise" (6 volumes in 4°), and "M^
moires pour servir & I'histoire eccldsiastique des six
premiers sidles" (16 volumes in 4°). Only the first four
volumes of each of these works appeared in the life-
time of the author. Tillemont's style is dry, but he
is an accurate and learned historian.

TiOMCBAT, Lavit tl I'etprit d^M.Le Nain de Tillemont (Nancy,
1700); SAims-Bauvs, Pm* BomA, TV.

Geobobs Bbrtrin.

Tilly, Johannes Tserci.^, Count of, b. at
Brabant in 1559; d. at Ingolatadt in April, 1632. He
was a member of a noble family of Brabant named
Tserclffis. His
mother was a de-
voted Catholic; his
father took part at
first in the revolt
of the Netherlands
against Spain, but
by 1574 became a
loyal adherent of
Philip II. The son
was educated by
the Jesuits at Co-
logne. Like all the

freat men who
ought for the
Church and the
empire during the
era of the Refor-
mation and the
Counter - Reforma-
tion, Tillv has long
been calumniated
by Protestant and
rationalist histo-
rians. In reaUty he was a man of genuine piety,
remarkable self-control, moderation, and disin-
terestedness, a "monk in the garb of a seneral".
He was honest, even to the enemy, a father to
his soldiers, and humane to the oommon people,
whom he protected as far as he could against acta
of violence. As a general he was celebrated for
his caution, his able grasp of situations, for the excel-
lent preparatory training he gave hts troops, and his
nevei^failing readiness to meet the enemy and force
him to give Dattle. He learned the art of war under
the celebrated general, Alexander Famese; at a
later date Tilly surpassed his teacher. Up to 1594
he took part m the wars, some political and some
religiom, which laid waste the country from the
mouth of the Rhine to the Seine: the War of Cologne,
the revolt in the Netherlands, the War of the Holy
League. In 1594 Heiuy IV would have been glad
to have Tilly as one of generals. During the years
1600-08, Tilly served Emperor Rudolph II and fought
in Hungry against the Turks; in 1604 he rescued
Gran; in 1605 he was commander-in-chiel of the
impenal forces; but the quarrels in the House of
Austria and Rudolph's mental decay made success
impossible. During the period 1610-30 Tilly com-
manded Uie army of Majdmilian of Bavaria. Maxi-
milian was a man very similar to Tilly; they seemed
made to work together. Tilly was to command the
army of the newnr-founded League of the Catholic
States of the empire.

TlLLT, nOU AN EMBKAVnia

Vahdtkb

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Daring the era of peace up to 1620, Tilly ataUA
the Bavarian army, the flower of the army of the
League, and the ttrat standing umy in the empire
that was paid and fed, not It^ pnmdenng and enforced
ocHitributionB, but out the regular nvtnuee <rf the
State. With these troops as h» mamstay be took
part in the prolonged war in Bohemia and the empire
during the years 1920-30. In 1620 the fane of his
attack gfuned the victory at the battle oi the White
Mountain (8 Novonber) over the Bohemians who
had revolt«l against t^e emperor. For four years
Tilly was engaged in a contest with Ernst of Manafeld
and his confederates. Ernst transferred the war
from Bohemia to the lands <rf the empire, so that
Tilly was often hampered by poKtical consiaerations.
In 1622 Tilly forced Mansfeld to ^ve battle at Wiee-
loch, but the result was indecisive. He then de-
stroyed the army of George Frederick of Baden at
Wimpfen, and that of Cluistian ci Halberstadt at
HOchst, and tock Heidelberg and Mannheim. After
this Mansfetd's army disposed and Tilly had now
the strategic control of the whole of southern Ger-
many. But in tiienoct year, Mansfeld and Christian
ent^ed north-westem Qermany with fresh armies.
As the estates of Hesse and scane of those of Low«r
Saxony were still adherents of the imperial cause,
Tilly was able to make an energetic advance against
Mansfeld and to defeat him at Stadtlohn in 1623.
Political considerations, however, prevented his
pwsuit of Mansfeld. The inhabitants of north-
western Germany were roused to fanaticism against
Tilly by the siugestion that he would force them to
become Cathcmcs. The districts on the middle
course of the Weser which he ^arriscmed after his
victory at Stadtlohn yielded so httle that, in q>ite tit
all his efforts to feed his army by orderly methods, the
soldiers suffered privations and took to plundering,
which increased still more the animosity against
them. The danger that the King of Denmark would
take part in the war led Tilly in 1625 to beg the em-
peror to raise an army in %ae empire and to place it
undo- WtUlenstem's omnmond. Wallenstdn kept
all the prosperous taritoriee for himself and limited
Tilly more than ever to the districts poor in revenue
of south-western Germany. Tilly now found it
increasingly difficult to maintain discipline because
Wallenstein collected mercenary soldiers by the
promfee of rich booty, and raised these troops on a
larger scale and more BuccesrfuUy than any prevkius
commander on account of his Imposioa petsonali^.
Moreover, from 1627, and eq;>ecially uter the Edict
of Restitution of 1629 TiUy was obliged to carry out
numerous orders to restore to Uie Church lands which
had been taken from it contrary to the rel^us
peace; in this way be gained the reputation of being
a bitter enemy of Protestantism. By force of char-
acter, however, he overcame all difficulties.

In 1626 Tilly prevented the union of the Danes with
the Landgrave of Hesse who had revolted, and later,
in August, destroyed the Danish army at Lutter on
the Barenberg. In 1627 he drove the Danes over
the Elbe, but on account of a wound, which
prevented him from partaking in the war, Wallen-
stein gained the honours of the victory in the cam-
paign in Holstein. When he had recovered Tilly
took Stade at the mouth of the Elbe, and thus gained
control over the whole of north-western Gennany
excepting Bremen. He was not able to advance
against this latter city on account of the effects of
Wallenstein's Failures aibout the same time at Stralsund
and Magdeburg. The great success be had later
led him to hope for a time that peace could be restored
in the empire, but in this he was disappointed.
Once more for political reasons he could not gain
permission to attack the Dutch, who enrted them-
selves to keep alive the disordws in the empire. On
the other band, the leadem of the Lesgoe, owing to

their hostility to WaBenstein, refused to give Tilly
permission to go to Wallenstein's aid at Stralsund,
and thus to bar Gustavus Adolphus from entering
the empke. Thery also obliged Tilly and Wallra-
slun to dismin a lai^ part « their tnx^ a course
that aroused a bitter aid nupidouB f eeUng in the
experienced Moerai and pcditician. Shorti^ after
the arrival of Quat«vus Adolphus, Wallenstein was
dismissed and Tilly was 6ji trusted by the emperor
with the command of the imperial army in adthtion
to his own. It was a difficult taalt to reorganise
the imperial troope which were in prooess of oeing
disbanded. The last period of Tilly's activities as
a geoeral began when he todc command of the imperial
army. As usual, he took, the offensive as soon as
he could and began operations near the Baltic coast.
Gustavus Adotpnus, however, avoided a battle and
sought to tire Tilly out by marching about so as to
wrest the initiative from him. Tilly put an end to
this by marching against Magdeburg in March, 1630;
this was the boldest stroke of his entire career as a
commander. Gustavus seized the opiK>rtunity to
advance up the Oder into the toritories rukd by
tfae emperor ; iwobafcly, however, lllly's bold measures
forced Gustavus to follow him, in order to relieve
Magdebure.

When 'nily stormed Ma^eburg on 20 May, its
Swedish gamaon laid the city in ashes, and it lost
its strategic importance; he was, theraore, obliged
to retreat towards Thuringut. Gustavus Adc^hus
now showed himsdf to be superior to Tilly in tactics
at the battle of Breitenfdd on 17 Septmoer. Tilly
followed the methods of Alexander Fameee. but these
ptoved unsucceseful against Gustavus Adolphus's
more modem generalsh^>. Tilly's army was nearly
destroyed, and he, now seventy-two years old, was
for a short time cruised by the blow. However, in
the same sutumii be advanced from the Weser with
new tnxqw to {omnent the Swedes frcm mamhing
into the tentteries at the chieffl of the League in
Francomia. But on account of the insufficient means
at his diqMsal, the fear (A the Swedee, and the timid-
ity d the emperor and of the Catholic estates, his
army disbanded on the way. Undismayed, Tilly
began again on a smaller scale. In March, after
carefully miJring his arrangements, he stormed Bam-
berg, which hadfalleD into the hands of the Swedes,
and gained hen the first victory over them. He
now fanned to advanoe towards KgOT in order to
join Wallenstein, who had agun entered the imperial
servioe, but the latter kept him waiting. In the
meantime Gustavus Adolphus had advanced from
the Main towards Tilly. Abandoning Donauwdrth,
Tilly took up a position at the Village of Rain on
the Ledi, beong supported by Aldringm, the imperial
quartermasteT'^neral. The battle took place
16 April, and at its very bednniug Tilly and Ald-
ringen were severely wounded; this gave Gustavus
Adolphus the victory. Before his death Tilly pro*
vidM for the timely garrisoning <rf Ingdstadt and
Ration by the Bavarian troops, a measure which
proved of importance fac the subsequent course of
the war. Tiliy was always victorious in ev&y cam-
paKu in which he had sufficient resources. He
diedwhKi the campaign against Gustavus had hardly
begun. It is, therefore^ unjust to judge of his ability
as a commander by his f aihire at tibe beguimng m
this campaign. He was inferior to no commander
oi his own time.

KLorr, KUk im SO-^SMpm JEruv* ^tuttgart, ISCO) i Viiua-
HOHT. Tmy 9U la gtum da trmU OM (Tournay. ISSCn.

Mastin Spahn.

Tfanbriaa, a titular see m Pisidia, suffra^ of
Antioch. It is called Thymbrium in the official lists
of the Roman Curia, the name being more or lees mis-
spelled in doeuments, but the spc£ung here ad<^ted
is tiMt found on eoiiM where the inhabitaats are

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TUB 7

esUed, in the genitive plurd, TttiftpuMup. At a late
period we find the fonn Titnonada, neuter phiral, or
perhaps Thmiibriada, Hie exaet rite of the city ia
unknown. Itismentiotted by Sfarabo (XXL 7, 2); the
coins, bearing the figure of the Eurymedon, would
indicate a locality near the upper part of that river,
the lower part belonging to Bysantine Pamphylia.
It waa probably rituated somewhere in the plain
cidled Yuandi Ovassi, in the vilayet of Koniah. In
eocleriaatical writings it is mentioned as late as the
Uurteoith century. Le Quien (Oriena Christianua,
I, lOTO) names tfanwtrf its biBhopB: Ccmstantine.pres-
mt at the Councils <rf Coastantinople, 680 and 602;
John, at the Council of NiosBi^ 787: Theodosnu, at the
Pliotian Cmincil of CuMtantiaopM ^79).

RaUaT, Atia Minor. 406. 8', P^TRIDIs.

Tim*. — ^The problem of time k one of the most
difficult and most keenly debated in the field of nat-
ural philoeophy. To arrive at a satisfactory orienta-
tion m regud to this discusrion, it is important to
distinguish two questions: (1) What are Uw notes, w
elements, contamed in our subjective reprcsonta-
tion ct time? (2) To what external reality does this
representation correspond?

(1) As to the first question, philosophers and scien-
tists in general agree m this: that the notion, or con-
cept, of time contains three distinct ideas fused into
one indivisible whole, (a) First there is the idea of
succession. Every mind distinguishes in time the
past, the present, and the future, tiiat is parte which
essentiaUy exclude simultaneity and can be real-
ised only one after the other, (b) Again, time iii4)lies
continuity. Speaking of events here below, in our
own life, we cannot conceive the possibility of an
interval of duration, however short, in which we
should cease to grow older, or in which moment
should cease to foUow moment. The march of time
knows nrither pause nor intetruption. (c) Lastly,
a continuous succession cannot be a continuous suc-
cession of nothing. Therefore the concept of time
represents to us a reality the parts of which succeed
each other in a continuous manner. It matters little
here whether this reality is purely ideal, or is realized
outnde of us, for we are dealing only with the concept
of time. Such are the three essential elements of the
subjective representation. From these oonsiderap
tiona it appears that the question of time belongs to
the domam oosm<rfopy. By reaeon of its character
as continuous, successive, divisible, and measurable,
time belongs to the category of quantity, which is
a general attribute bodies, and cosmology has
for its object the essence and genend attrHnites of
matter.

(2) The second question, rdating to the objectivity
<rf the concept of time, is one upon which philosophers,
as well as sctcmtirts, are divided: no fewer than fifteen
different t^nnions may be enumerated; these, how-
ever, may be grouped in three classes. One class
embraces the sm>jectiviBt opinions, of which Kant is
the chief representative; these regard time as com-
pletely a creation of the knowing subject. To Kant
and tuB followers time is an a priori form, a natural
disporition by virtue of which the inner sense clothes
the acts of the extomal sensee, and consequently the
phenomena which these acta reprcsont, with the dis-
tinctive characteristics of time. Through this form
internal and external phenomena are apfirehended by
us as simultaneous or aucceesive, anterior or poate-
rior, to one another, and are submitted to necessary
and universal time-jud^ents. To this clasa^ also,
belong a group of opimons whidi, without being so
thorotwhl^ auDjeetiv^ attribute to time cnly a etm-
ceptual existence. To Leilmis and others time, is
"the order of successions", or a relation betwera
tilings that follow one another; but if diese things are
nuil, the mind peroeiTeB them under the fonn ct

!6 im

instants between i^eh it establi^es a relation that
is purdy mental. According to Babnea, time is a
tdatioD between being and non-being; subjective
time is the p&toeption of tiiis relation; objeetiTe time
is the relation itself in thii^. Thoufpi the two ideas
<^ bdng and non-being are found in every succession,
the relation between these two ideas cannot repre-
sent to ua a real continuouanesa, and tha%fore it
remains in the ideal order. Locke oonsiders time as
a part <^ infinite duration, expressed by periodic
measures such as the revolution of the earth around
the sun. According to ^msuw, a particular time is
the relatiott between two states in uie series states
aS consciousness. The abstract notion of a relation of
aggregated positions between the states of conscious-
nesB constitutes the notion of time in general. To
this rdation Spencer attaches an essentially relative
character, and attributes relative objectivity to psy-
chological time alone. For Btrgeon homogeneous
time IS neither a property of things nor an essential
otnditifm of our oognitive faculty; it is an abstract
schema of sucocssion in general, a pure fiction, which
neverthelen makes it possible for us to act upon mat-
ter. But besides this homogeneous time, Bergson
recognizes a real duration, or, rather, a multiplicity
of durations of unequal elasticities which belong to
the acta of our c(Misciousnees as well as to external
things The avstems of Descartes and (tf Baumann
must also be cbasified as idealistic.

In opposition to tiiis class of opiniims which repre-
■ent the existence of time as purely conceptual, a
second class represent it as something which has com-
plete reality outside ot our minds. These opinions
may fairly be described as ultrarrealist. Certain
phil iosophers, notably Gassendi and the ancient
Greek Materialists, regard time as a being nti gmeris^
independent of all created things and capable of sur-
viving the destruction of them all. Infinite in its
exteiuBifm, it ia the receptacle in which all the events
M this wwld are enclosed. Always identical wiUi
itself, it permeates all things, regulating their course
and preserving m the uninterrupted flow of its parts
an absolutely regular mode succession. Other
philosophers, e. g. Clarke and Newton, identify time
with the eternity of God or regard it as an immediate
and necessary result of God's existence, so that, even
were there no created beings, the continuation of the
Divine existoice would mvolve as its consequence,
duratioUj or time. These ultra-realist philosophos
sulwtantialise time; othos again make it a complete
being, but of the accidental order. Fcnr de San
time IS an accident trut generis, distinct from all ordi-
nary accidents; it is constituted as the local movement
of parts which succeed each other in a continuous
manner, but with perfect uniformity; by this acci-
dent, which is always inherent in substance, being and
the accidents of being continue their exist enoe
enveloped in a succession which is everywhere and
always uniform, Lastly, according to Dr. Halles,
the substantial existence of beinss itself increasee
intrinsically without cessation, and this regular and
continuous increase is by no means occasional or
trusitory, but alway^ remains a veritable acquisition
to the being which is its subject,. Of this quantitative
ittorement time is the represoitation. To sum up,
all systems of this second class have as their diatino-
tive characteristic the assertion of an external con-
crete reality—whether substantial or accidental —
which adequately corresponds to the abstract con-
cept of time, so that our representation of time is coily
a copy of that reality.

Between these two extreme classes of opinions is
the syston imiposed 1^ tiie majority of the S<^<^as-
tics, andent and modmi. For th«n the concept of
time is part^ subjective, partly objective. It be-
comes c<mcrete in continuous, notably in local, move-
ment; but movement becomes time only with the

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727

ioterrentitm of our intdligoice. Time is defined as
the measure of movement aoc(sding to an order of
anteriority and posteriority (numeru* motu» Mcun-
dum prius el posteritu). Onoe looal movement is
divided into parts by thouf^t, all the elamcnto of the
concept (tf time are found in it. Motkm, being
objectimly distinct from rest, is sometiiing real; it ia
endowed with true continuity; neverthdesa, into far
as it is divided by the inteUigenoe, it contains suo
ceasive parts ac^mlly distinct among themselves—'
some anterior, scHne posterior — between which we
pla(% a fleeting present. In the elaboration of the
idea of time, therefore, movemcot furnishes the
intelliaenoe with a Bucecasive, eontinuoua reality
which IB to be the real object ctf the oraio^t, while the
intelligence conceives it m that which it hiia in com-
mon with all movement — that ia without its specific
and individual notes— wd makes it, formally, timer
by dividing the continuity of the movement, mak-
ing actual that distinction of parts which the move-
ment possesses only potentially. In fact, say the
Soholaetics, we never perceive tmie apart from move-
ment, and all our measures erf tempore duration are
borrowed fnnn loeal movonent, particularly the
apparent movement al the heavens.

Whatever be its objectivity, time possesses three
inalienable prop^rtiee. First, it is irreversible; the
linking of ite parts, or the order of t-heir guocession,
cannot be chuiged; past time does not come back.
According to Kant, the reason of this propai.y is
found in the application to time ot the prinatwe of
eauaality. Aa the parts of time, he says, are to each
other in the lelatim of cause to eSwt, and aa the
cause is essentially antecedent to its effect, it is
impossible to reverse this relation. According to the
Scholastics, this immutability is based upon the ver^
nature of concrete movement, of which one part is
eoaentially anterior to another. Secondl;^, time is the
measure of events in this world. This raises a Imotty
problem, which has so far not been theoretically
solved. Tune can be a permanent measure onW if it
is oinu9<etiied in a uniform movement. Now, to Know
the uniformity of a movement, we must know not only
the ^ace traversed, but the velocity of the transit,
that is the time. Here there is unqueetionabl^ a
vicious circle. Lastly, for those who concretise tmie
in movemwt, a much d^ated question is, whether
time or movement can be infimte, that is without
beginning. St. Thomas and some of the Scholastics
see no afaeidute impowibility in Uiis, but many mod-
em thinkm ttdce a diffennt view.

JWammtaTn^MpAv, lU (New York, 1864); Kant, KtH^
tUr rtin*H VenuatJI; opkmckb, PrincipUi of Ptyehoum, II
(LondoD, 1881); BAtntAmi, Dit X«ftr«n wn Raum. Zeil v, jfott*-
matik. n (Bffbi. 18610: BnwWW, JfoNIr* tf mtwmin (IMb.
1806); IsMf, Stttti mtr in Amnte immUiatm da lii mummm
189n: ra Tntlitutitmea nut. tpeeiatn. Cotmotoffia
I8B1); VOK Ounxs, Waa i*t Aaum. Zeit. Bewemina,
tad M., Mnnioh, 1902); lantKlUBB, Drr Btqriff dar
ZeiEL in fihOot. JaArfrucA (190!D : lUnau Aatm u. 2Ml (Wpiib
1907} ; McTAoaABT. The NmmlUy Rim in Mind (Oct., 19087;
Sblubs. Critical AntKm and tht Time ProbUm In Jwn. Ffttt.
P»rmd8c Mflkodm m Sept.. 1908): WoimsnDm, 7IW ProblMt
TimM Modm Phaetoph]/. ibid.. VII (191(0.

D. NTS.

Timotiiaus and Sympborlan, Saints, martyrs
whose feast is observed on 22 August. During the
pontificate of Melchiades (311-13), St. Timotheua
came from Antioch to Rome, where he preached for
fifteen months and lived with Sylvester, who later
became pope. The prefect of the city, Tarquinus
Ferpenna, threw him mto prison^ tortured, and finally
beheaded him in 311. A Christian woman named
llieon buried him in her garden. This is related in
the legend of Sylvester. The name of Timotheus
occurs in the earliest martyrologies.

According to a l^end of the early fifth century, St.
dymphorian of Autun was beheaded, while still a
young man,' during the rdgn of Mareus Aureliua.

His mother, the Blessed Augusta (T), encouraged him
on his way to execution, 22 AuKUSt, 178. Bi^op
Euphronius (d. 490) built a handsome church over
hu grave, connected with a monast^, which be-
kiaged to tiw Congregation td Sdnte<Gaievidve fh>m
1666 until its auppression in 1701. Abbot Germanua
later became Bisht^ of I^uis, where he dedicated a
chapd to the saint. 8t. ^mphorian is the patron
saint of Autun. His venation spread at an early
date through the empire of the Franks. His cult was
especially popular at Tours; St. Gregory relates a
miraele wrought by the saint.

Ada S8., AufUBt, IV, 630-36, 4S1; Ruimart, Aeia Martvrum:
DnOT, 8bM Bmpioiim M m» cnKc (3 vola., Autnn. 1801);
DnaaBsm, FaMM ipiwfaam, 1, 62.

Gabriel Mbieb.
Tfanottv JUnnu. See EtrrrcHiAinBif; Moko-

PHTBITES.

Timothy and Titus, Epibtlbs to (The Pas-
TORAi*). — Timothy and Titus. — Saints Timothy
and Titus were two of the meet beloved and trusted
diMiplee of St. Paul, whom they aooonmanied in many
of Ws journeys. Timothy is mentionea in Acta, xvi, 1;
xvii, 14, 15, 1; xviii, 6; xix,22; 3ot, 4; Rom., xvi, 21; I
Cor.,iv, 17; II Cor., i, 1, 19; Pha.,i, l;ii, 19; Col., i, 1;
I Theas., i, 1; iii, 2, 6; II Thess., i, 1; I Tim., i, 2, 18:
vi. 20; II Tim., i, 2; Philem., i, 1; Heb., xiii, 23; md
Titua in II Cor., ii, 13: vii, 6, 13, 14; viii, 6, 16, 23;
xii, 18: Gal., ii, 1, 3; II Tim., iv, 10; Tit., i, 4. St.
Timothy has hem rc^sarded by some as the "angel of
the church of Epheeus", Apoc, ii, 1-17. According
to the ancient Roman martyrology he died Bishop m
Ephesus. The Bollimdiats (24 Jan.) give two livea
of St. Timothy, one ascribed to Polycrates (an earfy
Bishop of Epnesus, and a contemporary of St. Ire-
nEBus) and the other by Metaphrastea, which is merely
an expansion of the former. The first states that
during the Neronian persecution St. John arrived at
Ephesus, where he lived with St. Tnnothy until he was
exiled to F^tmos under Domitian. Timotiiy, who
was unmarried, conUnued Bishop of Ephesus until,
when he was over eighty years of age, he waa mortally
beaten by the paeans. According to early tradition
Titus continued iuter St. Paul's death as Archbishop
of Crete, and died there when he was over ninety.

Epistles to Timotht and Tttds. — AuTHENncrrr.
— I. Internal Evidence. — ^The remainder of this article
will be devoted to the important question of autben-
ti^ty* whidi would real^ require a volume for discus-
sion. Catholics know from the univaaal tradition
and infaUible teaching of the Church that these
Epistles are inspired, and from this follows their
Pauline authorship as they all claim to have been
written by the Apostie. There was no real doubt on
this question until the beginning of the nineteenth
century; but since that time they have been most
bitterly attacked by German and other writers. Their
objections are principally based on internal evidence
and the alleged difficulty of finding a place for them in
the lifetime of St. Paul.

A. Objection from the absence of Pauline vocahu-
Iftiy. — Moffatt, a rejOTcsentative writer of this school,
writes (Ency. Bib., IV): "Favourite PauUne phrases
and words are totallv wanting. . . . The extent and
significance of this cnange in vocabulary cannot ade-
quately be explained even when one assigns the fullest
poaabfe weight to such factors as change of amanuen-
sis, situation or topic, lapse of time, literary fertility,
or senile weakness." Let us examine this writa'a
Ust of favourite PauHne words of the absence of which
so very much is made:

■AiI«of (unjust). — ^This is found in Rom., iii, 6;
I Cor., vi, 1, 9, but not in any of the other Pauline
epistles, admitted to be genuine by this writer. If its
aosence be fatal to the Pastorals, why not eiao to
I and II Thess., II Cor., Gal., Phihp., Col., and

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Phitem.? Moreovar, the noun *Mm » loiuid in tlM'

Pastorals, II Tim., ii, 10.

'Aiatffapffla (undeannees) does not occur ia I Cor.,
Phil., II Thees., and Philem. U that does not tell
against these Epistles why is it quoted against the
Pastorals?

TlodeffUi (adoption). — ^This word is three times in
Rom., onoe in QaL, but it does not occur at all in
I and U Cor., I and II Thesa., PbiL. CoL, and
Philem. Why its omission should be used againrt
the Pastorala ia not easy to understand.

Uariip ^fMiv (Our Father). — Two expressbns, God
"our Father" and God "the Father" are found in St.
Paul's Epistles. The former is frequent in his earlier
Epistles, viz., seven times in Thees., while the latter
e]q>resaioa is not used. But in Romans "God our
Fathior" appears but onc% and "the Father" onoe.
In I Cor. we read God "our Father" once, and "tlie
Father" twice; and the same has to be said of II Cor.
In QaL we have "our Father" once and "the Father"
three times. In PhiL the former oqcuts twice and the
latter once; in Col. the former only once, and the
latter three timea "The Father" occurs onoe in
each of the Pastoral Epistles, and from the above it is
evident that it is just as characteristic of St. P«il as
"our Father", which is found but once in each of the
Epistles to the Romans, I and II Cot., Gal., and
CoL, and it would be absurd to conclude from this
that all the remaining chapters were smirioiu.

Aiaffifr^ (covenant) occurs twice in Rom., onoe in
t Cor., twice in II Cor., thrice in Gal., and not at all
in I and U Tbess., Phil., Col., and Philem., admitted
to be genuine by Moffatt.

'AmtoXtfrrcw (reveal), a word not found in II Cor.,
I Thess., Col., and Philem., and only once in Phil.

EXctffie^ (free), is not in I and II Thess., II Cor.,
Phil., and Philem., so it is no test of Pauline author-
ship. Its compounds are not met in I and II liiess.,
Phil., Col.^ or Philem., and, with the exception of
Qal., in the others sparingly.

Eftpytli' (to be op^tive) is seen but onoe in each
of Rom., FhiL, CoL, I and II Thess.; and no one
would conclude from its absence from the remaining
portions of these Epistles, which are longer than the
Pastorals, that they were not written by St. Paul.

'Kartpyi^^dtu (perform), though several times in
Rom. and II Cor., and once in iCor. and in Phil., is
wanting in I and II Thess.^ GaL, CoL, and Philem.,
which are genuine without it.

Kavxitr&tu (boast), only once in Phil., and in II
Thess., and not at ^ in I Thess., Cotoss., and Philem.

I/Lwpla (folly) ia five times in I Cw., and nowlMn
else in St. Paul's Epistles,

But we need not weary the reader b^ going through
the entire list. We have carefully exammed every word
with the like results. With perhaps a single excep-
tion, eveiv word is absent from several of St. Paul's
genuine Epistles, and the exceptional word occurs but
once in some of them. The examination shows that
this list does not afford the slightest argument against
the Pastorals, and that St. Paul wrote a gnat deal
without using such words. The compQation ut sueh
lists is likely to leave an erroneous impression on the
mind of the unguarded reader. By a similar process
with the aid of a concordance, it could be proved that
every Epistle of St. Paul has an appearance of spuri-
ousneas. It could be shown that Galatians, for in-
stance, does not contain many words that are found
in some of the other Epistles. A method of reasoning
which leads to such emmeoua oonduaions should be
discredited; and when writers make very positive
statements on the strength of such misleading lists in
order to get rid of ^ole books of Scripture, their other
assertions should not be readily taken for granted.

B. Objection from the use of partiolea. — Certain
particles and prepositions are. wanting. JiUicher in
his "Introd. to the New Test.", p. 181, writes: "The

fact that hriaffa oonvictwn [against the Pastoral^ is
that many words which were indispensf^ile to Paul
are absent from the Pastoral Epistles, e.^. Vo, it&,
Stiri. " But, aS' Jacquier points out, nothing can be
concluded from the absence of particles, because St.
Paul's employment of them is not uniform, and sev-
eral of them are not found in his unqueetioned Epis-
tles. Xh. Headlam, an Anglican writer, pointed out
in a paper read at Um Cbureh Congress, in 1901,
that ip* occurs twenty-«ix times in the four Epis-
tles ot the second group, only three times in all the
others, but not at all in Col., PhiL, or Philem. ^
occurs eiditeen times in Rom., GaL and Cor., but
not at au in Col. or U Theea. The word Siiri doea
not occur in II Thess., II Cor., Eph., CdL, or Philem.
Ws find that fr«r« does not appear at all in Rom.,
II XSw^ Phil., CoL, II Thess., and Philem., nor Ir*
in I Tbeas., CoL, and Philem. It is uaoeoeaaary
to go throuch the mtire catakigoe usually given by
opponents, uar the same pbencKmenon is discovered
throughout. Particles were required in the argu-
mentative portions of St. Paul's Epistles, but they are
used very qwringly in the [iiactical parts, which re-
semble the Pastorals. Their employment, too, de*
pended greatly on the character of the amanuensis.

C. Objeetion from Hapax Legamana. — The great
dijectitm to the Pastorals is the admitted]^ Larse
number of Aapo* Ugomma found in them. Wwk-
man (Expository Times, VII, 418) tddng the term
"hapax legomenoo" to mean any word used in a par-
ticular Epistle and not again oocurring in the New
Testacumt, found from Grimm-Thayers "Lexicon."
the f(^wiDg ntm^iera of hapax legomena: Rom. 113,

I Cor. 110, II Cor. 99, GaL 34, Eph. 43, PhiL 41,
CoL 38, I These. 23, II Then. U, Philem. S, I
Tim. 82, II Tim. 53, Titus 33. The numbers have to
be somewhat reduced as they contain words from
variant readings. These figures would suggest to
mobt people, au they did to Dean Farrar, that the
number of peculiar words in the Pastorals does not call
for any nieoial explanation. Mr. Workman, how-
ever, thinks that for scientific purposes the propor-
tionate length of the Epistles should be taken into
account. He cf^culated the average numbo* of
hapax legomena occurring on a page of Westcott and
Hort's text with the foUowing results: II Thebsalo-
niaos 3-6, Philemon 4, Galatians 4-1, 1 TheSsaloniana
4-2, Romans 4*8, I Corinthians 4-6, Ephesians 4-9,

II CorintJiiaas 6- 10, Coloesians &3, Philippians 6-8,
II Timothy U, Titus and I Timothy 13. The pro-
portion of hapax Ugomtna in Pastranls is luge,
but iriien oompared with PhiL, it is not largw than
that between II Cor. and II Thess. It has to be
noted that these increase in the order of time.

Woricman gives a two-fold explanation. First, a
writer as he advances in life uses more strange words
and involved constructions, as is seen on comparing
Carlyle's "Lattoi^Oay Pamphlets" and his "H^oes
and Htto-W<»Bhip". Secondly, the ntrniber of un-
usual words in ai^ author is a variable quantity. He
has found the avmge number of kapaz legomena per
page of Irving's one-volume edition of Shakespeare's
plays to be as follows: "Love's Labour Lost" 7-6,
''Comedy of Errors" 4-5, "Two Gentlemen of

6-6, "Henry IV, pt. I» 9-3, "pt. II " 8, " Heniy V " 8-3,
"Meny Wives of ^Rndsor'*^ 6-9, "Much Ado About
Nothing" 4-7, "As You Like It" 64, "Twelfth
Night" 7-5, ''All's WeU" 6-9, "JuUus dliesar" 3-4.
"Measure for Measure" 7, "Troilus and Creaida"
10-1, "Macbeth" 97, "Othello" 7-3, "Anthony and
Cleopatra" 7-4, "Coriolanus" ft-S, "King Lear'*' 9-7,
"Timon" 0-2, "CymbeKne" 6-7, "The Tempest'*
9-3, "Titus Andronicus" 4-9, "Winter's Tale" S,

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"Hamlet" 104, "Heniy Vm" 4-8, *'PerielM*' M.
Ffir a atmihur argumoit on Deoite sw Butler's Para-
dise", XI. The totals of hapax Isgomena for some of
the plays are: "Julius Ceesar" 98, "Onnedy of
Errore" 88, "Macbeth" 245, "Othello" 264, "King
Lear" 358, "Cymbelhw" 252, "Hamlet" 406, "The
Merchant of Veaice" 148. This scrutiny of the
words peculiar to each play throws Hg^t on another
difficuAy in the Pastorals, rvs. the reourrenoe (tf eu<Ai
exprenions as *'a faithfni myin^", "sotmd words",
etc. "Moon-calf" occurs five times in "The T«n-
pest", and nowh«« else; "pulpit" six times in one
soene of "Julius Cosar" and never elsewhere: "hovel"
fire times in "King Leu-"; "mountaineer" four times
in "Cymbeline", etc. Compare, "God forbid",
y4wotro of Gal., Rom., once in I Cor. — not in the other
EpisUee of 3t. Paul. "Sound wOTds" was used
ndlo befme St. Paul, in whom it may be due to
intercoorse with St. Luke. (See Plumptre's list irf
words common to St. Luke and St. Paul, quoted in
Farrar's "St. Paul", I, 481.)

Mr. Workman has overlooked one point in his veiy
uaeful article. The ha-pax Ugomena are not evenly
distributed over the Epistles; they occur in groups.
Thus, more than half of those in Got. are found in
the second chwtw, where a new subject is dealt with
(see Abbott, '^Cnt. . . . Comment, on Ep. to the
Ephes. and to the Cokiss." in "Interaat. Crit. Com-
ment."). This is as hi^ a proportion as in any
chapter of the Pastorals. Something similar is ob-
servable in II Cor., Thess., etc. Over sixty out of the
seventy-five hapax legomena in I Tim. occur in forty-
four verses, where the words, for the most part, natu-
rally arise out of the new subjects treated of. The
remaining two-thirds of the Epistle have as few hapax
legomena as any other portion of St. Paul's writipfi.
Gc>mpounds of^ ^tK-, ob»-, Marit., often objected to,
are also found in his other Epistles.

The "Autiiorship of the Pastoral Epistles" was
discussed in "The Church Quarterty" in October,
1006, and January, 1907. In the first tke writer
pointed out that the anti-Pauline hypothesis pre-
sented more difficulties than the PauUne; and in Uie
second he made a detailed examination of the hapax
legomena. Seventy-three of these are found in the
S^tuagint, of which St. Paul was a diligent student,
and any of them might just as well have been used by
him as oy an imitator. Ten of the remainder are sug-
gested by Septuagint words, e. g. A^Uant II Tim.,
u, 24, dwjutwtfa Wisd., ii, 9; AwrWtira I Tim., vi, 20,
drrfffwoi Job, xxxii, 3; oWtiTelV I Tim., ii, 12, aMifmp
Wisd., xii, 6: ytwealianfta I Tim., i, 4, Tit., iii, 9;
ytmtKoytU I Par., v, 1 : wipoinn I Tim., iii, 3, Tit., i,
7, wapcipthi Is., ]di, 12, eto. TwMity-eight of the
words now left are found in the classics, and thirteen
more in Aristotle and Polybiud. Strabo, bom in 66
B. c, enables us to eliminato yfiatiivp. All these
words formed part of the Greek language current up
to St. Paul's time and as well known to mm as to any-
body at the end of the first century. Any word used
by an author contemporary with St. Paul may re*-
sonably be supposed to have been as wdl known to
hims^ as to a subsequent imitator. In this way We
may deduct ^ght of the remidning words, which are
eommon to Uie Pastorals and Pliilo, an elder contem-
porary f>f St. Paul. In dealing with the fifty remain-
ing words we must recall the obvious fact that a new
subject requires a new vocabulary. If this be neg-
lects, it would be easy to prove that Plato did not
write the Tinueus. Organization and the conduct of
practical life, eto., cannot be dealt with in the same
worIb in whidi points doctrine are discussed.
This fai^ accounts for eight words, such as imd^x^f

•ImitrwoT^, rtKwcrfort'iv^h.apSpm, irepoS^WKiiMw, etc.,
used by the author. His detestation of the errorists
do)d>tlesB called forth xm^ovte, X«Y«/wx<^t ^ay^x^
nrrwiKiniUt, furmtMyvi, aevmd were imw-

29 tunmr

ably coined for tbe ooeasion. Thn element of pure

chance in language aeoounts for "parchments'*,
"(ikMk",and"stomaeh": behad no occasion to qieak
about sueh things previously, nor of a pagan
"prophet". Seven of the remaining wcn^aredei^t
with on the modest principle that words formed from
composition or denvation from admittedly Pauline
words ma^ more reasonably be supposed to come from
St. Paul hime^ than from a purely hypothetical imi-
tator, e. g. «^uc6f, adj., Tit., iii, 10; oljMirit, I Cor.,
xij 19; G<d.,v,20; tufirnp, I Tim., i, 13; Suinip, Bom.,
xii, 14, eto.; hnrvf^iatp, II Tim., iv, 3; wmfit6ap M
Rom., xii, 20: LXX, eto. Five other words are de-
rived from Biblioal words and would as easily have
oecurred to St. Paul as to a later writer. The remain-
ing words, about t^nty, are disposed of s^>arat^y.

'Ewi^dma instead of vapwrUi^oT the second com-
ing oi Christ, is not against thel^utorals, because St.
FWil's usage in this matter is not uniform. We have
* iipdpa Kvplmt in I Thess., v, 2, I Cor., i, 8, v, 5;
4 dsv«Av^» in II Tliess., i, 17; and 4 tri^tima
wap^Us in II Thess., ii, 8. Lilley ("Pastoral
Epistles", Edinburgh, 1001, p. 48) states that out
of the 897 words oont^ned in the Pastorols 726
are common to them and the other books of
the New Testament, and two-thirds ot the entire
Toeabulanr are found in the other Ef^sties of St.
Pttul; ana ttds is the proportion <tf oonuntm wwds
found in Galatians ana Romans. The same writer,
in his complete list of 171 hapax legomena in the Pas-
torals, points out that 113 of these are classical words,
that is, belonging to the vocabuhuy of one well ac-
quainted with Greek; and it is not surprising that so
many are foimd in these Epistles which were addressed
to two disciples well educated in the Greek language.
Another poml much insisted upon by objeeton is a
certain limited literaiT w verbal affinity connecting
the Pastorals with Lute and Acts and therefore, it u
assorted, pointing to a late date. But in reality Uiis
connexion is in their favour, as there is a strong tend-
encv of modem criticism to acknowledge the Lucan
autiiOTship of these two books, and Hamack has
written two volumes to prove it (see Luke, Gospel
OF Saint). He has now added a third to show that
they were written by St. Luke before a. d. 64. When
the Pastorals were written, St. Luke was the constant
companion of St. Paul, and may have acted as his
amanuensis. This intercourse would doubtless have
influenced St. Paul's vocabulary, and would account
for such expressions as Ayv^fiy^ of I Tim., vi, 18,
d7sAnr«rf!r of LttkCj vi, 9, Ay^Otvpy^r, contracted from
•yagotpydf, Acts, xiv, 17. St. Paul has ipya{bii4wfff t4
iymtiw Rom., ii^ 10. — From all that has been said,
it is not surpnsmg that Thayer, in his banslation
of Grimm's "Lexicon", wrote: "The monumental
misjudgments committed by some who have made

3 unions of authorship turn on vocabulary alone, will
eter students, it is to be hoped, from misusing the
lists exhibiting the peculiarities of the several books. "

D. Objection from style. — "The comparative ab-
sence of rugged fervour, the smoother flow, the heap-
ing tm of words, all point to another sign-manual
than that of Paul" ^ncy. Bib.). — Precisely the same
thing could be ur^ed against some of St. Paul's other
Epistles, and a^nst large sections of the remaind^.
All critics admit that larae portions of the Pastorals
are so much like St. Paul's writings that they actu-
aDy maintain that they are taken from fr^ments of
genuine letters of the Apostle (now lost). Various
discordant attempts have been made to separate these
portions from the rest, but with so little success that
JQlicher confesses that the thing is impossible. On
the other hand, it is the generu opinion of the best
scholars that all three Epistles are from the pen of one
and the same writer. That beinfj the case, and it
being impossible to deny that portions indistinguisb-
ftUelrom the nvt w« 1^ St FWilf it foUows ttwt tlw

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TmOTHT 7

early aod unireraal tradition aseribaig Him iriufeittf

them to the Apostle is correct.

As we pass from one to another of the foiur gnrapfl
of St. Paul's Epistles— (1) Thessaloniansi (2) Gahr
tiana, Corinthians, Romans; (3) C^ivity Epistles;
(4) Pastorals — ^we observe oonsidentble differences
of style side by side with very marked and charac-
teristic resembiances, and that is precise^ what we
find in the case of the Pastorals. There are some
striking points of connexion between them and
Phil., the Epistle probably neareet to them in date;
but Utere arc many resemblances in vocabuIatT, style,
and ideas connecting them with portions of all the
other Epistles, especially with the i»«ctioal parts.
There are, for instance, for^-two passages connect-
ing I Tim. with the earlier Epistles. The terms are
nearl}[ identical, but display an amount of liberty
denoting the working of tne same independent mind,
not a conscious imitation. The Pastorals show
throiiehout the same marks of originality as are
founa in all the writings of the Apostle. There are
similar anacolutha, incomplete sentences, play. on
words, long drawn periods, like ooinparisons, etc.
The Pastorals are altogether practical, and therefore
do not show the rufo^ fervour of style confined, for
the most part, to the controversial and argumenta-
tive portions of his large epistles. (See the very vidu-
ihle book by Jam^, "Genuineness and Authorship
of the Pastoral Epistles", London, 1906; also Jao-
quier, and Lilley.) It may be well to note, in this
ocmnexion, that Van Steenkiste, professor at the
Catholic Seminary of Bruges assoted, as long ago as
1876, that the inspiration of the PaatoralB and Uieir
Paulme autlwrship would be sufficiently saf^uarded
if we aooMpted the view that they were written in the
name and with the authority of the Apostle by one
of his companions, say St. Luke, to whom he dis-
tinctly explained what had to be writt^i, or to wlwm
he gave a written summary of the points to be de-
veloped, and that when the letters were finished, St.
Faxd nad them through, approved tham, and suned
thrati. This, he thinks, was the ww in which ^He-
brews", also, was written (S. Pauli E^istols, 11, 283).

E. Objection from the advanced state of church
organization. — ^This objection is adequately answered
in the articles Hibrascht of thb Eablt Church,
Bishop, etc. See also "The Establishment of the
Episcopate" in Bishop Gore's "Orders and Unity"
(London, 1909), 116. The seven, St. St^hen. Phihp,
etc., were set aside for their ministry by the Apostles
by pr^er and the laying on of hands. Immediately
after this we read that tney were filled with the Holy
GlKMt, and preached with great success (Acta, vi,
vii). From St. Luke's usual method we may con-
clude that a similar ceremony was ^ployed by tbe
Apostles on other occasions when men were set aside
to be deacons, presbyters, or bishops. We read of

Sresbyters with the Apostles at an early date in
erusalem (Acts, tv, 2) and according to the earliest
tradition, St. James we Leas was appointed bishop
thne on the dispersion of the ^>ostles, and succeeded
by his cousin Simeon in a. o. 62. Sts. Paul and Bar-
nabas ordained priests in every church at Derbe,
Lystra, Antioch of Pisidia, etc. (Acts, xiv, 22^.
Bishops and priests, or presbyters, are mentioned m
St. Paul's speech at Miletus (Acts, xx, 28). In his
first Epistle (I Thess., v, 12) St. Paul speaks of rulers
who were over them in the Lord, — see also Rom., xii,
8; "governments" are referred to in I Cor., xii, 28,
and "Pastors" inEph.. iv, 11. St. Faulwrote "to all
the aunts in Christ Jesus, who are at Philippi, with
the bishops and deacons" (Phil., i, 1).

In Rom., xii, 6-8, 1 Cor., xii, 28, Eph„ iv, 11, St.
Paul is not giving a list of offices in the Church, but
of charismatic gifts (for the meaning of which see
Hierarchy of the Earlt Chckch)., Those who
were endowed with supernatural and tran^tory char*

K) rmtnmr

ismata were subject to the Apostles and presumabtj
to tboT delegates. Side by side with the posseson
of such gifts we read of "nuers", "aovemMs", "pis-
tors". and in other places of "bishops", "inests",
md deacons". These, we may lawfiUly aasume,
were appointed under the inspiration of. the Ho^
OhoBt by the Apostles, by pray^ and laying on of
hands. Amongst these so appointed before a. o. M
there were certainly ordained deacons^ priests, sad
possibly bishops also. If so they had bishop's orden,
but the limits of their jurisdiction were not as yet,
perhaps, very clearly defined, and dc^>ended alto-
gether on the will of the Apostles. It is aseuredly in
the highest degree likely that the Apoetles, towaidg
the end of their hves and as the Church exteadtd
more and more, ordained and delected others to ^
point such priests and deacons as they had been m
^e habit of appointing thmnselves. The eariiat
tradition shows that such a thing took place in VUmt
by A. D. 67; and there is nothing more advanced than
this in the Pastorals. Timothy and Titua were con-
secrated delegates to rule with Apostolic authwity
and appoint deaoonsMiriests. and DishopB ^nobabtjr
Bynonympufl in these Epistles).

But a further objection is raised as foUoira: "The
distinctive element, however, i. e. the prominence
assigned to Timothy ^d Titus is intelhsible only
on the suppoution that the author had special^
in view the ulterior end of vindicating the ersngebe
succession of contemporary episcopi and other office
bearers where this was liable for various reasons to be
ohaUmged. . . . The <mying (visible in Clem. Rom.)
tor oontinuity of micceasion as a guarantee of an*
thority in doctrine (and therefore in discipUne) under-
lies the efforts of this Paulinist to show that Timothy
and Titus were genuine heirs of Paul" (Ency.
Bib., IV).— n this craving is visible in St. Clement of
Rome, who was a disciple of the Apostles thoe aai
wrote less than thirty years after their death, it is
surdy more likely that he was maintaining an o^
ganivation established by tbem Uuua that he wu
lending one of which thc^ were ignorant. If these
Epistles were written against people who chaDenged
the authority of bishops and priests about a. d. 100,
why is it that these opponents did not cry out against
forgeries written to confute themselves? But of aQ
this there is not the slightest shred of evidence.

F. Objection. No room for them in the life-time
of St. Paul.— The writer in the "Ency. Bib. " is never
tired of accusing the defenders of the Ehnstles of
making gratuitous assumptions, though he aDon
himself considerable^ liberty in that respect throu^
out his article. It is a gratuitous assertion, for ei-
ample, to state that St. Paul was put to death at iixt
end of the first Roman captivity, a. d. 63 or 61
Christianity was not yet declared a religio ilUcUa,
and according to Roman law there was nothing de-
serving of death against him. He was arrested to
save bun from the Jewish mob in Jerusalem. The
Jews did not ap|>ear against him during the two yean
he was kept in prison. Agrippasaid he could have bea
delivered had he not api>ealed to Csesar, so there wat
no real chaise against him when he was broudit be-
fore the emperor's or his representative's tnounal.
The Epistlea written during this Roman aiptivity
show that he expected to be soon released (Fnilem.,
22; Phil., ii, 24). Lu;htfoot, Hamack, and otbm^
from the words of Clem. Rom. and the Muratodan
Fragment, think that he was not onl^rdeasedtbnt
that he actually carried out his design of visiting
Spain. During the years from 63-67 there was tmie
time to visit Crete and other places and write I tun.
and Titua. II Tim. was written from his Koosd
Roman prison soon before his death.

G. Objection from the errors condemned.— It ■
said that the errors referred to in the Pastwab So
not esdst in St. Paul's time, though the moat aft-
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TmOTRT 7

wieed critics (Eaey. Bib.) ham now abandinied
the thewv (maintamed with great ocHifidenoe in the
nineteoith omtuiy) that the Epistles were written
against Mansion and other Qnostics the mid-

dle of the seoMid oentury. It is now conceded that
they were known to Sts. Ignatius and Polyoarp, and
theraore written not later than the end of the first
oentury or early part <tf the second. It requires a
keen critical sense to detect at that time the existence
of enors at the time (tf Ignatius, the seeds of which
did not exist thir^ or forty years earlier, of
wfaieh St. could not have loreseeQ the develop-
ment. "The environment is marked by incipient
phases of what afterwarda blossomed out into the
Gnc»ticism of the eecond century" (Ency.Bib.): — but
Uie incipient phases of Gnosticism are now placed by
competent scholars at a much earlier date than that
indicated by this writer. No known system of
Gnosticism oorreeponds with the errors mentioned
m the Pastwals; in reply to tins, however, it is said
that the "errors are not givan in detail to avoid un>
dae anaofaroniams" (ibid.). Sometimes opponents of
the authenticity unfairly attack the actual contents,
but here the Epistles are condemned for "contents"
which they do not contain. An amusing instance of
the precariousness of the subjective method is seen in
thia same article (Enoy. Bib.). The writea' arguing
luainst the Epistles on the subject of greetings says
tut "Philemon is the one private note of Paul ex-
tant". We are suddenly brought up, however, by a
note (editorial?) within sqtmre brackets: "compare,
however, Philemon." On tuming to Philemon we
find van Manen asserting, with equal confidence, tbet
the Apostle had nothing whatsoever to do with that
Epistle, and he supports his statement by the swne
bad of subjective arguments and assOTtions that
we find running through the article on Timotlqr
and Titus. He even throws out the absurd sug-
gestion that I%ilenwn was baaed on tin letter <rf PUny,
which is given in full by Li^tfoot in his edition of
HiilBmoQ.

Hort in his "Judaistic Christianity" (London,
1898), 13(M8, doee not believe that the errors of the
Pastorals had any connexion with Gnosticism, and he
gives a very full replyto the objection with which we
are dealing. With Weiss be clears the ground by
making some important distincUons: (1) We must
distinguish prophedes about future false teachers,
irtiieh imply that germs, to say the least, of the
fotim evils are abeody perceptible (I Tim., iv, 1-3;
II Ton., iii, 1-^5, iv, 3) from warnings aboQt the pres-
ent: (2) The perversities fA individuals like Alex-
ander, Hymensus, and Philetus must not be taken as
direct evidence of a general stream of false teaching;
(3) Non-Ohristiaa teachers, the corrupters of Chru-
tian belief, must not be confoimded with miaguided
Qiristians. The errora which St. Paul easily foresaw
would arise amongst false Christians and paganfl can-
not be lu^ed against the Epistles as if th^ had
already arisen. Hort makes out a good case that
Uiere u not the smallest trace of Gnosticism in the
existing errors amongst the Ephesian and Cretan
Chrisbana, ^^<^ are treated more as trivialitiee than
ivious errors. "The du^ laid on Timotlur and
Titus 18 not that (rf refuting deadljrwrom, but<Hkee|>-
mg themaelvefl dear, and warning others to keep
war of misduevoua trivialities usurping the offioe
(rf religion, " He shows that all these errors have evi-
dent marks of Judaistic origin. The fact that St.
Irenaua, Hegeaippua, and others used the words of
the Pastorals aramst the Gnostics of the second oen-
tury is no procH that Gnosticism was in the mind of
their author. Words of Scripture have been em-
ployed to confute heretics in every age. This, he
ttykf is true ot the eqmssiaiis fmiaimim yi>an»,
t^ttfrm, sMf, An^dwM. wtuxAi have to be taken in
UHirocdinwTaffiae. "Ihan is not tbe fnitflrt opi

1 nXOTRT

tiwt such words have any relcRnee to what we eaH
Qnoatto terms."

Hwt takes ynmXoyUu in much the same sense in
iHiich it was employed by Polybius, IX, ii, 1, and
Diodorus Sionlus, IV, i, to mean stories, Wends,
myths tine founders m states. "Several ot these
early historians, or 'k)gcwrapherB' are known to
have written books of this land entitled Ttndii^tat,
TwtiXayud (e. g, Hecatfeus, Acusilanus, Simonides
tiie Younger, who bore the title & Tti>tiMyot, as did
also Pherecydes) " (p. 136). Phik> mohided under t6
fntaKoytniv all prinutive human histoiy in tiie Pen-
tateuch. ' A fortiori this term oould be applied by St.
Paul to the rank growth ot l^^d respecting the
Patriarchs, etc., such as we find in the "Book of
Jubilees" and m the "Haggada". This was con-
demned by him as trashy and unwholesome. The
other contemporary errors are of a like Jewi^ char-
actw. Hort takes drr^^M-u ^wSvr^v yptivttn to
refer to ti» caauistiy (tf the scribes such as we find in
the "Halacha", just as the isOfci and ytmaXeytat des-
ignate frivt^ties such as are otmtained in the Hag-
gada.

But is it not possible that these {im94ffut rfi
fwittwipmi yniftm) refer to the system of interpreta-
tion developed later in the Kabbala, of which a con-
venient description is given in Gigot's " General Intn>-
ductkm to the Study of the Holy Scriptures", p. 4117
(see also "Kabbala^' m "Jewish Entmjlopedia" and
Vigbroux,"Dtet.delaBible"). He who followed i^
the literal meaning of the text of the H^rew Bibte
had no real knowlMge, or yp^a, of the de^ mysteries
contained in the letters and words of Scriptxire. By
notarikon words were oonstructed from the initials of
sevwal,' or sentences formed by using the tetters of a
word as initials of words. By ghematria the nu-
merical values o( letters were useid, and words of equd
Bumerioal value wwe substituted for each other and
new oombhiati<xi8 f<wmed. By themura ttte alphabet
was divided into two equal parts, and the letters of
one half on being substituted for the corresponding
letters of the other half, in the text, brought out the
hidden sense of the Scripture. These systems date
back to time immemorial, Then^ were borrowed
from the Jews by the Gnostics of the sectmd century,
and were known to some of the early Fathers, ana
■wen probata in use btfore Apostolic timss. Now
irrUktrit may mean not <nily (^iraailion or oontrsBt,
but also t^e change or transposition of letters. In
tinsi way krrtOtrtt ifimtivtipnu yviitmt would mean
the falsely-called knowledge which consists in the in-
terchange of letters just referred to.

Again, we read: "The mischievous feature about
tiiem was their presence within the churches and their
combination of plausible errors with apparent^ even
ostoitatious, fidelity to prindplee ot the faith— «
trouble elsewfaere reflected Acts XX. . 29f, m con-
nexion wiUi'the Ephesian churdi towards the end <A
the first cmtury" (E^cy. Bib.). We do not ait
mit that Acts, ix, was written towards the end of the
first centu^''' The best s(^olars hold it was writ-
ten by St. Luke long before; uid so the critics of the
Epistles, having without proof dated the compo-
sition of a genuine eariy New-Testament book at
the Mid ci t& first eentury, tn the stmuEth of that
performance endeavour to discredit three whi^
books of Scripture,

I. MisoelluieQUB objections. — We hmig togsther
under Uils hea<£ng a number of objections that are
found scattered in the text, foot-notes, sub-foot-notes,
of the article in the "Ency. Bib."— (1) "The con-
cern to keep the widow class under the bishop's con-
trol is thwoughlv sub-apostolic (op. Ign. ad Poly-
carp, iv. 6)". — ^That would not iwove tlmt it was not
Apostolic as well. On readmg the onty pftssage re-
faring to widows (I Tim., t) we get a totaUrdinerent
the OHO ocwTe^ here. 1%e gmt

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732

tim of llie writer of the EpnUe m>ean to be lo pre-
vent widows from beoominc a buraen on tbe Church,
and to piHnt out the duty m their rdatives to suppcvt
them. Thirty years b&on the death of St. Paul tbe
Seven were appointed to look after tlie poor widows of
Jerusalem; and it is absurd to sumnse that during all
that time no regulationB were made as to who should
reoMve suppcvt, and who not. SonM few ttf tbose
■who were ''widows indeed" probably held offices hke
dsaoonenes, of whom we read in Rom., xvi, 1, and
who were doubtless under the direction of the Apostles
and other ecoieriastical authorities. The sui^KwitioD
tiist nothing was "done in order", but that every-
thing waswowed to go at random, has no aiq^iort
in St. Paul's earUer Epistles.

(2) "The curious antipathy of the writer to seo-
ottd marriages on the part of the presbyters, eiHsoopi,
diaooni, snd widows Oc^poi) is quite un-Pauline, but
otHreqMHids to t^e more genenu feding prevalent in
the seoond century throughout the cnurches." —
That state of feeling throu^out the chtutshes in the
second century should make an objector pause. Its
Apodtolic origm is its best explanation, and there is
nothing whatsoever to show that it was un-Pautine.
It was St. PmiI who wrote as follows at a much eariier
date (I Cor., vii) : "I would that all men were even as
mysete . . . But I say to the unmaxried, and to
ibe widows: It is good for them if tiwy so continiis^
even as I . . . But I would have you to be without
soheitude. He that is without a wife, is solicitous
for the things of the Lord, how he may please God.
But he that is with a wife, is solicitous for the thin^
of the world, how he may please his wife: and he u
divided ... He that gireth his virgin in mairiag&
doUi well: and he that giveUi her not, doth better."
It would be rash to suppose that St. Paul, wlu> wrote
thus to the Corinthians, in gmwd, oould not shortly
before his death require that those who were to take
the place of tbe Apoetles and hold the highest offices
in the Church should not have been married more
thau once.

(3) "Tbe distinctive element, however, L e. tbe
prominence asskned to Timothy and Titus, is intdli-
gible only on tiie supposition that the author had
specialty in view the ulterior end at vindicating the
Iqptimate evangelic succession of contemporary epi»-
oopi and other office-bearers in provinces where this
was liable for various reasons to be challenged" (in
tbe banning of the second century}. — Thousands
have read tbeee Epistles, from thenr vny first
pearance until now, without suoh a concnimm suff-
geeting itself to them. IS this objection means aay^
uiing It means that the Apostlee omild not assign
prominent positions to any of their disciples or do-
gates; whion runs counter to what we read of Tim-
othy and Titus in the earlier EjHStles of St. Paul.

(4) "The prominence given to 'teaching' aualitiee
shows that one danger of the contemporary ehurchee
1^ largely in the vagaries <3S unaotborixed teachers
(Did., xvi). The author's cure is simple: Better let
the episcopus himself teaohl Better let those in au-
thority be responsible for the instanction of the or-
dinary memb««I Evidently teaching was not orig-
inally or usually fl Tim., v, 17) a function of pre»-
bytere, but abuses had led by this time, as the Didache
proves, to a need of combining teaching with or-
ganisca church authority. " — What a lot d meaning
IS read into half a do sen words of these Epistles! In
tlie voy first Epistle that 9t. Paul wrote we read:
"And we beseech you, brethren, to know them who
labour among you, and are over you in the Lord, and
admonish you : That you esteem them more abundantly
in charity, far theb work's sake" (I Thess.. v, 12-18).
"Hie capacity for teaching was a gift, probably a natu-
ral one workii% through God's grace for the good of
the Church (see Hiiubct or the Eamlt Chcbch),
mi theie was no reason why tbs Apoatto, irip «^

tadMd so much importance to teadiin^ vHwn tpeakr
sng of his own wont, should not require that those
who were selected to rule the Churcbes and carry on
his work should be endowed wiUi the aptitude for
teachkig. In E^h., iv, 11. we find that the same per*
BOOS were "pastors and ooctws". The writer who
makes this objeetion doea not admit that real biiliopa
and priests existed in ApostoUc tines; so is what
his assertion inches: When the Apostles died there
were no bishc^ and priests. Alter some time they
originated somewh^ and somehow, and spread
over the Church. During a considerable time they
did not teach. Then they began to monopolise
teaching, and the jHBctioe spread everywhere, and
finally the Pastorals were written to confirm this
state of affairs, which had no sanction from the
Apostles, thou^ these bishops thou^t otherwue.
And all this h^pened before »t. Ignatius wrote, in a
alurt period ^ toirty or forty years, a length of time
spanned say ftom 1870 or 1880 till 1912— « rapid
state of development indeed, which has no docu-
mentary evidence to support it, and iriiich must have
taken place, for the most part, undo" the very eves
of the Apostles St. John and St. Philip, and of Timothy,
Titus, Clement, Ignatius, Polycup, and other disci-
I^es of the Apoetles. The eaiiy Christians bad mcwe
reroeot for Apostolic traditions than that.

(fi) "Bmtism is almost a sacrament of salvirfion
(Tit., iii, 5)."— It is quite a sacrament of salvation,
not only h«v, but in the teaching of Christ, in the
Acta, and in St. Paul's Epistles to the Romans, I Co*
rinthians, Galatiana, and Coloasians, and in I ret., iii,
21.

(6) "Faith is tending to become more than ever
fi^ gw ereditur.' ' — ^But it appears as fides qua eredi-
(w m I Tim., i, 2. 4, S, 14; ii, 7, 15; iii, 9, 13; iv, 6, 12;
vi, 11; n Tim., i, 5, 13; ii, 18, 22; iii, 10, 15; Tit.,
ii, 2, etc., while it is used m the evher Epistles not
only subjectively but also objectively. See wifra in
Proischen, "HandwOrterbuoh sum griech. N. Teet»>
ment. " Faith 'a fides qua ereditur only nine times out
of thirty-three passages where Tirru occurs in the
Pastorals.

(7) "Tbe duirch to this munystieal authw is no
kmiger the bride or As body of Christ but God's build>
ing or rather famUio dei, quite in the neo-Catholie
style." There are several genuine Epistles of St.
Paid in which the Church is neither called the body
nor the bride of Christ, and in calling it a building he
was only following his Master who said: "On this
rock I viU build my Church. " The idea of a qnritual
building is quite Pauline. "Vat we know, if our
earthlylMHue of ihu habitation be disserved, that we
have a building of God, a house not made with hamis,
etonal in heaven" (II On'., v, 1); "And I have so
preached this gospel, not where Christ was named,
feet I should build upon another man's foundation'*
(Rom., XV, 20); "For if I build up again the thLo^
which I have destroyed, I make myself a prevari-
cator" (Gal., ii, IS); "Let us work good to all men,
but tepitiB3fy to those who are of the hoosAoki of
the faith" (Gal., vi, 10); "You are feUowdtisens with
the saints, and the domestics of God, built upon the
foundation of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Oirist
himsdf bein{[ the cnief comer stone: in whom aJl tbe
building, bemg framed tc«ether, groweth up into a
holy temple in the Lord. In whom you also are built
together into an habitaticm of God in the Spirit"
(Eph., ii, 10-22); "You are God's building. Ac-
cording to tiie naee of God that is riven to me as a
wise ardiitect, I have bud the foundation. . . .
Know you not, that you are the temple of God, and
that tbe Spirit of God dwelleth m you?" (I Cor., in.
&-17; compare I Pet., ii, 5; "Be you also as living
stonee built up, a q>iritual bouse , and I Pet., iv,
17: "For the time is, that hidgment should b^n
M tlie lioaie of Ckxi Aim) if fiiat at ub, what ifaall

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be ihe end ctf them that beUeve not the Roepel of
God?") There is a devdopment in St. Paul's use of
the oomparisoriB body and bride, whioh is exactly
paralleled by his use of the words building and tem-
ple. They are applied first to individuals, then to com-
munities and muUly to the whole Church (see Gay-
ford in Hast., "Diet, of the Bibl.", b. v. Church).

(8) " Items of the creed, now rapidly crystallizing
in Rome and Asia Minor, are conveyed partly in
Imnnal fragments, which like those in the Apoca^pse
of John, sprang irora the cultus of the churches."
There are iragmmts of the Creed in I Cor. (see Co-

RINTHIANB, EfISTU^ TO THE, The FtTtt Bpi8tl»~~IU

teaching), and there were hymns in use several years
before St. PmiI's death. He wrote to the CokMsians
(iii, 16) : "Let the wofd <tf Christ dwell in you abun-
dantly, in all wisdom: teat^ung and ftdmomshing one
another in psalms, hymns, and spiritual canticles"
(cf. Eph.. V, 19). The objections from the "Faithful
Sayings are fully answered in James, "The Genuine-
ness of the Pastorals" (London, 1906), 132-6.

(9) "No possible circumstances could make Paul
oblivioils (through three separate letters) of God's
fatherhood, of the believing man's unioa with Jesus,
of the power and witness of the Spirit, or of i8eonoili»>
tion." These doctrines are not quite forgotten: I
Tim., i, 15; ii, 6; II Tim., i, 2, 9; ii, 13; Tit., i, 4;
iii, 4, 6, 7. There was no necessity to dwell upon
them as he was writing to disciples well acquainted
with his teaching, ana the purpose of the Epistles
was to meet new problems. Besides, this objection
could be brought against large ptotions of the gemiine
Epistles.

Then are eereral other objectioDS but tbey are so
flimsy that th^ cannot present mj diCGeuhy. What
Sanday wrote m 1896 in his "Inspiratioc" (London)
is still true: "It may be asserted without fear of con-
tradiction that notning really un-Pauline has been
[»oved in any of the disputed epistles. "

n. Barienwrf Evidence. — The Pauline authorship of
iSxe Pastorals was never doubted by Catholics in early
times. Eiiaebius, with his complete knowledge of
earW Christian literature, states that th^ were amonr
the books imiversally recognised in the Church ri ira^
wSfftp 'oftoXorro6fMwa ("Hist, eccl.", II, xxii,' HI, iii;
"Prap. evang.", H, xiv, 7; rri, 3). Thw are found in
the early Latm and Syriac Versions. Bt. Clement of
Alexandria speaks of them (Strom., II, HI), and Ter-
tullian expresses bis astonishment that they were re-
jected by Marcion (Adv. Marcion, V, xxi), and says
they were written by St. Paul to iWothy and Titus:
evidently thur rejection was a tiiii^ hiUierto unheard
of. They are ascribed to St. Paul in the Muratorian
Fragment, and Theopbilus of Antioeh (about 181)
quotes from them ana calls them the "IMvine word"
(Stiot XAtoi). The Martyrs of Vienne and Lyons
(^ut 180) were acquainted with them; and their
bishop, Pothinua, who was bom about a. d. 87 and
martyred in 177 at the age of ninety, takes us back to
a very early date. His successor, St. Iremeua, who
was bom in Asia Minor and had heard St. Polycarp
preach, makes frequent use the Epistles ana
quotes them aa St. Paul's. He was ai^ng against
hereticflj so there could be no doubt on either side.
The Epistles were also admitted by Heracleon (about
165), Hegesippus (about 170), St. Justin Martyr, and
the writer of the "Second Epistle of Clement"
(about 140). In the short letter which St. Polycarp
wrote (about 117) he shows that he was thoroudily
acquainted with than. Pblycarp was bom onqr a
few years af tor the death of Sunts Peter and Paul,
and as Timothy and 'ntuB, according to the most
ancient traditions, lived to be veiy old, he was their
contemporary for many years. He was Bishop of
Smyrna, only forty miles from Ephesus, where Tim-
othy resided. St. Ignatius, the second successor of
Bt Peter at Antioeh, was acqntinted vith ApoMm

3 tmoook

and disciplcB of the Apostles, and shows his kuowl'
edge of the Epistles m the letters which he wrota
about A. D. 110. Critics now admit ^at Ignathia
and Polycarp knew the Pastorals (von Soden in
Holtsmann's " Hand-Kommentar", III, 155; "Ency.
Bib.". IV); and there is a very strong invbabili^
that ihey were known also to Clonent oflUan^ irtnn
he wrote to the Cninthians about a. d. 96.

In judging of the early evidence it should be borne
in mmd that all three Epistles claim to be by St.
Paul. So when an early writer shows his famibarity
wi^ them, quotes them as authoritative and as evi-
denthr well known to his readers, it may be taken as a
proof not only of the existence and widespread knowl-
edge of the Epistles, but that the writer took them for
what they dum to be, ^uine EpisUes of St. Piuil:
and if the writer Uved m the time of Apostles, oi
Apostolic men, of disciples of AjmsUes, and of Tim-
otny and Titus (as did IgaaJtma, Po^carp, and
Clement) we may be sure that he was correct in doing
BO. The evidence of these writers is, however, very
unoeremooiously brushed aside. The heretic Mar-
cion, about A. D. 150, is held to be of much more
weij^t than all of them put to^^er. "Marcion-s
omission ot the pastorals from tus canon tells faeavity
agMurt tbdr origin as preserved in tradition. Fhil^
mon was accepted by him, thou^ far m6re oS a pri-
rate note than any of the pastorals; and the presence
of elements antagonistic to his own views need not
have made him exclude them, since he could have
easi^ excised these passages in this as in other
eases" (Ency. Bib., IV). Mansion rejected ttie
whole <rf the Old Testament, all the Gospek except St.
Luke's, which he grossly mutilated, ana all the rest of
the New Testament, except ten Epistles of St. Paul,
texts of which he changed to suit his piuposes. Phile-
mon escaped on account of its brevity and contents.
If he crossed out all that was objectionable to him in
the Pastorals there would be little left worth preserv-
ing. Again, the testimony of all these early vrriUn
is regarded as of no more value than the opinion of
Aristotle on the author^p of the Bomenc poems
(ibid.). But in the one case we have the chain of evi-
dence going back to the times of the writer, <rf his
disciples, and of the persons addressed; white Aristotle
lived several hundred years after the time of Homer.
"The early Christian attitude towards 'Hebrews' is
abundant evidence of how loose that judgment [on
authorship] could be" (ibid.). The extreme care and
hesitancy, in some miartera, about admitting the
Pauline authorship <h the Epistle to the Hwrews
(q, v.) when contrasted with the universal and un-
doubting acceptance of the Pastorals tells strong^
in favour of the latter.

JjUIBS. GmvinMtn attd AtOhemkip of Pastoral EpitSm
(LondcMi, 1906); Jacqoisk, Hit. dtt fiouvau TeaL, I (Psria,
iOOS; tr. Ddoqan, London); IntroductioDa to N. Test, by Co^
KELT, Salkoh, and other Scriptural Khol^rs; Headlau ia
Cfiurrf\ C-r'W"i R' pirCf (Jxixidan, H?04> ; Tke Church Quart. Aot.
MiriobiT. I'Ml'i: Jnniiar-.. IW.i; Hianm.! BrkUrmig dtr dm'
Piiai, lMCih^lit. Ifln' K \^ i ir-.-, Tim. umJ Til. (Gottingen, 190^1
l!EHyAna. Thr Pailxnil Fptnile.^ (Cnnibricii;!!, 1809); I.ILLZT, Ttt*
paMaral Epiwlhi {EdlnliurgK, 1901); Gnnis, Ordwn and Unitr
(Loudon. llM): WoBKhhiu. The flapar Ltgommia of 81. Alul in
EipiiJtiforu Ttrrne, VI! (ISMi, ^ IS HpnT% Judaittic ChriuianHy
fLoniloB, IM^j; Bnjirit. /Ki' Brieft liri Apoalett Pauliu an
r>H'W*. n, 7iJ!ij! rl'riibiirBK Knowlis<> has » good d«(enoe of
iha PaotonOi uk Tht TaHnuMU St. Paul to Chrul; ase aJoo hk
1^ im. kb^ Q^itiad ittmm. Rausbt, Expooilor

C. Ahernk.

Tlmnoua todiUU, a principal group or confed-
eracy <k ancient Flonda, notable for the succesrfiil
misatons establidied among them by the Spaniards
and subsequently utterly destroyed by the English of
Carolina and their savage Indian allies. The name —
written also AHm'uea, Thimapoa, Tomoco, by the
SpanianlSj French, and English respectively — appears
to be derived from a word in their own language,
aHmogua, "lord, or cbieC". and vu mobab^ a titto

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TIMUUUA

734

TWUOirA

mistaken by the early Spanianls for the same of the

duef or tribe.

HiAitat. — The cognate tribes of the Timucuan lin-
guistic stock hekl tdlof north Florida from ^xmt Cape
CflJiaTeral and Tampa Ba/y on the south to beyond
the St. Mary's River <m tne nwth and westward to
^bout the Ocilla Rivear> where they bordered upon the
celebrated Apalachee, of another (Muskaogean)
stock. The tribes forming the Timucua group
proper centred diiefly along the St. John's River, the
principal being the Timucua along the upi^er part (rf
the river and about the present St. Augustine, whose
chief, known to the French as Outina, had his settle-
ment ^x>ut the present Welaka, and ruled some forty
villages, with periiaps 6000 souls. On the lower
course of the river were the Satuniba, the enemiea of
the Timucua and nearly as numerous, and west of
them, toward the Suwanee River, were the Fotano,
with over a thousand warriors or perhaps four thou-
gand souls. Sevnal other tribes were of minor
importance.

CmUma. — ^The Timucua woe sedentary and semi*
aKrieultural, but depended largely upon game, fish,
^^d Iruits, and bread prepared from t£e starchy
koonti root. Their houses were circular, of upright
poles, thatched with palmetto leaves, and with grana-
ries elevated on stakes to keep them out of reach of
wild animals. Their villages were strongly stockaded
and each important settlement had a large central
townrhouse of tor tribal ceremonies and the
reception of guests. Thoy had large dug-out canoes.
Xheu* pottevy, the work of the women, was of the
finrat type found east of the Misaiasippi, The prin-
dmi weapon of the warriors was the bow, and a sort
of flpade-ehaped club of hard wood. The numerous
embfuikments and ancient roadways found in their
country may be due in part to Spanish influence.
Women wore a short frilled skirt, perhaps of some
bark fibre, with their hur fiowing looaelv. M&k went
naked, except toe the breechclotn, but had the nHioIe
body elaborately tattooed. They bunched the hair
in a knot on top of the head, and wore inflated fish-
bladdera througn holes in their ears. They were tall
and well-made, described as of great steength and
agility and remarkable swimmers.

The government by the chiefs was demotic, as was
frequently the case among the Gulf State tribes.
Thra« were two hereditary claases, nobles, or ehi^a^
and common people, md each tribe was organised into
ekms or hereditary family groups, usually bewinff ani-
mal names. This clan system was so much mter-
woven with the tribal life that it persisted even under
the mission system. Prisoners of war and their de-
scendants constituted a slave class. Their military
organization and methods were superior to what was
found among the northern tribes. Scalping and
mutilation of the skua enemy were univrasal, and the
dimnembezed limbs vnxe carried from the fiebl as
trophies or to serve for cannibal feasts. Polygamy
was customary. Gross sensuality was prevalent.
The chief gods were the Sun and the Moon, the Deer
and other animals. They were extremely ceremoni-
ous, celebrating planting and huvest seasons, fishing
and hunting expeditions, the going and return of war
parties, marria^ and funerals, each with special rites
of prayer, fastmg, feasting, dancing and purification
by means of the "black drink" brewed from the
leaves of the Ilex eatsine. On obtain great ceremo-
nial occasions the first-bom male infante of the trifee
were delivered up by their mothera to be sacrificed to
the Sun, in whose honour also a sacred fire was kept
always btu^g in their temples. The dead were
buried in the ground with proU-acted moiuning rites,
which included fasting and cutting off the hair.
Ovet the body of a dead chief was raised a mound of
earth upon which was placed hie shell drinking cup,
aurrounded a circle ot arrows stuck in tlie ground.

From the iHcturea ol the artist Le Moyne we get a
vivid idea of the appearance and customs of the
Timucua tribes, while the questions in Father Pa>
reja's "Confesaionario" throw curious light upon
their belid^s, tabu^ and ceremonial observance.

Hiitary. — The history of the Timucua tribes begiu
with the landing of the ill-fated Ponce de Leon near
the present St. Augustine in 1513. The expeditions of
Narvaes in 1^ and de Soto in 1539-41, landing at
Tampa Bay, passed through the territory of the cog-
nate tribes, out did not encounter tne Timucua

S roper. In 1562-64 the French Huguenots under
ibauH and Laudonni^xe attempted settlements at
the mouth of St. John's River, ^lored the middle
course of the stream, and made acquaintance with the
principal tribes. In 1565 the Spaniards under Menen-
dez destroyed the French posts, butchering all the de-
fenders, immediately after whidi Menendes founded
the city of St. Augustine and began the permanent
colonization of the countiy. Jesuit missionaries ar>
rived and began th«r labours, but seeqa to have de-
voted their attrition chiefly to the coast tribes ol
South Carolina, Virginia, and western FlcHrida jirobabhr
because of the fact that the Indians of the St. John's
region had been won over by the French and for a long
time resisted the Spanish occupation. In 1573 a
party of Franciscan missionaries arrived at St.
Aufnistine, where some of their order had been from
the oemnning, and proceeded to organize work among
the Iiuiuis of the vicinity. Hw woric met a serioua
dieck from the recall of Govsnor Menoidei to
Spain, where he died in 1574. but in 1504, on requert
of Father Marron, custos of the Franciscan convoit at
St. Augustine, twelve other prieets of the order were
sent out, and the labour of Christianizing the Timu-
cua was taken up with vigour.

Among those who arrived with this party was the
noted Father Francisco Pareja, to whom we are in-
debted for almost all tlu^ is knovm of the language
and customs of Uw tribe. He was stationed at first
among the Yamassee on the Georgia coast, in whose
langua^f according to Shes, he composed a summary
of Christian doctrine. Later he was in charge at the
Timucua mission of San Juan, apparently on Little
Talbot Island, north of St. Augustme, and lat^ still
was custos of the monastery in that city, until trana*
ferred to the Mexican province in 1610, where he died
in 1628. His vwious wwks in the Timucua language
were published in Modco. Of the prieets who arrived
from Spain with Fathw Pareja, several went to the
Yamassee, while the others devoted attenti(»i to the
Timucua, whose principal mission settlements were
San Juan, already mentioned; San Pedro, on Cum-
berhmd Island; San Mateo, probably about the
mouth of the St. John's; and Santa Lucia de
Acuera, south of Cape Canaveral; besides the
settlement immediately adjoining St. Augustine.
The more western cognate Potano tribe, being
hostile alike to the Timucua and the Spaniards*
were not Chriatianized until a much later
period, but were also brought likewise into the mis-
sion fold. In 1507 the mission growth was inter-
rupted by a disastrous revolt of the Yamassee in
which several missionaries lost their livee, the Chris-
tian Timucua being also attacked. Some yesis later,
howevw (16127)^oIlowing a visit from the Bishop of
Havana in 1602, Florida was erected into a Fhmoiscan
province^ under the name of Santa Elena. From 1613
to 1615 inclusive, 43 Franciscans wf^e added to the
workers in addition to those already on the ground.

In 1655 the Christian Indian population of the
Florida province, which included north Florida and
the coast countiy of Georgia and South Carolina, was
estimated at 26,000 souls, chiefly among the Timucua,
Apalachee, and Yamassee. In 1687 a second out-
break of the Yamassee, apparently instigated by the
of Carolina) who claimed northon Florida aa

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within thetr chartered Hmita, remlted in Uw vwoval
of that tribe bodily into (South) Carolina. In 171S
the same restlen people headed a war asainst the
English, resulting in their own eroulsion and return to
Florida. In following the outbreak (A the

Yamaasee, by which the Timucoa miasiona had also
suffered, the chiefa of the latter tribe, as also the
Apalaohee chiefs, f<Hnmded to the Kin^ of Spain an
aadresB of loyalty and of commendation for their
Spanish govmior. These documents, in the Indian
and Spanish langua^, are still in existence. The
Timucua address is sisned by the chiefs of five towns,
San Mateo, San Pedro, Asile, Machaua;, and San
Juan de Guacara. In 1699 the Quaker Dickenson,
from Philadelphia, shipwrecked on the south ooast of
Florida aad rescued from the savues by the ^wnish
eoTemor at St. Augustine, was sheltered for a time at
the Timucua missions, and has left us a pleasant
[Mcture of their prosperous and orderly condition, and
the friendly and religiouB character of their occupants,
in striking contrast to that of the unchanged bar-
barians among whom he had been a prisoner.

It was near the end. The growing hostility of the
Carolina colony instigated the Creeks and other
heathen tribes to constant inroads upon the Florida
miasions, fumishii^ them with anas and ammunition
for the purpose, with the further inducement of a
profitable sale for all captives to supply the Carolina
slave market. Even as early as 1699 Carolina slaves
were thus decimating the Indian tribes ae far even as
the Missisfflppi. While the wild tribes were thus
armed and encouraged in their raids by the English,
the Christian mission Indians, on the contrary, in ac-
cordance with a fixed, but suicidal, rule of the Spaaish
colonial govmiment, were refused the use of firearms,
even in self-defence and on their most uromt i4)peBl.

In May, 1702, war having again been declared be-
tween the two home govemmentSj the Creek allies of
the English raided Santa Fe mission of the Timucua
and burned the church. Later in the same year a
combined English and Indian force from Carolina
under Governor Moore, co-operating with a naval
force, destroyed three nourishing Timucua missions
fdong the coast — the same where Dickenson had bem
so hospitably cared toe — burned the churches and car-
ried on the missionaries, and then, going farther south,
burned St. Augustine, with the church, convent, ana
library. The fortress held out imtil relieved by a
Spanish fieet. In 1704 Moore invaded the Apalacbee
country with some fifty Carolina men and a uiousand
savage Creek, Catawba, and Yamassee, aSi armed
with guns, and com|>letely destroyed ten of the eleven
missions towns, with tiieir churches and orange
groves, carrying off or destroying the vestments and
sacred vessels. Four {Hiests, a Spanish officer, and
four soldiers were kill^, and their bodies hacked to

Eieces, two of the missionaries beine tortured and
umed at the stake. Several hundred Apalachee
wani<Ha were killed and 1400 of the tribe earned away
as slaves. In 1706 a similar raid into the Timucua
country completed the ruin of the missions. The
remnant of the Apalachee fled for protection to the
French at Mobile. The scattered Timucua were
gathered together and formed into small settlements
under the walls of St. Augustine. With the English
colonization of Georgia and the ensuing war of 1740
all attempt at rehabilitating the Florida miasions was
abandoned. In 1758 onl^ 136 Indians rean^ed in
the Ticmity of St. AugusUne. On the Esf^ish occu-
pation in 1763 they were exi>elled from their two vil-
lages and a^n became raugees. Somewhat later
these, or a kindred remnant, were oolonised at a new
settlemoit called Pueblo de Atimucas, on Tomoco
River, near Mosquito lagorai, in the present Volusia
county. A few seem to have resided there as late as
the transfer of the territory to the United States in
1821 and it is poisibla that their dcsoeodaats m»j

still be found among the Seminole <rf Plorida a

Oklahcona.

ae. — With the exception of the Timucua-
uvwL^^u Jocument of 1688, already referred to,
which a copy was printed by Buckingham Smith in
1859, and another, with English truislation, by
Gatschet in 1880 (Am. PfaikM. 8oe. Proc., XVIII).
our knowledge of the Timucua language and dialects,
as of the tribal customs and belieu, rests almost en-
tirely upon the works of Father Pareja and of f^thf r
Gregorio de Monilla, missionary in the same order
and tribe, with the analysis deduced thereupon by
Gatschet. A few words, mostly personal or place
names, also occur in the early French and Spanish
histuians. Fathra* Fareja's works include: "C^the-
dimo en lengua Castdlaiia y Timuquana" (Mexico,
1612); "Catechismo y breve exposicion de la doetrina
Cristiana ... en Lengua Castellana y Timu-
quana" (Mexico, 1612); "Confessionario en Lengua
Timuquana" (Mexico, 1612); "Confessionario en
lengua Castellana y Timuauana" (Mexico, 1613):
"Gramatica [or Arte?] de la Lengua Timuquana"
(Mexico, 1614); "Catecismo de la Doetrina cristiana
en dicha (Timuquana] Lengua" (Mexico, 1617);
"Catechismo y Examen . . . en Lengua Claatellana y
Timuauana" (Mexico, 1627). The works of Father
Monilla include an ""E^qilicacion de la Doetrina . . .
en Lengua Floridiana" (Madrid, 1631?, and Mexico,
1635-36); and a "Forma Breve de admintstrar loa
Sacramentos ... en lennia Floridiana" (Mexico,
1633). Of these works the Pareia "Catechismo'*
(1612), "C^techismo y breve exposidon" (1612). and
"Confessionario" (1613), and the Monilla "Expli-
cacion" (1635-^), and '^Forma breve" (1635) form
the subject of an actendod study of "The Timuouft
Language" by Dr. AUxtI S, Gatschet^ in the *tJteH
ceedings of the AmtTimn PhiloeopEiifal SoCllHSv^ic
vols, XVl-XVllL, Pbiliid. Ipliiii, 1S77-1SRO. ^

BiaciA, Enta^» (Miulridi 1"^^-!): I'.p.ivmrj, FtnriiUitn Pmt'ti«iJk.
CPTiiliidelphia, IS&&); L*imiJNMf m , l!i-\t,nTf. nalablt lie la Florist
r=,iri^. l-'ififl Jind 1S53). tr_ m FHB^rH, fHft. CoHt. s/ /Ja. CK«W
^ ' K 1^1/'); 1.E MOXKE, A'arrtilitf (LwitCD, IflTfi}. I» Utt*
v. ii L.iiii'lijiLiiLFrc'^ esxpeditioii, pirtiircfl n'ilh teict tftOBl J}M oW,
l.ai- I'd., Frankfort., ISOI.); MannG, va.rinu« hnpoTtunt jpKpeFi
on &ivh«oloey of the Ouil StftUH, in Jour. Afitiienit of KftW^al
Scifnea ( PbURdelphii. 18M to mirj; Pabkhhv, Pisntwt a/
f rfjfiffl fB^ttOH, 1861^—^: PlI.LI.^C, Prfv/rhttli oj a Biblwef*-
pku Iff ihr t^nirwKta of the A'. Am. lii'lii. (Bur. Am. KtLnolo^y-,
WuBhiagtoB, ISA&y, B^EA, lliiU. Cathaiic Tnii. Afiaxiaru o/ fU

Jaubs Moohxy,

Tlndcsr, Mabt Acoras, novelnt, b. at EUswtath,

Maine, 18 July. 1833; d. at Boston, Massachusetts,
4 Deo., 1907. At the age of thirteen she began teach-
ing in the public schools. At fifteen her first literary
work was printed. At twenty she became a Catholic,
and even her Protestant relatives shared in her suffer-
ings from Knownothing bigotry. In 1863 she be-
came a volunteer war nurse, serving in Washington
until she ^rew ill. Boston then b«!iune her home.
Short stones from her pen appeared in the early num-
bers of "The Catholic World", where also her first
novel "The House of Yorke" was issued as a serial
(1871-72). It 'was followed by "Grapes and Thorns"
(1873-74) and "Six Sunny Months" (1876-77). The
latter was the first fruit c* her sojourn in Italy (1873-
87) . These three novels sounded a distinctly new note
in Catholic literature, and the highest that has been
struck by an American Catholic novelist. "Signer
Monaldinfs Niece" (1879), m "No Name" series;
"By the Tiber" (1881); "The Jewel m the Lotus"
(1884); "Aurora'* (1885); "The Two Coronets"
(1887); "San Salvador" (1889); were issued by the
most prominent literaiy publishers and won her great
fame as works of real art. They reflected for the most
part the beauty of Italy. A lapse from the practice
of her religion cast its shadow perhaps over a few of
her novdi written duxing that time. She returned

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nWHB

736

to her reGgioiu duties many yean before ber deotb.
Her last book, fittingly called "Autumn Leaves"
(1898), was issued by a Catholio firm, aad eontsined
matter o(mtiibuted not long before to " The Gatholie

Worfd".

Taiaot Suith ia Th* At* Maria (34 July. UN); ftntmuir
Aifc HtrrcHUMDK, AiiMr. Lit.

RaoiNA IUhdolpb Jmxiira.

Tingis, a titular see of Mauretania Tingitana (the
c^fieial li^ of the Roman Curia places it in Maur^
tania Qesarea). Tincis. now Tangier, is an aneient
Fliamician town; Gre^ legend asenbes its fousdaticm
to the giimt Antsus, whose tomb and skdeton are
pointed out in the vicinity, or to So^sx, son of Her-
cules and the widow of Anteus. The coins caU it
Tei^ Tii^, and Tltga, the Greek and Latin au-
thors giving numerous variations of the name. Under
the Romans this commercial town became, first , a free
oity and then, under Au^istus, a colony (CoUmia
Jtttia, under Claudius), capital of Mauretuiia Tinip-
tana. POTtuguese in the fifteenth ooituiy, Spanish m
the sixteenth, it became an 1*i*<glii«h poeseesion by the
marriage of Charies II with the Infanta Catharine of
PortUKual. The En^h vacated it in 1684. When
it was Dombarded by the Prince de Joinville in 1844, it
belonged to Morocco. The natives call it Tandja.
It has about 40,000 inhabitants, of whom half are
Mufisuknam, 10,000 Jews, 9000 Eur^ieans (7500
Spanish). Towanja the aid of the t£ird century
Tangier was the seme of the martyrdom U St, Mar>
oellus, mentioned in the Roman Martrioiogy on 30
October, and of St. Caasian, mentionea on SDeoem-
ber. It is not known whether it was a diocese in
ancient times. Under the Portuguese domination it
was a suffrE^an of Lisbon^ and in 1570 was united to
the Diocese of Ceuta. Six of its bishops are known,
the first, who did not reside in his see, in 1468. Tait-
eier is now the residence of the Prefect Apostolic of
Morocco, which misaon is in charge of the Frian
Minor. It has a Oatlu^ church, aevml cliapds,
schools, and a hospital.

8iim, Diet, of Or. and Rom. (hoar., a. v.; JoaoZo, J^meria
*w*pn'ca aebn o* bipadtu d« C«ula » 7wv*r (liitMO, 1868); ^^"uvot,
BiekmAM mv la gloanvKi* cvnpanla dt In Mnrttania Tintiiaiu
(Puis, 1876), 44 aq.: TooLom, OfafrnJUi J« FAfrigua dM-

0d. DnxKr. I.fi80.

»7: Uttuw,

S. PiTBIDte.

Tinin (Knin), Sbb of, in Dalmatia, suffragan to
Kak)C8a-Bac8. Knin is a town on the right bwk of
the Kerka, twenty-five miles north-east of Sebenioo.
It was fortified by the Romans, who called it Ardula.
At the request of Casimir IV, King of Cro^ia in 1050,
a Bishffiuie of Knin was eroded, suffragan to Spabto;
the bisu^ seems to have been attached to the court
as preacher. Farlati in his "Ulyricum sacrum", IV
(Venice, 1775), givesahiatory of the prelates of Kjiin,
from Mark in 1050 to Joseph in 1755. The residential
suocession was interruptea by the Saracen invasion in
1622; when Venice captured the district in 1768, the
Bishop of Sebenico was appointed to administer the
diocese, which was imited m 1^ to Sebenibo. The
ruins of the old Cathedral of St. Jolm the Evangelist

see is merely titular, and this would explain the al>-
sence of statistics. The bishop, Monsignor Joseidi
Ldnyi, who resides at Nagy-Vlh^, was bom at Nfi-
met-Prona, Diocese of N^isdil, 29 June, 1868; or-
dained, 2 July, 1881 ; Abbot of St. Saviour's and canon
of Naipr-VArad; appointed bishop, 7 Nov., 1906, in
succeasuai to Monfflgnor John Maiorosy (b. at Al-
Debio, Arohdiooese d Eger, 10 July, 1831 ; ai^raiutod,-
37 July, 1885).

A. A. MaoEubam. •

TiaM and IMpnot, Diocssb op (Timtm wr
MTOOMBNaia), a lAtin diocese of the Cy cladea, oostatn-
ingOTer lafisquaramiksaiulnumbering 13,000 inbabi-
tanta. It is called "verd«it" though it is so only ia
comparison with the other Greek i^ands more arid
than itadf. In ancient times it was called Uydmssa,
L e. abounding in water, thou^ this is scared^ crediUe,
and Ophiussa because of the number of serpents
which inhabited it. Near the river there was a cele-
brated temple of Poedd(«% discovered in 1902. Tbe
island subjected itself to Xerxes at the time of his ex-
peditiom a|puast tbe Greeks, but af towards defected
to SalamaiB aad Flattea; it became finally subject to
Ath«is, then to Alexander of Phene, afterwards to the
Rhodians, to wlKxn it was ^ven by Marcus Antonius,
later to the Romans- It is not known when Chris-
tianity was established there. Le Quien (Orieoa Chris-
tianus, I, 943) mentions three early bishops; Ecdi-
dus, present in 553 at the Fifth (EoumenicafCouncil;
Detnetrius, in 681 at the Sixth Council; Eustathius in
787 at the Seventh Council The bishopric was a
suffragan of lUiodeB in the sev«ith and tenth oen-
turies (Geber, "Ungedruckte . . . Texte do* No-
tiUe Episoopatuum", 542, 558); suppressed after the
ocMiquest of the island by the Venetians in 1207, it was
re-established but as a metropolitan when Tinos
psMsd into the power of the Tiu-ks in 1714. Themetro-
poUtui see was m its turn suppressed in 1833, " Echos
d'Orient", III, 287. Under the Venetian domination,
which lasted from 1207 to 1714, Tinos had SMue Latin
bishops; neverthelesB the earUest known onljr
from 1329 (Le Quien, op. cit.. Ill, 1059;Eubel, "Hier^
arohia catholicamediiievi", I, 512; II, 276; III, 333)

little by little the island became almost completdy
Catholic. In 1781 it had 7000 CathoUcs diqwised
throughout 32 villages (Hilaire de Bar^iton, "La
France oatholique en Orient", 221) : some were <d tbe
Latin, othets the Greek Rite, and Le Quioi (1, 913)
affirms that at the same epoch there were more than
120 Cheek Cathofio priests 8\d>ject to the Latin bishop.
Under the V«ietian domination the schismatics were
depoident on a protopapas who in turn depended on
the Patriaichate U Constantinople. Tba Latin
bishopric, at first a suffragan oi the Archbishc^ric of
Biiodes, afterwards of Arcadia in Crete, is now a suf-
fragan of Naxos. ^inoe at least the year 1400, the
titw oC Mykonos has beoi joined to its own: furtber-
mon, tiwDidu^ administers the DiooeBe of Andioa.
TIm see uudMra 4000 CathoUoB. 28 secular ptiwts, a
ohaptw-house, 26 parishes, a seminary at Xynaza with
only seven or ei^t studaits; the Francisetms have 2
houses and five religious, the Jesuits one house uid
ten reMootts, the Francuoan Tertiaries have about
ten, the French UrsuUnes ^^»uTlt4^.iT^ an orphanage and
a large boardie^HBchool at Loutra, and they also di-
rect through the Gre^ Sisters schools for giris, whidi
munbw about forty in all Tinoa paeseases an imsga
of the Evanghdistria w ttf the Amnmdation disecv^
ered in 1823 which at tracts each year on 25 Mandi
and 15 August from 3000 to 4000 schisniatic pikiiu
(Echos d'Orient, V, 316).

Sun, Diet. Ormk and Emmm Qmo., a. v.; ZAUom. Vomm i
Tin* (Puia, ia09>: lMmja,IU$dalaOriee (Puis. 1858). 4W-I1:
UATTBovAaAS, ffuMn dTTAiM UUwm, 188S). Onek: Gws-
ounwoiiLOB, TMan (Athen, lf»B), Qmk.

8. VaxiM.

nntcm MSA»t in Monmouthsbire, England, was
founded m 1131 1>t Walt^ de CUm for Cist«raaa
monks, who came &om tjie Abbey of Aumonc, in tbe
Diocese of Chartres, itself founded (xiiy ten yeors b»>
fore. Walter's son Gilb^, first Earl of Pembroke,
and probabbr also his grandson Richard Stroagbow,
oonc|ueror of Ireland under Henry II, -were honed at
'nntem, tke munificent church of which dates horn
tbe nd of the thirteenth oentmy. The abbcnr re-
oeived rich benefactions not only from the famur of
ilalbiiDtebiitfiromottivnabla&m

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TIMTOiiBTTO

797

TDITOMRV*

ponenlonB, both from the taxatkm-roU of 1291, and okargy of Saats Maria deU' Orto to paint two large

at the time of the Dissolution under Henry VIII^ are pictures fca* that church (40 feet high, by 19 feet 6
_. ._ i__ TV . r« . .1 J mches wide), askinx no payment but what would

cover their cost. Uib offer was eagerly accepted, and
Robusti painted the "Adoration of the Golden Calf"

given in detail by Dugdale. The aocoiuts submitted
y the last abbot, Richard Wyeh, in 1535, place the
net income at under £200 a year; and the abbey, con-
taining at that time thirteen monks, was suppressed
under the Act of 1536 which dissolved the smaller
monasteries. The king granted it in 1537 to Henry,
Earl of Worcester, in whose family (afterwards dukes
of Beaufort) it remained until the sale of his Mon-
mouthshire property by the ninth duke, when it was
acquired by the Crown.

The ruins of Tintem, which stands on the right
bank of the river Wye. backed by a semicircle of
wooded hiUs, rank with Fountains Abb^ in Yorkshire
as the most beautiful m E^land. The church, meas-
uring 245 feet in length, with transepts of 110 feet^ is
almost perfect, though rooSess, the architecture bemg
of the transitional style from
Early English to Decorated.
The window-tracery is espe-
cially fine. Hardly anything
remains of the domestic build-
ings of the abbey, the stone
having been used for cottanea
and ^rm buildings in uie
neighbourhood.

DuGDALX, Monasticon Arwiteanum
(London, 1826), 26&-'274: Tanickk.
Notiiia Monattiea (London, 1788);
Mown. XIV; WiLus, HUtorie ttf
AbbiM, U (London, 1710), 142,328:
Leland, CoUectanea, ed. Hiabhb
(London, 1770), I, 104; Oasquvt,
The GrtaUr Abbtv* of Bt^/land
a»ndon, 1908), 100-197; Hkath,
Tintem' Abbey (London. 1793);
COOPIB, ,lrrAi(«(iirai AefvTM of
Great Britain (London, ISOJ) ;
Thohab, TinltTTit and iU ndnuy
dttenbed (London, 1830).

D. O. Hdnter-Blair.

Tintoretto, II (Jacopo
RoBUSTi), Italian painter, b.
at Venice, 1518; d. there 1594.
His father was a dyer; hence
his surname of Tintoretto (the
Jttle dyer^. In his eai^
youth he displayed an extraor-
dinary taste for the fine arts. He played well
on the harp, but his aptitude for punting was stilt
more pronounced. His parents made him an ap-
prentice of the aged Titian, but Jacopo, eager to
distinguish himself, soon set up a studio of his own.
His ambition was nothing 1^ than to transform
VeneUan painting addii^ to its (Ugtinguishing
qualities iHlnilliant^nannomous colouring and pleas-
sjit grace of fonn the merits of the Florentine and
Romsn Schools, a knowledge of anatomy which excels
in the nude, dramatic miss en tdne. a pose fuU of
movement, a vi^rous contrast of light and shade.
According to his biographer, C. Bidolfi, he sum-
marised his ideal in the ambitious formula: "The
drawing of Michebuigelo and the colouring of Titian "
(U disemo <U Michelangelo, il colorito del Tiriano).
To fit nimadf for carrying out this magnificent
but difficult programme Robusti devoted himself

to unremitting labour. He studied the ancient

statues: be had sent to him from Florence tiie reduo- of 50 com
tions which Daniel of Volterra had made in plaster of vary", <rf
Michelai^elo's masterpieccfl, "Dawn", "Noonday", — '
"Twil^t", and "Night"; he drew inceesantly from
the living model or the draped lay figure; he directed
dead bodies; he worked not only by sunlif^t but also
'\e flicker of torches in order to master the varied

Eof light. This intense labour was not fruitleto.
K gifted with wonderful facility he executed a
oountlees number of wtnrks, and eroi to the end of his
life auBtatned a veritable fever of produetion.
Tn order to make himaelf known be ivoDOaed to the
XTV.

UflU GhtUery, RormoB

and the "Last Judgment". In this rapidly executed
and spirited work he displayed a precocious virtuosity ,
assembling in a tumultuous whole a great number of
figures with agitated gestures and attitudes. His aim
was to attract public attention and in this he fulhr
succeeded. He painted several other pictures for this
church, in which his talent, having grown more confi-
dent, shows more poise. These were: "St. Peter ven-
erating the Cross''; "The Martyrdom of St. Paul";
"St. Agnes recalling to Ufe the Prefect's Son"; the
"Presentation of the Blessed Virgin". His latest
pictures were painted for, the DucaJ Palace and the
Confraternity of SanRocco (ScuotodiSonfiocco). Fot
the Doges' Palace he first

Eainted four scenes from the
fe of St. Mark (now scat-
tered). The most remarkable
is the "Miracle of St. Mark"
(the saint releasing a slave
about to be tortured), painted
in 154S, which is now in the
Venetian Academy <rf Fine
Arts. Robusti's animut
qualities as a draughtsman,
colourist, and composer are
most happily combined and
harmonised in this picture.
Other pictures painted for the
Sala dello Scrutioio perished in
the fire of 1577. But the
Doeal Palace still p^^serves
many of his works. As ex-
amfues of plastic beauty so
popular at that time may be
mentioned: "Pallas in chase
of Mars"; "Ariadne crowned
by Venus"; "St. George over-
coming the Dragon"; "The
Marriage of St. Otharine".
In this line he succeeded but
without excelling, for his man-
ner is not free from heaviness. Amoi^ the historic
paintings may be mentioned: "The legatee of
the Pope and the Doge at Pavia before fVedmck
Barbarossa"; the "Defence of Brescia in 1483":
the "Capture of Gallipoli in 1484"; "Venice, Queen
of the Sea".

In 1560 the Confraternity of San Rocco near the
church of that name opened a contest for the decora-
tion ol a oen^ ceiling whereon the "Glorification of
St. Rocco" was to be depicted. Tintoretto had for-
midable ctHnpetitots: Paolo Veronese, Ghis^pe Sal-
viatij Federiu) Zuccaro. Instead of submittmg the
required sketch, Tintoretto, with his feverish ardour,
in a short time completed a picture which he quickly
put in pUce. It pleased the Brothers of St. Rocco,
who confided to him the entire decoration, to the great
displeasure of his rivab, who were offended by the in-
ddicaco^ of the proceeding. Tintoretto worked on
tikis vast undertaking from 1560 to 1594. It consists
~ oompoeitionB, many of them, such as the "Cal-
_ <ji colossal sise- "It displays such fulness of
li^t, such a triumphant blossoming of genius and
success, that one comes away from it as from too full
and loud a ooncert, half deafened, missing the pro*
portion of things and not knowing whether to beheve
one's senses" (Taine). Tintoretto also painted
pictures for several Venetian churches, the chief of
which were the "Crucifixion" and the "Resurrec-
tion " at San Cassianq, the " Marriage Feast of Cana"
It Santa Maria deOa Salute, the " Baptism of Christ "
«t San SIvflBtro, the "Last Supper)^ San G%nvo
Digitized by VaOOglt

738

Ma^iore and San Giovanni, nnH thr "Life of Rt.
Rocco" at San Rocoo.

Robust! was not without merit as a portrait painter.
At the Ducal Palace there is a series of portraits of the
dc^es; the museum of the UfGzi at Florence has the
portrait of Sanaovino, the Louvre that of the painter
himself. His last relijpous composition, begun at the
age of seventy and finished shortly before his death, ia
in the HaU of the Grand Council of the Doges' Palace,
llus gieantic woi^, measuring 32 feet 10 inches high,
by 72 feet 2 inches wide, represents the "Last Judg-
ment". "Although the colouring has grown dark we
cannot but admire the broad lines, the close and |)ic-
turesque grouping, the enormous masses set in motion
with extraordinary vigour" (E. MQntz). AlaOj it
may be added, we cannot but admire the spinted
strength of the old man who is able to depict about
500 persons. Jacopo Robusti did not fulty reaHse the
ambitious programme he outlined tar himsdf . He
oould not equal the drawing of Michelimgelo, whom be
took for his model, but he emphasized its defects by
ex^;gerating the anatomical outlines and foreshorten-
ings. These feats of skill are alwavs out of place, but
especially so in religious subjects, which Tintoretto too
often treated unbecomingly. However, it is to his
credit that he infused into some scenes from the Pas-
sion a communicative tn^o emotion. His oolour is
inferior to Titian's, whom be lioped to surpass; it is
heavier and lees brilliant. But he discovered certain
sombre tints which are wonderfully ad^ted to the
repression of sad and sorrowful sentiments and which
accentuate the bright contrasts. In point of time he
is the last of the great Venetian pwnters, but he be-
k>ngB already to tne period of decadence, because he
never succeeded in overcoming his unstudied impetu-
osity oi; fusing into a harmonious whole his emment
but warriiw qualities.

Vasau in Vita di Baltita Fmneo; ed. Miiume, VI (FloceDce,
1881), 587-88: Ridolti, U UoranifiU d^ArU, omen U ViU
HhMrivtOari YtMti a ddto Uato (Vudoe, 1A48); Buxokrard and
Bora, Lt Cietmu, Fr. tr. Obbahd (Puia, 1892) , 759, 61 ; MOnts,
Hiat. dt VArt jtmhiU la Rmai$nne: III (Puis, 1896), 6e0-«:
Tbode, Tintortlto (Bfolefeld and Le^iig, 1901).

Gaston Sortais.

TtoMftf a titular see of Numidia. The Phoenician
word siffufies passage. Early in its history we find
in Tipasa a Punic counting-house with a port; which
passed later under the dominioB of the longs of Mau-
retania, whose kingdom was annexed to the Roman
empire in a. d. 39. Claudius I constituted Tipasa
a Colonia juris latini (Pliny, "Hist. Natur.", V,
ii, 20). Later on it became a dvUas and in the
third century an inscription stvles it colonia. The
city, which was very commercial, grew and prospered
greatly under the emperors of the second and third
centuries. A Jewish colony with its synagfwue set-
tled there, early in its history. An inscription belong-
ing to the year 238 is the most ancient trace of Chris-
tianity to be found in Tinasa. In the church of
Bishop Alexander, built at tlie end of the fourth cen-
tury, we find the tombs of nine personages who are
called ju^i friorei and wiiom Duchesne considers to
have been mne bit&ops antedating this Alexander. In
the beginning of the fourth century, a young girl,
Saint Salsa, was martyred by the p^ans; later a Ixb-
silica was erected to her menn^. Under Julian the
Apostate the inhabituits distinguished themselves
by their adherence to Christianity, and this in spite
of the violent opposition of two Donatist bishops
(Optatus, "De Sdusmate Donatistarum", 11, 1^19).
Likewise in 371 or 372, when the Moorish king,
FirinuB, with the support of the Donfttists, tried,
but in vain, to take possession of the city. Mention is
due to the anonymous author of "The Passion of
Saint Salsa" and "The Passion of Saint Fabius of
Carteuna" (Anal, bolland., IX, 123-134), who was
bom at Tipasa and who lived in the begiimmg of the
fifth centuiy.

In 429 the Vandals took possession of the oity and
the OTOvinoe; ten years later these were restored to
the Emperor Valentinian, but came back again into
the possession of the Vandals in 455. Bishop Reparatus
was exiled in 484, and the secretary of the Arian
patriarch was chosen to r^lace him, a choice which
brought about the voluntary exile into Spain of the
greater part of the inhabitants; those who remained,
having refused to embrace Arianism, had their nf^t
hand and tongue cut off, but, nevertheless, continued
to talk as before, according to the testimony of Victor
de Vita and other contemporaries ("Historia perse-
cutionis Africanje provinciffl". III, vi. 29-30; Acta
SS., October, XI, 847; "Melanges d'archfelogie et
d'histoire de I'Ecole fran^aise de Rome", XIV, 319).
Henceforth Tipasa is not motioned in history. To-
day it is a villi^, called Tipasa by the French, Te-
fassed by the natives, situated about 44 miles east of
Algiors; it numbers 2400 inhabitants, of whom 600
ai« Europeam, and possesses a Catholic parish.
There are ruins of several chureheB and other monu-
ments.

DtiCHsai«E, SainU SaUa in Prteia AutontfuM (Puis, 1890);
TouLOrnE. Oioanphie de VAfriqiu ekMauM. UavtHaniet (Mod-

ISO.

S. Vailh*.

Tiraboschi, Gibolamo, Italian scholar, b. in the
region of Bergamo, 1731; d. 3 June, 1794. At an
early age he entered the Society of Jesus. After
serving as pro-
fessor m rhetoric
and belles-lettres
ieloquenza) at the
Brera in Milan, he
was called by
Francesco III,
Duke of Modena,
to take charge of
his library (the
Biblioteca Es-
■ tense); this he di-
rected with patient
endeavour and
skill, enriching it
with many addi-
tions of books and
manuscripts and
providing it with
catalogues. His
chief work is the
monumental "Sto-
ria della lettera-
tura italiana", an
exhaustive com-
pilation of the ma-
terials within his
reach. Actuated
by the patriotic desire to defend hie country's g^ry in
the cultural arte against the attacks of foreign critics,
he makes his history extend from Etrusoan times
down to 1700, and ooncems himself with all matters of
interest in belles-lettres, phik>sophy, history, the fine
arts, medicine, iurisprudence, etc., acoompati^ii^ ttie
statement of his views itith an abunduioe of precious
documents. Written in a clear and attractive style,
the "Storia" appeared in its first edition betweon 1/72
and 1782. With augmentations and connexions, it
was published a second time at Modena,between 1787
and 1794. His minor writing include: "Biblioteca
Modencse", an account of writers bom in Modoia;
"Memorie storiche modeneai"; "Vita di Fulvio
Testi"; and many other historical and critical essays
and articles.

Besides the editions of the SMa DMDtioned shore, OM tba
remints of Florauw (1806-18). Milw <io the Clasrid, 1822-M).
sod VcQiw <i82»-a5). J.Iq. M. F<»D.

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TIRASPOL

739

TI8IO

Tlnqnl (or CnRSONiSB); Diocese of (Tiras-
POLENSis; Chbbsohbmbis), in Southern Russia,
enfl^agan of Mohilev, covers the governments <»
Suatov, Samara, Kherson, Ekaterinoslav, Taurida,
and Bessarabia. It is one of the lai^t dioceses
in the world, and has an area of 462,504 square miles.
There are in the diocese 350,000 Latin Christians,
chiefly the descendants of German colonists, in 100
parishes, ^ut 40,000 Armenian Catholics in 50
parishes, and over 300 Chaldean Catholics ftv whom
there is one parish. Hie priests number about 210,
00 being Armenians. The bishop lives at Saratov,
the capital of the government of the same name.
The ecclesiastical institutions are, besides the cathe-
djral diapter, the seminary for priests at Saratov,
which has a rector, an inspector, a spiritual director,
and five professors; there is also a seminary for boys
at the same place, with three professors. Rdigbua
orders are not permitted. For some yeara the Ar-
menian Catholics have had an Apostohc administrator
of their own (Sarkis Ter Abranamian) to whom all
Armenian Catlmlics in the whole of Russia are subject.
In important deciaioiis he is dependent on the Bishop
of Tiraspol.

During the second half of the eighteenth c^tury
large numbers of German colonists went to Russia
at the urgent request of the Empress Oitherine 11.
These emigrants were chiefly from Bavaria, WOrtenn
berg. Saxony, Almce-Lorraine, the Tyrol, and Swit-
lerujid; they settled in the fruitful but uninhabited
lands in the southern part of Russia. The colonies
foimded by them have retained their German names,
as Mannheim, Munich, etc., as well as the German
language and character. Among the half-millioD
German settlers there were about 180,000 Catholics,
who settled in villages of their own, apart ftotn the
members <tf other confesdons. These CatboHc
villages were genersJly m the basin of the Volga and
of the Caspian Sea. The Catholics were cared for
spiritually at first by a few priests who had emigrated
with them, but these pastors soon succumbed to
privations and the unaccustomed climate. After
this the Russian Government sent Catholic priests
from the provinces on the Baltic. Alexander I
transferred the pastcnal o«re of the Catholic colonies
to the Jesuits, who came among them in 1S0I&.
Unfortunately, the expulsion of the Jesuits from
Rusria in 18SX> put an end to their fruitful labours.
The Jesuits were replaced by priests from various
Polish monasteries, chiefly Dominicans, Carmelites,
Trinitarians, and Vincentiaus, many of them old,
feeble men, and unacquainted with the German
language. The difference in tongues, the racial
antij^iuiy between priests and settl^ and the great
distance from the reridence the bishop (St. Peters-
burg) enormously increased the difficulties of spiritual
administration. Thus religious conditions grew
graduafly more and more intolerable. N^otiations
between Rome and St. P«tersburg led finally, in 1847,
to a concordat, by which^ in addition to several
oth^ dioceses, a German diocese was established for
the colonists of Southern Russia, to be sulTragan to
MohileT.

Saratov on the i^Mi hank of the Vcdga was settled
upon as tibe see of the bishop, but the diocese received
its name from the small town of Tiraspol, which in
the fourteenth century had been the capital of tha
Diocese of Kherson. Besides its vast extent, the new
diocese was aJso sii^ular on account of the varying
nationalities of its inhabitants, who included German,
French, and Italian colonists, besides Russians,
Poles, Armenians, Kii^iz, Circassians, Ossetes,
Dagbeetanians, and other peoples. The Govern-
ment promised to build a cathedral, an episcopal
rendence, a buildii« for the episcopal curia, and a
seminary, and to provide for the endowment oi the
cathedral chapter. To 1800 the Sht highapt ^

German Oominioan Ferdinand HalMius Kafan, was

installed. The auxiliaiy bishop was a Pcde. The
promisee of the Government were not fulfilled. On
account (A age and ill-health the bishop was unable
to correct the existing grievances, nor was he suffi-
ciently energetic to make the Govmiment fulfil its
obligations. In 1857 a seminary was opened, it is
true, but in rented and inadequate quarters; the
number of German teachers was also insufficient.
After Bishop Kahn's death (1864) the see remuned
vacant for eight years, all communication between
Russia and the HolySee being at that time suspended.
It was not until 1872 that the rector of the seminars,
Franz Xaver Zottmann, was appointed bishop (b.
at Ombau in the Bavarian Diocese of Eichst&tt in
1826). In 1864 he had visited Eichst&tt and there
sectved some professors for the seminary.

Bishop Zottmann laboured by speech, writiiw,
apd example, and by extraordinary activity in
directions, for the spiritual, moral, and material
unprovemei)t of his diocese. He collected the money
necessary to build a suitable cathedral, obtained a
building for the seminaries, and spared no sacrifice
to train a capable body of German parish priests.
Without abandoning the rights of the Church, he
kept on good terms with the Government, and thus
could do much that was foibiddoi to the Jrofish bish-
ops. He could issue pastoral letters in t^e diocese,
undertake journeys for making confirmations ana
for visitation, arrange collections of mon^, and
even go to Rome, where, in 1882, he was the first
Russian Catholic bishop to pay homage to the pope.
On account of illness he resided in 1888, and died
in his native city on 12 December, 1901. He had
made his diocese one of the best organized in Russia.
His work was w(a*thily carried on, after his resigna-
tion, by Anton Zen, who came ftovoi a German
colony near Odessa, and had been educated at the
Tiraspol seminair. Zerr resigned in 1902 on account
of ill-health, and was succeeded by Eduard von der
Ropp. Scarcely two years had elapsed before von
der Kopp was transferred to the See of Vilna. He
was followed by the present bishop, Joseph Kessler,
b. at Louis, a village of German cokmiste in the
Qovemment of Bamsn, in 1862; consecrated 28
October, 1904.

Kklueb, Die deuUekm JTobntM Badnmiaitd (Odeam, 1906) ;
ZormANN, Frani X. VM Zottmantt, BUh«f dtr iMttte TiraapM
(Munich, IQOl); KatkaKsdU Uiuionm (100&-06). 125 sq.;
DmU4Atr Yolkakatmdtr fOr Stadt unrf Land auf dan Jahr 191 1
(Odeaaa, 1911}. 177-ga

Joseph Lins.

Ttno d« Wfilfaifc, See Tviaxz, Oabbiel.

TIllo da OarofalOt Bknvenvto, an Italian painter
<rf the Fararese school; b. in 1481 at Garofalo,
whence, as was the custom among artists, be took his
name: d. at Ferrara, 6 (or 16) September, 1559.
With Massolino (1481-1630) and DossoDossi (1479-
1541), Garofalo makes up the modest triumvirate of
the Ferrareee school in the sixteenth century. At an
earlier date the sdiool ooold boast of Bach mesi as
Codmo Tura, Fraacesoo Cossa, and Evoole Roberii,
and at one time in the nxteenth century was perhaps
the foremost school of poetry and painting in Italy.
In the wonderful frescoes of the Schifanoja Palace
(1470), depicting the life of Prince Borso d'Este, it
created an seatbeticism all its own, half allegory and
half realism, portraying ^e world of the day in heroic
fashion wiUi all the pomp and droumstance of festal
parade, and a macnifieent like tiiat deeeribed

m the "Trionfi" of Petrarch. llieBe fresooee an not
only the most oremous document we possess of the
oowtier fife and the worldlv ideal of the fifteenth cen-
tury, but th^ maA. in Italy the be^nning of what is
known as "genre painting", that is, sketches from real
life, but chwa«tenzed hy a good taste, a dignity, and a
dBoorative soiw so sadly kudng' in idmilar won of ^

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■it-

Dutch mitocA lM«r. This new rtyfe farms tfaa artutio

glory of the House of Este, which had also the honour
of penHoning AiioBto. Its spirit can be still recog-
nised in the famous paintings (now in the Louvre)
executed in 1505 for the Duchess Isabella by Man-
itgna, Perudno, and Lorenzo Coeta. It survives in
the woritB ofDoBSo Doam — in the chamung Judith of
die Modena gallery, and in the inoonqmraDle CMn» of
the Caano ^rghese.

Garofalo's real vocation lay in such work. His pe-
culiar talent consisted in feeung and ipving naive ex-
pression to the joy of life, the charm of the world
around him, the b^uty of elegant and rural customs,
and all that is now called "idyTlic", but as it appeared
to Itfdian courtiers of the Renaissance period. His
youthful works— the Boar Hunt in the Pahuso 8ci-
arra, the Knight's Froceemon in the I^daiio Colonna
at Rome— gave promise of a Latin Kuyp, less com-
monplace, more romantic, more ^

artistic, and more refined than
t^e Dutch artist. This was
Uie result of his early study
under Panetti and Costa, and
of his companionship with his
fdlow pupil Dosu. In 1^
he had lessons at Cremona
from Baccaccino, who initiated
him into the secrets of Vene-
tian oolouring. But a few
years later, when entering on
early manhood, he fell unfor-
tunately under an influence

S[Uite ahen to his own genius,
t was at Rome, where he
spent three years (1500-1512),
that he succumbed to Hie
oharm of the new idea. Ra-
phael was painting the "Cfr*
mora" or hall of the Shatura,
and that of the Hebodorus;
Michelangelo was deooratinx
the ceiling of the Sisfine Ch^)er
Garofalo was ovmome hy
these masterinecea; he was
unable to refrain from the con-
templation of a higher beauty
than that which he himself had
expressed.

From this moment disf^
pears the charming artist,
the delicate painter of con-
temporary lite, into which
Garofalo was developing.
Hm majesty of the Roman wotks inclosed om
him an ideal b^ond his power to reabse. The
Ferrarese Garofuo might have been a master —
of the second class of creative artists, indeed, but
of true originality; after his vimt to Rome, he was
but a "Raphael in miniature". It is not easy to
criticise harshly works which are always sincere and
whose greatest defect arises from the consci^tioua
pursuit of an ideaL All Ganrf^alo's works bear traces
of this extreme conscientiousness of execution — a
quality that became ever rarer in the school of
Raphael. As a moral force Garofalo has no ecpial in
the group that surrounded the master; in this respect
he is vastly superior to such a painter as GiuUo Ro-
mano. Even his least successful worics ret^n, amid
Hmr somewhat frigid and commonplace purity, that
imiBpaxmey, dow, and hannoiqr wludh are tiie
maria of w Venetian oolouring. But •though the
eye is charmed, all illusitm aa to the artistic
qbaUty of the woi^ soon disiqipears. The fibres
have no life, ^e expression is unoertain, ideal
heads betray a lack of intellect. The larger ^e
figure the more emphatio are its drfects. No d»<
(MweordonviiarikillinexMutiaieaaliiile the foot

that Gwofalo-'a act oomMb in a danr Iwdlini <A

pure abstractions.

Nevertheless, despite his many ambitious but ii^g-
nificant (though never vulgar) works, the natural in-
stinct of the Ferrarese school had not quite forsaken
him. It asserted itself amid all his idealistic strainii^
and led him to create a style of "tableaux de pi^t6 ,
little piouB scenes as helps to private devotion, to be
set up in bed-rooms and oratones. We have here tibe
Bible interpreted in a familiar mode, reduced to the
proportions of a "genre" picture and maldn^ a popu-
lar wpeal. The vast number of these little paintings in
the Borghese, Doria, and Capitol galleries at Rome is a
sufficient indication of their vogue. This was the style
so successfully developed by KIsheimer and Rem-
brandt in the seventeenth century. But, even in this
new defiartuie, the false ideal with which Garofalo was
smitten at Rtuoe ocmtinued to stifle lua native genius.
Ever more and more he con-

" -A

1

Vnnnr ahs ^iid nr Olobt
BwVHtolo da TUo, tbe AocademU, Veniee

demned himself to be but the
pale reflection of Riq>hael. One
can follow ste(> by step the
pn^ress of his self-imposed
decadence. The "Vimn ia
the Clouds with four i^tints"
(1518) in the Academy of Fine
Arts at Venice in an excellent
work; the "Pieti" (1527) in
the Brera Gallery at Milan re-
veals an increasing frigidity
of treatment. If one Madonna
(1532) in the Modena Gallray
is a charming picture, another
of shghtl^^ later date no longer
merits this eul<^. The large
"Triumph of Religion" in the
Ateneo at Ferrara is a purely
"bookish" work, whose en-
semble IB null and whose stray
plea«ng episodes are hard to
discover. Later even his
sraise of colour be^ns to fail;
year by year it grows colder
and finally deserts nim. Hence-
forth he can produce only siuh
melancholy monochromes as
tbe "Kiss of Judas" in the
Churoh of San Franosoo at
Ferrara.

Such was the gradual pro-
cess of distortion under a
foreign influence of this charm-
ing genius, adapted by na-
ture to fed and proolaim the poetoy and homely
realities of life, but rendered stmle by an unnatural
endeavour to give expresaon to an ideal which was
not its own. In the pursuit of thb ideal, we see Garo-
falo lose hia native qualities one by one, his exquisite
sensitiveness aspainter and colourist being the last to
forsake him. From 1560 till his death Garofalo was
blind. His history is one of the most eloquent ex-
amples of a mistaken voeadon. With him the Fer-
rarese school loses all its orii^nality, and abdicates the
place it should have filled fai the history of art. Veniee
soon occupies the vacancy; she is destined to trans-
late to canvas those formulte for "piuntini; from life",
which Ferrara had dimly foreseen; Giorgione, Titian,
Palma, Bonifazio are to reap the laurels which Garo-
falo refused, and to deprive mm of the honour of inau*
gurating a style so fnimul in the subsequmt history of
pfdnting.

BABOm.LDi, ViU dri piUori FararMi (Femrm, 1844); ClT-
TXDKidJk. Kotitie rtlatite a Ftrrara (Femrs, 1864): Lutsacai,
PiOun- FmrOT—t (Pemn, 1S56); DocuwtmU inMiU fmpita
Compon ia Ctwm tl CiuaieatdU (Oannao «d.). V, nd; Lmo-
UBTF, DU Wtrkt itatimitdter titUttr in dm OaUrtlm «m
JWbidbM. Dmdtn und BtrKn CLelpiiit. USO); WomUHR Am

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um^Tlu AfA MIm tf At BmmImmcc (N«w Y«rii.

LODIB GlLLBT.

TlstOtf Jams (Josbph-Jacqubs), French drawhts-
man and painter, b. at Nant^, 16 Oct., 1836; a. at
Bullion, Department of Doubs, 3 Aug., 1902. He
studied at Paris at the Academy of Fine Arts and in
the ateliers of Ingres and Flandrin. DurinK this
period of his career he became well accjuaintea with
the darker side of the moral and political life of the
city. The first paintings that he exhibited at the
salon attracted great attention, especially the one
jucturing the meeting of Faust and Gretchen, now in
the Luxemburg Museum. When the Commune came
into power Tissot fled to England for fear of coming
into conflict with the Government on account of the
political intrigues of his brother. In England he
gained a reputatipn as a portrait and genre painter.
Tissot, however, was more of an illustrator than a
painter, as is shown in the brilliant smes of water-
colours, "La femme H Paris", in which in careful, cor-
rect work done with much dash he lashed the follies of
modem Parisian life. Later he issued a simUar series
of aquarelles on high Ufe in London. The picture of
the former of these series entitled "La femme qui
chante dans I'^Iise" obliged him to go repeatedly to
church during the service, and this suggested to mm
the conception of the picture, "Christ Appears to Con-
sole two Unfortunates in a Ruin". With this last-
mentioned work a new epoch began in the life of the
painter and, in the course of time, of the man. The
figure of Christ had so attracted him that he was
never ^terwards able to put it out of his mind. He
went to Palestine where he spent a year in the most
eareful geographical and ethnographical studies.
After this he spent ten years in preparing the large
number of aquarelles that compose his "Life ol
O^rist". The absolutely modem conception of this
work shows a complete break with the past. The
wcrk was entitled "La vie de notre Sc^eur J^u»-
Christ, 865 compositions d'apnte les quatres €vMigiles,
avec des notes et des dessins exphcativs, par James
Tisaot" (Tours, 1896). The price was high 5000
francs for the edition on Japanese paper, and 1500
francs for that on velliim. A cheaper popular edi-
tion in English was issued later. Tissot also designed
a series of dluatrations for Uie Old Testament, which,
however, are not as fine as the earlier ones. The
aquarelles on the New Testament have been called
"a revolution in religious art".

Bbda Klbinschuidt.

TIUkM (Anglo-Saxcm, teoiha, a tenth), generally de-
fined as "the tenth part d the increase ari^g from
Hie profits of land and stock, allotted to the clei^ for
their support or devoted to religious or chantable
uses". A more radical definition is "the tenth part
of all fniita and profits justly ac<^uired, owed to God
in reo(^nition of nia supreme donunion over man, and
to be paid to the ministers of the church". The cus-
tom of giving tithes reaches back into unknown an-
tiquity. It IS mentioned in Gen., xiv^ without anjr-
thmg to indicate that it was somiatiung new^ insti-
tuted. JuBt as Abraham is then represented as offer-
iox tithes of the spoils of the enemy to the royal priest,
Melohisedech, so in Gen., xxviii, Jacob is recorded as
givif^ a tithe of all his possesaions to the Lord. ■ Under
the Mosaic Law the payment of tithes was made <oh-
HgattHy. The Hebrews are commanded to o£fer to
CK»d the tenth part of the produce of the fidda, of the
fruits of the trees, sad of the firstborn oS oxen and <rf
sheep (Lev., zxvii^ 30; Deut., xiv, 22). In Deuteron-
omy tiiere is mention not only of an annual tathe, but
abo of a full tithe to be paid once every three years.
While it was to God Himself that the tithes had to be
piud, yet we read (Num., xviit, 21) that He transfers
tbem to His aaered niinistera: "I have given to the

MU W L»ri an tht 1^th« of Inratl for a poflMasioD, for

the ministry wherewith tbeor serve me in the tabo^
nacle of the covenant." la paying the tithe, the
EtebrewB diviitod the annual harvest into ten parts,
one of which was given to tiie Levi tea after the first-
fruits had been subtracted. This was partitioned by
them among the priests. The remainder of the ba^
veet was then divided into ten new parts, and a seo-
ond tithe was carried by the bead of the hou0eiM>ld to
tiie aanctuar/ to serve as a saoied feast for his f ami^
and the Levitee.

B the journey to the temple was unusually long,
money could be subatituted for the o£Fering in kind.
At the triennial tithe, a third decimation was made
and a tenth part was consumed at home by the houa»-
holder with his family, the Levites, strangers, and the
Pjoor. This trienniiU year was called the year of
tiHies (Deut., xzvi, 12). As the tithes were the mam
suraxHt of tike priests, it was later ordained tiiat the
oCferings should be stored in the temple (II Par.,
xxzi, 11). It is to be noted that the custom of paying
sacred tithes was not peculiar to the Israelites, but
common to idl ancient peoples. In Lydia a tithe of
cattle was offered to the gods; the Arabians paid a
tithe of incense to the god Sabis; and che Cartnagin-
ians brought tithes to Melkarth,' the god of Tyre.
The e^qilanation of why the tenth part should have
been chosen among so many different peoples is said
to be (apart from a common primitive revoation) Uia^
mystical signification of the number ten, via., that it
signifies totality, for it contains all the numbers that
make up the numerical system, and indeed all imagin-
able senes of numbers^ and so it represents all kinds of
property, which is a gift of God. All species of prop-
erty were consequently reckoned in decades, and by
consecrating one of these parte to Qod, the proprietiur
recognized the Source of his |ooda. However, Uie
payment of tithes was also a civil custom. They were
payable to the Hebrew kings and to the rulers of
Bwylon, and they are mentioned among the Persians,
Greeks, Romans^ and later the Mohammedans.

In the Christian Church, as those who serve the
altar should hve by the altar (I Cor., ix, 13), provision
of some kind had necessarily to be made for the sacred
ministers. In the bqpnning this was supplied by the
montaneous offerin^ps of the ffuthful. In the course
of thne, however, as the Church expanded and various
institutions arose, it became necessary to make laws
which would insure the proper and permanent support
of the clergy. The payment of tithes was adopted
from the Old Law, and early writers speak of it as a
divine ordinance and an obligation of conscience. The
earliest positive legislation on the subject seems to be
contained in the letter of the bishops assembled at
l?ourB in 567 and the canons of the Council of Macon
in 586. In course of time, we find the payment of
tithes made obligatory by ecclesiastical enactments in
all the countries of cluistendom. The Church looked
on this payment as "of divine law, since tithes were
instituted not by man but by the Lord Himsdf"
(C. 14, X de decim. Ill, 30). As regards the civil
power, the Christian Roman emperors granted the
rMit to churches of retaining a portion of the produce
of certain lands, but the earUest instance of the en-
forcement of the payment of ecclesiastical tithes by
civil law is to be found in the capitularies of Charle-
magne,, at the end of the eighth century. English law
very early recognized the tithe, as in the reigns of
Atiielstan, Ed^ar, and Canuto before the Norman
Conquest. In Engli^ statute law prc^, however,
^e first mention of tithes is to be found m uie Statute
of Westminster of 1285. Tithes are of three kinds:
predial, or that derived from the annual crops; mixed,
or what arises from thii^ nourished by the land, as
cattle, milk, cheese, wool; and personal, or the result
of industi^ or occupation. Predial tiuies were gen-
eraHy mOtd great tithes, and mixed awi nanwal

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tithet, small tithes. Natural flubstances having no
annual increase are not titrable, nor are wild ■.n''"*^*^
When property is inherited or donated, it ib not aub-
ject to the law of tithes^ but its natural increase is.
There are many exempted from the pwrii^ of tithes:
spiritual corporations, the ownsn <h uncultivated
lands, those who have acquired lawful preMrq}ti(m, or
have obtained a legal rmuiwiation, or reoerred a priv-
ilege from the pope.

At firstp the tithe was payable to the bishop, but
later the nght passed by common law to parish imests.
Abuses soon crept in. The right to receive tithes was
granted to princ^ and noblee, even ho^tarily, by
ecokeiastics in return for protection or eminent sa>-
vices, and this speciee of impropriation became so in-
tolerable that the Third Council of the Lateran (1179)
decreed that no alienation of tithed to laymen was per-
missible without the consent of the pope. In the
time of Gr^ory VIII, a so-called Saladin tithe was
instituted, which was payable by who did not take
part personally in the crusade to recover the Holy
Land. At the present time^ in most countries where
some ^lecies of tithes still exist, as in Endand (for the
Est^lished Church), in Austria, and Germany, the
pwnnent has been changed into a rent-charge. In
Snglish-speaking countries generally, as far as Catho-
lics are concerned, the cleito' receive no tithes. As a
consequence, other means have had to be adopted to
support the clergy and maintain the ecclesiastical in-
stitutions (see CHtmcH Maintenance), and to substi-
tute other equivalent paym^ts in lieu of tithes.
Soglia (Institut. Cimon., II, 12) says: "The law of
tithed can never be abrogated by prescription or cus-
tom, if the ministers of the Church have no suitable
and sufficiwit provision from other sources; because
then the natural and divine law, which can neither be
abrogated nor antiquated, commands that the tithe
be paid. " In some parts of Canada, the tithe is still
recognized by civil law, and the Fourth Coimcil of
Quebec (1868) declared that its payment is binding in
conscience on the faithful.

Fbbubu, BMiothtea canoniea. III (Rome, 1886), s. v.,
DeeiMm: Adoib amd Abhou>, The Calholie Dictionary (6th ed..
New York, 1889), s. ▼.; Sclden, BUtorv •>/ Ttthei (London, 1618):
SrauiAH, Of Tt^kn (Londoa, 1733).

William H. W. Fanning.

TItlaa (TiziANo Vbcblli, called Titian), the
greatest of Venetian painters, b. at Pieve di Cadore
(Friuli); d. at Venice; 27 Aug., 1577. It has always
been buieved that at the time of his death he was a
centenarian, and he himself wrote to Fhilro II in
1571 that he was more than ninety-five, which would
make 1477 the year of his birth. But there are good
reasons for believing that he made himself out to be
older than he was and that he was bom about 1487,
that'is ten years later than the generally accepted date.
Vaaari miutes him seventy-seven in 1566. Titian
would therefore have died when he was between
85 and 00 years old, which would reader more cred-
ible the marvellous freshness of his later works (cf .
Herbert Cook, in the "Nineteenth Century", Jan.,
1902, and "Repertorium fUr Kunstwissenschaft",
XXV). The vigorous health which the artist inher-
ited from his mountain race together with a habit
of order, balance, and labour determined the predom-
inant characteristic of his art. No paints better
expressed, if not the highest beauty, at least that
kind of beauty which simngB from the deep joy
of life, adorning it with an impresdon of calm, har-
mony, and serenity. The first Venetian School had
already proved itself capable of expressing these
sentiments. Titian was to give them a still freer
and fuller expression with an external charm and a
magic of colouring which has sometimes raised the
question whether he is not the greatest and most
complete of all painters.

At the age of tA Titian wu hRU|^ to Teidee

and plaoed by his brother with the edcbmted mosai-

cist, sdbastian Zuccato, but at the end of four or five
years he entered the studio of the aged painter Gio-
Tanni Bellini, at that time the most noted artist in
the city. There he found a group of young men
about nis own age, among than Qiovanm Paima da
Serinalta, Lorenzo Lotto, and Sebastiano Luciani,
who were lUl to become renowned. The foremost
of these innovators and their master was Giorgio da
Castelfranco, nicknamed Gioigione. With him Titian
formed a friendship of which all his early works bore
traces, so much so that at this period it is difficult
to distiimush the young master of Cadore from him
of Casteuranoo. The earliest known work of Titian,
the little "Eece Homo" of the Scuola di San Rocco.
was long regarded as the work of Giorgione. And
the same confusion or uncertainty is connected with
more than one of the "Sacred Conversations", in
whidi several holy peraons (generally three or four)
sf)pear at half length in sweet and familiar associa-
tion with the Blessed Virgin. The two young masters
were likewise recogiU2ea as the two leaders of their
new school of Arte modema, that is of painting made
more flexible, freed from synuDetry ana the remnants
of hieratic conventions still to be found in the works
of Giovanni Bellini. Together th^ executed in
1508 the frescoes of the Fondaco del Tedeechi, which
have unfortunately disappeared and which were to
Venice what the cartoons of Leonardo and Michel-
angelo at the Signiory were to the Florentine School.
That of Gior^one and Titian is known to us in part
throu^ the engraving of Fontana. An idea o(
Titian^s talent in fresco may be gained from those he
painted, inl511, at Padua in the Carmelite church and
m the Scuola del Santo, some of which have been pre-
served, among them the " Mee tiM at the Golden Gate ",
and three scenes from the life of St. Anthouyof Padua,
the "Murder of a Young Woman by Her Husband",
"A Child Testifying to Its Mother's Innocence",
and "The Saint Healing the Young Man with a
Broken Limb." Hie arrangranent and feeling are
not tiie chief merits of these last-named works, but
the beauty of the types, the grace of the female
figures, the charm of the landscapes, and particularly
tne enchantment of the colouring must toxevet rank
these frescoes with ibe most Taliuible works of Titian's
youth.

Among the religious paintings of this period may be
mentioneid that of Antwerp, "The Doge Pesaro pre-
sented to St. Peter by Alexander VI" (1508)* and the
beautiful "St. Mark surrounded by Sts. Coemas and
Damian, Sebastian and Rocco" (Venice, S. Maria
della Salute, c. 1511). Already the young master
was in possession of his type of Virgins with powerful
shoulders and somewhat rounded countenances, and
in particular he had elaborated an extremely refined
type of Christ, the most beautiful example of which is'
the wonderful Christ of "The Tribute Money", at
Dresdoi, a face whose deUcacy , spirituality, and moral
charm have never been surpassed by any othor School.
From the same period seems to date the "Triumph of
Faith", a subject borrowed from Savonarola's famous
treatise, "The Triumph of the Cross", and treated
with a magnificent fire in the spirit of Mantegna's
cartoons and DQrer's prints of the "Triumph of
Maximilian" (cf . Male, " L'art rdligieux en France &
l&fin du moyen ilge", 1908. 206 sqq.). These prints
•were emcated by Andreani. But wbai may be called
the most endininK works of lltiBn's youth are the
profane and indeterminately allegoric^ ones, whose
unmatched poetry of form and colouring Intiathe so
deep a joy of living that it borders oa melancholy.
Such for example is the charming picture of the
"Three Ages", in the EUesmere Gallei^; such espe-
cially is the masterpiece in the Cassino Borgheee.
"nOtmb and Sacred Love", vrbote maaplng has
nmwr been eoeaiisafuBy pttetmted (ef . Olga von

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GerstfeMt, "Veous und Violaate" in "Monatdwrt

fUr KunstwisaeDSobaft", Oct., 1910), but which naoe
the le68 remaiiifl by the contrast of ite two figures, tike
Bplendour of the motif, the depth of the hmdecape, the
rhythm and mystery of the composition one of the
imperishable el^es of all paintings ^d which even
Gior^oae does not equal in his "Concert".

Giorgionedied in 1511 and the aged Bellini in 1515,
leaving Titian after the production of such master-
pieoee without a rival in the Venetian School. For
sixty years he was to be the absolute and undisputed
head, the official master^ and as it were the painter
laureate of the Repubhc Sereniasime. As early as
1516 he succeeded his old master Bellini as the pen-
sioner of the Senate. Fifteen years later began the
relations with Charles V, Francis I, Alfonso and Isa-
bella d'Este, the Houses of Ferrara and Urbino, which
made him the first of the princely painters of the Re-
naissance and the one whose
position was most international
and most glorious of all. How-
ever he rarely left Venice.
Married to a tenderly loved
wife, solidly established in his
habits of work, and like ail
Venetians strongly attached to
the life of Venice, he regarded
nothing as being worth a sep-
aration from his home, his stu-
dio, or his country. Except
for a visit to Rome in 1545,
and two or three visits to Augs-
bui^ between 1548 and 1551 to
meet the emperor, he never left
Venice save to return to
Cadore. Even the liveliest
curiosity regarding his art, the
ardent desire to learn, which to
the end of his life impelled
him to acquire all that he
could concerning art, as he had
ah>eady devourt^i all the sub-
stance of Bellini and Giorgione,
could not induce him to leave
his work and his easel. Venice
was in tfaisrespect a most favour-
able centre, a meeting-place for artists from all parts
of the world, from North and South, Germany and
Florence. Leonardo da Vinci passed through the
dty in 1500, Dtirer stayed there in 1506, Fra Barto-
lommeo in 1508, Michelangelo in 1529; and the com-
merce of the active city, especially in books and

Erints, the permanent society of artists and men of
:tta^ could not leave Titian t^orant of what was
being done in the wm-ld. No mvention of art was
unfamiliar to him, and all lus life he displayed the
same eagerness to enrich his style with new elonaits,
the same consuming anxiety for perfection.

During this period (1516-30) which may be called
the period of his bloom and maturity, the artist freed
himself from the traditions of his youth, undertook a
class of more complex subjects and for t^e first time
attempted the monumental style. His most note-
worthy w<n'k in this style, tiie "Aasumption" of the
Church of the Frari (1518), now in the Academy of
Venice, is not, despite its celebrity, a very decided
work. In more than one sense it is one of his coldest
productions. The solution of the problem att«npted
— that of uniting in the same composition two or three
scenes superimpoeefl on different levels, earth and
heaven, the temporal and the infinite — was continued
in a series of works such as the ret(d}le of Son Dome-
nico at Ancona (1520), the retable of Brescia (1522),
the retable of San Nicoolo (1523, at the Vatican), each
time attaining to a hi^er and more perfect concep-
^n, finally reaching an unsurpassable formula in the
PcMiro retable, (152ff), in the Church of the Flrari at

I

Pndo QbUuv, Mwlrid

Vwiee. This pariu^M is his most petfoot and most
studied work, whose patiently developed plan is set
forth with supreme aiqilay of order and freedom, of

originality and style. Here Titian gave a new con-
ception of the traditional groups of donors and holy
persons moving in aerial space, tlie plans and
difierent degrees set in an architectural framework.
To this period belongs a still more extraordinarv
work, "The Death of St. Peter of Veiona*'
(1530), formerly in the Dominican Church of S. Zani-
polo, and destroyed by an Austrian shell in 1867.
There now exist only copies of this sublime picture
(there is an excellent one at Paris in the Ecole dea
Beaux Arts). The association of the landscape with
a scene of murder — a rapidly brutal scene of slaying,
a cry rising above the old oak-trees, a Dominican
escapine the ambush, and over all the shudder and
stir of the dark branches — this is all, but never per-
haps hsfi tragedy more swift,
startling, and pathetic been d^
Dieted even by Tintoretto cr
Delacroix.

The artist continued simul-
taneously his series of small
Madonnas which he treated
more and more amid beautiful
landscapes in the manner of
genre pictures or poetic pas-
torals, the "Viimn with the
Rabbit" in the Louvre being
the finished type of these pic-
tures. Another marvellous
work of the same period, also in
the Louvre, is the " Entomb-
ment", surpassing all that has
been done on the same subject.
This was likewise the period of
the exquisite mythological
scenes, such as the famous
"Bacchanals" of Madrid, and
the " Bacchus and Ariadne" of
London, perhaps the most bril-
Uant productions of the neo-
pagan cultxu^ or "Alexandriao-
ism" of the Renaissance, many
times imitated but never sur-
passed even by Rubens himself. Finally this was the
period of perfect mastery when the artist composed
the half-length figures and busts of young women, such
as "Flora" of the Uffiai, or "The Young Woman at
Her Toilet" in the Louvre (also called, without reason,
"Laura de Dianti" or " The Mistress of Titian"), and
which will always remain the ideal image oi harmo-
nious beautv and the grace of life at one of the periods
which best knew the happiness of existence.

I>ming the subsequent period (1630-50), as was
foreshadoired by his "Martyrdom of St. Peter",
Titian devoted himself more and more to the dra-
matic style. From this time date his historical
scenes, of which unhappily it is difficult to judge, the
moBt characteristic having been much injured or
destroyed; thus the "Battle of Cadore", the artist's
greatest effort to master movement and to express
even tumult, his most violent attempt to go out of
himself and achieve the heroic, wherein he rivals the
"War of Pisa", "The Battle of Anghiari", and the
"Battle of Constantine", perished in 1577, the year
of Titian's death, in the fire which destroyed all the
old pictures adorning the Doge's Palace. There is
extant only a poor, incomplete copy at the Uffisi, and
a mediocre engraving by Fontana. In like manner
the "Speech of the Marquis del Vasto" (Madrid,
1541) was partly destroyed by fire. But this por-
tion of the master's work is adequately represented
by the " Presentation of the Blessed Virgin (Venice,
1539), one of his njORt popular canvases, and by the
|p«at "Ecce Homo" (Vienna, 1541), Mie of the mrnt

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pBthetin and Ufe-19n of mastapieeos. Hie Bobotrf of

Bologna and RubenB (Miracles St. Benedict, St.
Francis, etc.) many times borrowed the distingimhed
and magisterial miae-mrti^ne, the grand and stirring
effect, and these horses, soldiers, lictors, these power-
ful stirrings of crowds at the foot of a sturway, while
over all are the light of torches and the flawing ot
banners against the sky, have been oftm repeated.
Less succ^sful were the pendentives of the cupola at
Sta. Maria della Salute ('^ Death of Abel", "Sacrifice
of Abraham*' "David and Goliath"). These violent
scenes viewed in perspective from below — ^like the
famous pendentives of the Sistine Chapel — were by
their very nature in unfavourable situations. They
were nevertheless much admired and imitaieu, Ru-
bens among others applying this system to his ftntjjr
oeiUngs (the sketches only retnain) of the Jesuit
church at Antwerp.

At this time also, the time of his visit to Rome, the
artist began his series of reclining Venuses (the

fledi^inta with the gtrid of the hair, ih* deHwta tone

of the linen, countless other beauties of detail merged
in the harmony of the whole, nothing obtrudes itself
independently. " It is impossible to enumea^te, even
briefly, Titian's splendid gallery of portraitsj princes
or doges^, cardinsjs or monks, artists or writers, no
other pamtor was so successful in extracting from each
physiognomy so many traits at once characteristic and
beautinil. Htribein was also individual, but how mudi
leas the artist; Van I>ydc is perhaps more graceful but
how much more monotonous and affected. Among
portrait-painters Titian is oomparable onlv to the
greatest, a Rembrandt or a Vewsques, with the in-
terior life of the former, and the clearness, certainty,
and obviousness of the latter. The last-named quau-
tiee are suffitamtJ^ manifested in the "Paul III" tA
Naples, or the sketdi of the same Toope and his twc
nephews, the "Aretino" of the Fitti Palace, the
"Fleanora of Portugal" (Madrid), and the series of
Charles Fifths of the same museum, the "Charlee

pBaUNTATION OF THB BlBOBBO ViBaiN, TtTIAH, TBS AciDUT, ROUl

"Venus" of the tJffisi, "Venus and Love " at the same
nniseum, "Venus and the Oigan-Player, " Madrid), in
which must be recognized the effect or the direct re-
flection of the impression produced on the master by
contact with ancient sculpture. Giorgione had al-
ready dealt with the subject in the splendid Dresden

Sioture, but here a puiple drapery substituted f<x its
ackground of verdure was sufficient to change by its
harmonious colouring the whole meaning of the scene.
Furthermore Titian had from the beginning of his
career shown himself to be an incomparable portrait-
painter. Portraits like that of Alfonso d'Eete (Ma-
drid), of the "Unknown Young Man" (Munich), and
the "Man with a Glove" (Louvre) would suffice to

glace their author in the foremost rank of painters,
ut a canvas like the "La Bella" (Eleanora de Gon-
saga, Duchess of Urbino, at the Pitti Palace) presents
sonoething rarer still. The harmony, blue, ^axt,
white, and gpld, is from the standpoint ci colour in
perfect accOTd with the lovely and smiling character
of the countenance. In charm and magic the execu-
tion surpasses even the " Flora" of the Uffizi. " It is
such portraits", says Burckhart, "and others of the
same order, such as the 'Caterma Comaro' of the
Uffisi , which sometimes mislead modem painting espe-
ciaUy the French School." "Why," he oontinues,
" arc these eternal forms, while the modems rarely rise
above beautiful sketches or studies? It is because the
motif and the moment, the light, the colour, and the
form, all were bom and grew at the same time in
Titian's soul, and whatever is created in such wise is
etemal. The voluptnous pose, the harmony oi the

V with a Greyhound" (1533), and espeoidfy the
"Charles V at MOhlenbog" (1548), an equestriao
picture which as a symphony of purples is peniaps the
neplus ultra of the art of painting.

During the last twenty-five years of his life (1550-
76) the artist, more and more absorbed in his wOTk as a
pcotrait-painter and also man selfHsritioal, un^le to
be satined and insatiable of pofeotiim, finished only a
few great works. Some of his pictures he kept for ten
years in his studio, never wearying of returning to
them and retouching them, constantly adding new ex-
pressions at once more refined, concise, aim subtle.
His palette lost the incomparable freshness which
charact«ised the great work of his maturity; the tone
became softened, the matter itself grew heavier and
more daus, there is less variation, resplendency, and
brilliance, but in the gamut seleoted were were never
more powerful notes nor bolder execution. The art.iBt
subjects to his ideas and methods the simplification
which summed up the experiences of a long life. For
each of the problems which he suocessively undertook
he furnished a new and more perfect f<nmula. He
never again egu^ed the emotion and tragedy of the
"Crowning with Thorns" (Louvre), in the expression
of the myvberious and the divine he never equalled the
poetry <aths" Pilgrims of E^maus", while in superb
and heroic brilliancy he never again executed any-
thing more grand than "The Doge Grimani adoring
Faith" (Vemoe, Doge's Palace), or the "Trinity", of
Madrid. On the other hand from the standpoint of
flesh tints, his most moving pictures are those of his
oU age, the "Oann" of Naples and of Madrid, tiw

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TITIAN

A KNIGHT OP MALTA, THE FRADO OALLBRT THE A8SDMPTI0K, THE ACADEMT, VENICE

CHARLES V, THE PRADO GALLERY CHRtST AND THE PIECE OFySfLVER, DRBSDBH

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TITULITS

"Antiope" of the Louvm, Uw "Rape of Europa"
(Boeton, Gardner eoUection), eto. He even at-
tempted probl^ns ai chiaroscuro in fantastic night
effects ("Martyrdom of 8t. Laurence", Church of the
Jesuits, Venice; "St. Jerome," Louvre). luthedomain
of the real be always remiuned equally strong, sure,
and master of himself; his portraits of Philip II
(Madrid), those of his daughter, Lavinia, and those
of himself aro numbered among his mastc^ieces.

So until the end, until that tragic "Pietft" of the
Academy of Veoioe, which was found incompleted in
his studio, the aged master strove indef atigabiy in tnir-
suit of an ever-chan^ng ideal, or rather one which
changed when be bekevM he had given it full expres-
sion. Each time a new impression, the discovery <^
an artist hitherto unknown to him, revealed to him a
new aspect of beauty, the great old man unweariedly
recommenced his work and endeavoured to incor-
porate in it the new elements whidi he had just per-
ceived. This it is which gives to his work as a wnole
its great significance and to his vary oountounoe, be-
neath the health and balance of an iron constitution,
an air of sadness and distress the hke of which is only
found in Rembrandt's last portraits. Ir. fact no one
ever expended such obstinate effort in the attempt to
reaUie ptofection. It is this which gives to certain
parts « hk work a toiae duuneter, an aspect of de-
liberateness, which oocaakmaUy causes an appearance
(rf coldness. But in the end he is always re^rded as
the emnplar and the greatest of painters. "Titian
is one of those who come closest to the spirit of an-
tiquity", writes Delacroix in his "Journal ', and in a
note for his " Dictiennaire dea beaux arts , defining
the antique he cites the work of Titian, and indeed
there is no other modem work which shares so fully
with the marbles of Uie Parthenon the i»ivil^ oi
etemaUy enchanting and moving us.

Vabaiu, I^M* 9/ Cdebratof i'att«ar«,efo.,tr.Fo8TEn. ed.Blasfa-
6eld and Hopkins (New York, 1S96) ; Ridolti, Meravigtie del! 'arU,

I (Venice 1648). 13S tqq.; MAtK, DcU 'xmilanont jn^torica «
ddr eecOUnmi delU optn da T^iana (Venioe, 1878); Nortbcotb,
The Life of Titian. (LoDdon, 1830); Ckowb and Cavalcasklu.

TVrian (London, 1877);La«mmtbb. TWen (in tel., P»na. 188fi);
BcntcKHAXDT. Cieerofu. 11 (Paris, 1892), 730 Bad.; Dclacboix,
Journal (Pftris, 1803); KNACKruae, Tmano (Bidafeld, 1900);
Gkonau, Titian (tr. London, 190*); Titian de* Meialir Oemalde
in esO AtAnidwvm (8tutt«art, 1904); Wtebwa, MaXtrM italiena
d^avtrefoi* (Puis, 1907). Houuj, Italian Puinlm (London,
1892): Philum, Th4 EarUtr and laitr Work of Titian in Poii-
Wo (1897-8). _

Louis Gtllbt.

Title of Ordination. See Aliubnt&tion.

Titopolis (TmopoLis), titular see, suffragan of
Seteucia Trachsa tn Isauria. Le Quien (Oriens
Christ., II, 1023) mentions three of its bishops: Arte-
mius at the <Ik)UDcil of Constantinople in 381; Mom-
prsus at the (Council of Chalcedon in 451; Domitius at
the Tnillan (Council in 692. The see is mentioned
in the sirth centuiy "Notitia episcopatuum" of An-
tioch CEchos d'Orient, X, 145). About 732 the
ecclesiastical Province of Isauria was annexed to the
Patriarchate of Ckinstantinople and henceforth Titi-
opolis figures in the "Notitia episcopatuum" of that
(jhurch, as it does also about 900 in that of Leo the
Wise (Gelzer, "Ungedrucfcte . . . Texte derNotitije
episcopatuum", 557), and about 940 in that of Con-

37, by George of Cyprus, 42, and by Constantine
PorphyrogenituB "De them.", 36, as one of tiie cities
of the Isaurian Decapolis. Its exact site is unknown.

lUiMAr, Atia Minor (London. 1890), 370.

S. Vailh*.

Titular BiBhop. See Bishop; In Pabttbob In-

TituluB. In pagan times tUvtua signified an in-
aeription an itone, and later the stone which marked

the confines of pr(^>earty. Under IVajan it signified at
Rome the limits of uie jurisdiction of the priests,
which is the g^*m of themeuiing it bears in its ecclesias-
tico-archeological usage. Baronius explains that a
cross sculptured on a church was the tiHUta which
designatea it as belonffing to Christ, just as imperial
property was indicated by the tiitdus fiaealis. Noth-
ing remains to establish with certainty where the pub-
lic Christian edifices oS Rome before Constantine
were situated. The eariiest ChrisUans assembled in
tlie halls of private houses, and these <n«i|tories were
therefore called ecdesus <Umestuxe. St. Paul men-
tions those at Rome and Connth; in accordance with
the most ancient Roman traditions, thev were those
of Aquilla and Prisca on the Aventine and the Bcdeaia
Pudentiana on the Viminal. These eedeaia dotm»-
tieee became the domua eccUtice, and later domus Dei,
L e. the dominicum; and in this last period they re-
ceived the name Htidi, from the name of the founds
or proprietor who held the propo-ty in custody for the
Church. A populous Christian community, like that
of Rome, by the end (tf the third century must have
poesessea a domm Dei, a social centre which served as
church, bishop's residence, refectory, dispensary of
charity, hospice, Uibunal, and seat of the episcopal
Kovermnent, as was the case at Antioch, Carthage,
Cirta, and elsewhwe. In the fourth cmtury all this
was located at the Lateran, in the palace formerly .be-
koigiog to Fausta, daughter of Myaminianus. The
history of the Latoran DCgins with a. d. 313 and the
meet recent excavations there have revealed six Ro-
man public and private edifices, but no Christian
building earlier than Constantine. According to de
Rossi uie centre of episcopal administration before
the Lateran was a CSiristiau building at San Lorenao
in Damaso, wherein the fourth omtury the archives of
the church wa<e kept, and where now the central
diancery {CanaHaria ApoatoUca) of the Papal govei-n-
mait is situated.

According to the Liber Pontificalis, Pope Fabian
about 250 divided the regions of Rome among the
deacons, creating ecclesiastical districts. Probably
these districts were provided with an edifice which
was the centre of administration and served that pur-
pose for several centuries after Osnstantine, although
no traces of such buildings survive. The diaconia <
of the seventh century had nothing to do with these
diaconal districts. In the fourth century, althouf^
the domus Lateranenm was the chief Christian edific'e
of the city, Rome possessed several places of assembly
for the Cjnristian commuoity, which Ammianus Mar-
cellinus calls corwenticula chriatianorum. In time the
unity of the presbyterium was broken and other eccle-
siastical groups were created within the city, similar to
the present city parishes indepoident of one another
and dependent on a coromoD centre, under the direc
tion of presbyters permanently appointed. To each
one a basilica was assigned, dominicum domm Dei;
the presbyters resided near this edifice, which in the
language of archaeology is called tiltdus. The most
ancient text which alludes to a titulus is the apology
of St. Athanasius against the Arians (xx). The most
ancient inscription relatii^ to a titulus goes back toA. n.
377. llie Lioer Pontificaus attributes the foundation
of the tituli to different popes of the first half of the
fourUi century, and this information, which seems
genuine, is in part confirmed by inscriptions and by
the names given to the churches. The ii/uiiprerfw-
terales therrfore go back to the peace of the (jhurcb:
they were not founded all at one time, but foUowed
the progress of the Ciliristian propaganda among the
people of Rome. At the close of the fifth centuiy
there were twenty-five tituli; the Lib^ Pontificalis
confirms this number and attributes their foundation
to Pope EvaristUB at the beginning of the second cen-
tury. The last titulus recorded in the Liber is that of
Vcstma under Innocent I. The report olthe Cound)

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Iff Home (i March, 499), contains the list oi thenamee
of the preebyten and their tituli. From this and
from the report oC a council held by Gregory the
Great in 695, we know there were twenty-five tituU,
which number, with few fluctuatione, remained the
same xaxtQ about 1120 when it is t^ven as twenty-
eight. Three or four <tf the Gregorian tituli do not
appear in the list of the councO <n 499, while the list
CH Fope Symmachus gives five which are not found in
the council of 595. This difference is explained by
establishing the location and the surroundu^ of the
disputed tituli and identifying the tituli of Ptme
Symmachus with those of Pope Gregory. The titular
churches are all foimd at a distance from the classic
centre of the City, and oorre^nd to an epoch in
which paganism pr^Mmdmited at Rome. Fnnn the
studies made and from existing monuments it ia safe
to attribute Uie foundatim of many tituli to Uie third
cratuiy and of meet of them to the foiuth.

After the preabvteral tituli came the diaconia;
these are not founa in Roman docimients before the
seventh century. TheLiberPontificalismentionsthem
for the first time in the life of Benedict II (684-86).
From the beginning the diaconits were charitable insti-
tutions, and in a measure replaced for the Rxnn^ns
the frumentoHo of Byzantine times and the dotes of
bread of the best days of the empire. They were
established in the centre of the city, with the mate-
rials, or on the site of, public edifices in a periotl when
there was no longer a motive for building Christian
churches away from the Forum or the Palatine.
Under Pope Adrian (772-95) their number was fixed
at eighteen. From the b^inning of the twelfth cen-
tury cardinal deacons adopted the names ot their
diaconuB and the number m e^teen was muntuned
until the sixteentJi century. By the twelfth century
cardinal deacons as well as the presbyters had loi^
been dispensed from personal service at the tituh,
since which time titulus of itself acquired a meaning
analc^us to that of the present time.

DucHBBin;, Im titret pmbyUratix in MtUmgt* d'arthMogie el
d'hittoire, Vlt (1887); Joksam-HOubn. Topografit der Stadt Rom
(Berlin, 1907): Obibar, Rom btim Autoa.no aer antik*n W«tt
dburg, 1901); Mabucchi, ManuaU ai anAeohgia eriitiana
•dition. Rome, 1908); Aliw.ljwi, tfioni di ardteoUoia
M, 1S9^; KaiUB in SmtkneyUopadU der ekriMekm AU4r-
htnut (FMiboTK 1880-188S), a. v. AlVKU CobSIO.

TitUBf Bishop of Bostra, b. about 362-371. Sozo-
men (Hist, eccl.. Ill, xiv) names Titus amot^ the
great men of the. time of Constantius; he also teJls
(op. cit., V, xv) of a mean trick played upon Titus
by Julian the Apostate. It was expected that the
re-establishment of paganism would occasion riots
in Bostra as it had elsewhere. Julian wrote to Titus
that he would bold him and the cl^^ responsible
for any outbreak. Titus replied that though the
Christians were equal in number to the pagans th^
would obey him and keep quiet. Julian then wrote
to the Bostrians urging tnem to expel Titus because
he had calumniated them by attributing their quiet
conduct not to their own good dispositions but to his
influence. According to Socrates (op. cit., Ill, xxv)
Titus was one of the bishops who signed the Synodal
Letter, addressed to Jovian by the Coimcil held at
Antioch (363), in ^ch the Nicene Creed was ac-
cepted, not, however, without a clause "intended
somewhat to weaken and semiarianize the expression
huMCoun" (Hefele. "Councils", II, p. 283; Antioch.—
Synods of Anlioeh) . St. Jerome (Ep. lxx)_ names Titus
among writers whose secular erudition is as marvel-
lous as their knowledge of Scripture: in his "De vir.
ill.", cii, he speaks of his "mighty (fortes) books
against the Manichsean and nonnuUa aUa. He
places his death under Valens. Of the nonnidla alia
only fragments of ex^tical writings have survived.
These show that Titus followed the Antiochene
ScluKil of Scripture ex^cesis in keeping to the literal
$k (^^KMBcd to the oUc^rical interpretation. The

"Contra Maniohtcos" is the moat important work of
the kind that has come down to us, and its historic
value is very great because of liie number of quot^
tions it contains from Manichman writers. In one
passage Titus seems to favour Origen's view that the
pains of the danmed are not eternal (on this point see
eqieoiaUy Ceillier, "Histoire g6n&rale deA aateurs
saicr^s et ecdfisiaBtiquee", VI p. 54. who seems diqxwed
to acquit him of this mor). The woric otmststs of
four books of which the fourth and the greater part
of the third are only extant in a Syriac translation.

The Greek uid Syriac texts of the Contra Manich. were pub-
tiflhed by Laoardb (Berlia, 1859). Earlier editiona of the Greek

text fluSer from an inaertioQ from a work of Serapioa owing to the
misplacement of a leaf in theorisnaloodez.' For Contra Stanich.
and other wiitincs attributed to Titub see Mioke and Oallandi.

The senuine exesetical fragments of this commentaiy were pub-
lished by SlCKKMBBRQEB in TexU u. UnUrruchtn, Vf, i (n^ se-
riea). Bakdbnhewek-Shaban, Pairoloff]/ {Bt, Louis, 1908), 270-1.

F. J. BACCHim.

Titus, £PIBTW TO.

Epunus TO.

See TmoTHT and Titus,

Titus, Roman Einperor 79-81, b. 30 Dec., 41 ; d. 13
Sept., 81 ; son of the Emperor Vespasian, and from the
ypar 70 Ciesar and coregent; he was highly educated
and a brilliant poet
and orator in both
Latin and Greek.
He won military
fame in the war in
the years 69-70.
against therevoltea
Jews. In April, 70,
he appeared b^ore
the walls of Jerusa-
lem, and conquered
and destroyed the
city after a si^ of
five months. He
wished to preserve
the Temple, but in
the struggle with
the Jews who
rushed out of it a
soldier threw a
brand into the
building. Thesi^e
and tiding of the
city were accom-
panied by bar-

Anhqds Hbad or Trrus
Vatican Museum

barous cruelties. The next year Titus celebrated his
victory by a triumph; to increase the fame of the
Flavian dynasty the inscription on the triumphal arch
represented the overthrow of the helpless people as an
heroic achievement. The historical significance of
the d^truction of the Jewish state is that the Jews
have since then been scattered among foreign nations.
As ruler Titus was by no means popular; he shared in
the voluptuousness of the Rome of that era, and was
responsible for the acts of violence which occurred
during the administration of bis father. Consc-

auently an evil reign was expected. However, in the
lort period of his independent authority, Titus agree-
ably disappointed these anticipations. His noble
benevolence was exhibited in the saying that the day
was lost in which he had done no one a kindness; he
gained the honourable title of "amor et delicis, gen-
eris human!" (the darling and admiration of the
human race). During his reign Italy suffered from
two severe calamities. On 24 Aug., 79, the celebrated
eruption of Vesuvius buried the cities of Pompeii,
Herculaneum, and Stabiie, and some months later a
fearful conflagration did great damage at Rome. On
both occasions Titus showed a fine humanitarianism.
His actions were not free from ostentation and seeking
after effect. He died from the effects of his luxurious
life.

Scmma. OMdlMte der jtmMim KaUiatU, I (ODAatTlS^).

Digitized by VjOOglC

THTB

dg, 190n, 128-S7: ftfauDTAUi, Aiatorv a/ lib Bhwuu tmla-
Ai^>ir« (London. 1880-63), li. KlbUBMB LOnrLBR.

TiUB (Tidm), titular see, suffraean of Claudiopolis
in Uouorias. Accordii^ to Strabo (542, 546) the
town was not remarkable dave as the birthplace of
Hiiletserus, founder of the royal dynasty of Pergamus.
The coins give Dionysiud as the founder; in fact it was
the site of a temple of Dionysius and one of Jupiter.
Le Quien (Oriens christ., I, 575) mentions amon^ its
bishops: Apragmonius at the Council of Ephesus in
431 ; Andrew in 518; Eugeniua in 536; Loneinus at the
Sixth General Council in 681 ; Michael at the Seventh
General Council in 787; Constantiue at the Eighth
Genial Council in 869 aai author ot an account of
the transfer of the relics of St. Euphonia of Chalce-
don (Acta SS., Sept., V, 274-83). This see figures in
all the " Notitiffi episcopatuum". Novel xxix of Jus-
tinian locates the town in Paphlagonia. George
PachymeruB (I, 312) mentions Tium among the By-
zantine towns which escaped the ravages of the Sel-
juks in 1269. The modem village of Filias stands on
the ruins of the ancient Tium, wnich included t^e re-
mains of ramparts and sculptures. The village is in
the caza of Hamidye and the vilayet of Castwiouni,
not far from the mouth of the Filias-TchM,the Billasus.

Suite, Diet, of Or. and Rom. Geog., a. v.: BouTKOwaxi, Rt-
eherehet hitfon^uet nir la viOt de Tivan (Funs, ISU); MOllkh,
«d. DtDOT, Note* on Q^ooravki Qnei minoret, I, 3S5; Cuivbt,
La TvrrtU d^Ana. IV (Parii. ISM). S87.

S. Vulh£.

TlToll, DiocESB OF (Tibitrtina), in the Province
of Rome. The city is situated where the Anio, issu-
ing from the Sabine hills, leaps down from a height of
nearly 300 feet and enters the Roman Campagna.
The water power of the beautiful falls, which attract
many tourists to the city, is utilized in various indus-
tries and supplies the electric current that lights
Rome. The slopes of the neighbouring hills are cov-
ered with olives, vinegrarda, and gardens; the most
important local industry is the manufacture of paper.
The great cascade has existed only since 1835, when
*the C^^riui tunnel through Monte Catillo was com-
pleted, to give an outlet to the waters of the Anio
sufficient to preserve the city from inundation. The
"Grotto of Neptune" and the "Cascatelle" are an-
cient. There are ruins of two old temples, one of Her-
cules Saxanus, commonly called "of the Sybil", the
other of Tiburtus, both overlooking tbe great cascade.
Near the Roman f^te is the "Tempio oeUa Toese".
Amone the more miportant churches are the cathe-
dral, the Gesil, S. Maria Maggiore, and*6. Maria degli
Olivi, containing interesting fifteenth-century fred-
ooes; also 3. Mana di Quintiholo, built on the ruins of
the villa of Quintilius Varus. In the environs are
many ruins of ancient villas, the largest being the
famous construction of the Emperor Hadrian, which
comprised a villa, portico, theatre, gardens, baths,
library, etc., and oovered 173 acres of ground. Many
of the treasures of the Vatican Museum were dis-
covered here. The most notable of the modem villas
are the Villa d'Este, erected by Pirro Ligorio for
Car^nal Ippolito d'Este (1549), and decorated with
frescoes by Zuccaro; at present it belongs to the Arch-
duke EVanz Ferdinand of Austria.

Accon^g to some of the ancient writers, Tivoh Was
founded by the Sicult; accoTdingtootherB,Dyacolony
of Argives. It is fiist mentioned in Roman history in
493, as included in the alliance against the Volscians,
but in 361 it dded with the Gauls against Rome;
thou|^ twice conquered, it shortly afterwards (339)
allieditself with Praneste (Palestrma) ; for some time
it was in the Confederation and in the Social War be-
came a munidpium. It was strongly fortified by
Belisarius in the Gothic War, but almost deertroyed
Totila in a. d. 340. After the Lombard biTasimi it
was in the power of the Byzantines and formed part of

17 TLAXGALA

the Patrimony of St. Pet^. It bad a •oant, repre-
senting the emperor. In 916 Pope John X won a
memorable victory t^ere over the Saracens. In the
Middle Ages it rebelled at times i^^ainst the popes,
under Henry IV and V, and f^^ainst Innocent II; at
other times it fought agauist tbe Roman rdbels, as
under Eugene III and Adrian IV. In the thirteenth
centurv the Senate of Rome succeeded (under Inno-
cent rv) in imposing a tribute on tiie city, and arro-
gated to itself the right of appointing a cotmt to gov-
ern it in oonjuneti(Hi with tne local consuls. In the
fourteenth cratuiy it aided with the Guelphs and
stronfdy sumxnted Urban VI a^unst Clement VII.
King Ladislaus was twice, and later Braccio da Mon-
tone once, repulsed the city. But its strength
Was undermined by internal factions, in oonsequence
of which Pius II oonstmcted the fortress whicn still
exists. Alexander VI withdrew it from the jurisdic-
tion of the Roman Senate. In 1527 it was sacked by
bands of the supporters of the emperor and the
Colonna, important archives being dratroyed diuing
the attack. In 1647 it was aaia occupied by the
Duke o! AJba in a war against Paul IV, and in 1744
by the Austrians.

Tivoli is the birthplace of St. Severinus (sixth cen-
tury), of Popes St. Sunplicius and John IX. also of the
painter and musician Cirolia. The Church of Tivoli
counts many martyrs, among iJiem St. Getulius, St.
Symphorosa with her seven sons, martyred in the days
of Hadrian; at a later period a basilica was erected
over the place of their martyrdom. Other martyrs
were Vinoentius, Majorius, and Generosus. The dea-
con St. Cletus was later confounded with the pope of
that name, really St. Anacletus. The first known
bishop was Candidus (465); among his successors
were: Gualterus (1000), under whom the feast of St.
Lawrence, patron of the city, was instituted; Otto
(1148), dunng whose episcopaW Eugene IV died at
Tivoli; Giovanni da Gabenna O.P. (1337), who died
in the odour of sanctity; FiUppo de' Rufini, O.P.
(1367), sent by the Romans to Gregcny IX to mduce
him to return to Rome; Fra Lorenzo, (5.M. (1450), re-
former of the clergy: Cardinal Giuiio Roma (1634),
restorer of the cathedral and founds of the seminary;
(Cardinal Marcello di Santaoroce (1652), who com-
pleted the work of his predecessor; Grw>tio Bamaba
Chiaramonti (1782), afterwards Pius VII. The dio-
. cese is inunediate^ subject to the Holy See. In the
prooesB of concentrating the Itelian seminariee the
course of theology at TivoU was sui^ressed. There
are: 42 parifdiea; 40,000 inhfU>itants; 69 secular and 35
regular priests; 11 convents of male religious and 6 of
sisters; 1 collide for boys, and 1 for nrb.

CAPPEi.ijnTi, Le cAioMd'aolia; Viou, Aorta di Tivoli (Sonw,
1726) : BruMa. RteetU) dcDa dU«M df Ti9oU (Bom«, 1880).

U. Bbnigni.

Tlaxcala (Tlaxcalbnsis), a former diocese of the
ct^ny of New Bmin. It was the fifth diocese ea-
tablisoed in the Americas by order of seniority; the
second established in Mexico (the first in title being
YucatAn) ; and the first diocese of the colony of New
Spain with an acting bishop. Fray Juli&n Gare^,
Dominican, nominated by Clement VTI, at the re-
quest of Charles V. At first Fray Garcia was only
presented as Bishop of Yucatto; the royal provision
(rf Charles V reads: "We present you (Rev. Fatho-
- JuHAn Garc^) to the Bisftiopric of Yucat&n and Santa
Marfa de los Remedios", out, as the territory dis-
cov«^ and conquered by Hernando Cortes became
better known, Clement VII in the document sent to
Bishop Garc^e in 1526 says: "We grant you and the
bishops who shall succeed you, that you call j-our-
selves not bishops of Santa Marfa (de los Remedios or
of Yucatin) but 'TenuxtitUn' and of other lands to
be mentioned." This document denotes the new
Utle of the bishop but does not determine it. FVhther
Gttrote Umsalf m his fvst daolaratioa' mUgfatefls lOs
Digitized by VjOOQTC

\

TL08 7

by aaym^i "We ofaDoae the town of Tl&xoala m the
seat w our caUmbal churoh." Bishop Oarc^ reached
New Spain in 1527 and took poMMOon of hia see.
Subsequently findinsthat it was impoesible to hold
the choir office at TIaxcala because there was no
cathedral, but only an altar covered with thatch work,
and as a sumptuous church with three naves had been
erected in the new city of Fuebia de los Angeles, the
bishop dechu«d that the chapter should pass to the
latter city, and transferred thither the episcopal see
on 3 October, 1539. This change was approved by

Tax CATEnpaAL, Pmnu

royal warrant of 6 June, 1543, and sinoe then the
buhopB <^ the diocese have resided in Puebla.

Altnoush the official title of the diocese was "of
TIaxcala*' or de Ptidjla de loa Angeles, it was not until
11 August, 1903, that the ancient See of TIaxcala
{Angtiopmtana) was made an archbishopria under
uw name of Pud)la de Iob Angeles, and toe name <k
TIaxcala was suppressed. The original limits of the
Diocese ot Puebla (TIaxcala) comprised the present
states of Puebla, TIaxcala, Vera Cnu, Tabasco,
Hidalgo, and Guerrero. As new dioceses were erected
(see Mexico) its territory was gradually reduced to
its present limite, Uie states of Puebla and TIaxcala,
with the exception of a few parishes which belong to
the jurisdiction <rf the dioceses of fiuaju&pam and
Oaxaca. In the first years of its foundaticm almost
all the churches and parishes were under the care
(tf the r^ulara, the Franciscana having important
convents at TIaxcala^ Huexotziogo, and Cholula.
In the time of the sixth Bishop of Puebla, Di^
Romano (1578-1607), the churches began to pass
into the hands of the seculars, and by 1640-49, under
Bishop Juan de Palafoz y Mendosa, the change was
finally accomplished.

The ancient TIaxcala was a powerful r^ublic whioh
the Aiteca vainly tried to conquer and idiieh waged
«nitImuoi and ftrooknis wan against them. The

t8 TL08

Indian hieroi^tTphiD of ita name represeota two hands

beating a tortiUa, or com cake, which is the meaning of
the word " tlaxeallan In former times this republic
was thickly populated, but epidemics, emigrationB,
and the work of constructing the canal of Nochis-
tongo to drain the valley of Niexico brought about the
almost entire extinction of the natives, reducing them
to an insignificant number. In the archives of TIax-
cala is a royal document, bearing the date of 1539,
which ordeTB that the Indians of TIaxcala be exempted
from all works of servitude. This prerogative was
conceded in return for their services to Heiiin Cortes
during the conquest. It ' is doubtful whether this
order was ever carried out, for a document dated
1625 states that the city of TIaxcala contained 300,-
000 inhabitants in the sixteenth century, while only
7000 remained when this document was written.
The city of Puebla, which ia the residence of the
bishop and of the governor of the state, was founded
in 1531 by the auditor Juan de SalmCT<Sn and Fray
Toribio de Motolinfa (see MoTOumA). Ute cathe-
dral of Puebla, one of the most beautiful in the whole
republic of Mexico, was finished by Bishop Palafox
in 1649. There are, counting coIlegeB and parochial
schools, about three hundred Catholic schools in the
archdiocese. The Protestants have ten colleges.
The conciliar seminary was raised to the rank of a
Catiiolic university on 5 August, 1907. It has an
attendance of 275 students. Among the notable
churches should be mentioned th^t of Nuestra Sefiora
de los RemedioB situated on the top of the Pyramid
of Cholula. This pyramid was built by the Indiana
before the advent of the Spaniards; it measures 177
feet in height and 1444 feet on each side of its base,
and is, therefore, larger than, although not as hig^
as, the great pyramia of E^vpt. The level space on
the top, upon which the oiurch is built, measures
46(444 sq. feet.

Besides the two bishops already mentioned, other
notable ones were the successor of Bishop Palafox,
Diego Osorio de Escobar y Llamas, who was viceroy
of Mexico in 1664, and D. Pelagio Antonio Labastida
y Ddvalos, who was driven from his see during the
reform era and did not return until 1863 as Arch-
bishop of Mexico. The present archbishop, Ram6n
Ibarra y Gonz&Iez, translated from the Diocese of
Chilapa, Guerrero, on 6 July, 1902, was weconized
first Arcnbishop of Puebla in 1903, and the Diocese of
Huajudpam de Le6n, erected at the same time, was
made simragan to Puebla. TIaxcala had in 1910 a
population of 2812. The town is now silent and
desolate. Th« ancient buildii^, preserved for the
traditions which cling to them, and the resident
Indians tranqmrt the viutor to I2ie time of the
conquest. The State of TIaxcala has an area of
.1594 sq. m., and a population (1910) of 183,805.

OiLuiw, Ap%mU* AuUrtoM (Mezioo, 1S89): Rkcamkb, Et
primtr Mtpo de TIaxcala (Mexico, 1884); VaBA, Co/aewma
SMvnUIca hikMeo MfodMtM ae la Mrajs Muicana QuMwineos,
1881); DoMWfscR. QtoQrafla Om. Dnenp. d* Is £. M. Muieo.

CAMiLLua Cbiveixi.

Tlos, titular see in Ljrcia, sufTragan of Myra. TIos
was one of the six cities forming the Lycian con-
federacy and is said to have been founded by the hero
Tkw, eon of Tremilus. It is mentioned by Strabo
(XIV, 666); Pliny (V, 28); Ptolemy (V, 3, 5); Ste-
phanuB Byzant. (s. v.; Hierocles (6S4, 16). It had its
own coinage. It is to-day the village of Douvar in
the caaa of Maori, vilayet of Smyrna; this village is
beautifully situatM in the midst of the ancient acrop-
olis, 984 feet above the Xanthus valley, surroundod
by precipices, whose sides form inaccesuble waUs.
On the northern side these rocks are broken hun-
dreds of tombs, some of whidi bear inscriptions men-
tiouinK the people and the "gerousia" or municipal
oounoQ. Among ita monuments the principal is the
tbeatre. Until the thirteenth oentiu? this aae ia

Digitized by VjOOglC

TOALDO

749

TOBUB

mentiooed by the "Notitin ^Moopatuum" m a
suffragan of Myra. Le Quien (Cmens chnst., I, 979)
gives a list of five known bishops: Andreas, at Chal-
oedon, 451 (signed in 458 the letter of the Lycian
bishops to Empm)r Leo); Eustathius at Constanti-
nople, under the patriarch Menas, 636 (also known by
Novella 115 of Justinian); John, at the Council of
TroUo, 692; Constantine, at Nice, 787; Omatantine,
at Constantinople, 879.

FZLLOws, Atia Minor, 237 sqq. ; Iran, Lveio, 133 aqd.; Tcxm,
AaU MinauM, 972; Smits, Diet, Ontk and Banan Oiotr- a. v.

S. P^TRints.

Toaldo» GinsEPPE, priest and physicist, b. at
Pianezxe, 1719; d. at Faaua, 1797. In his fourteenth
year he entered the seminary of Padua, in which he
subsequently taught mathematics and Italian litera-
ture. While connected with the seminary he edited
the works of Galilei (1744), for which be wrote an ap-
preciative preface and critical notes. In 1754 he was
appointed pastor of Mont^alda; and, eight years
later, was called to the chair of astronomy in the
University <rf Padua. Toaldo, like his contempora-
ries, Divisch and Beccaria (both priests), gave special
attention to the study of atmospheric electricity and
to the means of protecting buildings against lightning.
He advocated the erection of lightning-rods, lulopting
the views of Franklin on their preventive and protect-
ive action, rather than those of the French scnool ]»A
hy Abh6 Nollet. His treatise "Delia maniera di
difendere gli edificU dal fulmine" (1772) and his
pamphlet "Dei oonduttori metallici a preservazione
degh edifici dal fulmine" (1774) oontriouted largely
to remove the popular prejudices of the time against
the use of the " Franklin ian rod"; and throu^ his
exertions lightning-conductors were placed on the
CaUiedral ot Siena, on the tower of St. Mark's,
Venice, on powder magazines, and ships of the Vene-
tian navlr. Toaldo was a member of many of tlie
learned bodies of Europe, notably of the Royal
Society, London.

BbOTHER POTAIUIAM.

Toba Indians, one of the few still unconuuered
savage tribes of the great Chaco wilderness of Smith
America, and notable alike for their persist^t hos-
tility to the white man and for their close resemblance
in language, customs, and manner of living to the
celebrated Abip6n, among whom the famous Jesuit
Dobrizhoffer (q. y.) laboured one hundred and lifty
years ago. Tasv are of Guaycuran Hnguistic stock,
whidi includes also the Abip6n, Mocovf, and a num-
ber oi other tribes of similar predatory habit, and
range, in alliance wiUi the Mocovl, through the
forests and marshes of the Chaco r^ion-<m the west
bank of the Para^uajy River about the lower Pilco-
mayo and Vermejo, m Paraguay and north-east Ar-
gentina, sometimes extending tbdr forays westward
to the frontiers of Oran and Tarija. They are known
under various names, the most common being from
the Guanmf tobai, siniifying "opposite", i. e. those
living on the oppodtebanfc of the nragimr from the
Guaranf. They number now perhaps 2000 souls.

PhysioaUy they are tall^ and well-bu3t. with fierre
countenance, and from going constantly barefoot the
soles of their feet are toughened to resut thorns and
sharp rocks. Both sexes go nearly naked except when
in the presence of strangers, and wear their hair long,
the men craifining it by means oi a band or turban.
On special occasons they wear shirts or skirts of skins
or of woollen stoflF, mar own weaving, from the
sheep they now possess, together with bead-dresses,
belts, and wristlets of ostrich feathers. They tattoo
their faces and opiMV bodies with vegetable dye.
They live almost entirety by himting and fii^iing, but
raise a little com. They have large herds of horses
and are fine bonemen. The men are expert in the

makiDi of dofrwt cuioea and ftsh traps, wfaHe the
women are expert potters and net weavers. Their
huts are simple structures of willow branches covered
with grass, sometimes large enough to have several
compartments. Their weapons are the bow, lance,
and wooden club, besides which they now have some
guns. They bury the dead, the ^ed being sometimes
killed by their own children from a feeling of pity for
their helplessness. For the same reastm, when a
mother dies her infant is buried with her. Men have
only one wife at a time. There is no h^ chid^, the

f>vemment resting principally with the old men.
ittle is known of their rel^on, which seems to con-
sist chiefly of a special reverence for the sun and the
rising moon, and the propitiation of a host of invisible
aphits whim axe held responsible for sickness and
oth^ misfwtunes. In war they are distinguished for
their ferocity and barbarous cruelty, and are
dreaded alike by settlers, travellers, and Christiaimed
Indians throughout the whole northern Chaco fron-
tier. In 1882 they massacred an entire exploring
expedition of fifteen men under command of the
French geographer, Cr6vaux. In 1854, however, the
American expedition up the Paraguay, under Captain
Page, held irjoid^ intercourse with them. Some
special studies ot ta^ language, which is virtually the
same as that of the Abipon, have been made by Car-
nuua and Quevedo. An interesting, though strongly
anti-reli^DUs, account of their latter-day condition
and habits is given by the Italian engineer, Pelleschi.

In the early colonization period of the eighteenth
century the Toba, with the Abip6n and Mocovf, were
among the most determined and constant enemies of
the Argentine-Paraguayan settlements and missions,
and hardly a half year ever passed without a raid or
retaliatory^ punitive expedition*. On one occasion six
hundred Toba attacked DobrisboflFer's mission, but
were repelled by the missionary himself single-handed
with the aid of nis firearms, of which the savages w^
in deadly terror. The missionary received an arrow
wound in the encounter. In 1756 a number of ToImi
and Mataoo were gathered into the Mission of San
Ignado de Ledesma, on the Rio Grande tributary oi
the Vermejo, where they numbered 600 souls at the
time of the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767. Some
later attempt was made by the Franciscans to restore
the Chaco missions, but with the end of Spanish rule
the missions declined and the Indians scattered to the
forests. (See Mataco iNniANs; Moco\i Indians.)

CooBuK; BniNTOM, Am'ri(an SaetCKtm Twki
Ej, SxpediH^n ul Chaca A^Mral (BiwKM

?oii. HiU. du Paiavuau (Pari*, IJM: tt.

KUHOFm, Arravni n/ Us Jh'pMiM tEatifefc, SttK
Cnfdkvo dt lat Ltngwu, I nVf aMA, t8M)| UmxM^ ,
ChoTOffrilphiea rW Grmt C&oea (Cordo-
L'Hommt Atniricain (Patu, 1839>r Faw,
Coii/4dtTotion and Paragt^y (New Y'

LtftgiUu A rSMCituLt. {dioma 11^ up ,
FtXCI.ua. Th» fartK artd iU InAatStiltl

J&inu MOONBT.

ToUm.— We shaU first «iumentte Hie Tarious
Biblical persons and thm treat the book of this name.

I. PsBSONS. A.— Tobias (II Par., xvii, 8), Heb.
tlSbyyah& "Yahweh is good"; Sept. T«/3uu, one oi the
Levi tea whom Joe^hat sent to teach in the cities of
Juda. The name is omitted in the Vatican and
Alexandrian codices, but given in the other important
Greek MSS. and the Vulgate.

B.— Tobias (Zach., vi. 10), Heb. tdbyyOh^ geri
(<)^lfVdA which is the reading also of verse 14; S^t.
Xf^tfm (verse 10), t»& xf^^toa «*r4i (verse 14),
which infers the reading IMtiha; Vuk. Tobia; one of
the party <d Jews who came frcnn Baoyton to Jerusa-
lem, in the tame ot ZonMbd, with nlver and gold
wherewith to make a otom for the heed of Jesus,
son cl Josedec.

C— Tobia (I EMr., fi, 60), Beb. tdbm^ '*Jah is

Digitized by

y Google

TQKAB 7

my good"; Sept. (Vat.), TttfiUa (Alex.), the

same name ocourriiig in II Eedr.jvii, 62, as Tttfiii and
in the apocryphal lU Esdr., v, 37 as fiiadw (Vat.) or
pdf (Alex.), one ot the famiUee that, on their return
from eiile, could show no written proof ot their gene-
alogy.

D. — ^Tobias (II Eadr., ii, 10), an Ammonite who
together with Sanaballat the Horonite oppoaed the
fortification <tf Jerusalem by Nehemias (U Esdr., ii^
19; iv, 3; vi, 17; xiii,4, 8). Heiscalled "the servant";
we can only ooiuecture what that means. Cheyne
(Encyclopedia BibUca, a. v.) thinks that kdASd^ aer-
vant, IB a mistake for hd drM, the Arab.

(B).— Tobias (II Mach., iii, 11), the father ot
Hircanus.

(P).— Tobias (Tob., i, 9, and pasnm), the son of
the following.

(G). — ^Tobias the elder, the chief character in the
book that bears his name.

II. Book or Tobias, a canonical book of the Old
TeatamMit.

A. ATome.— In Cod. Alex., pifikn Twfitr; in
Vat., Tw^r; in Sinaitic, Tw^Siitf; in Latin MSS. Liber
Tvbia, Ltber ToWf et Tobia, Liber tUriusgue Tobice.
In the Vulgate and Hebrew both father and
son have the same name, Tobias, t^ibyyih. In other
texts and versions, the name of the father varies:
(dM, "my good" is Jahweh, in Heb. Munster; Tw^t
or Tvptir in the Sept.; Tobia, or Tolnf, standing for
tmh "goodiUflB" of Jahweh, in the Okl Latin.

B. TeiU and VersHHu.— The original text, supposed
to have been Hebrew, is lost; the reasons ss^iumI for
an Aramaic ori^nal warrant only a probable opinion
that an Aramaic tnmstation influenced our present
Greek versions.

(1) Vulgate Versions. — St. Jerome had not yet
learned Animaic, when, with the aid of a rabbi who
knew both Aramuc and Hebrew, he made the Vul-
mrfe vernon. The rabbi pressed in Hebrew the
WMif^t of the Aramaic MSS. and St. Jerome straight-
way put the same into Latin. It was the work of
only a day (cf. Pnef. in T(A(iam). The Old Latin
certainly influenced this hurried version. The Vul-
gate recension of the Aramaic version tells the story
in the third person throughout, as do the Aramaic of
Neubauer and the two Hebrew texts of Gaster (HL
and HG), whereas all the other texts make Tobias
speak in the first person up to iil, 15. The following
passages occur in tne Vulgate ak>ne : the wi^in^ of the
dcMc's taH (id, 9); the comparison of the coating on
Twias'a eve to the membrane of an egg (xi, 14) ; the
wait of half an hour while the gall of tne fish effected
its cure (xi, 14) ; Ti^ias's closing of the eyes of Raguel
and Edna in death; also ii, 12, 18;iii, 19, 24;vi, 16-18,
20, 21 ; viii, 4, 5; ix, 12b. Some parts of the Vulgate,
mch as the continenoe of Tobias (vi, 18; viii, 4), were
looked upon at timn as Christian interpolations of
Jerome until they were found in one of Caster's
Hebrew texts (HL). Lastly, the Vulwte and HL
omit all mention of Ahikhar; Achic^ <tf vulg., xi, 20,
is probably an addition to the text.

(2) Arunaic Versions. — Beaides the Aramaic ver-
sion used by Jerome and now lost, there is the extant
Aramaic text recently fotuid in an Annaic commen-
bary on Genesis, "Midnub Bereibit Rabba". The
wnting of this midrash i« fifteenth-century work; it
contains the Book of Tobias a* a haggada on the
promise Jacob makes to pve tithes to God (Gen.,
xxviii, 22). Neubauer edited the text, "The Book
of Tobit, a Chaldee Text from a unique MS. in the
Bodleian Lftrary" (Oxford, 1878). He thinks that
it is a briefer form of Jerome's Aramaic text. This
is not likely. The language is at timcs-a trans-
literation of Greek and g^ves evidence of being a trans-
lation of one or other a the Greek texts, it agrees
with the Vulgate in that from the outset the tale of
T<Ma8 if told in the third p«non; oili«rwiae it is

M) TOBUf

closer to Codes VatMawn waA data ttiD to Cod.

Sinaiticus.

(3) Greek Verskma. — There are three Gndc reoen-
aions <tf Tobias. We abaB refer to them by the num-
bers given to the Vatican and Sinaittc codices in
Vigouroux, "La sainte bible polyglotte", III (Paris,
1900). (a) AB, the text of the Alexandrian (fifth
oentui^y) and Vatican (fourth centuir) codices. This
recension is found in many other codices of the Greek
text, has been used for centuries by the Greek Church,
is incorporated into the Sixtine edition oi the Septua-
emt, and has been translated into Annenian as the
authentic text of that rite. AB is preferred to the
Sinaitic recension by NOldeke, Grimm, and others,
and yet rated by Nestle, EinUd, and Harris as a
compendium rather than as a version of the entire
ori^al text. It condenses Edna's prayer (x, 13),
omits the blessing of Gabael (ix, 6), and has three or
four unique readm^ (iii, 16; xiv, 8, 10; xi, 8). (b)
X, the text of the Sinaitic (fourth-century) Codex. —
Its style is very much more diffuse than that of AB,
which seems to have omitted of set purpose many
crtxot of M — cf. ii, 12, "oa the seventh of Dustras
s!ie cut the web"; v, 3, the incident of the hoDd
divided into two parts, one for Tobias and the other
for Ri«uel; v, 5, tne lon^ c<mversation between Raph-
ael and young Tobias; vi, 8: x, 10; xii, 8, etc. X omits
iv, 7-19, and xiii, 6h-9, of AB. (c) The Text of Co-
dices 44, 106, 107 for vi, 9-xiii, 8.— The first portion
(i, 1-vi, 8) and the last (xiit, 9 to end) are tdentical with
AB ; the remainder seems to be an attenmt at a better
version of the ori^al text. Inde}>endent woric is
shown by vi, 9, to vii, 17; viii, 1, to xii, 6, is veiy close
to the Syriac and nearer to X than to AB; xii, 7-xiii,
8 resembles each text in various small details. Dis-
tinctive readings of these cursives are Edna's Gnostic
prayer, "Let all the vEons praise thee" (viii, 15);
and the fact that Anna saw the doe running before
Tobias (xi, 5). <d) What seems to be a third recen-
sion of the second chapter is presented m Grenfell aiid
Hunt, "OxyrhyncuB Papyn" (Oxford, 1911), part
viii. The text differs from boUi AB and K ana con-
sequently the Greek cursivee.

(4) Old Latin Versions. — :Previous to the Latin
Vulgate translation of the Aramaic recension (see
above) there existed at least throe Old Latin versions
of a Greek text which was substantially X; (a) The
recension of Codex Regius FarisienBis 3654 and Cod.
4 of the Library of St-Genmun; (b) the recension of
Cod. Vat. 7, containing i-vi, 12; (c) the recension ctf
the "Speculum" of St. Augustine.

(5) Syriac Version. — Down to vii, 9, it is a trans-
lation of AB; thereafter, it agrees with the Greek
cursive text, save that xiii, 9-18, is omitted. This
second part is clearly a second recension; its proper
names are not spelled as in the first part. Atiiknar
(xiv, 10) is Aohior (ii, 10); 'Edna (vu, 14) is 'Edna
(vii, 2) 'Arag (ix, 2) is Raga (iv, 1, 20).

(6) Hebrew Versions. — ^There are four Hebrew
versions of this deuterocanonical story; (a) HL,
Hebrew Londin^ a thirteenth-century MS., found by
Gaster in the British Museum, and translated by
him in the "Proceedings of the Soo. of the Bibl. Ar-
chjBology" (xviii and xx). Besides a cento of Scrip-
tural exhortations, this MS. contains the narrative
portion of Tobias, translated, Gaster thinks, from a
text that stood in closest relation to the Aramaic
used by St. Jerome. It is just possible, though not
in the least probable, that the thirteenth-century
Jewish author of HL made use of the Vulgate, (b)
HG,_ Hebrew Gasteri, a text copied by Gaster from
a midraah on the Pentateuch and published in the
"Proc. of the Soc. of Bib. Arch." (xix). This MS.,
now lost, agreed, with the Aramaic of Neubauer and
was in a compact style like that of the Vulgate recen-
sion, (c) HF, Hebrew Fagii, a vejy free translation
of AB, done, in the twelfth Msitury by a Jewish

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odiolar; it is found in Walton's "Polyglot", (d)
HM, Hebrew Munsteri, published by Mttnstflr ia
Basle A. D. 1542, fotmd in Walton's "Polyglot".
This text agrees as a rule with Neubauer's Anunaic,
even when the latter is at variance with AB. It is,
according to Ginifcurg, of fifth-century origin. The
Hebrew versions together with the Aramaic omit
reference to the dc^ which plays a prominrat part
in the other versions.

The foregoing review of the various and divens
recensions of the Book of Tobias shows how hard
it would be to reconstruct the original text and how
easily textual errors may have crept into our Vulgate
or the Aramaic on which it depends.

C. Contenit. — Unless otherwise stated, these ref-
erences are to the Vulgate recension, whereof the
Doua:^ is a translation. The story naturally divides
itself into two parts: (1) the fidelity cS Tobias the
older and ttf Sua to vbe Lord (i, 1-iii, 25) ; (a) the
fidelity of Tobias (i, 1-iii, 6), — before the captivity
{ij 1-10), during the captivity (i, ll-iii, 6) shown by
his acts of mercy to fellow captives (i, 11-17) and
especially to the dead (i, 18-26), acts that resulted
in his bhndness (ii, 1-18), the taunts of his wife (ii,
19-23), and the recourse of Tobias to God in prayer
(iii, 1~«). (b) The fidelity of Sara, daughter of
Bakuel and Edna (iii, 7-^). The very day that
Tobias in Ninive was taunted by bis wife and turned
to God, Sara in Ecbatana was taunted by her maid
as the murderess of seven husbands (iii» 7-10), and
turned to God in prayer (iii, 11-23). The prayers of
both were heard (lii, 24-25).

(2) The fidelity of the Lord to Tobias and to Sara
through the ministrations of the ai^l Raphael
(iv, 1-xii, 22). — (a) Raphael cares for the young
Tobias cm his journey to Gabael in Rages ai Media
to obtain the ten talents of mlw left in bond by his
father (iv, 1-ix, 12). The youns man set out, after
long instruction by his father (iv, 1-23): Raphael
joins him as guide (v, 1-2S); Tobias while bathing
in the Tigris is attacked by a large fish, catches it,
and, at the advice of Raphael, keeps its heart, liver,
and gall (vi, 1-22) ; they pass through Ecbatana, stop
at Raguel's; Tobias asks Sara for wife and receives
her (ni, 1-20); oontinoice and exorcism and the
odour of the bumtng liver of the fish and the aid <tf
Raphael, he conquers the devil who had slain the
seven previous husbands of Sara (viii, 1-24) ; Raphael
gets the money of Gabael in Rages, and brings him
to Ecbatana to the marriage celebration of young
Tobias (ix, 1-12). (b) Raphael cures the blindness
of the elder Tobias, on the return of his son, and man-
ifests the truth that he is an angel (x, 2-xii, 31).
Conclusiw: The hymn thanksgiving ta Tobias the
elder, and the subsequent history of both father and
son (xiii, 1-xiv, 7).

D. Pvrpose. — ^To show that God is faithful to
those that are faithful to Him is evidently the chief
purpose of the book. Neubauer (op. cit., p. xvi)
makes out the burial of the dead to be tlw chi^
lesson ; but the lirsson of alm^ving is more prominent.
Ewald, "Gesch. des Volkes Israel", IV, 233, sets
0dehty to the Mosaic code as tiie main drift of liie
KUthor, who writes for Jews of the Dispersion; but
the book is meant for all Jews, and dearly inculcates
for them many secondary lessons and one that is
fundamental to the reel-— God is true to tiioee who
are true to Him.

E. Canonitiity. (1) In Judaiem. — The Book of
Tobias is deuterocanonical, i. e. contained not in the
Canon of Palestine but in that Alexandria. That
the Jews of the Diqiersion accepted the book as
canonical Scripture is clear from its place in the Sep-
tuaicint. That the Palestinian Jews reverenced
Tobias as a sacred book may be argued from the
existence <rf the Aramaic translation used by St.
Jerome and that published by NeubauCTj as also from

the four wtant Hebrew translations. Then, most of
these Semitic versions w»e fouad as Midrastum, or
haggada, of the Pentateuch.

(2) Among Christians. — Despite the rejection of
ToJjias from the Protestant Canon, its place in the
Christian Canon of Holy Writ is undoubted. The
Catholic Church has ever esteemed it as inspired.
St. Poljrcarp (a* J>- 117)> "Ad Philii»>en8e8", x, ;irges
almsgiving, and cites Tob., iv, 10, and xii, 9, as
autbcffity for his urging. Deutan^Hement (a. d.
150), "Ad Corinthios > xvi, has praises of almsgiving
that are an echo of Tob., xii, 8, 9. St. Clement of
Alexandria (a. d. 190-210), in "Stromata". vi, 12
(P. G., IX, 324), cites as the words of Holy Writ
"Fasting is good with prayer" (Tob., xii, 9); and in
"Stromata", i, 21; ii, 23 (P. G., VIII, 853, 1089),
"What thou hatest, do not unto another" (Tob^ iv,
16). Origen (about a. n. 230) cites iisScripture Tob.,
iii, 24, and xii, 12, 15, in "De oretione'', II: Tdi).,

ii, 1, in sec. 14; Tob., xii, 12, in sec. 31 (cf. P. G., XI,
448, 461, 553); and writing to Africanus (P. G., XI,
80) be explains that, although the Hebrews do not
\]se Tobias, yet the Church does. St. Athanasius
(a. d. 350) uses Tob., xii, 7, and iv, 19, with the dis-
tinctive phrase "as it is written", cf. "Apol. contra
arianoe", II, and "Apol. ad Imper. Constantium"
(P. G., XXV. 268, 616). In the Western Churdi,
St. Cyprian (about A. D. 248J very often refers to
Tobias as of Divine authority just as be refers to the
other books of Holy Writ; cf. "De mortalitate", x;
"De opere et eleemosynis", v, xx; "De patientia",
xviii (P. L., IV, 588, 606, 634); "Ad Quirinum", i,
20, for Tob., xii; iii, 1 for Tob., ii, 2; and iv, 5-11;

iii, 62, for Tob., iv, 12 (P. G., IV, 689, 728, 729, 767).
St. Ambrose (about A. D. 370) wrote a book entitled
"De Tobia" against usury (P. L., XIV, 759). and
introduced it by referring to uie Biblical work oi that
name as "a prophetic book", "Scripture". In the
entire Western Church, however, the canonicity of
Tobias is clearest from its presence in the Old Latin
Version, the authentic text of Scripture for the Latin
Church from about a. d. 150 imtil St. Jerome's Vul-
gate replaced it. The canonical use of Tobias in
that part oi the Byzantine Church whose language
was ^^rUko is seen in the writings of St. Ephraem
(fdbout A. D. 862) and of St. Arobelans (about a. d.
278). The earliest canonical lists all ccmtain the
Book of Tobias: they are those of the Council of
Hippo (a. d. 393), the councils of Carthage (a. d. 397
and 419), St. Innocent I (a. d. 405), St. Augustine
(a. d. 397). Moreover, the ^reat fourth- and fifth-
c^tury MSS. of the Septuagiut are proof that not
only the Jews but the Christians used Tobias as
canonical. Fot the Catholic the question of the
eanonidty <rf Tobias was infallibly settled by the
decisions of tiie Councils <rf Trent, Session IV (8
April, 1546) and oi the Vatican, Seauon III, oh. 2
(24 April, 1870).

Against the eanonidty of Tobias are urged several
rather trivial objections which would at first sight
seem to impugn the inspiration of the narrative, (a)
Raphael told an untruth when he said he was "Asbf
rias the son.of the great Ananias" (v, 18). The«) is
no untruth in this. The angel was in appearance
just what he said he was. Besides, he may have
meant by 'ftzfiryfth, "the healer <rf Jab"; and by
'tofiny&h, "the goodness of Jah". In this event he
only told the young Tobias that he was God's helper
and the offsprins of the great goodness of God; in
this there would be no falsehood, (b) A second
objection is that the angelolcwy of Tobias is taken
over from that of the Avesta either directly by Iranian
influpnce or indirectly by the inroad m Syriac or
Grecian folk-lore. For R^ibael says: "I am the
angel Rapfaaelj one of the seven vho stand before
the Lord (zii, 15). These seven are the Amesha
Spentas of Zoroaatrianism: ct. Fritssdi^ "Exeg^

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tinbes Handbueh su den Apocr.", n (Ldpng, 1853),
61. The answer ia that the reading seven is doubtful ;
it is in Ml AB, Old Latin, and Vulg.; it ia wanting in
the Greek cursive text, Syriac, and HM. Still,
admitting the reading of the Vulgate, the Amesha
Spentas nave infiltrated into AveBtic religion from
the seven Aiwels of Hebraistio Revelation and not
vice versa. Moreover, there are not seven Amesha
Spnitu in the ai^lology of the Avesta, but only
SIX. Thejr are subordinated to Ahura Mazda, the
first principle of good. True, he is, at timee, grouped
with the SUE lower qiirits aa seven Ameeba Santas;
but in this ktoudu^ we have not by any means seven
anfffils standing Defore the Deity.

F. Historical Worth. (1) To Protestants.— The de-
structive criticism which, among Protestants, has
striven to do away with the canonical books of the
Old Testament has c^uite naturally had no respect for
those books the critics call apocryphal. The Book
of Tobias is to them no more than are the Testament
of Job, the Book of Jubilees^ and the stor^ of Ahikhar.
From the standpoint of historical criticism it is to
be grouped with these three apocrvphal (J. T. Mar-
shall, FVincipal of the Baptist CoUege, Manchester,
in Hastings's "Diet, of the Bible", a. v.). Simroek
in "Der gute G^hard und die duikbaren Todten'*
(Bonn, 1858) reduces the story to the folk-lore theme
of the gratitude of the departed spirit: the yam is
spun out of this slim thread of fancy tnat the souls
cn the dead, whose remains Tobias buried^ did not
forget his benevolence. H^t (Encycl. Bibbca, s. v.)
&aas traces of Iranian l^nd in the name of the
demon Asmodeus (Tob., in, 8) which is the Persian
AHhma daioa; as also m the dog, — "with the Per-
nans a certain power over evil spirits was assigned
to the dof." And again: "the Jewish nation takes
up a foreign legend, goes on ideating it until it has
got it into fixed oral form, in order next to pass it
on to some story-writer who is able to shape it mto an
edifying household tale, capable of ministering com-
fort to many succeeding generations." Moulton,
"The Iranian baok^und of Tobit" (Exroeitory
Times, 1900, p. 267). considers the book to be Median
folk-kire, in which the Semitic and Iranian elements
meet. On the Ahikhiur story, cf. "The Story of
Ahikhar from the Syriac, Arabic, Armenian, Ethiopic,
Greek, and Slavonic versions" by Conybeare, Harris,
and Mrs. Smith, a work which will be brought back
to 407 B. c. in a new edition soon to appear (Exposi-
tor, March 1912, p. 212).

(2) To Cathoucs. — Until recentlv there never was
question among Catho^ in nmrd to the bistoriinty
of Tobias. It was among the Sstorical books of the
Old Testament, the Fathers had always referred to
both dder and younger Tobias and to the other
personages of Uie narratives as to facts and not to
fancies. The stories of almsgiving, burial of the
dead, angelophany, exorcism, marriage of Sara with
Tobias the yoimger, cure of the elder Tobias, — all these
incidents were taken itxe granted as fact-narrative;

ed. (Vienna, 1814), 452, gives the stock objections to
tfae_ historicity of Tobias, and su^ests that either the
entire composition is a parable to teach that the
prayers of the upright are heard or at most only the
main outline is facUnarrative. His book was put
on the Index (28 Au^., 1822). Anton Seholz, "Die
hdlige Sohrift", II, iii, p. 12, and Movers in "Kirch-
enlexioon" (first ed^^ I, p. 481) hold that Tobias is
a poetic fietioq. Co6t)uin, in "Revue bibltque"
(1889, pp. 50-82), tries to show that the sacred writer
of Twias had b^re his eyes a form of the Ahikhar
story and woriced it over rather freely as a vehicle
to carry the in^ired thought of the moral he wished
to convey to his readers. Barry, "The TraditiMi.Af

Scripture" (Pfew Torfc, 1906), p. 128, a^: "Its

relation to other stories, such as The Grat^vl Dead
and the t&le of Ahu^utr, has been used in illustration
of the romantic nature ascribed to it by modern
readers; so, too, the symbolical names of its person-
ages, and the borrowings, as they s^^ from Persian
mythology <rf Aamodeus, etc." Gigot, " Special
introduction to the study of the Old Testament", I
(New York, 1901), 343-7, gives at Iragth the arrai-
mente in favour <h the non-historical character <A uie
book and attempts no refutation of the same.

With these and a few other exceptions, Catholic
exegetes are unanimous in clearly defending the
historicity of Tobias. Cf. Weltein ' Kirchenlexikon"
(first ed., a. v. Teinat); Reusch. "Das Buch Tobias",
p. vi; Vigouroux, "Manuel biblique", II (Paris,
1883), 134; Comely, "Introd. in utriusgue testa-
raenti hbros aacros", II (Paris, 1887), i, 378; Danko,
" Hiat. revelationia v. t.", 369; Haneburg, "Gesch. der
bibl. OCfenbarung" (3d ed., Ratisbon. 1863), 489;
Kaulen, "Einleitung in die heilige Schrift" (Freiburg,
1890), 215: Zschokke, "Hist, sacra A. T.", 245;
Kaulen in Kircheiilexikon" (second ed., ^.v.Tohias);
Sdsenberger, "Practical Handbook for the Stud> of
the Bible" (New York, 1911), 343. This ahnost
unanimity among Cathohc ex^etes is quite in keeping
with the decision iA the Biblical Commission (23
June, 1905). By this Decree Catholics are forbidden
to hold that a book of the Holy Writ, which has
generally been looked upon as historical, is either
entirely or in part not history properly so called,
unless It be proven by solid arf^uments that the sacred
writer did not wish to write histoiyj and the solidity
<ji the argumratts against the histondty of an histor^
ical book of the Bible we are not to admit either
readily or rashly. Now the arauments against the
historical worth of Tobias are notat all solid; they are
mere conjectures, which it would be most rash to
admit. We shall examine some of these conjectures.

(a) The Ahikhar story is not in the Vulgate at all.
As it is in AB, M, and the Old Latin. St. Jerome un-
doubtedly knew it. Why did lie follow the Aramaic
text to the exclusion of this episode? Ha may have
looked upon it as an interpolati(m, whioh was not
written by the inspired author. Evm though it wwe
not an interpolation, the Ahikhar episode of Tobias
has not been proven to be a legend drawn from a non-
canonical source, (b) The angelic apparition and all
incidents connected therewith are no more difficult
to e:n)l^ than the angdopbanies of Gen., xviii, 19,
and Acts, xii, 6. (o) Tlie demonoli^ is not unlike
to that ctt tiie New Testament. The name "Asmo-
deus" need not be of Iranian ori^^ but may just as
readily be explained as Semitic. The Aramaic word
'd$hrruday is cognate with the H^rew hdshmed.
"destruction". And even though it be a mutilated
form of some Iranian ancestor ofthe Persian ASahma
dah/a, what more natural than a Median^ name for a
demon whose obsession was accomplished upon
Median soil? The slaying of the seven nu^Mnds was.
allowed by God in pimidiment U thdr lust (Vulg.,
vi, 16) ; it is the youth Tobias, not the sacred writo',
that suggests (according to AB, M, and Old Latin)
the demon's lust as the motive of his killing all rivals.
The binding of the devil in the desert of Upper l^ypt,
the farthest end of the then known world (viii, 8),
has same figin^tive meaning as the bindingof
Satan for a thousand years (Apoc., xx, 2). (d) The
unlikelihood of the many coincidoioes In the Book of
Tobias is mere conjecture (cf. G^ot. op. oit., 84A}.
Divine Providence may have brought about these
similarities of incident, with a view to the use of
them in an inspired book.

(e) C^otain historical difiBcultiee are 'due to the
very imperfect condition in which the text has reached
us. (i) It was Theglathphalaaar 1X1 who led Neph-
tbali (tV Kings, xv, 29) into captivity (734 b. c),

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and not, m Tobias says Q. 2), Sahnanaaar. Tet this
reading of the Vulgate, Old Latin, and Aramuc is to
be corrected by the name Enemeaar of AB and N-
This latter reiading would be equivalent to the
Hebrew IDD^r, a tnuosliteration of the Assyrian
kenum iar. As the appellative iar, "king", may
precede or follow a pereonal name, kenum nr is for
kenum, that is Sargon {iarru-kenu II, b. c. 722). It
can read^ be that, twelve years after Th^Iath-
phalasar III began the deportation of Iswl out of
Samaria, Saigon's scouts completed the work and
routed some of the tribe of Nephthali from their
fastnesses, (ii) A like solution is to be given to the
difficulty that Sennacherib is said to have been the
son <A nahnanasar (i, 18), whereas he was the son of
the usurper Sargon. The Vulgate reading here, as
in i, 2, should be that of AB andM, to wit, Enrmesar;
and this stands for Sai^n. (iii) In B, xiv, 15, Ninive
is said to have been captured by Ahasuenis (Ain^ir/m)
and Nabuchodonosor. This is a mistake of the
scribe. K reads that Achiacharos took Ninive and
adds that '*he praised God for all He had done against
the children of Ninive and Assyria". The word for
Assyria is AOovpelat, Hebrew 'dsshUr, Aramaic
*dk6r; this Greek word misled the scribe to write
'Atfih^ for the name of the king, Axidxapoi.i. e. the
Median King C^axares. According to Berossus.
QyuEares was, in his campaign against Ninive, alliea
to the B^yloiuan King Nahopalassar, the father of
Nabuchodonosor: the scribe of B has written the
name of the aoa lor that of the father, as Nahopalas-
sar was unknowii to him. (iy) Rages is a Seleucid
town and hence an anachronism. Not at all; it is
an ancient Median town, which the Seleucids restored.

G. Origin. — It is likely that the elder Tobias wrote
at least that part tA the original work in which he
uses the first person singuUu-, cf. i, 1^, 0, in all
texts except the Vulgate and Aramaic. As the entire
narrative is historic^, this part is probably autobio-
eraphical. After revealing hi^ angelic nature, Raphael
bade both father and son to tell all the wonders that
God had done them (Vulg., xii, 20) and to write in a
book all the incidents of his stay with them {cf. same
verse in AB, M Old Latin, HF, and HM). If we
accept the story as fact-narrative, we naturally con-
elude that it was writtm cnigbally during the Baby-
lonian Exile, in the early portion of the seventh
century b. c; and that all save the last chiqiter was
the work of the elder and younger Tobias. Almost
all Protestant scholars consider the book jpost-Exilic.
Ewald assigns it to 350 b. c; Ilgen, the bulk to 280
B. c; Grfitz, to a. d. 130; Kohut, to a. d. 226.

The Introductlooi of Cokkelt, Kadlxn, Danko, 0:oot, Sbi-
iiBNBBRaxK, Although the Pathera um Tobiu, only Bxds
(P. L.. XCI, 923-38) «nd Walatbid »nu»o (P. t.. CXfll, 736)
uve left UB oommeDUries UMreon. During th« Middle Asm,
Fdob or Bt, Victor, AtUgoriarum in Vetut TettatMnlum.li
it*. L.. CLXXV, 725). tnd Ntcbola* or Ltka, Dxim the Ca»-
nnnuN, Huob di 8. Cam. Id thrfr eommeatftriM on M Boifp-
turo, Inteipntod Km Book of Tobiw. LAt«r oommsnUton an
Bebabi (Monnt, lfi99); SANcncB (Lyons, 1028); Maitbcbberoes
(OhnuU, 175S); JmmNtAm (Rome, 1030); Dk Cblada (Lypns,
1S44); Dkbxzl (Antwem, 1692): 'SvunuM (Pfcris. 1733); Qur-
•BSm (MQ&Bt«r, ISM); Rbcbob (FraiburK. 1857); Oilut
(Puis, 1879); BcBOii (Wdnburg, 1889): Cubci (Naples, 1890);
DC MooB, ro^M If AUtoAor (Louvoln, 1902); VsTrBB, Ba* Budi
TMaa tmd Oi* AMkarSaoa m Thtti. QuartalxArift (Tftblnnn,
M^^l^^n^Mj PiotMtut Mithorities han bean dt«d in

Walteb Drum.

TocquerlUe, Charlbs-Alextb-Heniu-Mauricb
CusBEL DE, writer and statesman, b. at Vemeuil,
Department of Setne-et-Oise, 29 July, 1805; d. at
Cannes, 16 April, 1859. He was the great-grandson
of MaMsheibea, the defender of Louis XVT. As a

S' idge at Ventulles in 1830 he.formed a friendship with
ustaTe de Beaumont, with whom he trsTetled to
America in 1831. Tocqueville's letters show that he
foresaw what strides the Orarch was destined to
make in America and likewise the d(«matic notjiing-
XIV-48

neas wUdi would result from tAiItariatusm and the

absurdities of itluminism. Two publications re-
sulted frwn this journ^: the collective work of the
two friends published m 1832 under the title " Du
systdme p^nit-entiaixe aux Etats-Unis et de son appli
cation en France": the second, Tocqueville's personal
work, is the celebrated book "IiA democratic en
Am^que", of which the first volume appeared in
1835 and the second in 1840. The woA won for
TocqueviUe admisskm to the Acaddmie des aoienMa

morales et poli- _ _

tiques (1838) and
the French Acad-
emy (1841).

The libraiy of
the Seminary of
St-Sulpice pre-
serves a copy of
*'La D€mocratie"
annotated by Mgr
Brute, first Bishop
of Vincennes, who
registered in the
mai^n a number
of exceptions to
Tocqueville's asser*
tions. Those notes
have been tran-
scribed by Mgr
Baunard. Tocque-
viUe held that de-
mocracy could exist
only by seeking a moral support in religion, and that
religion could prosper only by accommodating itself to
democrat, but he is inclined to r^ard as too severe
the dontnnal, disciplinaiy, and liturgical exactions of
Catholicism, and in Mgr Baunard's opinion lua work
leaves the impression that he was only half CaUiolie.

The work has been charged with several serious
defects as r^ards political observation ; he dealt at too
great length with the constitution and organism of the
central povemment, paying too little attention to the
provincial legislation of the various states of the
Union. He relegates to the end of the first part the
study of what he caSa " the accidental or providential
causes" of the maintenance of the democracy, and his
work would be clearer if he had treated in the b^pQ-
ning the geographical and economic conditions of
America. As his work progre^ea he kiees ught of
American democracy and deals in a general way with
democratic societies.

As a deputy for Valognes from 1839 Tocqueville
sat with the dpposition and voted for liberty of in-
struction. Under the Second Republic he was a
membor of the Constituent and Legislative Aasem-
blies and vice-president of the latter.

The Roman expedition had been for some weeks^
under way when Tocqueville assumed the portfolio'
for foreign affairs in the Odilon Barrot cabinet (2
June~31 October. 1849). He caused it to be pro-
ceeded with, at the same time writing to the French
ambassador Corcelle: '.'The Roman question is the
mountain which threatens to bury us all." He
recommended that Oudinot's army refrain from bom-
barding the monuments of Rome, which were, he
wrote to Corcelle, "the property of the Christian
world", and according to his instructions Pius IX's
return should have been accompanied by an amnesty
and the granting of a Constitution.

Under the Empire he returned to private life and
undertook his work "L'ancien regime et la revolu-
tion", of which only the first part speared (1M6).
In pages of beautiful religious psychology Mgc Bau-
nard has shown how Tocqueville's mind and con-
science, chiefly under Madune Swetohine's iofiuenoe»
climbed upirards toward a profoundly Chnstiaa
death. Theee paflFA are an interesting^^ocument^on

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TODMCHOa 7

the evolution of the Liberal ideas of the middle of the
nineteenth century. After TocqueviUe's death Gub-
tave de Beaumont collected his woriES in nine volumes*
Tooquevflle's memoirs of the Republic of 1848 were
published in 1893, his correspondrace with Gobineau
in 190S.

Di BcADUONT, Noiiet tur AUxia d» ToeaumiUt (Paris, 1S97);
D'EtCHTHAL, Taegu«na« tl la MmoeratU ubtnU (Puis, 1897);
Faqitbt, Politiqutt «t nwraHtlM tbt 19t tUda, Scd sniw ^aris,
1900): Mahcbl, Euai jxAitiqiM iw AUxU dt TVKaMvflb fParis,
1910); Falloux, Comapondanee ^Ataxia df nemmmt mee
Mme Svtldiint in Cormipmtdaid <3S Pab., UBS); OAinuu, La
foi d •«« nctotret, II (Puis, 18S4).

Gkobqbb Gotau.
Todeschlnl, Francksco. See Pius III, Pope.

Todit Diocese of (Todbstina), in Central Italy,
is immediate^ dependent on the Holy See. The city
of Todi stands on a steep hiU eoinmanding the valley Of

Thi Catbcdral, TODl
Built, XIII CffDtury; restored, XIV and XV

the Tiber. Its triple walls may still be seen ; the inner-
moat, built of rou(^ grey travertine stone, is of Um-
brian or Etruscan orisin; the middle wall is Roman,
'and the outside wall dates from the sixth or seventh
centuiy. The cathedral, in, Lombard style, contains
ten pillars of oriental miu4>le. S. Fortunata is a
splendid specimen of Italian Gothic. 8. Maria della
Consolazione, one of the most harmonious works of
the Renaissance, was begun in 1508 by Cola Matr
teuccio; the cupola was constructed in 1606. The
church of the Servites of Mary contains the body; of
St. Philip Benizi, whose statue is the work of Bernini.
Almost all the churches possess pictures by Polinari,
a native of Todi. The communal hall (1267) is also
worthy <tf notice. On the pre-Roman coins the city is
called Tutere; the Romans called it Tuder, or Tuder-
tum. It was sacked by Crassus in the Civil War
(83 B.C.) ; Augustus established a colony there. Dur-
ing the war of the Goths it withstood Totila during a
loi^ and severe siege. The Lombards failed to cap-
ture it, and Todi and Perugia remained the two chief
fortresses defending the passage through the duchy
from Rome to the Exarcl^te. It was included in

» TOSZO

Pepin's donation to the Holy See. In the eleventh
century Tpdi was a republic, and in 134Q its municipal
statutes were drawn up by the jurisconsult Bartolo.
In the factions of the Middle Ages Todi was almost
always Ghibelline, and was in constant conflict with
Perugia. Boniface IX gave the city to the Malatesta
of Rimini, but soon took it back. During the fifteenth
centunr it often changed rulers — Bioncb Michelotti,
Pandolfo Malatesta, Francesco Sforza (1434), Pic-
cinino, GabrieUo Catalani (Guelph), who was treach-
erously slain (1475). The city fell into the hands
Giordano Orsmi, who was eroelled by Ou-dinal Giu-
Itano d^ Rovere (Julius n). The factions were
ended by the agreement of the Cbiaravalle and the
Atti. In 1503 the Orsini were again expelled, on
which occasion the fortress of Gregory IX, reputed
impr^nabte, was destroyed.

Todi is the birthplace of Fra Jacopone, the adver-
sary of Boniface VlII and suppled author of the
"Stabat Mater", and of the humanist Antonio Pasini
(Antonio da Tooi). The city honours several mar-
tyrs, its bishops, among whom are St. Terentius, or
Terentianus, martyred under Diocletian. Other
bishops are: St. Callistus, killed by the Goths, suc-
ceeded by Fortunatus, whose body was taken to
France; Theophylactus (787), sent by Pope Adrian to
England and to the Council of Frankfort (794):
Rustico Brancaleone (1179). several times a papal
legate; Rainuccio degU AtU (1326), expelled from the
city by the paitisaas of Nicolas V, the antipope:
Andrea degli Atti (1356), the restorer of ecclesiastical
discipline; Guglielmo Dailavigoa (1405), who tried to
induce the antipope Benedict XIII to renounce his
claim; Bartolomeo AgUoni (1436), imprisoned during
the troublesome times; Marcello Sante (1606), who
erected the seminary; Carpeeno (1638), who promoted
study and diBci[>line; Cardinal Ulderico; Ordinal
Giambattista Altieri (1643), broths of Qement X,
a famous canonist: the brothers Filippo (1709) and
Ludovioo Gualtien (1719), who erected a new semi-
nary; Francesco M. Pasini (1760), under whom the
*restoration of the cathedral was completed. The*
diocese contains 49,200 inhabitants, 98 parishes, 97
secular and 15 regular piiests, 6 religious houses of'
men and 8 of women, 1 boys' collie, and 2 girls'
schools.

Cappelleiti, 1a chwe d'ltatia, XXII (Venice, 1857); Lcom.
MmnorU ttoricAe dt Todt CTodi. 1800).

U. BEHiQin.

Tokto, Abchdiocese of (Toeiensis), comprises 21
provinces or 15 departments with a population of over
16,000.000 inhabitants. From 1866 until 1876 J&paa
form^ only one vicariate Apostolic administerea by
Mgr Petitjean, the Grst vicar Apostolic of the coun-
tiy (1866-1884). In 1876 it was divided into two
vicariates: that of South Japan, extending from Biwa
Lake to the Loochoo Islands, with Mgr Petitjeu at
Osaka, and that of North Japan, comprising the north-
em provinces from Biwa Lake to the Kunle Islands,
ruled by Mgr Osouf (1876-1906), the new vicar Apos-
tolic, residing at Tokio. In 1801 Leo XIII estab-
lished the ecclesiastical hierarchy in J^an, and
erected the Diocese of Hakodate out of the eight most
northern provinces and the Yeso, Sado, and Kurile
Islands. The same year Mgr Osouf was created
Archbishop of Tokio, with the Bishops of Nagasaki,
Osaka, and Hakodate as hia suffragans. When, in
1866, Mgr Petitiean visited the t^itory of the future
AitsluUooese of Tokio, he found on^ two missionaries
St Yoluthama, where they had built a church (1862)
especial^ for the use of foreigners, Japanese conv^le
numberii^ onhr a few dozens. The actual expansion
took place dunng the thirh' years of Mgr Osouf s ad-
ministration . It was also Mgr Qaouf who erected the
cathedral of Tokio (1878), and was the first envoy of
the pope to the mikado, to whom Leo XIII, 12 Sept.,
1886, had him prewnt w autographic letter. The

Digitized by Google

TQUDO 7

ardidloeese mm^wn (1911) one andibiflhoprio, Mgr
Bonne, 27 missionaries, 2 native prieets, 23 oatechists
and 9868 Catholics. Tokio has 4186 Catholics di-
vided into six parishes, while Yokohama, the chtdle of
the mission, besides the paridi for foreigners, who
number 492, has another church for the Japanese, who
number 1^13. In different towns and villages there
are 50 stations provided with chapels or oratories.
Until lately a great many of tibdie parishes and sta-
tions had their parochial schools, which, however, had
to be closed for want of means. Besides their or-
dinary work the missionaries direct a seminary for
native priests, two homes for Catholic students, an
industrial school for destitute boys (69), an asylum
for the aged imd homeless, and a hospital with 74
lepers. Tbey also publish two month^ magasines.
Engaged in charitable, educational, and mission work
are: ^ Brothers of Mary, of whom 9 are Japanese; six
Jesuit Fathenkof whom one is Japanese: four Fathers
of the Divine Word; 48 Ladies of St. Maur (12 Jap-
anese) ; 23 Sisters of St. Paul (4 Japanese) ; and 21
Ladies of the Sacred Heart. The chronoloeLcal order
of their work is as follows: in 1873 the Ladies of St.
Maur founded in Yokohama an asylum for destitute
girls (236 inmates) ; an acadsnnr for for^nen (1874) ;
and a bif^ school for Japanese (1899). In Tokio thcry
founded an academy (1887), and a foreign language
and music school for girls of the highest nobility
(1898), and in Shinioka another high school (1903).
The total numb^ of their pupils is m7. The Sisters
of St. Paul established in Tokio (1881) an asylum for
destitute girls (108 inmates), an academy for foreign
girls, and another one for Japanese. The total num-
bear of tiieir pupils is 477. The Brothers of i^ary
direct in Tokio a coU^ (1888) with 830 pupils betong-
ing to the best families, and in Yokohama a commer-
cial school for foreigners (1899) with 106 pupils. The
Ladies of the Sacred Heart in Tokio have charge of an
academy for girls of the h^er classes, both foreign
and Jt^anese (190S). Already they have 121 pupib.
The Jesuit Fathers arrived in Tokio in 1908, with the
intention of starting a CsthoUo university. Finally,
in 1900, Mgr Mugwure, coadjutor (VXa) and suc-
cessor of Mgr Osouf (1906-10), entnisted four of the
western provinces to the care of the Fathers of the
Divine Word, residing at Kanacawa. In 1911 the
number <tf baptisms were 1383; marriages, 83; burials,
1149; oonfirmationB 462; Easter Communions, 3512.

M. Steichsn.

Toledo, Abchdiocbse or (TourrANXNais), pri-
msAial see of SpaiUj whose archbishop, raised almost
always to the digmty of cardinal, occupies the 6rst
plaoe in the ranks <A the higher Spanish cteoer. Its
suffi'agan dioceses are Coris, Cuenca, Madrid-
AIcsalA, Pksencia, and Sigttenza. In the course of
its long and varied history this diocese has undei^
gone many changes which have successively extended
and contracted its vast territory. Geographically
its present pontion is a very unique one, as it con-
BBts of four sections BeR>arated one from the other
and surrounded by other dioceses. The first or
principal section (in which the City of Toledo, the
coital of the diocese, is situated) is in the centre of
the penhisula in the re^on which was known as the
Kii^om of T(^edo or New Castile. This section
comprises the p«ater part of the civil Province of
Toledo (the di^riet in the north-west belonging to
the Diocese oS Avila; the extreme eastern strip
toma a part oi the IHoceee of Cuenca), and on the
western side it takes a small strip from the eastern
section of tiie provinces of Cioeres and Badajox.
It is bounded on the north by the dioceses of Madnd-
AleaUl tad Avfla; On the south by the Diocese-
Priorate ot tbe Military Orders; on the east by the
Dioeeae ol Cuenca; and on the west by the Diocese
of Phaenna. The second territorial section is formed

>6 tOWO

by a half, ^n»oximateIy speaking, of the ewtem
portion of the Province of Guadalajara, surrounded
by the dioceses of Madrid-AlA, S^ovia, Si-
gOensa, and Cuenca. The third territori^section is
ff»med by a great portion erf the Ptovinoe of AUb«cete
<m the western side (the ancient Vicarage of Akaias),
surrounded by the dioceses <tf Cuenca, Murda, axM
Jaen, and tbe Diooese-PriOTate irf the Military
Ordns. The last and smallest territorial section
consists of the eastern portion of the Province of
Jaen (rural deanery of Cazorla) and the north-
eastern portion of the Province of Granada (rural
deanery of Huescar) surrounded by the dioceses of
Jaen, Murcia, Almeria, and Guadix.

Christianity was introduced into Carpetania in
the first century. Aoorading to an ancient and
VMierable tradition the Roman, St. Eugenius, is
named as the first Bishop of Toledo and the founder
of the see. Certain chronological lists give a series
of bishops of Toledo prior to and following St.
Eugemus, but modem historical criticism has rejected
them. A fierce persecution raged in Toledo under
the emperors Diocletian and ^^ximus, St. Leocadia
being one of the most illustrious of the martyrs
(9 Dec., 306). It has been asserted that after the
Edict CM Milan (313) Emperor Constantine raised
Toledo to the rank erf a metropolitan, but there is
absolutely no foundation for this, as the prelates of
Toledo continued to rank simply as bishops. Among
the most famous during the Roman occupation were
Melantius (2867-306?), who is supposed to have
consecrated the church of Toledo and who wrote
the life of St. Severus, martyr; Audentius (367?),
author of "De fide adversus tuBreticos" (which has
been lost) ; and Isichius (Hesychius), writer, orator,
and poet, in whose time the Visigoths took posses-
sion of Carpetania and its capital Toledo (466 or 7).
The diocese attained great imjxtrtance during this
period, as its principal city was the seat of the Visi-
gothic Court. It was raised to the rank of a metro-
politan and became the centre of a vast ecclesiastical
province. At this time Toledo had as suffragan
dioceses: Acci, Arcabrica, Basta, Beartia, Bigastnun,
Castulo, Complutum, Dianium, Elotona, Illici,
Mentesa, Oretum, Oxoma, Palentia, Setabi, Seoobia,
Segobriga, Segontia, Valentia, Valeria, and Urci.
Under the biEuop or archbishop Montanus Toledo
commenced to extend its primatical jurisdiction,
althou^ it was not until many centuries afterwards
that this title was conferred upon it. During the
Vistgothic period many bishops, illustrious for their
faith and holinesa governed the See <rf Toledo.
Among these may be mentioned: Julian I, author of
various i^mlogetic and moral treatises; Euphemius
or Epiphanius, in whose time the Visigotlis were
converted to Christianity; and Aurasius (603-15),
who successfully defended the claim of Toledo for
metropolitan supremacy which was diluted by
Cartagena.

The archbishops of the seventh century (615-90)
were distinguished for their holiness: St. Eladiiu
(615-33); St. Eugenius III (M6S7), poet, theologian,
and musician; St. Ildefonsus (659-68), the most
notable prelate of Toledo during the Gothic epoch,
conquKor (rf the Jovinian hensy, favoured with
cele^ial manifestations, author of a celebrated book
in defence of the virginity of Mary and of oth^
dogmatic, moral, and hiaUsical treatises; and St.
Julian II (680-w), author of many works, the best
known of which is "Historia Kebellionis Pauli
adversus Wambam". During the Mussubnan occu-
pation (a period of 373 yearfl) the condition of the
Christians who continued to live in the territories
they had ccmquered was subject to many vicissitudes,
but Uie See of Toledo did not cease to exist during
this k»g period of captivity. Cixila (774?-783?)
wrote the ufe of his predecessor, St. Udefoosus; St.

Digitized by Google

TOLIDO 7

Eok^hia, the nc^le mart^ of C6rdova (869), to
whom are attributed vanoua Latin treatisee, was
elected to the see but never took poesession of it;
BonituB (862 or 66) wrote an apologetic work in
doFence oi the Abbot SamBon. Among the arch-
bishops of the Mozarabic period Elipaiidua (783-
808) IS a notable exception to the rest, apostatizing,
and embracing and propaffating Neetonanism.

With the reconquest of Toledo in 10S6 by Alfonso
VI of Castile, the diocese entered upon a new and more
proaperoufl era, favoured aa it was by donations and
privileges not only of the CastUian aoveonigns, but of

DOOBWAT OF TBS HOSPITAL OT S. CBCT, ToUDO

Enrique de Efas, 1S14

other potentates and of all social classes. It was
thus that it reached that height of power and splen-
dour which made it the envy of alt the churches of
the kingd<Hn, aad which enabled it to contribute such
large sums to all national enterprises, to the erection
of notable monument^ to the succour of the needy,
and to the general diffusion of learning and culture.
The first bishop of this period was the Frenchman,
Bernard, a Cluniac monk And Abbot of SahagQn
(1086-1124), in whose time the principal church of
Toledo was once more restored to Catholic worship,
and Urban 11 by a Bull (1088) expremly conferred on
Toledo the dignity of primacy over the churches of
Spain, a declaration which, however, did not prevent
the other churches from auputing with Toledo this
high distinction. It was during Hbe pontificate of
Urban II that the Roman Kite was substituted for
the ancient Isidorian or Mozarabic Rite (1089).
Archbishop Rodrigo Jim^nes de Rada (1210-47)
is one of the most notable figures of bis time; a
statesman, couosetlor of kii^, strenuous warrior,
and a learned writer, he conferred innumerable
aervioes on the Church and the State. Be assisted at
the great battle of Las Navas de Tolosa; annexed the
villi^ of Quesada and the district of Cazorla to the
diocese; commenced the building of the cathedral at
Toledo, which is still in existence; defended and con-
solidated the primacy of his see; and contributed to
the foundation of the first gen<«tl schools (EatudioB

»6 T0UDO

•

feneralet). Rodrigo began a great hiskvio work, bas-
ing it on Christian and Arwic sources^ completing
the plan with the'section called " De Rebus Hispanife",
last and best of his historical works. Gil de Albor-
noz (1339-50), cardinal, waa a great statesman and
warrior, and founder of a famous college for Spaniards
at the University of Bologna, which produced maiiy
celebrated men.

Pedro Tenorio (1376-09), an enterprising and ener-
getic man, was very influential dum^ the reigns of
Henry II, John I, and Henry III: he restored buildings
and works of pubUc utility at his own expense, and
founded the Hospital of ViUafranca del Puente, which
is still in existence and in active use. Pedro Gonsdiex
de Mcndoza (1483-96), called ^ gran oardenal dt
Bspaiia, was of noble lineage and the counsellor of the
Catholir sovereigns; he displayed a princely prodiga-
lity in the many works which he undo'took and com-
pleted. Among these may be mentioned the Colegio
Mayor of Valladolid and the Hospital of Santa Cruz
for foundling. His successor, Fray Francisco
Xim^nes de Cisneros (1495-1617), is peTh^>s the most
illustrious of all the prelates of Toledo^ and at the
same time one of the most promin^t ^ur«e in the
history of S|Mun. In him were united qualities rarely
found combined, for he was a learned and saintly
religious, an austere and enei^tic reformer, a con-
queror and statesman, the father of the poor, and the
Maecenas of Spanish arts and letters. Among the
titles conferred on him were Cardinal of Sta. B^ina,
confessor oi Isabella the Catholic, inquisitor-geDeral,
and re||ent of the kingdom. The Church, humanity,
and his diocese found in him a protector and bene-
factor. He extended the limits of the Diocese of
Toledo to Africa, adding Oran and its territory, which
he personally and at his own expense conquered
(1.509). Only some of the many works which he
accomplished can be mentioned: among these being
the foundation of the University of Alcali de Henares;
the printing of the Complutensian Polygk>t Bible; the
foundation of the library of the cathedral of Toledo;
and the restoration of the Mozarabie Bite in a private
chapel. Several monasteries owe their foundation to
him, as well as the College of San Juan de la Peni-
tencia at Toledo for the education of virtuous orphan
girls, and three public wheat granaries for the benefit
of poor labourers at Toledo, AlcaU, and Torrelaguna
(his native place).

Some oS the archbishops who succeeded Cisneroa
were distinguished for tne liberality with which
they promoted the arts, filling the cathedral of
Tofedo with priceless works of art, the dory of
the ^anish Renaissance. Aknso de Fimseoa
(1524-^34) gave during his lifetime to the chapter
of Toledo an annual mcome of 400,000 maravedis
to be devoted to providing marriage portions
for poor girls; Juan Tavera (1534-45), cardinal,
distinguished prelate, and statesman, founded the
general Hospital of San Juan Bautista, outside the
walls of Toledo; Juan Martinez Guijeno, better
known under the latinized form of his name, Silioius
(1546-57), cardinal, ardent patriot, and generous pro-
tector of the needy, founded at Toledo the College of
Nuestra SefSora de los Remedios (commonly known
as the Colegio de DoneeUas nablea), an important insti-
tution which is still in existence; the Colegio de
Infantes, where the choir boys of the cathedral are
educated and instructed ; and the Monasterio de Reco-
gidas, which he endowed and founded in the ancient
synag(«ue of St. Maria la Blanca. The Dominican
archbishop, Bartolom^ Carransa de Miranda (1669-
1576) , learned theolopan and canonist, was the author
of the "Suma Oonciliorum omnium" published at
Venice (1573). Notwithstanding his learning and
virtue, he was suspected of hereeyj examined before
theInqui8ition,ana eventually acquitted. The learned
sad pious Garcia de lioaysa Girtin (1598-1*9), stTMi-

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and publiahed (with 'annotations ana emendationB)
the ' ' Collectio coneiliorum Hispanias' ' . Cardinal
Bernardo de Sandoval y Rojas (1699-1618) was
liberal and charitable, and a great patron of kttcn.
His administration was advantageoiu to the diooeee;
he established its ri^ts over the district of Cas-
orla; secured the ordinary episcopal jurisdiction in the
diooeean territory over the Order of St. John of Jeru-
salem ; and restored to the diQceae the important town
of Brigueja.

According to reliable statistics the Diocese of Tole- ,
do comprised at that time 4 cities, 183 towns, 322 '
villages aEul hamlets, with 816 parishes and 761,733
souls. The archiepiscopal estateyielded at the time
a revenue of 300,000 aucate. The receipts of the
chapter were also ample: the manufactunng indus-
tries yielded more than 40.000 duMts annually.
revenues of all the
churches of Spain
oombined did not
greatly exceed in
value the archiepis-
copal estate of Tole-
do. Cardinal Infante
D. Fernando de Aus-
tria (1618-41),
brother of Philip IV,
the successor of San-
doval y Ro^as, dia-
tifijpH«|[i«wi hunself aa
an able military com-
mander and as Vice-
roy of the Low Coaa-
tnes, where victory
crowned his mihtai^
efforts. The cardinal'
archbishopB who BUO>
ceeded him were
Caspar de Borja
(164M6); Baltaiar
MoscoBo (1646-66);
Pasqual de Arag6n

Tomb flv Casbdiu, Tatsma nt «■ Arunu. B(Mm!4x« TotMO
AloDM Benvgueifi, 1567

(1666-77); and Luis Fer-
nAndei Porto Carrero (1678-1709). All took an
active part in the politics of their lime as viceroys,
counsellorB of state^ and governors of the realm.
Cardinal Francisco Antonio Lorenzana (1772-1800)
understood how to wield, at a time when the Church
was passing throi^ a crisis, a power which would
have done credit to the great prelates instrumental in
the restoration of the Spanish Church in the past.
Generous and liberal, "Padre de los Pobres" (Father
of the Poor) as he is Rimply styled in his epitaph, lU-
ISrateuT, patron of arts and letters, promoter of
national industries and all works of pubuc utility, he
carried his zeal into all these spheres. He rebuilt
many of the city and country churches of his diocese,
made lat^ bequests to the Church, improved tiie
archiepiscopal library^ defrayal the expenses of the
monumental work entitlod "P. P. Toletanorum quot-
quot extant opera", and of the Gothic Missal and
Breviary of tne Moxarabic Rite. In the city of
Toledo the erection of the university building, the
foundation of the hospital for the insane, and of the
Real Alcazar (which he also restored), and la Fonda de
la Caridad (a free lodging-house) are a few of the many
works that still bear witness to his seal. His suc-
cessor, Cardinal Lcds Maria de Bori)6n, an Infante
of Spain, (180(h-23), was president of the regency
during the absence of Ferdinand VII. Cardinal
Pedro de Inguanzo (1824-36) published some works
in defence of the rights of the C!!hureh and of ecclesia*-
tical discipline, and commenced the great seminary
building.

Cardinal Juan Ignacio Moreno (1876-84), in his
youtii wofessor in the Notariado, published a wwk
•Dtatled "Tratado sobre el ortorgamiento de poderes

pdfoKoos", and aa the bishop of various Spomrii dio*
oeses (lastly that of Toledo) he defended the Church
against, the aagKmom of revolutkiD; taking put also
in RomaB a»ir^ as hie high position as cardinal
demanded. At tJbis time the Araidioeeae of Toledo
lost mu<^ territory by the erection of the Diooese-
Priorate of the Mihtary Orders, which takes up
the entire civil Province of Ciuoad Real, and was
erected by Pius IX, 18 Nov., 1876. Cardinal F.
Zeferino Gonzilez was an illustrious Dominican and
the restorer of Scholasticism, author among many
other well-known works of the "Eetudios sobre la
Filoeoffa" and "Estudios Religiosos, Filo86ficos,
Scientffioos y Socialee". Be had on various occa-
sions declined' episcopal honours, but at length, after
having occupied the sees of Cordova and Seville, he
was riused to that of Toledo, fsoveming from 1884 to
1885, when he resigned the di^ty. A still greater
Bi reduction in the ter-
ritorial boimdaries of
the Diocese of Toledo
took place at this
time, when the Bull
of 7 March, 1885,
created the Diocese
of Madrid - Alcaic,
which comprises the
entire civil Province
of Madrid. Cardinal
Miguel Paya y Rico
(1886-92) wss a oon-
ffiiicuous figure at the
Vatican Council
when, as Bishop of
Cuenca, he pro-
nounced the decisive
discourse which de-
termined the procl»>
mation of jpapal
infallibility. He was
learned and ohari-
table, and completed
the seminary com-
Cardinal Antolfn Moneseillo
and finished writer, orator,

1S80

and inaugurated in
menced by Inguanzo.
(1892-97), a prolific m^™,™
and statesman, wrote among other works: Manuel
del Seminarista", a catechism; various articles touch-
ing upon ecclesiastical disciplme; and many sermons,
panegyrics, and pastorals. Cardinal Ciriaco Maria
Sancba (1808-1909) devoted himself mainty to the
study fif social questions. He wrote "Regmien del
t«Tor en Italia Unitaria" and the "Kultiu'kampf",
and numerous discourses and pastoral letters. Car-
dinal Gregorio Marfa Aguirre, of the Franciscan
Order, has^ since October, 1909, occupied the primatial
see of Spun.

Toledo is one of the greatest art centres not only
of Spain but of the civilized world. Of its princi-
pal religious edifices, among which are to be found
notable works of art in the stvles prevailing from
the thirteenth to the ei^teenth centuries, may be
mentioned: the cathedru, a magnificent five-nave
Gothic structure, with nirnierous additional sec-
tions commenced in 1227 by King St. Ferdinand
and Archbishop Jimenez de Rada; the Franciscan
Monastery of San Juan de los Reyes, built in 1476
by Ferdinand and Isabella, to which is attached a
church and cloister in ornate Ogival style, and which
has recently been richly decorated; the church of the
ancient hospital of Santa Cms founded by Cardinal
Gonzdlez de Mendoza, dating from the earlv part of
the sixteenth century, is one of the most beautiful
examples of the Plateresque of the early Spanish
Renaissance. Of great interest also are a number of
the churches of Tdedo in which remains of the Vlsi-
jthio period are preserved, and odiers bmlt in the
1 style, called mude^ar by the Smsiards, which
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k the Afabic st^ adt^]ted after the reconquett of

the dty by AJfonso VI. Mention must also be made
other notable buildinga althomh not of Christian
origin — the ancient moeque d» Cri^ de ta Luz
(reconstructed in the tentn century) and the syna-
gogues of Santa Maria la Blanoa (thirteenth century?)
and del Tranaito (fourteenth century) . Many
excellent architeote, scubtors, and painters worked
in Toledo in the numberlees monastic and parodiial
dnirchee of the city, but especially in the construo-
tion and embellishment of the cathedral. Among
the painters the moat important was Dominico Theo-
tocopolia, called "£1 Greco", native of Crete, who
eatEtoliflhed himself at Toledo and produced numerous
works (chiefly of religious character) which are highly
prised and studied at the present time, and which
represent one of the most curious phases of ^janish
art, marking the point of d^Murtun <rf the modem
national art. Many important
religious buiMings are also to be
found in various parts of the
diocese, among which may be
mentioned : the ancient ooll^^te
church (at present a parish
church of Talavera de Ja Reina),
three-naved O^val building

started by Archbishop Jim^iAt
de Rada in 1211 and finished be-
twe^ the thirteenth and fif-
teenth centuries; the ancient
collegiate church of Torrijos
(also used at the present time
as a parochial church), a three-
navea edifice founded and en-
dowed by Dofla Teresa Enriques
(built between 1609 and 1518),
an interesting example of the
florid Ogival style and the Gothic
Plateresque of the transition
period; the parochial church of
Tembleque, lUso of the eariy
sixteenth century, an example of
the transition period from the
Gothic to the RenaiBsance; and ^
the parochial church of Tepee, a ^ Ca-mh** l. To>js»o

magnificent temple of three naves, designed by the
celebrated architect Alonro Covarrubias and built
between the years 1533 and 1552 in the style of the
transition period (jiothic Plateresque and Grecian
Romanesque.

Famous in the history of Toledo are its coimcils,
held in greatest veneration by the sovereign pontiifs,
and the source of the purest religious and moral
doctrines. They were national and provincial;
those hdd in the years 306 and 400, first of those
whose acts have been preserved, opposed the heresy
of the Priscillianists and legislated for the reform
of the clergy. In 440 or the beginning of 448 a
national council seems to have, been convoked which
once more condemned the doctrines of Prisciltian.
The second provincial council (527) iHtHnul^ted
five canons in which various points of discipline
were establi^ed. In the national council held in
540 decisions concerning the r^ormation of certain
disciplinaiy usages and practices were adopted.
The most famous of all the councils of Toledo wm the
third national council (held in 589), in which Kiiig
Reccared, the prelates, and grandees, proclaimed
their abjuration of the Arian heresy and made a
profession of faith accordti^ to the doctrine of the
Council of Nicsea. In addition, the bishops issued
reli^ous decrees against the remainii^ vestiges of
ancient idolatry, restricted the rights of the Jews,
commanded that the statutes of previous ooundb
and the decrees of the sovereign pontiffs be obsored,
and promulgated other canons great importance
for tne ref onnatioa of accepted usages and the reato-

ratin of eoolenastioal diMnpHne. Another natiotial
council (497) promulgated two canons relative to
the episcopal and priestly state. In the jprovinciiU
council commonly called the Council of Gundemar
(610) the metropolitan jurisdiction of the bishops of
Toledo over the entire Province of Cartagena was
emlicitly stated. In the fourth national council
(033), <»ie of the most important held in Spam, pre-
sided over by St. lendore of Seville, vety imp<ntant
measures in both canoiiical and pt^tical' matters'
were adopted. The fifth national council (636) was
also political in its prescriptions, which were directed
towards the defence of tne king. The sixth (638)
approved constitutions relating to discipline, morals,
and political matters. The seventh (646) established
certain canons which had been promulgated in
previous councils. In the national council which is
said to have been held in 650 the here^ of the Mo-
nothelites, who denied that
Christ had two wills^ was con-
demned. In the reign of the
Viswothic king, Recesvindo,
besides the councils which are
classed as doubtful, were held:
the eighth provincial council
(653), in which some interesting
points relating to discipline and
civil law were decided; the
ninth provincial (655), in which
matters of discipline were dis-
cussed; and the tenth national
(656) in which certain canons
referring to the monastic life
were sanctioned. The eleventh

Provincial council (675), held
uring the rol^ of Wamba, finr-
mulated certam prescriptiODS in
regard to discipune and the re-
form of certain usages, ooncem-
ing the clergy in particular. The
twelfth (681) and the thirteenth
(683) national, and the four-
teenth '(684) provincial, coimcils
were held during the reign of
Ervigius. The twelfth and
thirteenth councils approved certain canons relating
to discipline and other usages commonly in practice;
and the faUiers aaaemblea at the fourteenth jxo-
fessed their adh«<ence to the Sixth (Ecumenical
Council. The fifteenth national council (688) con-
firmed the doctrine contained in an wol<wetic

in an

treatise written by St. Julian, Archbishop of ToFedo,
who presided at the council. The sixteenth and
seventeenth (694) councils were also national; the
first imposed penance and declared an anathema
against ArchbisD<q> Sis^Mrt (who had plotted against
King Egica), and the second discussed various dis-
ciplinaiy measures. It is believed that still another
national council was held during the Vi^gothic
period between 700-712, the acts of which have been
lost, but it is said that canons relative to the preserva-
tion of the integrity of faith and to the regmation of
certain usages were promulgated.

After the reconquest of Toledo by the Christittu
(1085) at least ten provincial councils woe held in
the city of Toledo, some dt them bein^^ of great
int^^t for the canonical history of Spain. Ardt-
bishop Raimundo convened that held in 1138, in
which certain difficulties existing between the arch-
bishop and the canons with regard to the distribution
of the revenues of the Church were adjusted and the
number of canonries definitely fixed. The ardibishop,
Infante Don Juan de Ars«:6n, prended over the coun-
cil of 1323 which prescribed a formula with r^ard
to artides of faith, the commandments, and the
saonunents, and formulated canons relative to points
of dinii^m. The prorinoial cmmoib of 1324 and

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1326 were also cidled by Dod Juao, the first tu ptib-
lish certain papal constitutions and to regulate the
life of clerics, and the second to deal with questions
of ecclesiastical law and the chastity of the dei^.
The council of 1339 convoked by Cardinal Ar^-
bishop Albomoz treated points of disdpline and
ordered all parish prieets to take a oMisus of their
parishes. J^hbishi^ Don Vasoo convoked the
council of 1356, the deciaifmB of ivbidi were not
important. The Weatem Sefaism wae the occasion
of the eonvoldng of another provincial council under
Archbi^pp Tenorio in 1379, in which it was a(p«ed
to remain neutral, professing allegiance for the
moment neither to the pope at Rome nor the pope at
Avignon. The provincial council of 1565-66, held
during the time tnat the trial of Archbishop Carranza
de Mu*anda was pending, was a very notable one
giving rise to many incidents; its deereea formed a
veritable encyclopedia , of eccledastical ' law. The
couneO of 1580 under Cardinal Anhbidiop Quiroja
legislated with regard to converted Moors <M<nisco8),
and prescribed regulations that were conducive to
the preservation of their faith. The council of
158^-83 promulgated very advantageous laws for
the propagation of religion and the reform of accepted
usages. At that time the suCfra^mn bishore were
seven, those of C6rdova, SigOensa, Palencia, Cuenca»
Segovia, Ja^n, and Osma.

Since the sixteenth century other ccmciliar reunions
have been held, but the;^ do not rank as provincial
councils, being simply diocesan synods convoked to
arrange diocesan anau^ and to compile the constitu-
tions of the archdioceses. The educational and
charitable inBtitutions founded in the diocese both
in the past and in our own time have been numerous
and important: among tboee still in existence mar be
mentioned: in Toledo, the Hospital General dd Rey,
founded in the time of Alfonso VIII of Castile, or
St. Ferdinand, for the decrepit, the blind, and the
crippled ; the Hospital Provincial de la Misericordia,
founded in the fifteenth century by Dofia Guiomar
de Meneses where the sick of both sexes are cared
for by the Sisters of Charity; the Hospital de De-
mentes, commonlv called "el nuncio", founded at
the end of the fiiteentii century by Fnindseo Ortiz;
the Horoital de San Juan Bautista, commonly
called '.'de Afuera", founded about 1530 by Car-
dinal Archbishop Juan "Tavera. Besides these es-
tablisiunents there are in the city (A Toledo free
public schools for young girls and children and day
nurseries, aJl in charge of the Sisters of Charity.
The Col^o de donceUas vfrginee de Na. Sa. de los
RemedioB. commonly called "DonceUas nobles",
was founded in 1551 oy Cardinal Archbishop Silioeo
for the maintenance, education, and training of re-
spectable young women in reduced circumstances, for
whom the college also provides a marriage dower.
The Asilio Provmcial, supported by the provincial
committee, shelters foundJmEs, orphans, the aged of
both sexes, and maintains scno(^ for boys and girls.
The Little Sisters of the Poor (established at Toledo
in 1879) care for the aged of both sexes; Uie tertiariee
of the Divina Pastora (established in the city in 1885)
teach girls ana assist the sick in their own homes.
The Asylum of the Sacred Heart (founded in 1887 by
the priest, Joaqufn de la Madrid) supports, educates,
and obtains employment for orphan boys. The
Marist Brothers (established in 1901) teach boys and
young men, and the Hennanas del Servicio Dom^a-
tico (established in 1902) prepare girls for domestic
service and have some orphans under Uieir care.
In various other cities, towns, and vilia^ of the
arcbdioceee there are also a^lums, hospitals, and
free sdiools. The recognized and authorized Cath-
olic periodicals published to-day in the archdiocese
are printed in Toledo and are as follows: "Boletfn
ofidu del aizobiqiado" (founded in 1846), official.

eodenastical oi^au, issued on the 10th. SOth, and

SOth of each month; "El Castellano'*, a purely
Catholic publicstion without political a£BIiations
(founded m January. 1903), issued every Tuesday
and Saturday! "^^ Forvenir" (founded m August,
1903), a politico-Catholic supporter of the Carlist
cause, and published weekly.

There is no complete history of the Diocese of Toledo. The
bibliofT^ihy of the cdty, of its tenitory, tt« monuments. And its
illustnous men is complete and extsnsive. sod for this reason only
some books vhich pnncipally conoero the questions treated in
this article are given.

PoBRxfio, HxHoria tpitcopal v rtal d» fsmAa (M88. in tlte
libraiy of the Chapter of the Church of Toledoh CAaTu6N t
FoNSKCA, t^ritnaeia de ta Santo IgUtia de Toledo (Madrid, 1645),
which account of the early history of the see should read irith
oautioD, owing to the abundant use of the "false chronicles";
teritXANO, Dq/Vnsa ekrittiana jtoUtiea y verdadtra de la primaeia
de lae Eepaiiai gtie gota la Santa lateeia de Toledo (Madrid, 1726):
Etpana tagtada. V, VI. VII. VIII (Madrid, 17BO-B2). I^riw.
UJtA, PF. ToUlmorum qxiotqu^ extani opera (Madrid, 1782~
93) ; Tbjada t Rahiro, Colwcidn de cdnonst de la Igletia eepallola
(Madrid, 1S49~50) ; La Fuente, HiMoria edendtlita de Eepana
(Barceione, 1855-69); Parbo, Toledo en la mano (Toledo, 18S7);
MaktIn OAifBKO, Hitoria de la eiudad de TtAeda (Toledo, 1862):
DB Palascium, Lot ameOiee de TaUda (BaraaloiM, 1888); am
Cbdillo, rcrfedom at svIoXF/ (Madrid, IMl).

CqNI» DB CXDILLO.

Toledo, Diocese op (Touetana in America),
Ohio, U. S. A., fwmed out of the Diocese of Cleveland
anderectedintoas^wrate jurisdiction, 15 April, 1910.
It inchides the Counties trf Lucas (Toledo). Allen,
Crawford, Defiance, Fulton, Hancock^ Heniy, Ottawa,
Paulding, Putnam, Sandusky, Seneca, Van Wert,
Williams, Wood, and Wyandot; an area of 6969 sq.
miles. The principal towns are Lima, Tiffin, Fre-
mont, Defiance, and Delphos. Estimated Catholic
population, 125,000.

There are 86 parishes with resident priests and 25
missions, 95 diocesan priests and' 31 of tlie rwular
clergy. The number at parish schools is 65, with an
enrolment of 13,S(X). One college (Jesuit) and three
academy-ooU^es provide the departments fw higher
education.

The work of charity and reform is supplied by three
orphanages, two hospitals, one home for the ag^ poor,
and one house of the Good Shei>herd.

Hi^ory. — ^The country bordering on I.ake Erie was
in the path of misuoners and tra^ung explorers, who,
in the seventeenth centunr, made their way from Que*
bee to the upper Great Lakes. French settlers ven-
tured down from Detroit, and a French fort was estab-
lished on the Maumee in 1680. Traders followed this
river to its source in Indiana, whence it Vas not diffi-
cult to reach the more important posts about Vin-
cennes. The lake shore would also have been the
natural route for the Jesuit Fathers, who, in the latter
half of the eighteenth century, joum^ed from Detroit
to visit the Hurons^ and Father Pieire-Joseph de
Bonn^campB, retummg to the north with C^loron's
company from the «cpedition to the Ohio, entered
Lake S>ie on the way to Detroit, at the mouth of the
Maumee (Miami of the Lake), 5 Oct., 1749.

Bishop Fenwick, writing to Father Badin in August,
1823 ("Catholic Church m Ohio" in "U. S. Catholic
Magazine"), speaks of Catholic Indians along the
Seneca River who crossed to Maiden and Sandwich
in Canada for marriage and baptism. Father Ed-
mund Burke, who signs himself ''Vicaire ttfe^ral du
Haut Canada", and was stationed near the present
Monroe (Frenchtown), Michigan, in 1794, visited, not
Fort Meigs, as has been asserted, but Fort Miami, at
the rapids of the Maumee; and in 1826 Bishop Fen-
wick's vicar-general, Father Gabriel Ridiard, who as
early as 1806 had attended Monroe from Detroit, indi-
cates that the district "de la Bai Miamy" was con-
sidered as one with that M 8t-Antoine on the River
Raisin. This can be more easily understood, if we
remember that the territory of Michigan for a long
time laid claim to lands m which Toledo is now
loeaCed.

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Even after Detroit had beeome a npamte (ttooese,

the Kev. P. Carabin, pastor at Monroe, enumerates
many on hia lisU aa "inhabitante of Toledo" (1837).

The building of water-ways along the line of the
Maumee River from the Ohio uuT the W^ash to
Lake Erie did much to open up the country to Ger-
man and Iriah immiKrants invited Biahops Fen-
wkk and Purcell, of Cincinnati, to avail tbemadvea of
the ^portunities of labour and farmine.

After 1830 organized congregations b^san to take
the place of scattered missions, and a resident pastor
was placed at St. Mary's, Tiffin, in 1831.

In 1841 Rev. Amadeus Rappe organised St. Fran-
cis de Sales's Parish, Toledo, of which he was pastor
until hia appointment as first Bishop oi Cleveland in
1847. AsBoeiated with him and succeeding him in
this pastorate was Rev. Louis de Goesbriand^ first
Bishop of Burlington, Vermont. Among the pioneer

Sriests of this section were Fathers Badin, Ignatius
luUon, Edward T. Collins, Projectus J. Macbebceuf
(afterwards Bishop of Denver), E. Thienpont, and
Henry Damien Juncker (later Bishop of Alton), men
eminent for learning as well as piety; and these had
tlie co-operation of the Redemptorist and Sanguinist
Fatbm, under the teadoidiip reqiectively d Father
Tscbenhens (1832) and Father Francis deSides Brun*
net (1844). Members of the iatter con^r^tion
(C.PP.S.)j which was introduced by Father Brunner,
are still (1912) in charge of parishee and missions
ill the Diocese of Toledo.

The growth of Catholicism was particularly notice-
aide in the city of Toledo. At the date of its erec-
tion into an episcopal see there were within the city
twenty parishes. This rapid increase had been
neatly promoted by a steady influx aftw 1870 of
Pules and Uungariansi employed largely hi factories,
quarries, and public wwks.

Among the priests prominent in Toledo in thid
period ofdeveiopment were: the Rt. Rev. F. M. Boff
(1859), who in 1872 was made Vicar-General of Cleve-
land and held the unique distinction of having served
as administrator of toat diocese not less than six
times in a period of forty years (d. 22 March, 1012) ;
Father Edward Hannin (1863), who was adminis-
trator oS the Diocese of Cleveland from the rensna-
tion of BishcM> Rappe to the appointment <A Bishop
Gilmour, and who when over seventy years of age
undertook the building of one of the finest church
edifices in the Middle West; and Rev. Patrick F.
Quigley, whose widely-noticed action against state
interference in parish schools, in the matter reports
and truancy, ^ve occasion lor much hostile demon-
stration, eapecially on the part of members ai the
A. P. A. This priest's contention before the several
courts was ably if not successfully maintained by the
Hon. Frank H. Hurd, a convert to Catholicism, and a
congressman, celebrated for his ocmvincing advocaoy
of free trade.

The commercial advanta^ of the city and the
numwical strength of Cathohos had long drawn atten-
tion to Toledo: and on the death of Bishcn Horst-
mann (1908) the bishops of the Province or Cincin-
nati recommended to U|e Holy See the division of the
Diocese of Cleveland. The request was favourably
considered, and Toledo was named as the seat of the
new diocese, with St. Francis de Sales's designated as
its cathedral church. Rt. Rev. John P. Farrelly,
D.D., who had been consecrated Bishop of Cleveland,
1 M^, 1909, was appointed temporary administrator..
Rt. Rev. Joseph Schrembs, D.D., firat bishop, was
bom at Wuselhofen, near Ratisbon, Bavana, 12
March, 1866. Following his elder brother, Rudesind,
who had become a Benedictine monk at St. Vincent's,
Pennsylvania, he came to the United States in 1877.

He completed his course of humanities when but
16 yean crt age at St. Vincent's CoU^, near Fitts-
buif. After a few years spent in »wninfc he mu

aooepted by Bishop Richter as a student for t^ Dio-
oese qI Grand RMiids, and entered the Seminary ot
Montreal in 1884. On 29 June, 1889, Rev. Mr.
Schrmbs was ordained iHiest in the cathedral at
Grand Ri4}ids. He was successively assistant and
pastor at St. Mary's Church, West Bay City, and was
tnuufmed to St. Maiy's Church, Grand Rapids,
Oct., 1900. In 1903 he was appointed vicar-general
of the diocese, and was named domestic prelate, Jan.,
1906. Meantime he had brought about the estab-
lishment of a high school at Grand Rwids, thus dem-
onstrating the feasibility of intermetuate grades for
the Catholic common s^ool. On 22 Feb., 1911, he
was ocaisecrated titular Bishop of Sophene and auxil-
iary to the Bishop of Grand R^tds. He at once
espoused the cause of workmen m their difficulties
with the employm in the furniture factories skilfully
averted a panic, and contributed mudi to bnng about
anagreement. On 11 Aug., I911,hewa8transferred to
the See of Toledo. A notable demonstration marked
his entry into the city on Sunday, 1 Oct., and on 4
Oi-i , triLfi f'liflironpd in hia cathrdt.il

I'aUKVIaV, l^ln^lle 'I'lil thr- Ijii^iyzftjj iif fill- II . i pi-lr.n,

!!. IjlJbE^l, t'if'i»mi-ijrw "/ /'(•Jj'.i.:. I , ^ , U-J, \ \\\. 2'r-\ \ II.
aivi, 317; Sh«a, -CiilA. Vhurdi in ihe VnUfi Siata \,\ew York,
•me-). [.631 ; II ( IJ^I, 387, 474 aqq,; Jwuii tUbUi^mi iC\f!V^4.
IVDO), IJCJA, Ifll : ScfliBMKR, AfoTv^irr (Wmkiu HUiofibJ Aab{>>
d^tioti, MfluxjH, Wif{H>nsiD, IQIOh HonCK, ralfi'ilis Church in
\\.rlSrm Ohio. I (CttVelflJldj 1B03J, 1 am.- UhUkI Stain CaAtJie
Hintorical Alai/tuine, IV, kUi^ 32; Uniiea Slalts Ca!ho{if Mi(ta,rinr
IMmh. iS*&l. Dit>amn. Rwp^nf (CU-vAun<i u-nd foMo
u£D5]l|mi^ ftt la Rivicrc B„i l^aiiSlK A.

Fnneu tu SoIh, 3wmo; SL Mary'*, T^in, Ohio.

John T. O'Connkix.

Toledo* FnANCisco, philosophy', theologian, and
ejcegete, son of an actuary, b. at Onaova, 4
Oct., 1632; d. at Rome, 14 Sept., 1696. He
studied philosophy
at Valencia and
theology under
Domingo Soto at
Salamanca. At
the age of twenty-
three he taught
philosophy at Sala-
manca, and, after
his ordinatitm, en-
tered the Society
of Jesus there, 3
June, 1658, and
made his novitiate
at Simanacas. In
1559 he went to
Rome and was pro-
fessed m 1564. He
successively filled
the posts of mas-
ter of novices, pro-
fessor of philoBO-
phv for three yews,
Scholastic and mora) theologv fat sixyean, and prefect
of studies ctf the Roman College. He was theologian
of the Sacred Penitentiary and preacher to the pope
and cardinals for twenty-four yeus, accompanied
Mwis^or Commendone on his missioivto the Empe-
rof Maximilian and King Sigismund & Poland, and
was the envoy (rf various popes to Vienna, Poland,
Germany, Bavaria, and Louvain. where he received
Baius's abjuration of the propositions which had been
condemned by Pius V and Gregorv XIII. Clemmt
VIII created him cardinal, 17 ^ptember, 1593; this
a'B°ity, it seems, he desired to renounce in 1694 so
that he would boifree to retire and die in one of the
Jesuit houses. He was largely instrumental in the
reooociuatKHi of Henry IV to the Church and to
Spam; at his death Henrv had a memorial service
for lum in Paris. As a religious he is claned by Ma-
nwia aa of ordinary virtue; he was dispensed item
rdigknu obedience >iy a secret papiO-Brief, Bt«1 in

Fumnsoo Cardinal Totxoo

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the pafwi paUoe, tenAt tha esnUul's bat, tad ta
the latter yean <h bis me intervened in Jesuit affairs
with disastrous results. Gregory XIII considered
him one of the moet learned men of his age, and Soto
ranks him as a genius.

His philosophical works, especially "De anima",
adopted as a text-book in the University of Salamanca,

EVe indications of a philosophical revival as r^ards
»th matter and method. Irrelevant questions are
set aside, others are wei^ied or reduced, and certain
problems are stated and discussed in a broader spirit.
In his Scriptural commentaries he examines every
sentence of tbe text, points out their relationship,
gives Patristic references in the annotations, dis-
cusses and judges dogmatic questions learnedly
and lucidly. some fie ia considered the foremost
interpreter of his century, and his exe^tical works
certainly desorre the first place. In hn theological
wmka he is dear, concise, and orderbr. He pro-
claims himself a disciple of St. Augustine and St.
Thomas, although on certain questions he is quite
at variance with them, as for example the proximate
cause of predestination, which for htm is pneviM
bona opera. In regard to the famous Scotist teach-
ing that the Word would have become man even if
Aoam had not sinned, he says : it is neither true, prob-
able, nor iiuenious. His wortcs may be divided
into three classes: (1) Philosophical: "Introductki
in dialecttcam Aristotelis" (Rome, 1661), thirteen
editions, apparently the first work <rf a Jesuit to be
printed in Mexioo; "Commentaria una cum quses-
tionibus in universam Aristotelis togicam" (Rome,
1572), seventeen editions; "Commentaria de physica
auscultatione" (Venice, 1573), fifteen editions; "De
generatione et oorruptione" (Venice, 1575), seven
editions; "De aninur' jfVenice, 1574). twen^ edi-
tions; "Opera omnia. Opera philoaopliica" (Lyons,
15S6-92), only one volume Issued. (2) Theological:
" In Summam theologi« S. Thomie Aquinatia enarra-
tio" (4 vols., Rome, 1869), pubMshed by Father
Jos^ Parfa, S.J^ "Summa casuum give mstructio
aacerdotxim" (Lyons, 1599), forty-six editions
(Spanish tr^ Juan de Salas; Italian, Andreo Vema;
nench, Gofiar; summaries in Latin, Spanish, French,
and Italian). (3) Ex^tical: "In aacrosanctum
Joannis Evangdium commentaritim" (Rome, 1592),
nine editions; "In prima XII cainta Sacroeancti
Jesu Cbristi D. N. EvangeUum secundum Lucam"
(Rome, 1600), printiM supervised by Father Mi|;ud
Vazquez, S. J.; "In Epistolam B. Pauli Apostoh ad
Romanos" (Rome, 1602), Chaldean tr.. Father
Azevedo. Manuscripts: "fhnmendationes in Sacra
Biblia vulgata", corrected by direction of Clement
VIII; "Rmilse hel>raicse ^ Imgua sancta Intelli-
genda". Sermons: "MouWis y advertaacias de
cosas dignas de refonnaci6n cerca del Breviario".

NiSREMBKRO, Varonu iitutra da la oMnpoMa de Jttiu, T
(Bilbao. 1890): Pakia, Franeuei TWeM « BontlaU Jt&u 8. A. B.
Pnubyteri Cardinali*. introduotion to In Svmwuim tlucUffia
S. Thama Aipiinati* mamtio (Rome, 1869); Avtsain, Bittoria
de ia oomnoflla 4* Juu» m la AtMmeia de Btpalla, 111 (Madrid,
ISOS), S95-WM, 630-38: SOHuntvoan., BiMioMgut dt ia mm-
da Mnu, VIII, M; Buvm, NtrntnOaler.

Antonio PArkz Gotbna.

Tolentino. See Maouata
United Sbbs of.

Tolerfttlcm. Histort of.— In any attempt to
deal historically with the attitude of the Church
towards religious toleration two considerations have
throughout to be kept in mind. In the first place,
nearly all ecclesiastical legislation in r^ard to the
represuon of heresy proc^ds upon the assumption
that heretics are in wilful revolt against lawful author-
ity, that th^ are, in fact, apoatates who by tibeir
own culpable act have renounced the true faith into
which they were baptised, breaking the engagonents
made by them, or by sponsors in their nam^whai
they became memben of the Church (tf CSirtst

It is aaqr to sea tliat in tin Middle Ages this was not
an unreasonable assumption. The Church of God
was then indeed as a city set upon a hill. No one
could be ignorant of her claims, and if cotain people
repudiated her authority it was by an act of rebeUion
inevitably carrying with it a menace to the sovereignty
which the rest of the world accepted. This at least
was tbe case with the Cathari, the Wfddenses, aiid
the Alb^enses, with the Lollards and the Husntes,
and it was still the case with tKe immediate followers
of Luther, of Calvin, of Knox, and <rf the other early
Reformers. Only by degrees and after a considend>le
lapse of time did generations come into being who
oould be retarded as inculpably heretical, for the
plea of invmdble ignorance implies not only that
their education took place entirely under heretical
influences, but also that they could attain adult life
without being effectivdy confronted with the claims
which the true Church makes upon the loyalty of
reasonable men. It mi^t plajisioly be muntained,
for example, that such conditions were at no time
realized among the Huguenots of France, or in the
more Catholic districts of Central Europe. Hence
we cannot be entirely surprised that there were
those who excused such measures as the Revocation
of the Edict of Nantes, or who supported the rm)res-
ave l^islation which was inaugtunted by tbe Cath-
olic sovereigns of Poland and Hungary in the six-
teenth and seventeenth centuries.

In the second place it is to be remembered that
owing to the fact that the canon law deals very
lai^Iy with the enunciation of principles of right and
wrong which are of their own nature irreformable,
the direct repeal of its provisions has never or very
rarely been resorted to. This course undoubtedly
has uie great advanttwe of inq)iring respect for the
sanctity and stability m tbe law, but the consequence
follows that there remain upon the statute^wok a
number of enactments which owing to changed
oonditions are to all practical intents and purposes
obsolete. The medieval legislation of the Church
with r^ard to usurjr, testamentary dispositions,
matrimony, and especiaily heresy, largely falls under
this catoeory, while the natural result of the retention
of a consida^k mass of obsolescent decretals must
be the creation ctf an element of, at least temporary,
uncertainty, under which eome will favour and othcn
resist the l^jdation that is pasdng away. For
example there was bound to be a period during which
ri^urists would still appeal to the very uncompro-
mising measures in dealing with heretics which were
contemplated by many texts of the canon law, while
on ^e other hand larger-minded contemporaries,
who were thonselves perhaps living under jwlitieal
conditions whidi forced them to appreciate the
advantages of toleration, tended to treat these same
provisions as a dead letter and to deny them all
validity in practical life. The effect of both these
considerations has been to make it extremely difficult
to draw a hard-and-fast line between the circum-
stances under which the Church recogiiixed the
desirabiUty of a large toleration of dissident opinions
on tbe ground both of justice and expediency, and
those undor whidi it seemed a duty to stamp out by
a policy of firm repression an evil germ which
threatened indefinite mischief to the well-bein^ of
Christian society. Every lawfully-constituted society
must put down on principle the propagation of such
sedition as threatens its own existence, and this is
not persecution so long as reason and humanity are
respected in the means of suppression employed.

Fersecutioo begpns whea no reasonable pn^xniloo
is obs^ed between the force used in compulnoA and
the importance sai power of the interests which it is
sought to control. To determine the exact point at
whidi legitimate repression passes intoperseeution is
hence a mMter of extreme difficuKy. Vpctbis rawp

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W8 should in^ably obtain a clearer view <^ the tolera-
tion of the Church in past history by studying the re-
lations of the papacy with those booies which like the
Jews and paf^ans were recognized as lying outside her
direct jurisdiction. Regarded as a centre of spiritual
authority the Holy See did not claim the unbap-
tized aa subjects, but still the popes as sovereigns of a
temporal state had to adopt a definite attitude to-
wards the Jews who lived in their dominions. Tracing
these relations as a whole and comparing them with
the ideas which prevailed among secular rulers of the
time, the principles formulated, and for the most part
acted upon, by the popes, set an example of mildness
to the rest of Europe. As early as a. d. 598, Gregory
the Great clearly laid down that the Jews, while they
were to be restrained from presuming upon the tolera-
tion accorded to them by the law, baa a claim to be
treated equitably and justl:^. They were to be
allowed to keep their own festivals and religious prac-
tices, and their rights of property, even in the case of
their synwtgues, wefe to be respected (Gr^. Mag;.
Regesta, M. G. H., 11, 67 and 383). In the lata-
Middle Ages there may be traced through a long series
of ^ntificates the repeated confinnations of the Bull,
assignable probably m the first instance to Pope Cal-
Uxtus II (c. 1120) and known as "Sicut Judteis". It
was a sort of papal charter of protection to the Jews
and in its first sentence are embodied certain words of
one of Gregory the Great's letters just referred to.
"As licenK'*, says this document, ''oi^t not to be
allowed to the Jews to presume in their synagogues
beyond what Is permitted by the taw so they ought
not to be interfered with in such things as are allowed.
We therefore, although they prefer to continue in their
hardness of heart rather than be guided by the hidden
meaning of the prophets to a knowledge of the Chris-
tian faith, do nevertheless, since they mvoke our pro-
tection and aid, following in the footsteps of our
predecessoTB and out of uu mildness of Christian
piety, extend to them the shield of our protection."
The document then lays down (1) that the Jews are
not to be compelled by force to embrace Christianity,
but are only to be baptized of their own free will;
(2) that apart from a judicial sentence in a court of
law no one is to injure them in life or limb or to take
away their property or to interfere with such cus-
tomary rights as they may have enjoyed in the places
where they live: (3) that they are not to be attacked
with sticks and stones on occaaon their festival
celebrations, nor are they to be compelled to render
any feudal services beyond such as are customary;
(4) that their cemeteries in particular are not to be
violated. (See M. SterUj "Urkundliche Beitrfige",
n. 171.) This charter reissued and confirmed as it
was by some twenty or thirty pontiffs during a period
of 400 years is certainly of much more weight as lay-
ing down the Church's view ctf the duty of toleration,
as an abstawst principle, than any persecuting edicts
evoked bj^ special circumstances or coloured by the
prepossessions of the individual legislator.

Looking at the documents of unquestioned authen-
ticity extracted by Stem from the papal R^esta it
becomes clear that throughout the later Middle Ages
the Jews in almost every emergency turned to tne
popes as to tbeir natural protectors. Despite such
legislation as that of the Fourth Council of I..ateran
(1215) imposing the wearing of a distinctive badge and
excluding Jews from public officra. still even such a
summary as that in the Jewish Encyclopedia (s. v.
"Popes ) distinctly leaves the impression that the
Holy See exercised on the whole a markedly restrain-
ing influence on the persecuting spirit of the Middle
Ag^. In particular, more than one of the popes,
beginning with Innocent IV, issued Bulla exonerating
the Jews from that charge <» ritual murder, which, as
in the well-known stoiy of little Hugh of TjncoTn,
prejudiced publie opinion so strongly a^inst them

(cf. Vaoaodard, "La question du meurtre rituel
chez lee Juifs" in "Etudes de critique et d'bistoire
relig^euse", 3d 8rai», Paris, 1912). It was again the
popes (e. g., Sixtua Iv and Clement VII) who at the
time of the worst excesses of the Spanish Inquisition
exerted themselves to set some check upon the severi-
ties exercised against the Maranos m the Iberian
Peninsula. The edicts issued at various times for the
destruction of copies of the Talmud, the Bull "Cum
nimis absurdum of Paul IV constraining the Jews of
Rome to live se&^-egated in a Ghetto and subject to
other harasBing aisabilities, represent rather the jneju-
dicea of indivulual pontiffs than any consistent pnn-
ciple of persecution. Let it also be noted that the
inifluence of the Church has repeatedly been exerted
for the protection of pagan races against forcible
conversion, and that it nas freely tolerated such
religious ntes amonot savages as were not openly
debasing and immoraJ. The nistory of the preaching
of Christianity in the New World ^ows many ex-
amples in which the fanatical zeal 1^ with the profli-
gate Spanish adventurers who conquered the country,
while ecclesiastical authority advocated sympathy
with the natives and indulgence for their religious
observances. On the other hand this indulgence
shown to pagan cxistoms, obviously enough, could not
be extended without limit. Even British rule in India
ultimately considered it desirable to abolish the prac-
tice of suttee by which the wives of the upper classes
were required to commit suicide upon the death of
their husbands. This, however, was not effectively
prohibited, even in the British provinces, until 1829.

With regard to the toleration of Christian heretics
and schismatics the reader will do well to consult the
article Inquisition. No very systematic measures of
repression seem to have come into practice before the
twelfth century. The aggressive attitude adopted in
the case <^ the PriscilUanista (q. v.) and Donatists
(q. V.) was owing less to the action of the bishops than
to that of the etaperar. On the other hand, it cannot
be disputed that after the authority of the popes was
finnly established, ecclesiastical campaigns were un-
dertaken against the Cathari, the WaJdenses, and
Albi^nses as well as later on against the followers
Wicldif and Hub. Moreover isolated executions for
heresy (biuning at the stake being commonly em-
ployed for this purpose) were known before the twelfth
century both In East and West; though at the same
time me actual infliction of the pimiuimeDt, then as
after, must be regarded aa an act of the civil power
rather than that of any ecclesiastical tribimal. But
though an Inquisition of heretical practices may be
regarded as having been first formally set up^ at any
rate in embryo, about the second half of the tnirteenth
cent ury no measures of extreme severity were in the
beginmng prescribed or generally adopted. The
Fourth Council of Later an m 1215 imposed as a pen-
alty t^e deprivation of prtmerty and civil stakes.
Convicted heretics, even though repentant, were
excluded from public ofiBces and were compelled to
wear a badge. If their retractation was insincere
they were Mehle to be confined in a public prison. At
the same time it must not be forgotten that all these
medieval heresies, as such an historian as Gairdner has
noticed (Lollardy, I, 46), struck at the foundations of
social order. M. Guiraud's account of the extravft*
gpjA teaching of the Cathari and Atbigenaes ia conclu-
sive ujion the point. It cannot be doubted that the
severities whicn then began to be exercised in the
name of religion were prompted by no lust for blood.
It seemed rather to orthodox churchmen that the
Church was so menaced by these subversive doctrines
that her very existence was at stake.

Under these circumstances it was not wonderful
that the ordinances of the canon law, for the most
part formulated at a time when Albi^nsian teach-
mgB were a present danger, should have mcUnod to the

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ridt of sererity and Uwt to the lamnakim of th»t

age toleration seemed (mly a weakness. "The pn>
acriptioD of the Albigensee", says M. Guiraud, ' was
not the effect of any ferocious Hatred of nusbelieveis
too oftaa attributed to the pnnoea of that age* It
was inspired by a oonsidcaration which has bom ha^
pily defined by saying that hereby was at that time as
much a crime aaainst social order as against re-
ligion" (Guiraud, "Chartulaire de Prouille^ I,
boExiv). EvwL so anti-Roman an historian as Haae
sums up the practical effects of the Lollard movonent
by saying "Wyclif produced no p^manent religious
impression upon the maas oi the people. His twch-
/ ing was misunderBtood and caused a revolt of the
peasants whidi resulted only in disastw" (Kirdirai-
geschichte. 1886, . p. 353). Aeiin it was not to be
expected tnat the first fruits of the R^onnation would
be likely to mitigate the prevalent view of the mis-
^lievous nature <rf heresy. The political and social
evils to which the teaching of Luther and Calvin gave
rise, as well as the fanatical persecution of the Catho-
lics by so nuuDT oi thor followers, are made clear be-
yoad diqHito in sudi a work as that of Jaassoi's
"Histoiy ot the German People", to which the reader
may be referred. It was only natural that the con-
ception of heresy as an attack upon law and order as
well as upon reli^on should be thereby deepened.
Moreover in nearly every case where the reproach of
intolerance has been cast against the Church, as for
example, the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew (q. v.)
or the revocation <A the Edict lA Nantes (see Hcqvb-
Nors), the persecuting initiative has oome far more
from tonpwal rulers than from the Church or her
representatives. On the other hand, the ferocity of
the leading Reformers more than equalled that of the
most fiercely denounced inquisitors. Even the "gen-
tle" Melanchthon wrote to Calvin to congratulate
him on the burning of Servetus. "The Church", he
said, "both now and in all generations, owes and will
owe you a debt of gratitude." "Let there be no
pity'', Luther exhorted his followers, "it is a time (rf
wrath not of mercy. . . . Therefcae, dear Lords, let
him who can slay, smite, destrov" (see Beard, "The
Reftvmation and Modem Thought"). "John Knox",
said Actcm (EUsto^ of Fieedom, p. 44), "thou^t that
every Catholic in Scotland ought to be put todeath."
Moreover in any case there is more to be urged than a
' mere "tu quoque" argument. The Church has oft^
given proof of her moderation when brought into
relation with those whom she was not Ic^pcally com-
pelled to treat as rebels. No better examples can
perhaps be afforded than the histoiy <^ the founda-
tion cn some of the ook>nies in the New World, and
notably that of the Province of Maryland (q. v.).

BsBaKNRdTHKB, CoOuiie Ckurth and Chrittiaa StaU (tr.
Loodon, 1876); Devas, Key of l&e Worlds t Prour— (Loudon.

1906) , 189-210; Acmw, H%*1. of Fnadtm (rapriDtwl London,

1907) ; CitBiaBTON, Ptr—eution and Toleranet (London. 1896);
DfiLUNOKB, Akadtmueht VortrOat, III (Ldptig, 1891), 274-^1.
These laat three works oan only be reoommended with many
naervea. 8m klso bibl. of vtlde iNQCinnoN.

Herbbbt Thcbston.

Toleraticai, Reuqious. — ^Toleration in general
signifies patient forbearance in the presrace of an evil
which mie is unable or unwilling to prevent. By re-
ligious toleration is understood Uie maynanimous
indulgence which one shows towards a relicicni othw
than nis own, accompanied by the moral determina-
ti<m to leave it and its adherents unmolested in pri-
vate and public, although internally one views it with
' complete disapproval as a "false faith". Since, in
this article, we are to treat toleration <mly from the
standpoint of tninoiple, leaving its historical develop-
ment to be diecussea in a special article, we shall con-
sider: I. The Idea of Toleration: IL The Tnadmiani-
Inlity dl TheoretietU Domiatiod ToleraiHm: ID. The
Obliution to Show naotical Civil Tolsmtlon;
IV. The NeeeoBity of Publie Politieal Tdomtion.

9 VOUHUTIOII

I. Tn Idu of Touuution. — Considered in the
abstract, the general idea of toleration contains two
ohi^ moments: (a) the existence of something which
is r^arded as an evil by the toloiiting subject; p3) the
magnanimous determination not to interfere with ti e
eyi^ but to allow it to run it« course without molesta-
tion. Viewed under the former aspect, toleratiop is
akin to patience which also connotes an attitude of
fori>earance in the face of an evil. Patience, how-
ever, is rather the endurance of physical sufferings
(e. g. misfortune, sickness), toleration of ethical evils.
When not an evil but some real good (e. g. truth or
virtue) is in question, tolmtion gtvee way to interior
aMnwation and caOemal invimotiui oi such good.
No one will say: "We must show toleration towards
science or patriotism", for both these objects are
rero^ised by all as laudable and desirable. A sec-
raid idea akin to toleration is connivance {conniventia.
diasimulatio), which means the deliberate closing of
one's eyes to evil conditions so as not to be obhged to
take measures against them. The distinction be-
tween connivance and U^eration lies in the fact that
the latter not only.doses its eyes to the tolerated evil,
but also openly concedes it complete liberty of action
and freedom to spread. It is indeed in this deliberate
granting of liberty that the characteristic quality ol
toleration lies. For the intolerant person also re-
gards what opposes him as an evil and a source of
annoyance; but, it is only by oombating it overtly or
secretly, that he shows nis mtolerance. Not all in-
tolerance, however, is a vice, nor is all tolerance a
virtue. On the omtraiy, an exaggerated tolerance
may easily amount to a vice, while mtolerance keep-
ing within just limits may be a virtue. This state-
ment is substantially in agreement with Aristotle's
definition that virtue in general holds the right mean
between two extremes, miich are as such both vices.
Thus the intolerance shown by parents towards grave
faults in their children is an obligation imposed by
conscience, although, if it be carried to the extreme <u
cruelty, it d^enerates into a vice. On the other
hand, excessive ttdnation towards an evil bectanes
under certain eiieumstances a Vice, for example, when
secular rulers look with folded arms vpoa public im-
morality.

The above remarks show that manifold distinctions
are necessary before we are in a position to develop the
true principlee which underhe real toleration. View-
ing our subject partly from the ethical and religious,
and partly from the political standpoint, we find three
distinct kinds o( toloanoe and intokiauce, whidi rrfer
to enturely differmt dunaina and thus rest on different
principles. As regards religious tolerance, which
alone concerns us here, we must distinguish especially
between the thing and the person, the error and the
erring. According as we consider tne thing or the per-
son, we have theoretical, dermatic, or practical civic
tolerance, or intolerance. Distinct from both is polit-
ical tolerano^ since the distinction between the indi-
vidual and the Stato must also be oonaideffed. We
must inquire somewhat more closely into theae three
kinds ot tolerance and their oppositoB before 0(Hidda<-
ing the principles which underlie each.

(1) By theoretical dogmatic tol^ance is meant the
tolerol^ of error as such, in so far as it is an error; or,
as Lezius concisely expTomea it, "the reoc^nition of the
relative and subjective rifdit of error to existence"
("Der ToleranibegTiff Lockes u. Puffendorfs", Leip-
ug, 1900, p. 2). Such a tolerance can only be the
outcome of an attitude which is indifferent to the
right of truth, and which places truth and error on the
same level. In philosophy this attitude is briefly
termed scepticism, in the domain of rel^jon, it de-
velops into religious indiffereptism which declares that
all rd^^ons are equally true and good or equal^ false
and bad. Sudi an internal and external indifference
towards all rehgions, espeeially the Christian rcUgiou,

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is Dothizkg ©b© than the wcpntsion of pencmal unbelief
and lack of religiouB convictioos. A person who is
tolerant in the domain of d(^iia resembles the bota-
nist who cultivates in his experimental beds both edible
plants and poisonous herbs as alike valuable growths,
while a person intolerant of error may be compared to
a market-cardener, who allows only edible plants to
grow, ana eradicates noxious weeds. Just as vice
possesses no real right to existence, whatever tolera-
tion may be shown to the vicious person, so also re-
ligious error can lay do just claim to forbearance and
indulgence, even though the erring person may merit
the greatest affection and esteem. There is, of
course, a psychological freedom both to sin and to err,
but this hberty is not equivalent to an inherent right
to^OT toerrmreliKion. The"freedomof thought"
claimed by free-thinlcerB is really vitiated by an in-
ternal contradiction, since the intellect is bound by
the laws of thought and must in many cases yield to
the force of evidence. But if by freedom of thought
we are to understand the personal ri^ht of the indi-
vidual to form on all questions such internal convic-
tions as he may )ndgfi r^ht, this ethical freedom also
has its limits, sinoe the inner spiritual life is at all
events subject to conscience and to the moral order of
the universe, and is, thnefore, bound by ethical obli-
eations whiui no man may disregard. The so-called
"freedom of belief", which asserts the right of each
person to believe what he pleases, is open to the same
criticism. For, if the p^chologieal hoerty to acce|>t
the wildest phantasies and the most foolish stories is
an undeniaUe prero^tive of the human soul, ethical
freedom and tm ethical right to freedom of beliel are
nevertheless conditioned by the presumption that a
person will spurn all false religions and cling solely to
that which he has recognised as alone true and conse-
quently alone legitimate. This obligation was justly
emphasized by Leo XIII in his Enc>[clical "Immortaie
Dei" of 1 November, 188.5: "Officium eat maximum
aro^Iecti et animo et moribus religionem, neo quam
quisque maluerit, sed quam Deus juasmt quamque
certis minimeque dubitandis indici& unam ex omni-
bus veram esse constiterit" (The gravest obligation
requires the acceptance and practice, not of the
religion which one may choose, but of that which
God prescribes and which is known by certain and
indubitable marks to be the only true one). (Cf. Den-
zinger, "Enchiridion", 9th ed., Freiburg, 1900, n.
1701.) The mere description of this kind of toler^
ance shoira that its oppoette, i. e. theoretical df^matic
intolerance, cannot be a vice. For it is essentially
nothing else than the expression of the objective intot
erance of tmih towards error. In the domain of set*
ence and of faith alike, truth is the standard, the aim,
and the guide of all investigation; but love of truth
and truthfulness forbid every honourable investigator
to countenance error or falsehood. It, therefore, fol-
lows that well-considered opposition to actual or sup-
posed error, in whatever domain, is simply the antag-
onism between truth and falsehood translated into
personal conviction; as impersonal adversaries, truth
and error are as bitterly opposed to each other as yes
and no, and consequently, in accordance with the law
of contradiction, tney can tolerate no mean between
them. This theoretical dogmatic intolerance — so
often misunderstood, so often confounded with other
kinds of intolerance, and as a result unjustly com-
bated— is claimed by every scholar, philt»oph9,
theologian, artist, and statesman as an incontestable
right, and is unhesitatingly accepted by everyone in
daily intercourse.

(2) Practical civic tolerance consists in the personal
esteem and love which we are bound to ^ow towards
the erring person, even though we condemn or combat
his ertar. The motive for this differmoe of attitude
is to be Boui^t in the ethical commandment of lore for
all men, mich Qiristianity has laiaed to the hi^^er

ideal vf shfitj or lore of neiriibour for tba sake of

God. One of the most beautiful outgrowths of this
charity is shown in the correct Christian attitude tow-
ards tne heterodox. This relation, rooted solely in
pure love, is commonly meant when one speaks of

religious tolerance". It springs, not from pharisaie
. pride or from pity pluming itself on its superiority, but
ohiefiy from respect for another's religious convictUMU,
which out of true charity we do not wish to disturb to
no purpose. Since innocent error may attain to the
firmest and sinco^ conviction, the person's salvar
tion does not seem to be iqmtljr imperilled until good
faith turns into bad faith, in which case ^one the feel-
ing of pity has no justification. The good faith of the
heterodox perscm must, as a rule, be presumed, until
the contrary is clearly established. But even m the
extremest cases, Christian charity must never be
wounded, since the final judgment on the individual
o(ntseienoe rests with Him who "searches the heart
and the reins". The same measure of respect which a
Catholic claims for his religion must be shown by him
to t-he religious convictions of non-Catholics. Here
obtains the ivinciple which Gregory IX once recom-
mended in a Brief (6 April, 12^)_, addressed to the
French bishops eoncemii^ the attitude of Christiana
towards the Jews: "Est autem Judsis a Christianis
exhibenda benignitas, quam Christianis in Paganismo
existoitibus cupimus exhiberi " (Christians miHt show
towards Jews the same good will which we desire to
be shown to Qiristians in p^tn lands). (Cf. Auvray,
"Le r^ipstre de Gr^ire IX", n. 1216.) Whoev^
claims tolenmee must likewise show toleranoe. True
tohnnee in tiie rig^t place and under tiie right condi-
tions is one of the most difiScult, and ^so one of the
most beautiful and delicate virtues, and in the posses-
sion of it the true greatness Of a noble and b^utiful
soul is reflected. To such a soul has been communi-
cated, as it a s^ark of the burning charity of the
God of love, Wlio with infinite forbearance tolerates
the countless evils of the world, and suffers the cockle
to now with the wheat until tne harvest.

"Iiie precept of fraternal charity is transgressed by
practicu civic intolerance, which in more or less de-
testable fashion transfers intolerance of the error to
the. erring persons. With complete justice did the
sarcastic Swift write: "In religion many have just
enough to make them hate one fmothor, not enough to
make them love one another" (cf. J. B. Mackenzie, '
"An Introduction to Social Philosophy", Glasgow,
1890, p. l 16). The intolerant man is avoided as madi
as possible by every high-minded person, both m
society and in daily intamurse. The man who is
tolottnt in every emergency is alone lovable and wins
the hearts of his fellowmen. Such tolerance is all the
more estimable in one whose loyal practice of his own
faith wards off all suspicion cl unbdief or religiouB
indifference, and whose friendly bearing towards the
heterodox emanates from pure neMshbourly charity
and a strict sense of justice. It is also an indii^ei^
sable requifflte for the maintenance of frimdly inter-
course and co-operation among a people composed of
different religious denominations, and is the root
religious peace in the state. It should, therefore, be
prized and promoted by the civil authorities as a safe-
guard of the public w^l, for a warfare of all against
all, destructive of the state itself, must again nreak
out (as at the time of the religious wars and of Amep-
ioan Knownothingism), if citizois be allowed to
assail one another on account of religious differoices.
A person who by extensive travel or tai^ experience
has become acquainted with the worid and men, and
with the finer forms of Ufe, does not esoily develop into
a heretic-hunter, a sadly incongruous ^nre in the
modem world.

(3) Public politicfJ tolerance is not a dutr ot the
citiaais, but is an affair ci the State and of l^isla-
ticm. Its essence consists in the fact that the ^ate

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TOUERATION 76

graote iMftl totontnoe to all the reUgioua diootiiinft*

tioas within its boundariee, either through its written
constitution, through special charters, or at least
through prescriptive right based on long tradition.
This toleranoe may under certain circumstances
amount to the principle of equality of ri^ts or parity,
even to the full enjoyment U all civil ngtkta, entitcjy
regardless one's relifpous beUef. EtiiMe the modmi
State can and must maintain towards th^ various relig-
ions and denominations a more broad-mmded attitude
than the unyielding character of beo* doctrine and con-
atitution permit the Church to adopt, it must guaran-
tee to individuals and religious bodies not alone interior
freedom of belief, but also, as its logical correlative, to
manifest that bdief outwardly — that is, the ri^t to
jinrfesB before the worid uurs religious convictions
without the interference of otlurs, and to give visible
eTcpnaBOioa to these convictions in prayo', sacrifice, and
Divine wofthip. This threefold freedom of faith, pro-
fession, and worship is usually included under the
general name of reUgious freedom. Tolerance and
religious liberty are not, however, interchangeable
terms, since the right implied in state tolerance to
grant full or limited religious liberty involves the fur-
ther ri^t to refuse, to contract, or to withdraw this
freedom under certain circumstances, as is clear from
the h^tory of toleration laws in eveiy age. Nor is the
idea of parity identical with that of religious lib^y.
For the maintenance of a state Church from pubEo
funds (e. g. the Established Church of England) is an
offence against parity as regards the dissidents, who
must meet their religious needs out of their own
means, but it does not affect the general re-
ligious lib^y, which is enjoyed 1^ the diaaidaita
in the same degree as by the members tii the state
Church.

Political intolerance finds its harshest expression in
the forcible imposition of a religion and its worship,
which reached its cUmaxin thedrastic political maxim of
the Reformation epoch : "Cuius regio, illius et religio
Since external profession and litui^cal worship are
but the spontapeoua expression of faith, it is plain that
state compulsion in the matter of wonhip is a griev-
ous attempt to tyrannize over conscience and tends to
breed hypocrisy. Neither political nor ecclesiastical
authority can exercise a physical control over interior
conviction, since into the secret sanctuary of the mind
only the Deity can enter, and He alone can compel the
heart. Hence, the principle of Roman law: "De in-
temis non judieat pEstar." But. inasmuch as the
Church and she alone, with her autnority to teach and
the power of the keys, may l«pslate even {or con-
science, she and only she is justified in irndcmg a par*
ticular faith obligatory in conscience; consequently she
may bring to bear upon interior conviction an e^Aiooj
compulsion, to which corresponds the obligation to
believe on the part of the subject. The State on the
other hand cannot extend its jurisdiction to religion
until this has becmne viably embodied in extonial
profession and worahqt. There are several waya in
which the State may interfere. It may either adopt a
friendly attitude towards a certwn religion and make
it the state rdi^on (e. g. the medieval religious
States, and cOTtam modem States which have estab-
lished Churches) ; or it may adopt a hostile attitude
towards a certain religion, whicn it may eventually
endeavour to suppress by the employment of force
and the iaflietion of penalties, as e. g. the pagan Roman
Empire tried to suppress Chriitiani^. But the
State may also remain neutral, confining itself to sim-

Ele tolounce, e. g. as did Constantine the Great and
licinius in the Tolerance Edict of Milan, a. d. 313.
The modem constitutional State adopts as a basic

Srinciple, not mere tolerance towards the various re-
^ous bodies, but complete religious freedom; this
principle finds its truest and most consisten:^ expree-'
w» in the United States of Anuriea,

5 TOUBATIOK

II. Tma iNAniaasiBiuTY of Thxorbtioal Doo-
MATic ToLBRATiON. — As already said, this kind of
tolerance impUes indifference towards the truth and
in principle, a countenancing of errco-; hence it is clear
that intolerance towards error as such is among the
self-evident duties of every man who recognizes ethi-
cal obligationa. Inaanucn as this dogmatic intoks^
aroe is a prominoit diaraeteristie cm the Cathdie
Church, ana is stigmatized by the modem efpirit as
obstinacy and even as intolerable arrogance, its ob-
jective justification must now be established. We
will begin with the iuconteeti^le claim of tmth to
univoifial recognition and excIusiTe legitimacy. Just
as the knowableness of truth is the fundamental pre-
supposition of every investigator, so also are its final
attainmokt and possessicHi his goal. £mnr itself, as
the opposite of trutn, is inteUigible only when there is
an mushan^eable norm of oognition by which the
thinking mind is ruled. He who sees in the develop-
ment of human sciences only one vast graveyard con-
taining thousands of tombstones erected over truth,
preaches the death of all science — that is, the s(x>pti-
cism which was avowed in antiouity by the Middle
Academy of Arcesilaus and by later Greek PjTrho-
nism, and which the sceptics of all the succeeding cen-
turies down to the ingenious Piore Baylc (d. 1706)
have, taken for their model. Recent Pragmatism
(W. James, Schiller, and others), which denies the
eternal, necessary, and unalterable character of truth,
is only a dreary relapse into the scepticism of the
sophist Protaeoras, against which Socrates raised the
banner of truth ana virtue. The mutabihty of truth
with the passage of time is also a thesis of Modernism.
In the Decree '^'Lamentabili" of 3 July, 1007, PiusX
condenmed the Modernistic proposition: Veritas non
est immutabilis plus quam ipse homo, quippe qus
cum ipso, in ipso et per ipeum evolvitur (Truth is no
more tmchangeable than man. since with him, in him,
and by him it is evolved). (Cf. Denainger-Bannwart,
f'Encbiridion", 11th ed., Fieiburgt IBU, u. 2058.)
The final oonsequence of this suicidal syston led
F. Nietzsche to intellectual Nihilism: "Nothing is
true, everything is allowed." The transference of
this destmctive scepticism to the domain of religion
breeds religious indifferontism, which is no less unrea*
aonable and immoral, sinoe it also dns against the
sacrednees of truth.

Nowhere is dogmatic intolerance so necessary a
rule of life as in the domain of religious belief, since for
each individual his eternal salvation is at stuce. Just
as there can be no alternative multiplication tables, so
there can be but a sini^ true religion, which, by the
very fact of its existence, protests against all other
religions as false. But the love of truth requires each
man to stand forth as the incorruptible advocate of
tmth and of truth alone. While abstract truth, both
profane and religious, asserts itself victoriously
through its impersonal evidence against all opposition,
its human aavocat^ engaging m personal contest
with adversariee of fleah and blood like himsdf, must
have recourse to words and writing. Hence the
sharp, yet almost impersonal clash between opposing
views o( life, each o£ which contends for the palm,
because each is thoroughly^ convinced that it alone is
right. But the very devotion to tmth which supports
these convictions determines the kind of polemics
whi(Ui each believe* himself called on to conduct. He
whose sole ocmeam is for truth itself, will never be-
snbeh bis eaouti^em by lying or calumny and will
r^rain from all persinuil invective. Conscious that
tiie tmth for which he fights or in good faith believes
he fights, is, by reason ch its innate nobility, incom-
patible with any blemidi or stain, he will never claim
licence to abuse. Such an ideal champion of tmth is
fittimdy designated by the English word "gentle-
man . He may, however, by a fair eounter«troke
PUDQT an Mnjust. ajwi insulting attack, sinoe

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TOLBUnON 7

his advenary has no ri^ to cmpk^ isveotive, to
falsfy history, to practise sordid prosdytiam, etc.,
and may, therofore, be driven without {h^ iiim his
false position. These imnoipleB obtain nnirnsaUy
and for all men — for scholars and statesmen, for
Catholics and Protestants.

If, therefore, the Cathohc Church also daims the
right of do^atic intolerance with regard to her
teaching, it is unjust to reproach her for ex^cising
this right. With the impertim>able conviction that she
was founded by the God-Man Jesus Christ as the
"pillar and ground ot the truth" (I Tim., iii, 15) and
endowed with full power to teach, to rule, and to
sanctify, she rexards dtwmatic intolerance not alone as
her incontestable right, but also as a sacred duty. If
Christian truth like every other tenth is incapable of
double dealing, it must be as intolerant as the multi-
plication table or geometry. The Church, th««fore,
demands, in virtue of her Divine commisfuoo to tea<Jh,
the unconditional acceptance cf all the truths of Balva-
tion which she preaches and proposes for belief, pro-
claiming to the world with her Divine Founder the
sttfn warning: "He that believeth and is baptised,
sh^l be saved: but he that believeth not shall be
condemned" (Mark, xvi, 16). If, by conceding a
convenient right of option or a falsely understood
freedom of faith, she were to leave everyone at liberty
to accept or reject her dc^mas, her constitution, ana
her sacraments, as the existing differences of relipons
compel the modem State to do, she would not only
fail in hef Divine mission, but would end her own life
in voluntary suicide. As the true God can tolerat*
no strange gods, the true Church of Christ' can toler-
ate no strange Churches beside herself, or, what
amounts to the same, she can recognize none as theo-
retically justified. And it is just in this exclusiveueas
tluit lies her unique strength^ the stirring power of her
propaganda, the unfailing vigour of her progress. A
strictly logical consequence of this incontestable fun-
damental idea is the ecclemastical dogma that outside
the Church there is no salvation (extra Ecdesiam
nvUa 8aluti). Scarcely any other Mticle of faith gives
such offence to non-CathoUcs and occasions so many
misunderstandings as this, owing to its supposed
hardness and uncharitableness. And yet this propo-
sition is neceaaarify and indissolubly connected willi
the above-mentioned principle of the exclnrive l^ti-
niaey of truth and with the ethical commandment of
love for the truth. Since Christ Hhoself did not
leave men free to choose whether they would belong
to the Church or not, it is clear that the idea of the
Christian Church includes as an esB^tial element its
necessity for salvation. In her doctrine the Church
must maintain that intolerance which her Divine
Foundv Himadf proclaimed: "And if he will not
hear the diurch, let him be to thee aa the heat^mi and
pubHean" (Matt., xviii. 17). This expluns the in-
tense aversion wludi the CSinrdi has displayed to
heresy, the diametrical opposite to revealed truth
(cf. I Tim i, 19; II Tim., ii, 25: Tit., iii. 10 sq.;
II Thess., li, 11). The celebrated church historian
Ddllinger writes very pertinently; "Th? Apostles
knew no tolerance, no leniency towards heresies
Paul inflicted formal excommunication on Hymaueus
and Alexander. And such an exmiMon tnmi tlie
Church was always to be inflictea. The Apostles
omsidered false doctrine destructive as a wicked ex-
ample. With weighty emphasis Paul declares (Gal.,
i, 8): 'But though we, or an angel from heavari, preach
a gospel to you besides that which we have preached
to you, let him be anathema*. Even the gentle John
foibids the community to offer hospitality to heretics
comiiu| to it, or even to salute them" ("Christentum
und K&che'*, Ratisbon, 1860, pp. 236 sq.).

During the Middle Ages the Church guarded the
parity and genuineness of her Apostouc doctrine
tiuwugji the instittition ol the ecclesiastical (and

i6 TOUUUTION

state) Inquiaitioo, which, with many eicsaUaDt quali-
ties, had unfcMtunately also its drawbacks. As justly
remarked by Cardinal H^enrdther, the Inquisition
suffered internally from "smous and lamentable de-
fects", iot example, secrecy as to accusers and wit-
nesses, the admission of suspected witnesses, excessive
scope for the subjective judgment of the judge, secrecy
of theprocedure (see Inquisition). ThusareexplainM
the frightful ssenea which Germany witnessed under the
apBx gnuid inquisitor, Conrad of Marburg (d. 1233).
Folkmng the example of the Apostles, the Church
to-day watches zealously over the purity ant) int^rity
of her doctrine, since on this rests her whole system of
faith and morals, the whole edifice of Catholic
thought, ideals, and life. For this purpose the
Church instituted the Index of Probibitea Books,
which is intended to deter Catholics from the unau-
thorised reading of hooAss dangerous to faith or morals,
for it is Dotonous that clever sophistry coated with
seductive language may render evm gross errors of
faith palatable to a guileless and innocent heut. The
State iteelf is at times obl^ed to confiscate books that
are dangerous to its existence or to morality in order
to protect unsuspecting readers from contagion and to
IMtserve the structure of the social order. But what
IS right for the State must be also just for the Church.
The sharp attack made by Phis X on Modernism,
whidi is underminii^ the foundations not alone of
Christianity, but even of natural religion, is simply an
act of necessary self-defence against an assault, not
only upon individual dogmas, but likewise upon the
whole basis of faith. Again the ancient expression
"heretical poison" (venemvm geu virus hareiicum;
^Ttmlaa luBreiicalis), which has passed from canon law
into the set phraseology of the papal chancery and
quite natural^ sounds hard to Protestants, is to be
Mcplained psydioIoKical^ in view tsi the above-moi-
tioned fundamentalconviction. It la not intraded to
express any offensive shir on the heterodox, who
adhere to their opinions in good faith and in honest
conviction. Consequently, the writers who repre-
sented Pius X as applying to the present generation
of honest Protestants the historical condemnation
which he passed on the Reformers of the sixterath
century in his Borromsus Encyclical, and thus as-
cribed to him a public rebuke which he nevtt in the
least intended, were guilty of exaggeratim and evi-
dent injustice. Besides, Protestant historians have
passed much harder judgments on the leaders of the
Keformation. No Ftoteatant takes umbrage at the
fact established in every manual of church history,
that, after long convulsions and spasms, the Lutheran
Church, by the Formula of Concord (1577), emeUed
the "crypto-Calvinist poison" which Philip Melanch-
thon had instilled into the faith of Orthodox Luther^
anism. And did not Crypto-Calvinism really act IDce
blood-poisoning? The canonical expression "hereti-
cal pcHSon" is mtended to ocmvey no other meaning
than that the Catholic faith dreads as blood-poisoning
heretical infection <d any kind, whatever be its
source.

But does the proposition that outside the Church
there is no salvation involve the doctrine so often
attributed to Catholicism, that the Catholic Chin^,
in virtue of this principle, "condonns and must con-
demn an ntm-Catbolics"? This is by no means the
case. The foolish and unchristian maxim that those
who are outside the Church must for that very reason
be eternally lost is no legitimate conclusion from
Catholic d<%ma. The infliction of eternal damnation
pertains not to the Church, but to God, Who alone can
scrutinize the conscience. The task of the Church is
confmed exchwvely to the formulating of tiie prin-
ciple, which condition of sahrattcm imposed
by God Himself, and does not extend to the examina-
tion of the persons, who may or may not satisfy this
condition. Care for me'i own satvotion is the pci^

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TOLIRATIOK

mmal concern , of the individual. And in this matter
the Church shows the sreat«8t possible consideration
fw the good faith and tne innocence of the erring per-
son. Not that she refers, as is often stated, the
eternal salvation of the heterodox solely and exdu-
aively to "invincible ignorance", and thus makes
sanctifyinc ignorance a convenient gate to heaven for
the stupid. She places the efficient cause of the
eternal salvation of all men objectively in the merits
<rf the Redeemer, and subjectiveK' ui justificatioa
through baptism or through good faith enlivened by
the perfect love of God, both of which may be found
outside the Catholic Church. Whoever mdeed has
recognized the trae Churdi of Christ, but ctmtrary to-
his better knowledge refuses to enter it, and whoever
becomes perplexed as to the truth of his belief, but
fails to investigate his doubts seriously, no longer lives
in good faith, but exposes himself to the daiiger of
eternal damnation, smce he rashly contravenes an
important command of God- Otherwise the gentle
breathing of g^ce is not confined within the walls of
the Catholic Church, but reaches the hearts of many
who stand afar, working in them the marvel of jxmti-
fication and thus ensuring the eternal salvation of
numberless men who either, like upright Jews and
pagans, do not know the true Church, or, hlte so many
Protestants educated in gross prejudice, cannot ap-
preciate her true nature. To all such, the Church
does not close the gate of Heaven, althou^ she insists
that there are essential means of grace ymieb are not
within the reach of non-Catholics. In his allocution
"Singulari quadam" of 9 December, 1864, which
emphasized tne dogtn& of the Church as necessary for
salvation, I*ius lA uttered the consoling principle:
"Sed tamen pro certo pariter habendum est, qui
verse religionis ignorantia laborent, si ea est invinci-
bilis, nulla ipsos obstringi hujusce rei culpa ante oculoe
Domini " (But it is likewise certain that those who are
i^orant (rf the true religion, if their ignorance is in-
vmeible, are not, in this matter, guilty of any fault
in the s^t of God). (Douinger-Bannwart, 11th 4d.,
Fr^burg, 1911, n. 1647.)

As early as 1713 Clement XI condemned in his
dogmatic Bull "Unigenitus" the propiosition of the
Jansenist Quesnel: "Extra ecclesiam nulla con-
ceditur gratia", i. e. no CTace is given outside the
Church (op. cit., n. 1370), just as Alexanda* VIII
had already condemned in 1690 the Jansraiistie propo-
sition of Amauld: "Pag^i, Judtei, heretici aliitjue
hujus generis nullum omnino accipiunt a Jesu Christo
innuxum" (Pagans, Jews, heretics, and other people
of the sort, receive no influx [of grace) whatsoever
from JesuaChrist) (op. cit., n. 1295). In her tolerance
toward the erring the Church indeed goes farther than
the large catecnism of Martin Luther, which on
"pagans or Turks or Jews or f^Une Qiristians" passes
the general and stern soitence of condemnation:
"wherefore they remain under eternal wrath and in
everlasting damnation." Catholics who are conver-
sant with the teachings of their Church know how to
draw the proper conclusions. AlMoIutcly unflinching
in their ndehty to the Church as the sole means of
salvation on earth, they will treat with respect, as
ethicalljr due, the religious convictions of others, and
will see in non-Catholics, not enemies of Christ, but
brethren. Recognizing from the Catholic doctnne {tf
grace that the possiEility of justification and of
eternal salvation is not withheld evai from the
heathen^ they will show towards all ChristianB, e. g.
the various Protestant bodies, kindly consideration.
Concerning these dogmatic questions, cf. Pohle,
"Dopnatik", II (5th ed., Paderbom, 1912), 444
sqQ;; 453 sqq^

ni. The Obligation to Show Practical Crvio
Toleration. — For the practical attitude erf CathoKes
towards the heterodox the Church has inculcated
■triot oommflnd of noghbourly kwe, whidi

sptmds to Cliristian charity: "Thou shall lovs thy
nei^bour as thyself." The sincerest love for the
emng is indeed qxjite compatible with keen repug-
naqce for the error to which they cling. From the
vei^ definition of practical civic tolerance (see above,
I, 2) springs the maxim which St. Augustine expresses
as follows: "Diligite homines, interncite errores; sine
superbia de veritate praesimiite, sine savitia pro veri-
tate certate" (Ix>vemen, slay error; without pride be
bold in the truth, without cruelty fight for the truth)
«3MitTa Ut. Petfl.. I, jodx, n. 31, P. L., XUII, 259).
God u a God of love, and consequently His children
cannot be sons of hate. The gospel erf the Divine

gatemity in heaven ia also the joyous tidings of the
rotherhood of all men on earth. For all without ex-
ception the Saviour prayed in His capacity of high-
pnest during the nirfit before His Passion, and for all
He shed His Blood on the Cross. The sublime ex-
ample of Quist affords a striking indication of the
manner in which we should regulate our conduct to-
wards those who diffw from us in faith, for we know
that^ BO to speak, a drop of the redeeming Blood of
Chriirt glistens on every human soul. To penetrate
into the inner shrine of another's conscience with feel-
ings of doubt and distrust is forbidden to all in ac-
cordance with the principle: "Nemo pnesumitur
malus, nisi probetur" (No one is presumed to be
evil until graved to be so). And St. Paul declares:
"Charity is patient, is kind: chzuity envietb not,
dealeth not pervovely . . ., is not provoked to anger,
thinketh no evil" (I Cor., xiii, 4 sq.). By this Chris-
tian love alone is the truly -tolerant man, the true
disciple of Christ, recognized. But did not the me-
dieval Church by her bloody persecution of heretics
trample tmder foot this commandment of love and
thus nullify in practice what in theory indeed she
always inculcated with honeyed words? The ene-
mies ot the Church search eagerly the musty docu-
ments which tell of inguisitional courts, atUoe-dti-fi.
chambers of horror, instruments of torture^ ana
blazing i^res. Without any palliation <A the histori-
cal facts, let us examine a uttle more dosely Hsia re-
proach, and see what importance is to be attached
to it.

(1) When the inglorious origin of his forbears is
constantly cast in tne teeth of an honest nobleman,
with the spiteful idea of wounding; his feelings, no
upright pereon will regard such conduct as tacoul or
just. What has the Church of to-day to do with the
fact that long-vanished g^erations inflicted, in the
name of religion, cruelties with which the modem man
is disgusted? The children's children cannot be held
accountable for themisdeedsof their forefathers. Prot-
estants also must take refuge in this principle o!

{'nstice. However much they endeavour to blink the
act, th^ have also to regret similar occurrences dmv
ing the Reformatkm epoch, when, as everyone knows,
the Reformers and their successors made free use of
Uie existing penal ordinimcee and punished with death
many inconvenioit and, according to their view,
heretical persons (e. g. the anti-Trinitarians Servetus
and SylvanuB, the Osiandrist Funk, the CtJvinist
Nicholas Krell at Dresden). Hundreds of faithful
Catholics, who fell victims to the Reformation in Eng-
land, are venerated to-day as the £ngliiA martyrs.
The greater number ocecotions occurred, not under
Mary tbe Catholic, but undo-QueenEIiEdSMth.. It is,
bowevor, unjust to hold modem Protestantism,intlie
bne instance, and Catholicism in the other responsi-
ble for these atrocities.

(2) In every age the Church has drawn a funda-
mental distinction (which, on account of its import-
ance, diould never be overlooked) between fonofd and
merely material heretics, and her penei legislation was
directed soldy against the former cat«H>ry. As the
open and obsunate rdwUion ci a Catibofie agdnst the
IXTinely instituted teaching avtthwi^ of the CluiKlit|

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formal heres;^ still remains one of the most grievous
sins. Material heresy on the other hand, i. e. an error
in faith entertained undesignedly and unconsciously,
is in itselir neither sinful nor punishable, except where
the error is itself inexcusable. In excusable error kre
aU who possess subjectively the firm and honest con-
viction that they have the true faith of Christ, thus
including the vast majority of non-Catholics, who
wore bom and educated in their particular form of
belid. Even in' the Middle while using her

punitive power only against formal heretics who
throurii baptism hadbelonged to her body from birth,
the Cnurch openly proclaimed her incompetency to
take action in the case of Jews and puans, since over
these she possessed no jurisdiction. The Church has
been always averse to foraible oonversions, as was
emphasizea in modem times by Leo XIII in his
EneycUoal "Immortale Dei" of 1 November, 1885:
"Atque lUud quoque ma^iopere cav^ Eccleeia so-
let, ut ad amplexandam hdem catholicfun nemo in-
vitus cogatur, quia quod sapienter Augustinus monet:
'Credere non potest (homo) nisi volens'" (The
Church has alwavs taken great care that no one
should be compelled against his will to embrace the
Catholic Faith, because, as Augustme wisely declares:
except he be willing, man cannot believe) (cf. Den-
zinger, op. cit., n. 1875). Hence the tolerance always
displayed by tne Church, especially towards the Jews,
ana auo the prohibition in oanon law to make war on
p^;an nations merely on account of their ui^lief,
except when they put to death Christian missionaries
or attacked Christian States, as the Saracens formerly
did (cf. Schmalzgruber, "Jus can. de Judsis", n. 53).
A decision of Gregory the Great given in the Deoee td
Gratian (c. 4 jam vero C. 23, qu. 6) contains no war-
rant for reli^ous coercion^ since the pope simply

gants to the Catholic colonists on his domains certain
vours which he withholds from settlers obstinately
adhering to theu: papism.

(3) Ifin medieval times the Church adopted sterner
measures against formal heretics, apostates, and
schismatics tJian she adopts to-d^, she did this not as
a private individual, who must snoV only considera-
tion and love, but as the Iwtimate governing au-
thority within whose s^^re also fell the administra-
tion of pe^ justice. The State must also inflict on
the thi«» and revolutionaiy the legal punishment for
theft and revolution, which are not punishable in the
abstract. However repulsive, when judged from the
more refined standpoint of modem civilization, the
iHubarous cruelty of medieval penal ordinances may
be, as exprrased even in t^e "Cautio criminalis" of
the G^man Emperor, Charles V, acainst traiton^
highway robbers, and notorious debauchees (impaling,
breaking on the wheel), we may not for this rea-
son conaemn the whole penal system of that age as
judicial murder; for Uie l^al punishments, while in-
deed inhuman, were not unjust. Now, formal heresy
was likewise strongly condemned by the Cathoho
Middle Ages: and so the aivument ran: Apostaav and
heresy are, as oriminal rebellims against Goo, far
mxtn serious orimes than high treason, murder, «■
adultery. But, according to Rmn., xiii, 11 sqq., the
aecidar authraities have the li^t to inmidi, en)emUy
grave crimes, with death; oonseauently, "neretios
may be not only excommimicateo. but also justly
Ciuste) put to death" (St, Thomas, II-II, 9- a. 3).
But there is no need to go back to the Middle Ages,
since the presoit age likewise furnishes us with ex-
amples of extzone sevority in the diastisonent of
certain crimes. WiUi whatever disiqiproval tbe phi-
lanthropist may view the torible punishments in-
flicted on those guilty ot rape in parts of the United
States, adjudging such paiaJtiee as excessive in their
severity, the jurist will on the other hand seek their
expkmatira in the special eiroumstanoes of time and
place Amarioap lynflb law will not he unroservedlv

excused or justified, but, in judging tt, allowance will
be made for the imperfections of the existing penal
procedure. The frequent inefficacy of the ordinary
procedure is only too likely to excite the enraged pop-
ulace to deeds of violence. Keeping these occur-
rences of modem times before our eyes, we nill pass a
much juster v^dict on the Middle Ages. CatnoUcs
have, of course, no desire for the return oi un age
whose liberal, uad in many respects admirable, state
instituticms were greatly marred by dinister penal
ordinances.

(4) A distinction must be drawn between the penal
^etem as such and its external forms. The barba-
rous penal forms of tbe Middle Ages are to be credited,
not to the Church, but to the State. After the
Christianised Roman Empire had developed into a
theocratic (religious) State, it was compelled to stamp
crimes against faith (apostasy, heresy, schian) as
offences against the State (cf. Cod. Justin., I, 5, de
luer.: "Quod in reli^nem divinam committitur, in
omnium fertur injunam")- Catht^c and citizen of
the State became identical terms. Consequently,
crimes af^ainst faith were high treason, and as such
were punishable with death. This waa the universal
opinion in the Middle Ages. This idea of tbe execu-
tion of heretics had not the slightest connexion with
the essence of tbe Church or her constitution, and to
the primitive Church such a ptenaltv was unknown.
St. Cyprian (d. 258) disapproved of all external means
of eoercion, such as were customary in the Old Testa^
ment, and claimed for the New Testament as "spiritual
weapon " (fipirUvalU gladiiu) excommunication, which
was worse than deaUi. The earliest exanmle of the
exe<»ition of a heretic was the beheading AT the ring-
leader qS the Priscillianists by the usurper Maximus at
Trier (385) ; this called forth a protest from St. Mar-
tin of Tours, St. Ambrose, and Pope Siricius (cf.
Histor. polit. Blatter, XC, 1890, pp. 330 eqa.). Even
St. Augustine, who towards the end of lus life fa-
voured state reprisals against the Donatists, always
opposed the execution heretics (cf. Ep. c [omos
cxxvii]: "Corrigi eoe cupimus, non necari"). Duritig
the long dominum of the Merovingtana and Carlovin-
gians, heresy was never rwarded as a civil crim^ and
was diastised with no civil ptenalty. A change came
only in the eleventh centuiy, when ManicheiBm,
which had earlier experienced bloody persecution at
the hands of the Eastern emperors Theodoeius (d. 395)
and Justinian (d. 565), revived in the orgies of tbe
Cathariats and Albigoisee. These disruptive sects
attadced marriage, ihe famiW, and property, wher^
fore even Lea has to admit: ''Had CathariBm become
fwedomiuant, its influence would infallibly have
proved fatal (History of the Inaiwition, I, 117).
Influenced by the Roman code, wnich was rescued
from oblivion, the Hohenstaufen emperor, Frederick
II, who was anything but a warm supporter of the
papacy, introduced toe penalty of burning for he-
retics by imperial law of 1224 (cf. Monum. Germ.,
IV Leg., II, 326 saq.). The papea, especially Ong-
ory IX (d. 1241), tavoured the executiim o£ this im-
poial law, in wmch they saw an effective means not
alone Ua the twotection of the State, but also for the
preeerratitm of the Faith. And indeed the danger to
the common weal seen in Catharism inclined neither
the State nor the Church to mildness, just as in the
time of St. Augustine the ill-famed Circumoilliones of
the Donatists bore every sign of a public rebellion.
Would not even a moaera state have to proceed
agamst these murdoers and incendiaries with weapon
in hand? Unfortunately, neither the secular nor the
ecclesiaBtieal authorities drew the slightest distinction
between dangerous and harmless heretics, seeing
forthwith in every (formal) here^ a "contumelia
Creatoris", which the theocratic State was called
upon to avence with the pyre. This inabili^ to dis-

tniffUMb TDBY •Mribr traenl *wm in t\» wntinKS dl

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i

Tjiitihff, Cfclviiii M^lftiiflht-h ffn j ButiVi Wfinofwlflniij
Sturm, StrkelTMattbiM Ccda, and other ProtMtaiit
leaders. We may, therefore, rightly ooQolude that
the hareh forme of puniabment are to be referred
partly to the fact that the medieval heretics wue a
mepaoe to the conununity, aod partly to the e^roeasive
■trietness ctf the aacient penal oode.

(5) .It foUowB from what has bem said that the
ouetom ol bumins heretic* is really not a question of
justioe, but a question of civilization. History shows
that even in an age otherwise highly civilised certain
eepecially detestable criminals are severely dealt
with. A r^rettable illustration is found in the intro-
duction of torture into the trial of heretics by Inno-
cent IV in 1253. Here again Uie influ«ice <^ the
ancioit Roman code is discernible, since it also was
accustomed from the earliest times to employ torture
not as a punishment, but simply as a r^ular means of
extracting the truth from the accused. That, de-
apiie its promised "evai^elical liberty", the Reform-
ation introduced no Boftening oi manners, the contin-
uatioo ci torture and the prevalence of witch-buminQi
even in the eighteenth century dearly show. Tor-
ture was first aoc^ished in Prussia (1745) by Frederick
the GreatM^ last witdi was bunied in Switseriand
in 1783w We cannot read withobt a shudder how in
I'in^snd high treason, which term included the pro-
iemaoa of the Cathohc Faith, was punished with
**»"e*»g and the tearmg out cS the stiU throbbing
heart from the living body. The law sAainst moidi-
cancy passed in 1572 under Queen Elisabeth ordained
that the harmless offence erf bluing waa to be pun-
isbed with severe "*^!''gi"g, with perforation of the
right ear with red hot Soq, and, if ihe offence were
repeated, witii death (cf. G. Kaasel, "Geschichtliche
&itwickehmg dee Deliktes der Bettelei", Breslau,
1896, p. 87). In FrazKe no less cruelty was ^own.
When Henry IV was aasnsanated by Ravaillao on
14 May, IQIO, the unfortunate criminal was merci-
lEBsly tcHtured; he was pierced with red-hot pincers,
molten lead was poured over the hand which com-
mitted the voauderi and finally he was torn to pieces
fay four horses. Exacts the aame punishment, even
to the malkst details, was meted out to the half-
witted Damiens, althot^ he merely scratched the
Ubertine Louis XV with a pen-knife (cf . Filatus, " Der
Jesurtismus", Ratidnm, 1905, pp. 183 sqq.). After
the horrors of the French Revolution the methods of
punishment were gnMiuaUy softened, and during the
eouise of the nineteenth century humanitarian views
wtm the victory everywhere (see Ptmishuint). It
nuts villi mankind to decide whether the penal
^eUam of the futon are to be disgraced hjr ctudty
andbaibarioDiOTnot. The coming generations must
see that the return of inhunHW* penaTordinanoes "h*!!
be made impoasible by the r^sement of mwals,
the de^Muing of ethical culture, the philanthn^pio
training of the youn^ , and the impression of the mild
and gentle characteristics ol Christ on civfl, national,
and religious life. Since the seculariied State re-
nouDced its unkm with the CSiureh, and excluded
hetesif from the categtny <tf penal oltaoea, the
has returned to her or^naistani^xiinty and contents
hendf again wiUi excommunication and other
spiritual penahies (irregularity, inel^pbility for eoolesi-
astical pr^Mnds^ ote.). with i^ch the modem State
no loiter assomates (as in the Middle Ages) any
penal or civil aetionB.

IV. Thb NscBsamr fob Pubuo Political Tol-
■BAnoK.— fliiioe the State maj not pose either as
the moutb^ieeeof Divine Revelation or as the teacher
oi the Ouistian i^gibn, it is clear that in renrd to
matters of religion it oaa adopt a nusdi move miwd-
minded position thma the Ohurdi, i^iose attitude is
strictly eonfined by her teaohing. Ute ethical per-
adsMtmltv, or ratber tiks datf, m pcditioal toleranee
«Bd freedom of reUglM is «taUiMiiinl bj hiitotiBsl
XIV^-«» . .... . -

►9 TOUOUnOH

presuKwsitions and conor^ relations; these impose
an obligation which neither Stato nor Qiurch can
disregard. We will first consider the State in itself,
and then the spedfically Catholic Stato.

(1) The State is under obli^tion to make external
0CMMUti<MiB subswve the pubhc good> and to protect
against ariutraiinees or molestation all individuals
and oontoraticms within its tenitory in the enjoy-
ment (» then: personal, civii^ political, and religious
rights. This is in an especial manner the function of
the constitutional Stato, which has slowly developed
since the end of the ekhteenth centuiy. The Church
baa' always combatea the idea that the winning of
new members and the recovery of the i^Kwtato per-
tain to the Stato. Christ entrusted, not the State,
but the Church with the announcement of His Gospel
to the whole world. Not evm the s;iedieval "religious
State", whose constitution we shall describe in greater
detail below, undertook to act as bearer of a super-
natural revdation or as i)reacher and jud^ of Uie
Catholic Faith. The intimato connexion of both
powers during the Middle Ages was only a passing
and temporary phenomenon, arising neither from the
essential nature of the State nor from that of the
Churdi. The CSiureh is free to enter into a more or
less close association with the State, but she can also
endure actual separation from the State, and, given
favourable circumstances, may even prosper under
such conditions, as for example in the United States
6i North America. For the State also certain condi-
tions may prevul which render a close union with iJhe
Church inadvisable or indeed quite impossible.
WfaeDg for example, several religions have finuly
established themsdves and taken root in the same,
territcwy, nothing ^ remains fw the Stato than!
either to exercise tolerance towards them all, or, as
conditions exist tonday, to make complete reUgious
liberty for individuals and religious bodies a
principle of govemmoit.

The final convarsion of the old religious State into
tiie modem oonstituticHial State, the lamentable
defection of the maksity of states from the Catholic
SUth, the iirevoeable aoeulariaatkm of the idea of the
state, and the eoeeristnce ci tiie most varied religious
beliefs in every land have imposed the principle of
state toleranee and freedom of belief upon rulers and
parliamoits as a dire neoesmty and as the starting-
point of political wisdwn aad justice. The mixture
ef races and peoples, the immigration into all lands,
the adoption of mtemational laws concerning colo-
nisation and choice of abode, the economic necessity
cl calling upon tbe woAers or otho- lands, eto., have
so largely <£aaged the religious map d tbe world dur-
ing tbe last fifty years ^t jpropostticms 77-79 of the
Syllabus publiittted by Pius DC in 1864 (cf . Denainger,
ap. dt., 1777-79), from which enemies of the Church
are so fond of deducing her opposition to the granting
of equal political rights to n<m.-Catholios, do not now
appfy even to Spain or the South American republics,
to say nodiing of ocMintriea which evm then posseasea
a greatly miasd pwulatifm (e. g. Germany). Since
tiie requisito eonditiMis for the erection of new theo-
cratic states, whether Catholic or Protestant, are
lacking to-day and will fnnbably not be realised in
the future, it is evident on the basis of bard facts
that religbus liberty is the <Hily possible, and thuq the
only rcascmable, state prindple. If, in those lands
where she still enjoys a privilegad position as state
Chiveh (e. c. Ita^ and »Dain)| the Catholic Church.
Wild not aDow herself to be dnrai from this position
without a inDtest, she has not Mily a right, but is
even under obligation to t^er this protest. For a
justly acquired right should not be surrendered in
aileooe. In this matter also the Church does only
irtiat is done by Protestant prinoea, who steadfastly
aifliere to Protestantism as the stato leUgioa (e. g.
tbs King of England). But ths priodess asset of

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reiigiouB peace rompels the modern State to ooBoede
tolerance and religious freedom. Without this peace,
the undisturbed continuation of the commonwealth
is inconceivable. The history of the world could not
easily display before the eyes of a patriot a more revolts
ins picture than the fratricidal strunles which re-
sulted from tiie Rrfwination in the r^igioiu wan tsi
Europe. Wherever separate religious parties live m
the same land, they must woil^ together in harmony
for the public weal. But this would be imposeaUe,
if the State, instead of remaining above party, were
to prefer or oppress one denomination as compared
with tJae others. Consequently, freedom of rellgiMi
and oonsdesioe is an indispensable neceseity- far Uie
State.

From the standpoint of natural law and Christian
public law. however, this political tolerance is Aibjeet
to a threefold limitation, since neither the completely
unreligious character of the State nor the nnoridlea
liberty of all imaginable cults may be set up as
a principle of government, nor finally may the separa-
tion of State and Church be lauded to the skies as the
perfect sUte ideal. These three bmitation can be
easily Justified.

(a) To propose for the State such downright irre-
lision 88 a drastic remedy aeiinst intolerance is to
advise it to saw throu^ the dou^ on which it sits.
For the "State without God", pledged to the "Prin-
ciples of 1789", would be an immoral monster, which
tluou^ lack of internal vitality would as surely
encounter decay and destruction as did the atheistic
Revolutionary State of France at the opening of the
nineteenth century. If it is true that human society
as a whole is bound to recogniEe the supreme dominion
of God, then no State can shirk the obligation of con-
fessing this God and of publioly venerating Him. The
rehgionless State would be nothing less than an athe-
istic State, bearing in its very nature the ^erm of dis-
integration; since atheism is in itself and its effects a
direct peril to the State. The pantheistic is not a
whit better ; for H^l's motto, " the State is God is
pure nonsense, since it makes the absurd claim that
the State is the original source of all right, and sets
the omnipotNit State in the place of Goo (cf. Syllab.
Pii IX, prop. 39). A commonwealth that is to endure
can be erected only on a theistic basis, sinee the ftm-
damental ideas of justice, fidelity, and obedience, in-
dispensable for the preservation <h the State, can exer-
eise their full influence only in theism. Furthermore
the respect for property^ the observanee dthelawsof
cliastity, aversion to rev<^tkm and birii tteaaon are
best secured by a lively faith in God. Consequently,
not alme Christian statesmen like Montesqmea and
Guizot, but also freethinkers like Maoohlavelli and
Voltaire, strong defended the relJgiouB foundations
of the State. £!ven the pagan Cicero (De nat. deor.,
I) fnmkly recognieed t^e impossibility of a State with-
out the fear God, on which dq}ena in turn fidelity
and justice. A Stete wfaiah is not itwlf pemieatea
with sentiments of r^igion and idly tokntes the sap*
ping of religion and morality is preparing tho way for
revolution, that is for its own destruction. The
state axiom of religioas freedom can therdore mean
only freedom for reKgion, not freedom fqom religion
or irrelicion. In Ms EhioyoUeal "Vebementer nos",
of 11 February, 1906, Pope Pius X riiarply denooDoes
for its injustice the violent breaob of the Oonoordat by^
tbe ftench Qovemment, instancing as the ohiel-
grierance that, by the official recogni^on of its own
nTi^gion. the French Republic had forsworn God
Himself (cf. Denzinger, n. 1996). The histornn von
Treitschke expressed the conviction that '^atheists
have strictly speaking no place In the state" ("F(^-
tik", I, Leipsig, 1697, p. 326); the [^osopher John
Locke would hear nothing of state tolerance towards
athdsts. With a Strange pervenity of judgment be
would indeed extend thMintoleraaoetoCathobaB also,

t^e firmest befievers in Ood amtHiK all ohasee of man-
kind and the surest supporters of throne and altar.
But, as things are to-day, nothing remains for the
State but to tolerate atheists in its midst so long as
they do not, by unlawful deeds, render themsMTea
liable to punishment. In its own interest, bowerer,
the State must endeavour to protect and nmnote
belief in Ood among the people oy the establuhment
of good schools, by the trsamng ctf believing teachers
and offirials in s«ninaries, lyoeums, secondary schools,
and universities, and finaln^ by leaving the (^urofa
free to exert her salutary influence.

(b) A well-ordered oommonwealUi can no more
recognise the maxim of unlimited and indnidled
religious freedom than it can adopt the suieidal {vin-
eiple of trnhpnOL. For state tolentltHB cf aU f onnt cf
r^^km without exception, -wb&A could be justified
only on the basis of (&ruQtlve atheism or a deistie
imbfferentism, is in palpable contradiction to natunil
law and to every rational syst«xn of polity (cf . Encyo-
Kcal of Pius IX "Quanta cura" of 8 December, 1864).
If tbe State as such is under the same dsligation to
confess and venerate pod as the individual, it must
set bounds to religious freedom at leabt the point
where the unrestricted exerdse of dii^ freedom would
had to the subversion of state security and pubUo
morality. The faisttny of religion dwws that, "to de-
ceive unwary authorities, intrigues most immoral and
most dangerous to the State have dnguised thcmedves
in the mantle of religion: the cults of Moloch and
Astarte, religious prostitution and community of
women, rituu child-murder and Anabaptist horrors,
convenHdee for debauchor and anai^istic secret
societies, etc. No State with a regard for its own
preservaticm will hesitate to raise a barrier against
moral, religious, md political anarchy; and to repel
with vigour all such attacks aimed, under the mask
of freedom of beHef , at the existence of society. Free
competition betntreen truth and error, which is some-
times urged in tbe name of tolerance, i>romise8 neithor
for the State nor the Churoh an enduring success; the
firee oompetitkm between virtue and -^ioe eould be up-
held by the same niaimiag. lliere are oertam
deceits and vices whi<di display their immorality so
plainly that the State must mercilessly apply her
penal law and, in the interest of the community, pre*
vent their propagation. Thus England, !n general so
indulgent towaros paganism in her colonus, eould not
tolonte the continuation among the Hindus of the
titnal murder of ehildroi and ue bwhiDg of widows
(the SvUm), probibitn^ the fonner under severe
ben&Hies in 1802 and the latter in 1829 (cf. Lecky,
''Democracy and liberty", L London, 1896, pp. 424
sqq.). Agam, although the Constitati(m of tne Uni-
ted States guarantees comitate freedom of beHef, tbe
American people always found Mormonism Unbear-
^le, and never rested until, by forbidding polygamy
to the Mormons, tbe Christian conoR}tion oi marriace
had been rsooKmseil Mobhonb). Not even t£e
atdieistic Rerantionary State of France granted an
UE^mited freedom of religious opinions in its " Decla-
ration des droits de rh(Hnme" (1791), sinoeit added
UMeUcuee: "pourva que leur manifestation ne trouble
pasl'ordre public ^tabli par la kn". Almost all
modem States have admittisd this limitation of reli-
gi«U8 freedom into their constitutions.
. (c) Christian pubUe law erects a tJlurd barrier to
complete rdifpoua freedom in SoibiddinK that tbe
pzindple cf we sepamUon of CSwrdi alid State be
raised to the true ideal of the State and regarded aa
fundamentaUy the best form of tbe State; this does
mot mean that in certain exceptional eases actual
separation may not be more beneficial for both Church
and State than their orgamc union. While tUs
separation may be always fioWed as relaitively tlie
better eondition, it does not Uwreby bectMne tbe ideal
State. Tbe latter is only thasttsuedwbeaGfauNh

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and State proceed hand in hand and m'perfeet bar-
mooy to promote by their cMttrMn efforts tbe teafr*
ptnul and eternal happmeas of tiheir oomnon Bubjeots .
As it is unnatural for a married couple to live aefUf
rated, although separation may be drfended inparti*-
ular mstances as the better or leas horaiful arrange-
ment in view of quarrels which have arisen, so also the
ideal re1ati(m between Church and State is to be
found, not in the separation <rf the two, but in thmr
harmonious co-operation (ef. Piua lA, Encyelieal
"Quanta cura" of 8 December, 1864; Sylktb. prop.
55). As a practical proof of the internal advantams
of a separation in principle, it is usual to point to the
example of the United States, which has extended the
blessing of its liberal Constitution in recent years to
its newly-acquired colonies of Porto Rioo and the
Philippine Islands. Bu^ while it maybe panted with-
out reserve that both Church and State seem to pro»<
per exceedingly well in their friendly juxtaposition,
It would be rash to speak of the situation as ideal. It
must, however, be acknowledged that no other land
in the world has so honourably maintained the ami-
cable separation of Church and State, while in some
European countries the law of separation was unfor-
tunately only a pretext for a more violent attack on
the rights of the Church. Not without good reason
did Leo XIII in his Brief of 1902, oddreaaed to the
American hierarchy, express fais ai^roval of a wise
and patriotic adaptation to the national and legal
conditions of the United States. He could do this
with a good conscience, although in his Encyclical
"Immortale Dei" of 1 November, 1885, be had de-
clared the harmonious union of the two hi^est
powers the ideal situation, and had referred to con-
cordats as the means of arran«n|( questktns bordenng
on both jurisdictions. If the United States forms the
sole honourable exception to the rule, this is due partly
to the fact ihaX the State neglects neither the religious
factor at large nor Christianity, as is shown hy the
strict laws concerning Sunday observance. Christian
mon(^amy, and the celebration of Thank^vine Day.
What F. Walter wrote fifty years ago is still true
to-day: "Even in the United States of North Amei^
ica, to which people so readily appeal, religion is not
regarded as a matter of indifference to the State, but
is presupposed as the State's complement" ("Natur-
recht und Politik im Lichtti der G^nwart ", Bonn,
1863, p. 495).

(2) By a Catholic State we understand a commu-
nity which is composed exclusively of Catholic sub-
jects and which recognizes Catholicism as the only
true religion. In this case also the relations between
Church and State may be different, according as the
two powers are closely united for offence and defence,
or, while each maintains its independence, are less
compactly joined. Hie first kind of umon finds its
truest expression in the "religious state", a distinctive
feature oi the Middle while the second or looser
union may be realized m a otmstitutional state that
admits various denominations and yet retains its
Christian character. In view of the difference of the
fundamental ideas on which these two forma of state
are based, the principles of political tolerance are sub-
ject to important modifications.

(a) Every religious State, Catholic or Protestant,
presupposes by its very existence that all or nearty ^
the cititens have the same faith, otherwise it would
be contrary to natural justice and practically impos-
oible. In certain cases such a State must take drastic
measures to expel or exclude all elements which do not
fit into its framework. Thus a Protestant religbm
State was forcibly instituted in Eiwland under €{ueen
Elizabeth by clearing the country <» all Catholics, and
^e Diet of Upeala in 1603 strove to preserve the
s^ctly Lutheran character of Sweden by making the
inuni^tion of Catholics puni^able with death. The
aituatiOD of the Catholic retiaous StstA in thtt Middle

AgwirasaoiDewfaat, thou^notoitirelTfSimilar. The
miedieval idea required that the State should lend the
secular arm to the Oiureh for the maintenance of aH
her doctrines, laws, and ordinances, and that in re-
turn it should receive from the Church spiritual sup-
port in all purely secular affairs. Thus State and
Church formed the two all-embracing members of the
(we Qirigtian body, assisting and supportii^ each
otha in the broad field ot all secular and ecclesiastioul
intorests. Empire and papacy, like body and soul,
formed an organic whole. Citizen and Catholic were
interchangeaole terms. The rebel against the Church
Was regarded as likewise a rebel gainst the State, and
conversely the political revolutionary was by that
very fact an enemy of the Church. Whoever was
stricken with excommunication finally incurred also
imperial ban, and the imperial ban brou^t excommu-
nieaftion in its train. It is true that many advantages
must be conceded to the religious State. We see an
imposing and elevating idea rendered concrete in the
supreme dominion of the Christian spirit throughout
the civic, national, and religious life,' in the organic
connexion of the secular and the religious government,
and in the strengthening aS the state authority by the
Church and of ecclesiastical authority by the State.
These great advantages, however, must not cause us
to oraiwok the numerous drawbacks which this mye-
tical mairiage of Churdi and State involved. First
of all, in consequence of the fusion of the objects of the
State and of religion, the Catholic religious State was
compelled to adopt an attitude of fundamental intol-
erance towards aXl errors of faith, which became so
many crimes against the State. Viewed from the his-
torical standpoint one may justly doubt whether the
bloody persecutions resulted in greater blessing and
advantaoM or in greater want, hate, and suffering for
Christenoom (ef. De Laveley, "Le gouvemonent
dans la dtoiocratie", I, Paris, 1892, pp. 157-62). It
is certain that the odium for all those severities and
cruelties had to be borne, not by the State which in-
fficted them, but rather by the Church, since she
seemed to stand b^nd all these measures as the
secret motive force, evai though she did not know,
inudi less justify many of them. We endeavoured
above withmtpartiality to appraise these aocusaticnis
a^nst the Church at their true value. To refer
briefiy to another gloomy aspect this question, the
ecclesiastical right to meddle directly in purely secular
affairs mi^t easily become a dangerous prerogative,
inasmuch as the mfliction of excommunication for
purely political offences must necessarily have
farou^t ecclesiastical penalties, especially when they
were unjustly inflicted, into great discredit among
princes and people. On the other hand, the right ox
proteetion exereised by the sovere^ in eeelesiastieal
matters, often without or even against the wish oS the
jmm, had for its unavoidable consequence the loss of
public reflect for both authorities. The proverbial
contest between imperium and aaeerdotium, which
practically runs through the whole history of the
Middle Ages, redounded in fact to the advantage of
neither. A third disadvantage, arising essentially
from the religious State, may not be passed over in
dlenoe; this conmsts in the danger that the clergy,
trusting blindly to the interference of the secular arm
in th«r behalf, may easily sink into dull resignation
and spiritual torpor, while the laity, owing to the re-
ligious surveillance of the State, may develop rather
into a race of hypocrites and pietists than into
inwardly convinced Christians. A Catholic clergy
which relies on State assistance for its pastoral ac-
tivity lacks that Rowing seal for souls which springs
-from heartfelt ctxrvictions, and the vitality and sin-
cerity of religion are grievously impaired when prac-
tices of piety are made cconpidsory by the State. The
last and most serious disadvantage associated with the
n^iipeuB State lies in the immanent dancer that, the

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claim of the Church to supremMy over the State must
almost Decessarily call forth the opposite extrme ot
CGeaaropapism. The early protectorate of the State
thua develops finally into the complete control and
enslavement of the Church. Such in fact has been
the historical sequence. Not alone in the Eastern
Empire, in which Byzantine CMaropapinn won its
neatest triumphs, but also in the Westera Empire
utese unworthv tendencies w&e all too clearly re-
vealed, especially under the Hohenstaufens.

(b) When various Christian denominations estab-
lish themselves in any country, the Catholic State can
DO loneer maintain its former exclusive attitude, but is
compell^ for reasons of State to show tolerance to-
waras the heterodox and to grant them reUgious free-
dom within the limits desoibed above and deter*
mined by natural law. If rdisious freedmn has been
accepted and sworn to as a fundamental law in a
constitution, the obligation to show this tolerance is
binding on conscience. The Catholic Church recog-
nizes unreservedly the invioUU)ility of constitutions
confirmed by c^th, of traditional laws, and regular
religious compacts, because a breach of the con^itu-
tion, of allegiance, of a treaty, or of an oath is a
grievous sin, and because the Christiaa mtHml law
in%8crib«s fidelity to the State as an oUi^ation
strictly binding in conscience. To justify ethically
tolerance towards certain religious practices of
heathen subjecto, medieval theolofpans appealed to
the principle that tolerance nMght be alwi^s exerdsed
wherever either its refusal would cause more barm
tiian good, or, vice versa, whenever the granting of it
ensured greater advantage than disadvantage. Thus
St. Thomas twohes (Sunuua theol., U-II, Q. x, a. 1 1) :
"Ritus infidelium t(»erari possunt vel pnptx allquod
bonum, quod ex eis provenit, vel propter aliquod
maum, quod vitatur " (Heathen worships can be U^er-
ated eitner because of some good that results from
them or because of some evil that is avoided). In all
the centuries the Church displayed an admirable toler-
ance especially towards the Jewish relleion. since the
Kirviv^ef Judaism offered alivingproofof the truth of
Christianity. The medieval princii^e <rf toltfanoe k
specially applicable to present conditions, since the
historical development of the modern State has
created throughout the world so uniform a bads of
rights Uiat even Catholic States cannot without vio-
lation of oaths and loyalty and without violent inter-
naJ convulsions disregard it, even if they desired to do
so. Blades, there is Kood reason to doubt if there
still exists a purely Catholic State in the world; and it
is, of course, just as doubtful whether there is such a
thing as a purely Protestant State. CosmopoIitCB
have establisned colonies and settlements everywhere,
and to these international law concedes freedom of
belief and worship. Consequently, Leo XIII also
supported the principle of tolerance, when be declared
(cf. Denzinger, n. 1874): "Revera si divini cultus
varia genera eodem jure esse quo veram relicionem
Ecclesia judicat non lic^, non ideo tamen aaznnat
rerum publicarum moder^orefl^ qui magni alioujus
acUpiscendi boni aut prohibendi causa maU moribus
atque usu patienter ferunt, ut ea faabeant singula in
ravitate locum" (If the Church declares that the vari-
ous kinds of worship ^ould not have the same rights
as the true religion, she does not thereby condemn
those rulers who, in order to secure some great good
or to avert some evil, permit each cult to exist).

There are, however, a number of States, which in
virtue ci tJieir constitutions are committed not alone
to tolerance and religious freedom, but also to parity.
By parity is understood the pladng of all l^absedor
recognized religious bodies on the same footing before
the law, all show of partiality and disfavour being
equally avoided. Sucn is the basic principle oi the
constitutional State, which, while et^icfdly Ghristaan,
allowi various fonns of belief. On it devohrat ane-

ciaiW th* ^ty of plaoinK no obstacle in the way of tlw
pubuo promotion of religion in aermon and writing
and of extending to the religious practices of lUl de-
nominations the same 1^1 protection, to the exclu-
sion of any compiilaory system that would bind the
citiaena to receive certain religious rites (e. g. baptism,
burial) from olmtymen qipointed by the State. With
freedom of beliefara intimate^ assooated Uie personal
right of cJianging one's religion and the ri^t of the
parties in the case <A mixed marriages to decide as to
the religious education of the children. The State
must likewise recognise and protect the right of tbe
various denominations to hold property and their
rif^t oi self-govemmoit, in so far as these ri^ts are
enioyed by all legally orastituted corporations.
Wnmvw such a State makes oimtaibutions or grants
fnxn the budget of public ownership, all reco^uaed
religious associations must receive equal considera-
tion, unless a particular association, m virtue a
special title (e. the secularisation of religious prop-
^y), has l^al claims to exceptional treatment.
Finally, legal equality must be granted to the adher-
ents at all denc»ninations in both their civic and
national capacities, eq>ecially in the matter of ap-
pointiBeat to puuio office. Goncenung CSiristian
States in which various relinw «dst, F. Walta,
the well-known profeaaor of public law, made the wise
observation: "The govemqaait as such, entirely re-
gardless of the personal belid of the soverdgn, must
mftiiit^Mn towards every church the same attitude as if
it belonged .to this Church. In the ccmsisttot and
upright observance of this standpoint lies Uie means
(H bemg just to each reli^n and of [weserving for the
State Its Christian character" (loe. cit., p. 491).
Sudi indeed is the admir^le theory; wherever devia-
tions from it occur in practice, th^ are almost with-
out exertion to the detriment at Catholics.

r. CoawmJnR iJw Ides of ToIentioB,' fhK«*of»-?WpAinm,
Di la labma aa firiuripn*; LttirsM if. tMbnii it Btpanm di
M. PdlLHM (Farii, tM2); B^Ufxs, Bl vnletbuititma eottvafoda
fan df catoUctwrnb tfH *f tilntit/MM «(H la ahitiMaci6*i' MroriKt. I
<Bmetataa, 1S<2); LEHMiraL, ftwirtwrtHw. JCuj^utMUil ia.
SHmmm. sua JTsVia-JlauA, Xl IBt Wi-; Kuvun,

BM^^. fltr n»>L. xVir ^laasf. tab mn.: XwobTow

Aei'Ant (2hI mL, fWburK, IBOZ); C*.lBXMnt, Ommai m. g«M6
tMiwlok IWW).
Ii. CuK^emiiiR Theoretical DapnaUo TobntiQiu J^jm.
Tht Mt^ning >?! Tntih i New York. IWO) ; BAinwafe jRljiB*ft mii
rAinfa, or Gmdic Uuric. t (New Ytak. I'MH): boaiixti, AtMnM
ID A'lmumim t^JoaAou, 1907): 3/tMt», Pruffinatiim (Sim Y«rk,
1Q07). lBM«rtrartotb«UH»riestfa>?resdv>aea1id:Da1?dhQCB«i^
La notiM* d* ia «rM datf la oMIoiophi* i^tirrf (Piui% IWSlj
TfT"*"*', mniemi^mi, mItalanHmt fPlnm,

1906} i Bwnxuxi. Sir WaXnlOAvHf Aw rri»tmali*mut fflrttM*
trtTK, 1910); BiMCra, De tabm^ ntiipm (itiuirii,

iimkmLm, Di* Tolarani iulA ioAoL t^jmptat (DiUinCeUf
ru MtfrigprtiB eaikoNea mh d« Hfiieniia: frin ISniMiam
•ahw HVtrtl^ imji H*3mA«lBf Ow TWmwJr v. /nfolro
faitM. MfShf ^MbufL taeO): Bun. IH* HnUuMw«*diotiiit
dor JEniM (enlburt. HaiiBia. Oai fieit dfr C^risfcn 4m-

mtKoA d«r vrArtn Kv^ht rtaeh A*f LtJire dfs hi. Atnnatmu

Hibon, 1908): MAOnACH, Die Bltdk det At AvQwtinm. II
itUV. 1B09). Coooenung the Inquisition: Lka, A HitL. of
ifintMon (It At MiddU Ag«$ (3 voU.. New York, 1888);
DoDAtB, li'/*igu£*AiM>, aw originet, aa procMurc (Paris, 1900);
VAOAmuaii, L'lnQttiMtiai^ xtwU ftuto-igtu tt cnitifiM *«r U
paimtr tomitif da FigUt (Psria, 1907); am Caoionl HitL
rf)i«wM(Mi« tn Franee, I (Paris, 1909). CoDcerning the Toiet-
attce of tiw Befomers: Padlus, Dit StroMbviwr Re/ormatann
H. di* OmitmrufraHuit (Freiburg, 1895) ; iDUi, A«tottMi/umtu tt.
ToUroHM MM Iff. Jakrk. (FraiburK. 19li}; Kobuol Btformatitm
u. KaUerpmtu (Tabiogen, 1901); Wappub, tntfuiaiticn u.
KeUerprocUMt in Ewidemt tvr Re/ormatiotuMtit (Leipng, 1908).

IIL' CMMernbic PnetkMl CSvio Tolention: Riceabt, monl
Pkilaiuptv «r AUm and ffatunU Lav (London, 1893) ; Doinkh.
Dot PurueUiekt Handda. (Beriin. 1899: Lbckt, Deituiemey and
Ltbtrty, I fIxMidoii, 1806), 434 sag.: Waldkamn, Die Feit%deaitbe
in dv antikm WtU Olraiw, 190S) ; Cathmih, ifonlpkHotophU.
II (Fnibotft 1911): Stbsblu, Am IdMl d» hathoL SilOuMMii

glKtUu, inS); OsOitKBAini, SitUnlehrt d«t Judmhimt ajidtrm
AmtOftinm gepmOber (Stnusbarg, 1878) : Miub. Da* Kirehen-
radU dtr morgaiMnd. Kirdu (Zan, 1897), 604 aqq. Gonocnung
th« Pimiiihment <A Elvntiaa: Fickbk, Dta gawulidia Einfahruna
dar Todam
forttAiaiQ,

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Tmrns

778

TOMB

■oani. Mm dw taOuL JTfc Jtn wakH, V (B<rUa. 1»6) i Pmi.
Dif niMiM mmnt FMnfrioiU ilM A«mm (klsini, iWHj
TncpB, Aft JM^MftotitUdU ^MieUm u. BMA-efrwum Kmrai-
naU BtOarmin (Monatar, 1005); Hkbkiukk. Tobrtauotdutkm
«TC BcflmnafiMiMijbito <Laipi>i|, 1006); Bsvsx. TktSiHk and
flrowtt 4f 7W«a(Mii (LoodoD, 1W9>: PDSU ia AtasMUnbn d«r
OSmwrnSaeAai/I. I JIMB), a. v. BtknuitMUfnikiit.

IV. ConeerDicg PoHtieu TWoration: tok KamLsa, n^^hnt,
ilMteriW H. KvA» {Haiax, 18S2); H<n«TAi.aiiun, L'triiae
tibn(hiur«Bf JUrv (Ptrio, 1863); Waiab, JUihmdU <k AfiM
MM der Gepmuart (Boon. 1863); Ebchbb. AalulhtcA der

praktUchen PciUik (Leipsig, 1883); Badbcrck, Der Stoat oAim
0M( (Visnna, 1865) ; Tundblbmbum, AUHnweW mufd»m Ormdt
der SAUt <^od ed., Ldpaic, 1868); UiiHunm La cUm < la
Aita (Niwiie*, lS7n: BuuibnbOthsb, KathoL Kirdu u. ehiiilL
fieool (Frelbius, ISn); Zcun, Aool u. Kirdu (Lafptig, 1873);
MAKiam, Di* Battehtmotn der Utbtnrdmwto, mbtmarinMino m.
CAottwrAtwiw fwffcAm SAut u. Kirdu (Stuttaui, 1877); Mam-
sen, Vtbtr Kirdu u. Oewiaaenafreiknt (Or»i, 1879) ; ton Scsnu.
Han^nuk da XfreAmradUa, I (Gnu, 1886); von TBStTBcmw,
PoUHh, I (Unit, 1887): BAUNa. Kirdta u. Stool (MOiutcr,
1007); vox BnTUMO. /cwU, Slaat m. OMtiUchafl (Fraibuic.
1907): RoaoaaB, PMtik (8id ed., StutUnrt, lOGS); Korub,
XafJMtEintHa u. modmur Aoof (1908): Tbobltbcb, Politiadu
EMk u. CkriMmtnim CinS); Nibbubs. OmoA. dM Vtrhaitniaf
MiK&ffi Xdiwrttm u. AipiMiM tm JUOtdotter (Mttawtw, 1877-
87) ; RoQCAlN. La pavmM att moytn-do*. Btvdet ntr U povxmr
Vrntifiad (Piria, ISSl): Blomiscbu, Gmih. der iteuerm Staatt-
gmrintdtafi (3ra ed., Muiucb, 1881); Cathbbin, DU Attfyahm
der SlaaUowOt x. i&n Grwum (FMburc 188S) ; Cam. Pnoi,
Chriad. StaalMvn (FkcUmis. 1S87); FObstbhau, Orwuir^ d«-
Aelffffo)HfinnA«tf (Leipnc 1891}; Bab. Elvdn sur let rapport* d«
T^Km d d* PHtU « Mtr bw tfpantion (St. Quentin, 1883);
ScHArr, CihircA and Statt in the VniUdSua—arAeAmmeanldm

3r RdigiMU Ubtrtv and it9 JPradMol BjfteU (New York, IfBS);
AHHSr AKP KXmpfb, Di* Fffwfpnwfm &aatm ton Anurika m
der 0«a«nteart; SmSN, Iixttitvtimtn u. /dam aot dm 5Meanon«-
Aritve (Ficiborg, ISSS): Wafpub, Die Trtnnvng wm >8taa< v.
jRikA* (LeipBg. 1907) ; RoTBBwaocflEB, Die Trennms mm Stool
u. ££rcM (Leipsic 1908); SXoMfiLLEK, Die Trennvng ton SUtai u.
Kirdtt fTalHiitvti, 1909). Cone«nu'iuc Purity: Drachb, ParUai
u. /MporitdUjLdptig, 1892); Kabu [M«r Airitdt (Berlin, 1805);
IjILLT AMD Walus, 4 ATonuoZ of the Law npaeiaUif affeeting
C^Aolica (London, 1893); Bacbeh, Partut m fVmHm (2nd ed.,
ColoKBe, 1899); EittBBBOSR, i>*r SwrnnMoillnv dM Zmtrvme im
Deulwehen Brndulag (Beilhi, 1B06).

J. POHLB.

Tolfltui, Franciscitb. See Tolbdo, Fbamcuoo db.

ToUma. See Gabz6n, Diocbsb ot.

Tolomel, John BApnar, distinguiahed Jesuit theo*
l<^an and cardinal, b. of noble parentage, at Cam-
beraia, between Pistoia and Florence, 3 Dec., 1653:
d. at Rome in the Roman College, 19 Jan., 1726, ana
was buried before the high altar of the Church of Saint
(gnatiufi. At the age of fifteen, after an early school-
ing at Florence, he studied law at the University of
Pisa; on 18 Feb., 1673, he entered the Society of Jesus
at Rome. He was master of eleven languages, Latin,
Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac^ Arabic, English,
French, Spanish, lUyrian, and Italian. He beein his
public career at Rome by expounding the Sacred
Scriptures on Sunday evenings in the Church of the
Gesu. At the age of thirty he was elected in the Cien-
eral d^ngreeation of the Jesuits as the procurator
general m the order, which ofBce he held for five
years, relinquishing it to take the chair philosophy
at the Roman CoUege. Here his lecture-room was
thronged. His lectures were printed at Rome in
1696 under the title of " Philosophia mentis et sen-
suum", and demonstrated that, while loyal to the
principles and method of Aristotle, he welcomed every
discovery of his time in the natural sciences and wove
these into his course. The lectures were reprinted in
1698 in Germany and evoked the warmest encomiums
from the Academy of Leipzig as well as from Leibniz.
He later filled the chair of theolo^ at the Roman
College (now the Gr^rian University) and renewed
the courses in controversial doona begun by Bellar-
mine a century before. Hiese leetures in MS. filled
six volumes in folio but were never printed. Suc-
cessively Rector of the Roman College and of the
German 0)llege, he was at the same time Coiuniltor
of the Congregations of Rites, of the Index, and of
Indulgences, as well as being one <^ the appointed
examiners of bishops. On 17 May, 1712, unexpect-
edly created cardinal by Clement XI, under the title
of Banto SMbdo in Monte Ocdi^ be became aM

adviser to the pontiff in matters theological, particu-
lariy in the pr^aration of the condemnation of the
errors of (jueenei. As cardinal he assisted at the con-
claves which elected Innocent XIII and Benedict
XIII. His published works are the "Philosophia
mentis et sensuum" (with the addition cX natural
tbeoloinr and ethics, Rome, 1702). "De primatu
b«iti Petri" (in the second series of the miscellany
printed from the manuscripts in the library of the
Roman Coll^, Rome, 1867), and a little pamphlet
containing "Daihr Prayers for a Happy DeaUi ' (in
Latin, Vienna, 1742; also in German, Augsburg,
1856).

HtmrsB. Jtammehbir KUmriiu, IV (Intubnick, 1010); Som-
MBBVOGxi, BOHoMtmedaht cvmpoffwii de Jitu, VIII (Bnuasla,
1898).

Charles Macksbt.

Tomb, a memorial for the dead at the place of
burial, customary, especially for distinguished persons,
among nearly all people. It is of much importance
in the history of
art because the
developmmt of

Elastic art can
e traced almost
in its entirety by
means of tombs,
for the tombs,
having, as a rule,
been erected in
churches, are bet^
ter preserved.
Apart from the
sepulchre slabs
in the Catacombs,
sarcophagi orna-
mented with por-
traits, and scat-
tered examples of
mausolea, tombs
may be divided
into four special
classes.

The first class
consists of tombs
with recumbent
tombstones;
among such are
the stone or metal plates inserted in the flooring of
churches. These are the oldest Christian monuments.
Ori^nally, at least in Germany, they were ornamented
wi^a cross having a long shaft; from the eleventh
century they also bore the figure oi the deceased. The
monumental metal plate of the tomb of King Rudolph
of Swabia (d. 1081), in the cathedral of Merseburg, is
of this era. During the Gothic period an engraved
brass plate was the favourite sepulchral monument,
while the Renaissance returned to the plate cast in
relief, such as the plates by Peter Vischer of Nurem-

second class consists of detached altar-tombs,
that is, a raised tomb containing the body of the
deceased. One variety rises like a table above the
place of burial. Romanesque art generally left the
side walls of the altar-tomb without ornament, while
C]k>thic art adorned them with numerous small figures,
as those of relatives, mourners, praying figures, and
all^rical forms. On the lid the deceased was repre-
sented at fuU length. Numerous examples are to
be found in all the medieval cathedrals and monastic
churches. Even England, where there are but
scanty plastic remains, has a rich treasure of such
monuments. Probably no altar-tomb is more cele-
brated than that of Emperor Maximilian at Inns-
bruck. Another worthy of mention is Charles the
Bold's tomb at Dijon by Claus Sluter. More elabo-
rate momiments haTe frequently an axlditional etni^

Caji Qsakib I, vwatk-
Fnncem della Beaia, 1329

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Tom

Ton or tw Dooi OiovAmn Fmuo
LoBchens, the Fimri, Venioe

ture above and around them, aa a baUaohia, e. g.
the tomb of the Delia Scala at Verona; chiefly that of
CansignDrio (d. 1375). During the Renaiasanoe the

baldachin assumed
an entirely monu-
mental form, al-
most that of a
triumi^ial arch;
fine examples are
the monuments oi
GalleaiBO Visoonti
in the Certoea at
Pavia and of
Franoia I at Saiat-
DenU.

The third class
may be called mu-
ral tombs, that, is,
^tar - tombs set
ori{[inalIy in a niche
against a waU, and
later raised upon
pillars, caryatides,
or a solid undeir-
Btructure. They
were decorated on
all sides with rich
plastic ornamenta-
tion. They were
customary as early aa the Gothic poriod and attained
Uieir highest development in Italy, where the inordi-
nate craving for fame and the longing to be remem-
bered by posterity led to the jH^oduction of those
magnificent sepulchral monuments for physicians,
lawyers, professors, statesmen, and, by no means
last, prelates, which fill the churches from Venice to
Naples. During the period of the early Renaissance
it was a favourite custom to place a recumbent statue
of the deceased upon a state bed or a sarcophagus and
to set this at a moderate height; this structure is
surrounded by standing or kneeling angels who draw
back a curtain of the mche in which the Madonna is
often visible. A fine example is the tomb of Leonardo

Bruni (d. 1444) in
Santa Croce at
Florence. During
the late Renab-
sance undue con-
sidraation was paid
to architecture, as
in the sepulchral
monument of Gio-
vanni Pesaro in
the Frari church at
Venice. In the
seventeenth and
nghteentb oentu-^
ries the art of
sculpture obtained
agam a greater
opportunity in the
treatm ent of
tombs, but unfor-
tunately only in
the monotonous
Baroque style.
Hardly more than
the figure of the
deceased was
brought into
prominence. It was
placed within an
altar of similar
style or upon a broad podium and was sur-
rounded by all kinds of symbolical figures in
the most daring positions. In a matonal sense
tombs are often veiiy fine bat th^ frfr-

ToMB OP Leonabdo BaTTNI
RotMllioo, Church of S. Crooe, Florenm

quently lack the desired qijrittui wmeetoesB and

repose.

The fourth class consists of hanging sepulchral
moniunents (memorial tablets). Toese occur as
early as Qotiiio art in the form of funnal escutcheons
and ooats of arms made of wood or leather; and are
espeoially prominent in the period of the Rococo and
Baroque styles. Besides the altar-ehaped tablet
often constructed in several stories, the cartoudie
ooBtaining a portrait of the deceased was very popu-
lar ui sepulclaal monuments of this class.

Since the modem era put an end nearly everywhere
to the burial of the dead within the church building,
a new form of sepulchral art has p^dually developed :
it has jproduoed works of the greatest beuity in all
oountnes, but has also shown great perversions of
the artistic sense, especially in Italy where the ten-
dency is more to an excess of technic than to the
eonoeption of the eternal. The finest sepulchral
monument of modem times is perhaps the one
designed by A. Bartholom^ and erected at F&re

Stotkuk), Monumenial Bptgiet of Onat Britain (London,
1817): CoTMAM, JlHoraainffi of Sepulckral BroMtt in Norfolk and
a^oik (London, 1839); MIlb, L'aH retiffieux en Fnme* (Puis,
leOB), Ua-477; BuBobb, OmcA. dnjlornd. OrabmaU (Stxasburg,
190<); 8<»0»iMo, Dot Uaiien. OnbnuU der FrOhrenaiuane*
(B«rUn. 1(KM) : DAVin. Tlu Sadplured fombt of At FiflM>nth Cen-
tmry in Amm, wilh dkapMri on ik§ previous e*nluri— (London,
1910); QSBUCH, AlU Orabmabkmut (Leipcis. 1909).

Bgda Kleinbchmidt.

Tomb of ttie Blesavd Vlrglzi Mary.— The tomb
of the Blessed Virgia is venerated in the Valley d the
Gednm, near Jerusalem. Modem writers hold, how-

EiMTKANOC TO TBI CkUBCB Or TSB AwOHPTIOlT

ever, that Mary died and was buried at E^hesus.
The main points of the question to be taken into
consideration are as follows.

I. The apOGiyphal works of the second to the fourth
oentuiy are all favourable to the Jerusalem tradition.
According to the "Acts of St. John by Prochurus",
written \lW-70) by Lencius, the Evangelist went to
Ephesus accompanied by Prochurus alone and at a
very advanced age, i. e. after Mary's death. The two
letters "B. Iguatii naissa S. Joanni", written about
370, show that the Blessed Virgin pa^ed the remain-
der of her days at Jerusalem (Funk, "Patres sp",
lOOL IT, 214-16}. That of Dionysius the Aret^ugite
to the BieAiop Titus (363), the "Joannis liber de
Dormitione Martse" (third to fourth century), and
the treatise "De transitu B. M. Virginis" (fourth
century) place her tomb at Gethsemane. From an his-
torical standpoint these works, although apocryphal,
have a real value, reflecting as they do the tradition of
the early centuries. At the be^nning of the fifth
century a pilgrim from Armenia visited " the tomb of
the in the vallsy of Josaphat", and about 431
the "weviarius de Hienisalem" mentions in that
▼■11^ "the basiUcaof Bi^ Mary, v^iich oontains her

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775

rom

SBpnldhn^'. TlmUiefor^ pilgrims of various rites
npaired thither to Teoerate the empty tomb o{ Mary.

Gr^ory of Tours, St. Modestasy St. Sophronius,
Patriarch of Jerusalem, St. Germanus, Patriarch of
Constantinople, St. Andrew, Bishop m Crete, John
d Thessalomoa, Hippolytus of Thebes, aad Veneridjie
Bede teadi tJiis same fact and bear mtneas that tiua
tradition was accepted by all the Churches of East
and West. St. Jonn Damascene, preaching on the
feast of the Assumption at Gethsemane, recalls that,
according ta the "Euthymian History", III, xi
(written probably by Cyril of Scythopolis in the fifth
centt:^), Jurenal, Bishop of Jerusalem, sent to Coo*
Htantinople in 452 at
the oonunand of the
Emperor Marcian and
Puloheri^ his vife, the
shrood ai the Blessed

FUo of Um Chunk of tka iMnmpUoB ud <d th* OroUo of OMbnmul.
A.SUInk B.OoBftrwd. C.TWFMch. D. SabumaeaB Ohorcfa.
K. botto of OMbuaaL

TwttMl S«cUoii of tk» CltBrd of lh« ABOMvUaa.

Virgin preserved in the church <tf Gethsemaoe
(P. XCVI, 747-51). The reUo has since been
venerated in that city at the Church of Our Lady <rf
Blachenue.

II. There was never any tradition connecting
Mary's death and burial with the <uity of £phe^.
Not a sing^ writ«r or pilgrim qwaks ol her t<Hnb as
being tb^; and in the t£irteenth century Perdioa^
protbonotary of Ephesus, visited "the glorious tonb.
<tf the Virgin at Gethsemaoe", and describes it in hia
poem (P. G., CXXXIII, 969). In a letter sent in
431 by the members of the Council of Ephesus to the
clergy of Constantinople we read that Neetorius
" reached the city of E^jhesus wh&te John the Theo-
losian and the Mother of God, the Holy Virgin, were
separated from the aBsemblyoi Uie holy Fathers*', etc.
TStemont has completed the elliptical phrase bv
adding arbitrarily, "have their t<nobs". He is fol-
lowed by a few writers. According to the medita^
tions of Sister Catherine Emmerich (d. 1S24), com-
piled and published in 1S52, the Blessed Virgin died
and was Buried not at Ephesus but throe or four
leagues south oi the city. She is followed by those
who accept her visions or meditations as Divine reve-
latioDS. However, St. Brigid relates that at the time
of her visit to the church of Gethsemane the Blessed
Virgin appeared to her and spoke to her of her stay of
three in that place and of her Assumption mto
Heaven. The revelations of Ven. Maria d'Agreda
do not contradict those of Catherine Emmerich.

III. As the soil is oonsiden^ly raised in the Valley
of tbe Cedron, the anciait Chorob of the Scfpulchre m

Mary is completely covered and hidden. A score of
steps descend from the road into the court (see plan:
B), at the back of which is a beautiful twelfth century
porch (C). It opens on a monumental stairway of
forty-eight steps. Tike twentieth step leads into the
ohureh Built in the fifth century, to a great extent cut
from the took. It fomls a cvosa of unequid arms (D).
In the centre at the eastern arm, 52 feet long and 20
feet wide, is the ^orious tomb of the Mother <m Christ.
K is a little room with a bench hewn from the rocky
mass in imitation of the tomb of Christ. This has
prm it the shape of a cubical edicule, about ten feet
m circumference and eight feet high. Until the foui^
temth century the little monument was covered wiUi
magnificent marble slabs and the walls of ttie church
wen oovered with frescoes. Sines 1187 ihe tomb has
been the property of the MiiwMiiwti Govmunent
irtiiofa nevothelesi authorizes the ChristiaiiB to cA-
eiate in it.

Zahw, Du Dormilio 8. Virgima u. doM Satu dm JeAmitw-
Marktu {L^ig, 1899); Nhscbl, Dai Bam «. da* Orabderk.
Juntfrau (Miutia, 1900) ; Mmmiumr, Le Umibtan d» la Saint*
PiUfV* A JinudUm (JenuaiMn, 1908): BAiWEKRBineB, Iti Maria
m Jenitaltm odv n BthmuaMorbanJ V {Mnniab. 1906), 069-77;
DS Voomi, Xm JfffiMt d» ta Terre aatnfa CFaria. ISSO).

Barn^as Msistebmann.

Toanl, a titular metn^litan see in the Province of
Scythia, on the Black Sea. It was a Greek colony
from Miletus. In 29 b. c. the Romans captured the
country from the Odryses, and annexed it as far as the
Danube, under the name of Limea Scyihicua. The
city was afterwards included in the Province of Moe-
sia^ and, from the time of Diocletian, in Scythia
Mmor, of which it was the metropolis. In a. d. 10
Ovid was exiled thither by Augustus, and died there
eight years lata*, celebratmg the town of Torn! in his
poems. Few places had so many Christian memories
as this town, in the barbarous country of the Getai;
e. g. Sts. Maora|>iuB, Gordiaous, and ^eir com-
panions, exiled to Scythia and slain in 319, venerated
on 13 Sept.; Sts. Aureus, Narcissus, and MarcelUnus,
also slfun tmder licinius and venerated 2 Jan.; a great
many others whose names only are known, aad who
are mentioned in the Roman Martyrology for 3 April,
20 June, 5 July, and 1 October. The first bishop may
have b^n Evangelicus, mentioned in the Acts of Sts.
Epictetus and Action CS July), and who must have
lived at the end of the third ceotury. Eusebius (De
Vita Constantini, III, 7) mentions a Scythian bishop
at Nicesa who may have belonged to Tomi. Men-
tion should be made of St. Bretanion, martyred under
Valens, and whose feast is observed 25 Jan.; Geron-
tius, at the Council of Constantinople, in 381; St.
Theotimus, writer and frieod of St. John Chrj'sostom,
venerated 20 April; Timotheus, at Ephesus in 431;
John, ecclesiastical writer, d. about 448; Alexander, at
Chatcedon in 451; Theotimus Il^in 458;, Patemus, in
619; and Valentinian, in 550. The Province of Scy-
thia formed a single diocese, that of Tomi, an auto*
cepfaalons archdiocese, subject to the Patriarch of
Constantinople. It is mentioned in 640 in the Ecthe-
sis of I^eudo-Epiphanius {Geher, "TJngednickte
. . . Texts der Notitiie episcopatuum , 535).
Shortly afterwards the Bulgarians invaded the repTon
and the Archdiocese of Tomi was suppressed. The
city subsequently belonged to the Byzantines, t^ain
to the Bulgarians, then to the Tui^, and finally to
the Rumanians since the Treaty of Berlin in 1878.
The town of Tomi is near Constantsa, the cwital
(rf Dobroudja and a port on the Black Sea, woich
has about 15,000 inhabitants. There is a Catholic
parish. A statue of the poet Ovid stands in the
chief square.

Lb QyiBN, Onm» ehritHamu. I, 1211-16; NircHAjntEK, Dot
aUehriMiclu Tomi (EUlbtnt. IBW): Ib«h, JKwk Adam Kttnl

8. VailbA.

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776

ronnzioo. ABBET OF, near AnCTrem, oeunim,
founded in 1 12S in honour of the Bloased V irgin, by de
Qiaelbert, who not only gave the land, but abo him-
aeU became a lay brothor in it. The first rdigioua
were aent from St. Miduel'B Abbey, Antwerp, under
Heoiy, who had come with St. Noibat to Antwerp
to extirpate the Tanohdmite herenee. The charter
of its foundation was si^ed, amoi^t others, by St.
Bernard of Clairvaux and hy the Blened Waltman,
first Abbot of Antwerp. The Bishop of Camlvai
granted aynodaJ rights to the abbots. From vtxy
small b^;inningB the abbey grew to be in time one of
the most important in Belgium, making its spiritual
and sodal influence felt in a large district called Cam*
pine, now in north-east Belgium and south Holland,
then a wild district in which but scanty provision was
found for the roiritual and social needs of its scattered
inhabitants. Considering the scarcity priests and
the good done by the
religious of Tonger-
loo, the bishops of
Cambrai, the chap-
ters of Li^ and
Maastricht, and sev-
eral landowners con-
fided the charge of
parishes, with tbe
right of patronage, to
the abbey; thus it
came to pass that in
time the abbey had
to provide priests for
some forty parishes,
or small Norbertine
residencefl, in these
parts.

WiUi the erection
of new dioceses

Tonmuw Abbct, rmou m Sovn-wisT

(1559-60) in Bel^um and Holland, heavy burdens
were cast on the abbey, for not only nad it to

Erovide the funds, but the new Bishop of Bois-
)-Duc was put at its head as abtx>t. This
state of affairs lasted untQ 1690, when, to obtain
its independence, the abb^ had to give up much
property in support of the new diocese. Mean-
while the Calvinists had become very powerful in Hol-
land and, in their hatred of tbe Catholic Church, had
put many CathoUcs to death. Amongst those who
received the crown of martyrdom are reckoned three
religious of Tongerloo, viz. : Arnold Vessem and Henry
Bosch in 1557, and Peter Janssens in 1572. The abb^
has alw^promoted education. Bishop Ophovius says
that its religious were educated in omni jrieUUe et doo-
trina and Muigub, that it was feecundum pastorum Sem-
inarium. It possessed one of the lareest libraries, and
was able to take up the work of the BoUandists. (See
Backx; Fremonstratbnsian Canons, Boli.andists.)
Spilscsck, D» Abdg Mm Totmerloo (Antwarp, 18S8), pp. xii-

4»

F. M. Qbodbhs

Tongtorgl, Salvator, philosopher, b. at lUnne,
Italy, 26 Dec., 1820; d. there, 12 Nov., 1865. At
the age of seventeen he entered the Society of Jesus.
After the usual noviceehip, literal^ and philosophical
■tudies, a half-decade was spent m teacning rhetoric
at Reggio and humanities at Forfi. Then ^ur years
were passed in the study of theology, under the emi-
nent professors Ferrone, Passaglia, Ballerini, and
Patrizi. Immediately aiUst this, in 1853, the young
meet was assigned to the diah- erf philosophy in the
Roman CoU^, and thoa during twdve years dis-
tinguished himself as a teacher and author. Within
% few days of his forty-fourth birthday be was ap-

Kinted assistant to the provincial of the Roman
ovince; but his health gave way before a year had
di^Med. Father Toiwiorei wrote a well-known ooorse
of phOooophy, "Inatituttoiies philosophioB", lAidi

be pnblUied in three vohunes at Borne in 1861 and
at Brussels in 1862. Nine editionB appeared during
the next eighteen yean, some <A them modified by
Claude Rami^. A compendium <rf the same waA.
and a separate volume im ethioB also eame frmn his
pm. AU his w<Hks are still used as text^xtdcs for
oolle^ or seminary. On some of the mooted qufl»-
tions in philoeoph:^ the author departed from Scholas*
tic traditions, rejecting the Peripatetic theory of
matter and form, denying the real distincticm between
accidents and substance, and claiming that mere
resultants of mechanical and chemical forces could

Produce the lifenustivity seen in the vegetd>le wwld.
'heee doctrines, thou^ not widdy aecepted, yet
stimulated the Scholastics to make betta use of tha
reeeaidies carried on in the physical scioices.
SomoBVOOBu WN.<tola.«.di/., VIII. M; HvarB*, Nimm*

dofw. John M. Fox.

T<nig-ldxic. See

Ini>o-China.

Tongues, Oirr of,

or Gi-oaaoLALT
{ykua^fikiOda), a su-
;>ernatural ^t of the
class gratia grtUU
data, designed to aid
in toe outer devel-
opment of the primi-
tive Church. The
theological bearing of
the subject is treated
in the article Cha-
rismata (11). The
preset article deab
with its exegetical
and historic phases.
St. Luke relates
(Acts, ii, 1-15) that on the feast of Pentecost
following the Ascension of Christ into heaven
one hundred and twenty disciples of Galilean
origin were heard speaking "with divers tongues, ao-
cording as tbe Holy Ghost gave than to qMMc".
Devout Jews then dwelline at Jerusalon, the scene
of the incident, were quick^ drawn together to the
number of ^proximately three thousand. The
multitude embraced two religious classes, Jews and
proselytes, from fifteen distinct lands so distributed
eeogn^hically as to represent "every nation under
heaven". All were "confounded in mind" because
every man heard the disciples q>eaking the "wondw-
ful thingB <rf God" in his own tongue, name^, Uiat
in which he was bom. To many tlie diaeipiee vh-
peered to be in a state of inebriation, wherefore St.
Peter undertook to justify the anomaly by explaining
it in the light of prophecy as a sign of the last times.

The glossolaly thus described was historic, articu-
late, and intelU^ble. Jenisal^ was then as now
a polyglottal region and could easily have produced
one hundred and twenty persons who, in the preeenee
of a ooemopoliton assemolage, mig^t express them-
sehree in fifteen different tongues. Sinee the variety
of tongues is attributed to the group and not to in-
dividuals, particular disciples may not have used more
than their native Aramaic, though it is difficult to
picture any of them historically and socially without
at least a smattering of other tongues. Hie lin-
guistic conditions of the country were far more
diverse than those of Switzerland to-day. The num-
ber of langaages spdcen equalled the mimbo' of those
hi which the listeners "were bom". But for tiiese
Greek and Aramaic would suffiee with a possible
admixture of Latin. The distinction of "tonguee"

S'. 6, a(iX«(CT«t; V. 11, yKt^n) was largely one of
alects and the cause of astonishment was that so
many of than should be beard shnoltaneouB^ and
from GalOeaia whose linguistic oapadtiee wtre pre*

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nmubly underrated. It was th* Holy Qhott who
impelled the dingles "to q>eak", without perhaps
being oblwed to infuse a knowledge of tongues un-
known. The pineal and pqyohio oondition of the
auditors waa <me ot eostaqr and npture in whidi
"the wonderful thingB of God" would natoxally find
utterance In acclamations, prayers or bymna, oooned,
if not abeady known, during the preceding week, wImo
they were " always in tihe temple", side lo^ aide witli
the strangers from afar, "praising and Ww^ng Qod"
(Lake, xxtv, 62, 53).

Subsequent manifestations occurred at Ctesarea.
FaloBtina, Ephesus, and Oninth, all po^^^ttal
xepoDB. St. Poter identifies tiiat of Coearea with
what befell the disdi^ "in tho beginnii^" (Acts, xi,
16) . There, ae at l&iheaus and Jerusalem, the strange
incident marked the bc4>tiBm of several converts,
who operated in groups. Corinth, standing apart in
this and other respects, ia reserved for special stucb'.
In post-Biblical times St. Irensus tells that "many"
of his contemporaries were heard "speaking through
the Spirit in all kinds (rmwrtiawt^) of tongues"
("Contra hnr.", V, vii^ Buaebius, "Hist. ecd.".

vii). St. Fnmeis Xavier is sud to have jneaohed
in tongues unknown to him sad St. Vincent Ferrer
while using his native tongue was understood in
others. From this last phenomencm Biblical ^oeeo-
laty differs in being what St. Grw»y Naeianaen
pomta out as a marvel of speaking and not of hearing.
EzBgetes observe too that it was never used far
preaching, sithough Sts. Augustine and Thomas seem
to have overiooked this detaU.

8l. PauTs Ctmeepl (I Cor., xii-xiv).— For the
Biblietd data thus far examined we are inddited to the
bosom friend and ocunpanion of St. Paul — St. Luke,
lliat being true, the views of St. Paul on superna-
tural doBSolaly must have coincided with those of
St. LiUEe. Now St. Paul had seen the gift conferred
at Ephesus and St. Luke does not distinguish Ephft-
nan glossolafy from that (A Jerusalem. They must
tbererore have been alike and St. Paul seems to have
had both in mind vrbea h« oommanded the' Corin*
tiiiaas (xiv, 37) to employ none but articulate and
"plain speech" in their use of the gift (0), and to
rnrain from such use in church unless even the un-
learned could grasp what was said (16). No tongue
could be geniiine "without voice" and to use such a
tongue would be the act of a barbarian (10, 11). For
him ibe impube to praise God in one or more strange
tongues should proceed from the Holy Ohost. It
evm tlun an inferior gift which he ranked next to last
in a list of ei^t chansmata. It waa a mare "a^"
and as such was intended not for beUeven but lor va
beUevers (22).

CoHnUaan Abua«a (I Cor., xiv paaHm). — Medierval
and modem writers wrongly take it for granted tbaA
the charism existed permanently at Corinth — as it did
nowhere else— and that St. Paul, in commending the
^t to the Corinthians, therewith gave his guaranty
that the characteristics of Corinthian gloesolaly were
those of the gift itself. Traditional writers in over-
looking tttis point place St. Luke at variance with St.
Paul, and attribute to the charism properties so con-
trary as to make it inexplicable and prohibitively
mysterious. There ia enough in St. Paul to ^w us
that the Corinthian peculiarities were ignoble ac-
cretions and abuses. They made of "tongues" a
source of schism in the Church and of scandal with-
out (xiv, 23). The charism had deteriorated into a
mixture of meanindess inarticulate gabble (9, 10)
with an dement of uncertain sounds (7, 8), which
sometimes might be construed as little short of bias-
fAemoua (zii, 3). The Divine praises were recognised
now and then, but the geneTBi effect was one of con-
fusion and disedifioation for the very unbelievers for
whom the normal gift was intended (xiv, 22, 23, 26).
The Corinthians, misled not 1^ insmoerity but 1^

mm^mW and ifpuranoe (20), were actuated by an
un<UscipQned reOgious apirit (riwOMa), or rather by
fremied emotions and' not by the understanding
(mOt) or the ^irit (tf God (16). What to-d«r pur-
ports to be the "gift of tongues" at certain Protes-
tant revives is a fair reproduction of Corinthian
gkiMolaly, and shows the need there was in ttie primi-
tive ChuRh <tf the Apostle's counsel to do all thingi
"decently, and aocordmg to order" (40).

Faithful adherence to the text of Sacred Scripture
makes it obligatory to reject those opinions which turn
the charism of tongues mto little more than infantile
babbling (Eichhom, Schmidt, Neander), incoherent
exclamations (Moyer), pythonic utterances (Wiscler),
or prophetic dunonstrations of the archaic kmd
(see I icings, xix, 20, 24). The unalloyed charism
was as much an exerdse of tixe intelligence as of the
emotions. Lan^ages or dialects, now icairalt (Mfwlc,
xvi, 17) for their present purpose, and now sponta-
neously borrowed by the conservative Hebrew from
Gentile foreigners (h-epoy'Ki&ff trait, x^'^f Mpuw 1
Cor., xiv, 21), were used as never before. But they
were undorstood even by those who used them. Most
Latin oommentetors have believed tiie contrary,
but the ancient Greeks, St. Cyril of Alexandria,
Hieodoret, and others who were nearer the scene,
agree to it and the testimony of the texts as above
studied seema to bt ;ir fEi' r^i >mf. i'Si>e Ceasish^a.^

181(1); BlUKMli iii- r>i> fji.-if8i'!alii- in ilrr allrn KinAl (utDMRrf
1S50); FoUARD, /"unf, f>ri "iiasi.ijn {Fiirii. tJiTOt; BlkiKj VrbSr
die Oabt tie. is Thix'Ioai«c:hf fHwJien und KrUiirn. II (1S30>;
Rmas, Latfiou'liilit iu Rcr^ dt thtuli>o<it, ITi (dlrAALuig, 185il):

Ret., XLII (PbiJ^^delpldlrl^^lftliDi aiVUtT
of Tonffuea, udvAf Ib Amm StS. «W Xut

Mr. idiox 3-46.

Thob. 1 K. Reillt.

Toniea Tn^fl^TFff (or Tunica). — A small tribe con-
stituting a ifistinct linguistic stock hving, when first
known to the French, m small villages on the lower
Yazoo river, Mississippi, in alliance with the Yazoo
and Ofogula, and numbering perhaps 700. Their
tribal name signifies "the people". They may be
identical with the people of ''Tanico", encountered by.
the De Soto expedition in 1540, apparently about
north-eastern Louisiana. Their defimte history begins
in the summer of 1698 with the visit of the missionary
miests of the 9*1®****' Seminary of Foreign Missions,
Fathers Montigny, Davion, and La Source. The^
had been decimated just before by a smallpox epi-
demic, which had ravt^ged the whole lower Mississippi
oountn', and numbers were still dyin^ of whom
several including a chief, received baptism. In the
next year Fr. Antoioe Davion established a mission
among them, studyii^ their language and ministering
to the allied tribes. In this year the French com-
mander Iberville visited them, and in 1700 the Jesuit,
Father Jacques Gravier, deecradine the Mississippi,
stopped off to wut vpoa Davion, who was prostrated
by fever. The Toniea were noted for their affection
and loyalty toward the French. This may have been
due in part to tibeir lack of kinship with any of the
surrounding tribes. In the fall of 1702 Fr. Nicholas
Foucault, of the same order, who had arrived in
the previous year to assist Davion, was murdered
with three other Frenchmen, while asleep, by treach-
erous Koroa g^es in collusion with the Yasoo. In
consequence w these murders Father Davion retired
to the French fort at Mobite until, at the urgent
request of a delation of Toniea obien, who promised
fuU reparation upon the guilty ones, he returned,
probably in 1705. In 1706, in consequence of Chick-
asaw raids instigated by the Carolina slave-traders,
the Toniea fled across the Mississippi and settled
near the mouth of Red River, Fr. Davion accom-
panying than. Their neighbours, the Taensa, were
Ifltewiae compelled to remove the same eaemy.

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778

TOHKAWA

la 1719 the histaruo La Harpe ttamei at the Ttnioa
village and found Father Davion etui then and "very
muc£ revered", although [ureaohingfearlenly acainot
their polygamy and heathen oereoMnials. They had
^ven up their worst heathenisms and the head ohiefi
with hia family^ was a daily attendant at the eermonB.
Charlevoix visited their principal town in 1721 and
describes the chief, CahuiWoligo, as devoted to the
French, wearing civilised drees, wealthy, and having
the full confidence of the commandants. The houses
were built around an open space used for games.
Father Davion had some time before left them for
the last time, in despair at their indifference, and not-
withstanding their affection for him, which was not
disturbed even when in his seal on one occasion, he
had burned their sacred fire temple.

In the various difficulties with the powerful Nat-
chez, beginning in 1716, the Tonica, aunost alcne of
the Indian tnoes, rendered efficient service to the
French. In the final war, beginning in 1729, they
again supported the French. In retaliation a large
body fugitive Natchez, aided by the Chickasaw
and Koroa, fell upon the Tonica (1731) and defeated
them in a desperate battle, killing their best warriors
and their head chief Cahur-Joligo. They never
recovered from this blow. In 1758 th^ still counted
(^ut 250 souls in a villue above Foiute Cotq)6e
but some time between 1784 and 1803 the remnant
removed to the nei^bourfaood of Marksville, Louis-
iana, on the Red River, where some thirty mixed
bloods still remain, besides a few others scatt«*ed in
the Choctaw Nation, Oklahoma, and elsewhere. In
1886 Dr. Albert Gatschet of the Bureau of American
Ethnology collected from the survivors the first
reocMrdedvocabttlary of the langusjge, by which he
was enabled to clasmfy it as eonatituUi^ a distinct
stock. This was sui^iemented in 1909 by Dr. John
R. Swanton, of the same Bureau, who also obtained
several interesting myths. The Tonica wore an
agricultural tribe and in arts, customs and general
culture dosely resembled their neighbours, the Natchea
and Taensa. Both sexes had the head artificiaUy
flattened, went nearly naked except oh ceremonial
occaaon& and wore the hair at full length down the
back. The men did most of the heavy work, spend-
ing most of their time in the com fields and rarely
himtin^, so that they ate but little meat. They
buried m the ground and kept a light burning, and a
watch beside the grave for four nights until the soul
was supposed to have reached the spirit world. ^ They
had a temple with a sacred fire, and according to
Father Gravier, had nine principal gods, viz. the Sun.
Thund«j Fire and the gods of the four cardiiial

Boints, ^y, and Earth. There is no record of the
loody rites characteristic of the Natcbes and
TtwnRH.

Fs-i-N -it. //nil. Cnlh. Iwl^toi tShySfr ISiL); I.C ?A=iK
Btr PtciTT. Ilnl ill 'a CavMsiU (avtrCt, nns, Kn^,. tt.

CLoLdoQ. iTC^i-, i~7ii: If^fouKrits rt eiabliaMmnU i^a fr.mtaia
(ftniciul, li'f'iil-'-, ^'ii'i wl, M*4tusY (fl volfl., Puif. I-^TlV

80); Sirc\, Djii. wi^l F-t^-tj-Viui .Vi.j, Vatlev CN'ew York, IS'^i;
All:i.nn>', X'Kj'if : I r.i M, i/iv" f.^'ltiilir Iniiiaji MiMioru {^^-w York,
llS-5>, 1^7111: ^111.!. IT, In.fi.u, Trtbrs in /.ouituna CWaatiiiiiiton,
IBOtJ. *itti Mu«ui£i; Inm l^roaideiit DonummiciktMiK duaavcricA

161 1>,

Jaubs Moonbt.

Tonkawa Indians. — ^A tribal group or confeder-
acy, of low culture status and constituting a distinct
linguistic stock, formerly ran^g about the middle
Trinity and Cok>rado Rivers, m Eastern Texas, and
now represented by a single rapidly dwindling rem-
nant of about forty soub. They may have numbered
originally 2000 souls, including the Tonkawa proper,
the Yojuane, Ma^eye, Ervipiame, and others. The
origin and meaning the name Tonkawa are un-
known. They call themselves Tittkan^waiieh, "na-
tives". Th^ were inveterate rovera, puntinc

nothing, but aubsi0tiii|; mtirely hj the buffalo and
other game, the fruit of the merauit* and cactus, and
wUd roots. They dwelt in boffwo dcin tapis or brush-
wood shelters, were notable horsemen, and carried the
bow, spear, shield, with the usual head-dress of feath-
ered cap and buffalo horns on ceremonial oocasitHis.
They were superior hunters and brave and active
warriors, but were hated by all the neighbouring
tribes by reason of their cannibal habit, on account <h
which they were univ^sally known among Uie other
Indians as the "Man Eaters". Of their cannibal
jvaotioes Utere is abundant record and it is this pro-
pensity which led to their outlawry and final destruc-
tion. Almost nothing is known of their myths and
ritual, beyond the fact that they had a Wolf Dance
and claimed the wolf as an ancestor. They were
also leaders in the ritual cult o( the peyot^ a cactus
eaten with oer^nonial aooconpanimait to produce
waking visions.

The Tonkawa are first mentioned by name in a
Spankdi document of 1691. In 1719 they first became
known to the fVench through La Haye's expeditiui
into what is now Eastern Oklahoma. In re^onse to
their request, the Franciscan Father Francisco Ano
de loB Dolores in 1748 establi^ed ftx their benefit the
Mission of San Francisco Xavier de Horcasitas on
San Xavier (now San Gabriel) Riven about nine
miles north-west of the present Rockdale Nilamoo,
Texas. Shortly afterward the Tonkawa together
with other trib^ Central Texas, were greatly wasted
by a smallpox epidemic. The mission also suffered
from the attacks of the Upan Apache, in consequence
of which and another epidemic most of the inmates
were removed to a mission on Guadalupe River about
1756. Another band of the same oonnezioii, the
FWipiame, established on request of their duef in
the Missifm of San fVandsco-Xavier de NAxera m
San Antonio River in 1722, had later been consoli-
dated with the larger bodv at the second San Xavier.
With the decline and abandonment of the Texais
minions, 1790-lBOO, the mission Indians for the most
part rejoined their tribes and relapsed into baHM-
rism. m 1778 the Tonkawa were still estimated at
about 1200 souls, but another smallpox ^udeloic
immediately thereafter cut them down one-lialf. . In
1855 the Govoument settled than, with serenl
other tribes, on a reservation on the Clear Foric^ of
the Brazos River, but in consequence of the oppoaiUon
of the Texans it was found necessary to ranove them
in 1887 to a new reservation on Washita River, Okla-
homa, the Tonkawa camp being just above the present
Anadarko. Taking advantage of the oonfimon of
the Civil War, a combination <^ tiie neighbouring
tribes— who had a hatred toward the Tonkawa on
account of that cannibalism and thdr activity as
scouts for the troope— surprised the Tonkawa camp
in a ni^t attack, 26 October, 1862, kilUng 137 out of
a total of 305. They never recovered from this blow.
After years as refi^ees about Fort Griffin, lews,
under military protection, the remnant numbering
only 90, were gath«ed toother in 1884 and again
removed to a small reservation in Oklahoma, near the
pneent Ptuca. Th^ are now citiaens, with lands
allotted in severalty. Our knowledge of the Tonkawa
language is based chi^lv on Gatschet's studies of
manuscript material with the Bureau of American
Ethnok^.

Boutbn's Zowkawa, Bax Tkkhcoco Xavtzk dm BoacA-
OTAS, eM., in Handbook of Am. InHt.. ed. HodqC. tat BtdL
Air. Am. Elhnoloin/ (.Wuhinaioa. 1907-10)! Annual
CotitmiMiantr of Ind. Affairt (Wftabington) ; GATflCHBT. Rt^wrkt

Our Latt CtuMibal TViSt in Hnrptr'a Uaa. (New Yoi*.
1901)! BtBLXT, HiU. SkMekm a/ A« M frOf in lA., tt^.^-.
ori^iMd PntidtHtkU UMoat conMybv rapfrt md Clw*

Jambs Moonxt.

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TONSUBS T

Toaftm (Lat. totuiere, "to shear"), a menA rite
insUtuted by the Church which a baptised wad
confirmed Christian Lb recdved into tb* cwrical ordar
by the shetuingof his hair aad the in vestment with
the surpbce. The person thus tooBured becomes a
partaker of the oonmton prlvil^^ Mid obligatH»B
of the deoic^ state and is prepued for the reception
d orders. The tonsure itseu is not an orduution
|inq>erly so called, nor a true order. It ii rather a
ainqtle ascription of a persMi to the IKvine eervioe
in sueh thii^ as are ocminion to all clerics.' Hi»-
toricaHy, ^e tonsure was not in u«e in the primitive
Chnroh during the ase of persecution. Even later,
St. Jerome (in Entca., xliv) disapproves of (Series
shaving their heads. Lideed, among the Greeks and
Romans such a custom was a bat^ of sbvery. Ob
this very account, the shaving of the head was
adopted by t^e monks. Towards ihe end of the
fifth, or beginning of the rixth, oentuiy, the oostom
passed over to the secular clergy.

As a sacred rite^ the tcmsure was orinnally joined
to the first ordination received, as in the Greek Cburoh
it still is to the order of lector. In the Latin Cburoh it
began as a separate ceremony about the end of the
seventh centm^, wben parents offered their young
sons to the service of God. Tonsure is to be given by
a candidate's ordhiary, tintq^ mitred abbots can
bestow it on their own subjei^. No speciid age for
its reeqition is {Hwcribed, but fJie Teoipient must bare
learnt the rudiments of tne Faith and be able to read
and write. The ceremony may be performed at any
time or place. As to the monastic tonsure, stnne
writ^ nave distii^uished three kinds: (1) the
Roman, or that of St. Peter^ wboi all the head is
shaved except a circle of hair; (2) the Eastern, or
St. Paul's, when the entire head is denuded of luir:
(3) the Celtic, or St. John's, when only a cresoant
of hair is ^ved from the front of the head. In
Britain, the Saxon omxments of the Celtic tonsure
ealled it the tonstn% of Simon Magus. Aoeording to
canon law, all clerics are bound to wear the tMinm
tmder certain penalties. But on this subject,
Taunton (loc. cit. inf.) says: "In English-speaking
countries, from a custom arising in the days of per-
secution and having a prescription of over three cen-
turies, the shaving of the head, the priestly crown,
seems, with the tacit consent of the Holy See, to have
passed out of use. No provincial or national council
has ordered it, even when treating of elsrieal dress;
and the Holy See has not inserted the law irheu
correcting the decrees of those councils."

T&ONTOM. Tlu Law ofiStClumk (LmAmtlQW). m. v.iOa*-
rABu, De wen ontvuhms, I (Fub, 189^; Warns, Jm Itociw>
talitm, II (Rome, 1899).

WnxiAU H. W. FAKNnra.

Tootell, HcoH, oommoi^ known as (Carles Dodd,
historian, b. in 1871 or *72^ at Durton-^in-Brough-
ton, Lancashire; d. at Hamngtcm Hall, Worciesterh
shire, 27 Feb., 1743. He was educated at the Buglish
Collie, Douay (1688-1693), and St. Gregory's fcm-
inary, Paris- (1693-16»7). After ordination be re-
turned to England in 1608 as chaplain to the Mi^-
neux fami^ at MosboKn^h Hall, Lancashire. In
1711 he retomed to the Continent where he is stUd to
have witnessed the siege of Douay (1712) as chai^iJn
to an English r^^ent; certainly he wrote iA that
character a short " History of the Englildi College at
Douay" (1713)whichpurportedtobebyaProteetant
chaplain. As it attacked the Jesuits, Father Thomas
Hunter published his "Modest Defence" (1714), to
which Dodd replied in "The Secret Policy of the
English Society of Jesos" (1716). From 1716 he was
wain at MoAorough till 1718, when he returned to
Douay to collect materials for his great work "The
Church History of England from 1500 to 1688",
Irhioh oeeupisd him for twenty years. T^e work ires
^nitten at Barrii^ton Hall, where he resided from

0 TCAAB

tfll luB deatl^ first as assistant chaplain, then
(from 1726) as chaplain. During his sojourn abroad
he wrote and publiabed "Pax Vobis: an Epistle to
the Three Churches" (London, 1721); and while at
Harrington he composed several spiritual, controver-
sial, and historical treatises most of which have never
been ^lAlished. Many of these MSS. (a complete list

01 wbcb is given by Giliow, Bibl. Diet. Eng. Cath.,
V, 560-554) are preserved at Osoott. Those cer-
tainty published were:'''CertamenUtriu9queEcclesiae''
(1724); "An Aluidgment of Christian Doctrine"
(e. d.); ami "Flores Cleri Anglo-CathoUci" (s. d.).
After man:^ years' l^ur the Church History was
o^pletod in three folio volumes published in 1737,
1739. and 1742 at Wolverhampton, though for pru-
dential reasons &-uss^ appears on the title-page.
FMher John Constable, S. J., attacked his work as un-
fair to th? Jesiuts, and Dodd replied in "An Apolo^
for the Omrdi History of England", publisned m
1743. On his death-bed Dodd expreaeed his desire
to die in peace with the Jesuits. Dodd's translation
of Paniani's memoirs was subsequently used 1^
Berington (see Pansani).

Kam, OatkMMn. III. IV, V (London. 1816-17); Bdtlbr, Hitt.
Mtmtoin <4 Bito- Cath. (tendon, IftlSV; Bxrincvton, Preface to
MtMoin of Pantani (Birmingh&m, 1793); Hiif. MSS. Comm.
Btforl, I, III, V; Folbt, R^ooreU Bng. Prm. 8. J., II (London,
18h), ii inancuntto mad oorrvctod by Giixow, Bibl. Dia. But-
Catk. I, w, HtrtmB and Linoard; Cooper, in Dia. Nat. Biog,,
nuBt be uaed with caution, beins veiy imperfect.

Edwin BtmTON.

Torah. 1. C/mo/ Wofrf.— Torah,n"nn (cf.Hiph.of
m*'), signifies first "direction, instruction", as, for in-
stance, the instniotion of parents (Frov., i, 8), or of
the wue (Prov., ih, 1). It is used chiefly in reference
to the Divine instruction, e^ecially through the rev-
slatkm to Mosei, the "Iaw", and to the teachil^t <rf
&e Ftopheta ooncernhig the will oi God. In the
suifle of law "Totak" raers only to the Divine laws.
"Toiah" is api^ed to the books containing the teach-
ing of the Mostuo revelation and the Law, that is, t^e
Pentateuch. In Jewi^ theology Torah signifies, first,
the totality of Jewish doctrine, whether taken as a
basis for r^gious knowledge and conduct, or as a
basis for stuaQr. The body of Biblical writim^, es-
psdally the Pentateuch, bong the source of reudous
teaching and law, the term "IWah" is «>pUed also to
tiie entire Setiptured (cf. Blau, "Zur Einleitung in die
hi. Schrift*'. Budapest, 1894, 16 aq.), or to passages
from the Prophets and the Hagiogr^ha, for m-
stanoe, "Ab. sara", 17a, in reference to Prov., v, 8,
aad "Sanh.", 91b, in connexion with Ps. Ixxxiv, 5.
The atimesion, however, general^ signifies the
Pentateuch. In passfwee like CK'S^ mv\ r^tb'iVyi
rrflpn SOmi ( the Scriptures [Torah] oonnst of
three parts, Torah, Prophets, md Hagiogr^ha"
[Midrash Tandiuma to Ex., xix, I]) " Torah '^ is used
in two senses— one general, meaning the whole
Scriptures, the other special, signifying the Penta-
teuch. Elsewhere (Siphre to 32, 13-135b 24) the
Tcnah is plainly distinguished from the non-Praita-
teudial books by the comparison of miqra (itrcyJi) and
Torah. Besides the "wntten" Torah, 2n33B mip,
tiis Judaism which holds to tradition E^>eaks of an
"fflral" Torah, nc bv^ZTi, the commentaries and tJie
ordinances which put into effect the laws contained in
tfce Pentateuch. Hiis oral Torah, it is claimed, was
revealed to Moses and has been preserved in Israel
by tradition (see TAxanm).

n. Torah in the restricted sense cf Pentateuch. — The
Tonh relates the preparatory measures for and the
establishmcait of tne Old-Tfstament theoiracy, and
contains the institutions and laws in vhich this the-
ocracy found its visible expression. The Old Testa-
ment its^ calls the entire work after its main con-
tenta (Aa) tora or »<fer (ICD), Aa-ioro, that is, " the book
vt tin Tomh", as in II Esd., viii, 2: to fonphaeize its
Dinne ori^ it is eaUed toratk Takwef-^er ioratk

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tOBMSDO

780

lOftKDO

Yahwe a EM., vii, 10; I Par., M 40; II EkI^ Tiii. 8),
and s^er toraut Yahw Blokim (A Eid., iz, 8): wiiil«
w/«r torath Mothe (II Ead., viii, I), a^<r Motke (I Eed.,
VI, 18; 11 Esd., xiii, 1: II Par., xxv, 4; xxxv, 12) indi-
cate ita author. The Talmud and later Jewish
writings call the Pentateuoh a^«r (Aa) torn; the name
is always used if Uie whole woifc were written as «
scroll {me^Oia) for use in the Divine Mrvice. If the
work is wntten in five scrolls or in book form it is called
hf^iaha him'uhe iha)tora (niinCT) "WTSW .nmn),
''the five-fifths of the law". This division into five
parte is old, and in the time of Nehoniaa served as a
model for the division ot the Psalter into five books.
The Jews generally named the individual bodes after
the first word: (1) bTMAifA, mtrKiS; (2) th»moth or
w^eUe thmolh, nitt» or K^ttl; (3) woyywm, »"ip*i;
(4) bmidbaroT wayydabber, l3nT3D, 131*1; (5) tMoKm
or 'eOe kardtbarim, D*13V1 X?N (cf . as early a writer
as Origen on Ps. 1 : Bpii9i$, OAdKtwfLut, Oiupa, 'E\x«
dtJtfc/3api/(). There are sdso names indicating the main
contents of the books given to Leviticus, Numbera,
and Deuteronomy: torath ia^iflnim, D^WS "law
of the prieste", for instance in *'M^-", iii, 6: ifometh
Ao-pt9jt«itm, Cllpcn ansrij "the fifth of the num-
bermes", as in "Yoma", vii, 1, muhne tora (,T1in
•1^2773), i. e., DeutovDomy, as m Masorah to Dmt^
xvii, 18. On the other hand a^er peemi, TTTT" "IC0»
"book of the Creation", in Sanh., €3/^, and nniqin,
yp'^TS, "injuries", Masorah to Gen., xxiv, 8, are not
to be apphed, as is often done, to Genesia and Exodus;
they refer onb^ to the account of the Creation and to
Ex., xxi, 22.

Another method of divioon is that 1^ which the
paragraplu, or paraaMi/yoth (nr*me ung. nins)i an
mdioated in the eerolb of the Torah osea in the syn*'-
gogues. In the older Midrashim these diviaons are
oailed paraakiyyoUi pHhuhoth, nlnViE t, "open
paratkiyyoUi"; or partufdyyoth atUmmoth, nitttVC,
"closed paraskiyyoth". In the former, the portion of
the line following the last word is left blank; in the
latter the termination of the paracrwh is indicated
by leaving only part of the line buuik. Bach par^
gr^hs are callea "small paraMm/ath" and tiiev are
generally indicated in the printed editions of ib» Bible
by C or D- The Pentateuch has altogether 290 open
and 379 closed paraabiyyoth. In quoting th«y an
generally called after the main contents (as Baba
batha-a 14a: DPV^'C that is, Num., xxii, 2-xxiv, 25),
but sometimes after the first words (as, Ta'aniih iv, 3,
the first six pctraahiyyoth of Goieeis). The pcaxukiy-
ytOh are retarded as the anangement <A the divisiwic
of the Pentateuch according to contents; but the
basis of the distinction betmea open and dosed
parathiyytah is not known with oertamty.

Another division of the Twah is connected with the
reading of lessons read in the synagogue on the Sab-
bath, a practice referred to in Acts, xv, 21, 4k TmAr
tt^X"'"' as being ancient (cf. also Josephus, "Contra
Apion.", il, xvu). It was customary m Palestine to
have a three years' cycle of these leesims (Me^., 29b) ;
some writers wf tfaoe was abo a cycle of thne yean
and a half. Tdb Pentateuch, therefore, was divided
into 154-175 sections or ts^darim (D^no, nilfr TW).
These rdarim though not indicated in our BibleB, are
important for understanding the struoture ct the old
Midrashim (cf. Bttchler, "The Reading of the Lmr
and Prophets in a Triennial Cycle" in Jew. Quart.
Rev.", V, 420 sqq., VI, 1 eqq., VIH, 528 sg.). In
Uie course of time an annual cycle, which firat ao-
quired authority among the Ba^hnuan Jevi^ and is
now accepted by nearly all Jewiuk communitHa, was
adopted. Maimonides (Hil^oth Tsphilla, XIII, 1)
calls it the prevailing custom (rf his wa (twelfth oen-
tury), but says that some read the Pentateuch in
three years, which, according to Benjamin of Tu-
dda, was tae practice about 1170 among scatterad
etnnmunities in Egypt (ef. Jew. Quart. Rev., V, 436).

In this <»»-year cycle the Pentateuch is dividtd iMO
fif ^-f our Sabbath lessons genoally called large pora-
dv^/yoth. A Jewish interealuy year conaisting <tf
thirteen hmar months contains fifty-three sabbaths,
and the final section is always read on the day of the
"Joy of the Law" (HTai rVlttB), that is, the ninth day
after the feast of booths (twenty-third day of Titkri),
In ordinary years, when there an forty-seven sab-
baths, two paraekiyyolh are joined on mch of seven
sabbsWB in order to complete the number. In Gen-
esis then are twelve sabbath paraakiyyoth, in Exodus
eleven, in Leviticus and Numbers ten each, and in
Deuteronomv eleven. They are named from and
quoted by the first words. In the printed editions
<H the Bible th«y are indicated, as they are also the
opemng words of the open or oweed panuA^yo^ by
DDD or DDC, with exception of the twelfth keson, at the
beginning of which (Gen., xlvii, 28) only the breadth
of a l^ter should remain blank. Concerning the dis-
tribution of the fif ty^our panukim/oth for the year, cf .
Lo^, "Rev. dee Etudes juives", Vl. 250 sqq.; Deren-
bourg, ibid.. VU, 146 sqq.; Si^mia, "Ub^erschie-
dene Emteilungen der M. Schrift" (Grai> 1892), 4

Old Synagogue and the Talmud-finnly main-
tain the Mosaio authnship <tf the Torah, but doubts
an entertained ngarding a numba of passages. In
"Bthtk bathn" only the last eight verses of Deu-
toonomy, which speak <^ the death and burial of
Moee^are assigned to another author. On the other
hand Simon (toe. ctt.) teaches, referring to Deut.,
zxzi, 26, that these verses were also written by
Moses under Divine direction (cf. also Josephus,
"Antiq. Jud.", IV, viii, 48). During the Middle
Ams doubts wen expnmed as to the poesibility of
Moses writing certain sentences; for instance, by
Rabbi Yishaq (to Gen., xxxvi. 11) who was op-
posed by Aben Esra, and as well by Aben Ezra him-
self (to Geo., xii, 6; Ex., xxv, 4; Deut., i, 1; xxxi,
22). Taken altogether, even in the succeeding
period the belief in the Mosaic authorship remained
undisputed, at least by the orthodox Jews. They
haid, moreover, the Divine oripn of the entin Torah,
and the eighth of the thirteen articles of faith fws
mulated by Maimonides and incorporated into the
prayer-book reads: "I believe with full faith that the
entire Tcwah as it is in our hands is the <Hie which was
given to our teacher Moaes,. to whom be peace."
(See Pbntatbuch.)

F. SchObuih.

TnUdo, Fbanobboo, dttm called II Mono
(Tlw Moot), Ven»ese painter alid engraver, b. at
Verona about 1486; the date of his death is unknown,
but in a letter of Aretino he is spoken of as still living
in 1546. He studied at Venice under Giorgione, and
later returned to his native place, where he married
a daughter of Count Zenovelto Giusti. He then
became a pupil of Liberals, who adopted him as his
beict Toroido seems to have remained at Vat>na,
ewoutinf commisHions for portraits, and paintinc
frcMoes u ohurdus and on the fronts cS houses, as
was the Veronese fa^ion of those days. His work
shows the varying influences of his Venetian master
and of the Veronese artists, which he finally blended
into a distinct style of his own, but retained the
rich, ^wing oolmir schemes acquired from the great
Giorgione. Fine examples of his frescoes may still
be seen at Verona, in the cathedral ("Nativity and
"AasumptKm", sijped and dated 1634) and in the
Church of St Fermo ("Virmn and Child in Glory"),
whilst others are in St. Eu iWiia and St. Zeaa. His
portraiture can be studied at Nicies, at Venice, and
m the Brera Gallery. Two portraits represent Uie
artist himself, one at Munich, si^ed and dated 1516,
the other, a red dialk drawing, m the Christ Church
Oollosrion

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781

TOBoirao

Low. dWis viHtriea JMte (Bmmm, UDQt Ytam

Ls viu Ai' pdtori tMibn, 1811). ^

GeOBOB ChABLBS WUJJAM80H.

Torlblo Altonio Mocronjo, Saint, Arehbiabop
of Lima; b. at Mayorga, Ledn, Spain, 1S38; d. near
Lima, Peru, 23 March, 1606. Oi Doble family and
educated, be was iwofeBKnr <rf bwi at the Uni-
Teraity of Salamanca, wnere his learning and virtae
led to his appointment as Grand Inqiusitw of Spain
by Philip If and, though not of ecolesiasUcal rank, to
his subeequent selection for the Arohbishoprio of Peru.
He received Holy OrdoB in 1578 and two yean later
was consecrated bishop. He arrived at Payta, Peru,
600 miles from Lima, on 24 May, 1681. He began his
mission work by travelling to Lima on foot, baptising
and teaching the nativaa, his favourite topic mdng:
"Time is not our own, and we roust give a strict atv
count ai it." Three times he traversed the eighteen
thousand mUes of fats diooeee, genwaUy on foot, de>
fenceless and often alone; exposed to tempests, tor-
rents, deserts, wild beasts, tropical heat, fevers, and
savage tribes; baptizing and confirming nearly one
half a million souls, among them St. Rose of Lima, St.
Francis Solano, Blessed Martin of Porres, and Blessed
Masias. He tniilt roads, sdiool houses, and ohapels
jnnunurable, and man;^ hospitab and convents, and
founded tlu first American seminary at Lima in 1601.
He assembled thirteen diooesan svnods and three
provincial councils. Years before ne died, he pre-
dicted the day and hour of his death. At Paoasmayo
he contracted fever, but continxwd labouring to the
last, arriving at Sana in a dying ocmditioD. L^ikgging
himself to the sanetuair he received the Viaticum, ex-
mring shortly after. He was beatified by Innocent
XI in 1679 and caQonised by Benedict XIU in 1728.
His feast is celebrated im 27 ApriL

Db HiaawA, Lifk TariM». E!dwABD L. AtMB.

TomlelU, Gibolamo Francesco, Italian Jesuit,
preacher md writer, b. at Cameri, 1 Februa^, 1693,
of a distinguished family from Novara: d. at Bok^;na,
6 April or 12 May, 17^. He entered the Society in
1710, and manifested oratorical powm; after teaching
classics, he entered upon a career ofpreaching, which
lasted for ^most twenty years. He first spoke at
Venice (1733), and then with increasing popularity
at Rome, Milan, Florence, and Bologna. Many
hailed him as Seiner i's successor. Tornielli, however,
did not pcfflsess S^neri's vehemence, impassioned
lope, and directness. Brilliant rather than solid, he
lacked originality and depth { but he had imagination
and dramatic feeling. For hia pathos and easv, popu-
lar style he was sumamed the "Metastasio of the
Italian pulpit. To polished diction he added a refined
and affecting delivery. Shocked by the licentious
songs then common, Tornielli tried to remedy the evil
hy adapting sacred-hymns to the popular airs. Many
criticised him for having thus exposed the mysteries
of religi(m to ridicule and eontempt. A Jesuit,
Sanchei de Luna, defended him in his "Riposta alia
censura fatta alle canzonette marineresche per le fes-
tivity di Maria Santissima". The Accadunia della
Crusca requested Tornielli to enter that body and
offered to publish his works, but he modestly declined.

Tomielli's principal works are: "Sette cansonette in
aria marineresca sopra le sette princtpale feste di

''Premche quared-
320, with a preface
by Noghera, Savona, 1889); "Pane^d e discorn
sacri" (Bassano, 1768). Somroervogel and Carrara
doubt the authenticity of the "Businate", a burlesque
poem, written in Milanese dialect and sometimes at-
tributed to Tornielli. There is a eulogy of the antot
in the "Piemontesi illustri", III, p. 305.

Carbaka, Nvooo ditionario ittorico (BMsano, 1706); B*rn-
KXLU, Opert edilM td ifudtto, XXIII (VetiiM, 1801); Prtdidta
•Mite d» avMri, Ttmitm ti olttri (Ttnin. ISftQi nAiiaauB hi

Nostra Signora" (MUan, 1738); ^Pr
maU" (Milan, 1753, Bassano, 1820,

srvdMi id pi* MbM oratori ttaUatU (Beta*, 18S7) : Ammo.
iMiMU di tloqtmua tun, tl <Turiii, 18W), 346-49; Nat, Bmt
Mwri mOa nta.fulT op«r§di TomMb (Prel&oe to Tomielli's "La
faliflitA del _p«tro<nnk> d«l Qoverno de Ooiuoo" etc.), (Turin,
1876): Da Buna, BM. dM fcriwrnu tU la C. <U J. aer., IV,
«M; SoMHmroaat, BiU. d^ktCiMj., VIII. 101-1.

JOHN C. ReVILLB.

ToroiM^ a titular see in Macedonia, suffragan of
HiessalcHuca. Torone was a colony of Chalcideans
from Euboea, on the south-west coast of the peninsula
Sithonia, the modem name of which is Longos; thia
is the middle peninsula of Chfdcidice, lying be-
tween die Twonaic Gulf, called to-day, Cassandra,
and the Gulf of Singitticus (Mt. Athoe). Built on a
hill, in a fine situation, it had a harbour called Kophoa
(deaf), because the sound of the sea-waves could not
be heard there, thus giving rise to the proverb:
"Deaf^ than the port of Torone." Torone had
thirty small cities under its government; like the
other Grecian cities of the region, it furnished Xerxes
with men and ships. After the Persian War it passed
under the rule of Athens. In 424 B. c, the OJynthian,
Lysistratus, opened its gates to Brasidas; it was shortly
afterwards retaken by Cleon. After the peace of
Nicias it was ceded to the Athenians; in 379 B. c, it
was taken by Ageaipolas; in 364-3, by the Athenian,
Timotheus; in 349-8, by Philip, who annexed it with
the other cities of Chalcidice to his own kingdom. In
169 Torone repdled an attack made by the Roman
fleet. Since tnen histoi^ is silent about this city
which Pliny calls a free city. Its ruins, in the vilayet
ot Saloniea, still bear the ancient name, pronounced
1^ the Greeks, Toroni. As an ^isoopai see, Torone
does not appear in any of the "Notitise episcop^
tuum", and we know pf no bishop of the diocese.

Sum, Diti, of Onek and Roman O*ogr.. a. t.; I>xsDSViSBa-DV-
DisBBT. GUdoraiAM ancwnw d» la Maddaint (P»ris, 1363) , 374:
LsAKE, NorUmn Amm, III, US, 155, 456: Demitsab, Ancient
OMVrapky of Uaetdoniot T^pofravkt (AtbauL 1874). 425-30 On
Qnwk). S. P£TKIDi».

Twontoj Abcbdiocbss or (Tobontina), in the
Province <a Ontario, Canada. When constituted a
diooeee, it embraced all Uppw Canada west of the
Newcastle district, but at present is limited to the
oounties of York, Simooe, Ontario, Peel, Dufferin,
Linooln, and Welland. The first missionary in this
district was Father Joseph Le Caron, a Reoollect, who
celebrated Mass on the shore of Georgian Bay in 1615.
Thus b^Eua the Huron missions, the story of which,
replete with hraoism of Recollect and Jesuit, is told
elsewhere in this work; sufSoe it to si^ here that all
the misskHU amcmg that people and some of those
attempted among their Neutral kindred lay within the
present archdiocesan limits. During the century and a
naif following the destruction of these nations, a few
priest* are known to have been in this district; amoE^
these were Father Hennepin, in 1678, and Ahhd Pic-
quet, who visited Fort Rouill6 (Toronto) in 1752. A
Cathobc chaplain was attached to the troops at
Newuk (NiuararOtt-the-Lake) in 1794, and about the
same time missionaries began to visit occasionally the
few Catholics of York (Toronto) and the neighbouring
territory.' Amongst these was Father Burke, after-
wfvds Vicar Apostolic of Nova Scotia, who held the
office of Vicar-General of Upper Canada. After 1804
Father Macdonell came as often as his extended field
of labour allowed, and, when Bishop of Kingston, re-
sidied at York for some years. In 1826 there were two
resident iniests in this regifm, one at York, the other

The^ocese of Kingston was divided on 17 Dec,
1841^ and Father Power, bishop-elect of the western
portion, having permission to name his episcopal city,
chose Toronto, the provincial capital. This first
bishop, Michael Power, bom at Halifax, N. S., 17 Oct.,
1804, was Vicar-GeneraloftheDiooeseof Montrealwhen
raised to the episcopate. Consecrated on 8 May, 1842.
he laid ihe oomerstone of the cathedral, introduced

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the Jesuits, and made arraagenaaits to bring tiie

Loreto nuns to the diocese. Appointed hy the CIot-
emment to the Council of Public Instruction, he pro-
aided over that body. He died<m 1 Oct., 1847, of tyiHius
contracted while attending the immigrants at the
fever-sheds. His successor, Armand-fruicois-Marie
Comte de Charbonnel, a Sulpkuim, hom at MmislTol-
sur-Loire, France, 1 Dec., 18(X2, WB crasecratcd bgr
Pius IX in the Sistine Chapel, 26 May, 1850. He
save his paternal estates to liquidate tiie debts of his
diocese, mtroduoed the Basilians (Annonay), the
Brothers of the Christian ScbooLs, and Sisters of St.
Joseph, and was present at the First and Seocrad Pro-
vincial Councils of Quebec. His dioccee was divided
in 1856 by the erection of Hamilton and London aa
sees. With his fellow-bishops of Uppar Canada, he
engaged in the struggle for separateaabods, wfaidi had
a successful outcome under his sucoessor. In 1860 he
resigned to join the Capuchins, being appointed titu<-
lar Bishop of Sosopolis, and afterwards titular aroh-
bishop of the same see. He died on 29 March, 1891.
His successor at Toronto was John Joseph Lynch, CM.,
who was bom at Clones, County Monagnan, Ireland,
6 Feb., 1816, As a Laaarist, he did KuanoBuy and
professorial work in Ireland and the United Statea,
being rector of a seminary vridtix he founded -at
Niagara Falls, New York, when appointed (26 Aug.,
1859) titular Bishop of ./Echinas, andcoadjutttWnh.
right of succession to Bishop de Charbonnd.

On the resignation of Bishc^ de Charbonnel on
26 April, 1860, Bishop Lynch beoasie Bialkop of To-
ronto. He brought to the diocese the Redenmtorists,
Carmelites, Sisters of the Precious Kood, ana Sisters
of Our Lady ctf Qurity of Refqge; mu present at the
fliird and Fourth FniTineial CmmcilB of Quebee; md
also at the Council of the Vatican, where he favoured
the immediate promulf^ion trf Pai>al Infallibility, and
acted on the commissions on missions and OrientiU
riteg. During the council (18 Mar^ 1870) his diocese
was raised to metropolitan rank. He died on 12 May,
1888. In 1879 Archbishop Lynch received as auxu-
iary Timothy O'Mafaony, titular Bishop of Eudocia.
and former Bishop oi Annidale, Austrdis^ who <liea
on 8 Sept., 1892. John Walsh, second archbisbop, bom
at Mooncoin, County Kilkenny, Ireland, 28 May,
1830, was ordained for the Diocese of Toronto, of
which he was vicar^eneral when appointed Bishop of
Sandwich in 1867. On 13 August, 1889, he became
Archbishop of Toronto, where he renovated the
cathedral, and founded St. John's Industrial School.
The Irish Race Convmtion of 1896 was or^mised at
his suggestion. He was noted as a writer and
TO^acher. His death occmred on 31 July, 1898. Denis
O'Connor, C.S.B., his successor, was bom at Pickering,
Ontario, 28 March, 1841. A Basilian, he taught for
several years in that community, being superior of the
Assumption College, Sandwich, when chosen Bisbopof
London, Ontario, where he was consecrated on 19 Oct.,
1890. On 27 Januaiy, 1899, he was created Arcb-
bishop of Toronto. Here he established several new
parishes, gave spedal attention to ooofoaioesfortlie
clei^ and to the study of Christian doctrine the
young. In 1908 he resigned, being appointed titular
Archbishop of Laodicea. He died at St. Basil's Novi-
tiate, Toronto, 30 Jime, 1911. His sueeessor, Fergus
Patnck McEvay, was bom at Lindsay, Ontario, 8 De-
cember, 1836. Ordained for Kingston, he was trans-
ferred to the new Diocese of Peterborough, where he
was rector of the cathedral, and then went to Ham3-
ton with Bishop Dowling. There he was appointed
rector of the cathedral and vicar-general, and re-
ceived the papal honours of private cdtamberlain and
domestic prelate. Consecrated ^hop of London,
OntariOj 6 Aug., 1899, he wa^ promoted to Toronto,
13 Apnl, 190??. He founded new parishes, rAuilt
the cathedral palace, erected a new arehiepiseopal
remdenee, and began St. Augoatine'B Semtaiary, do-

12 VOBOKVO

natad by Mr. Eugstte O'Kerfe (mivste duunbcriain

to His HoUneBs). At the First National Council of
Canada, Archbishop MoEvay was chairman of the
oommission ad nenu materias; ke was also iostrur
mental in founding the CaUK>Uo Church Extension
Sod^y of Cauda. He died on 10 May, 1911.

OinI ineorporatkm took place on 25 March, 1S45,
wdcr the title <rf " The Roman Cathdic £^HB0(^al Cot^
poration for the Dkwese of Toronto u Canada".
All eeckfitastio^ property in the archdiocese, except
that bdongia^ to r^gious commumties, is vested m
this ooiporatKHi. There have been three synods
(1842,. 1663, 1S82) and one provincial council (1875).
Both clergy and people are (or the most part of iimk
extraction, wiith a «naU percentage of fkiglieh and
Bootoh. Then ara homver Uireeparishes exclusively
FnaA, three mixed (fVench and English) , 1 for Poles,
ItaKans, Rutbunans, and Syrifms, respectively, and
one iDdian mission. In the archdiocese are 58
churches with resident pastors and 37 mission
ohurcfaes, 81 diocesan pnests, and 30 of religious
orders or c<mmiunities; 39 8^)arate schools, 2 hi^
schools, 6 academies. 2 mdustnal schools, 1 domestic
■cienoe school^ 1 ooU^ for young men, 2 ladies' ook
legeB,and l<boeBian«eminaiy (jn ooune of eraoticm).
Tnem ore 8009-ofaildren in the schools and institu-
tions. The Catholic papulation is about 70,000. The
Basiliaos have St. MicKad's College, I novitiate and
seholasticate, 2 parishes and 2 missions; the CarmeU
ites, a monastery, novitiate, and house of studies, 2
parishes and 1 missiiui; the Jesuits, 1 parish, 1 Indian
uiBsion, 2 oUier misnons and a memorial chapel on
the spot where Pathos de Br^beuf and Lalement were
killed; the Radempt«i«t8, 1 monastery and 1 paridi
(they also give misdons thnmriiout the iwovince).
The Brothers of the CSuistian Schools have the De
La Salle Institute, St. John's Industrial Sdiool, a
junior novitiate, and 6 separate schools; the Institute
of the Blessed Virgin (Sisters of Loreto), the mother-
house for America, a novitiate, a ladies' colle^, 3
academies, 6 separate schools, and 1 domestic science
school; the Sisters of St. Joseph, their mother-house
and novitiate, a ladies' college, 3 academies 1 hi^
school, 21 separate schools, a House ot Proridenee ror
the aged poor, St. Vincent's Home for Infants, Sacred
Heart Orphanage, and St. Michael's Hoq^tal; the
Sisters of Our Lady of Chari(v of Refuge, a convent
and novitiate, a girls' industrial school and refuge; the
Sisters Adorers of the Precious Blood, a novitiate and
convent. The chaplaincies of the central prison, the
reformatoi7 for women (each of which has a Catholic
diapel), and the hospitals f6r the insuie beloi^ to 8t.
Michael's Cathedral, but are temporarily filled by the
BasUians. The jails, hospitals, and military barradn
are attended the parochial dei^ of their respect-
ive districts.

The city of Toronto has a population of 376,240
(about 45,000 Catholics), and is an educational and
commercial centre. There are 22 city parishes, with
40 secular and 12 regular priests. St. Michael's
Cathedral, modelled uter York Minster, is of the
Oothic style of the fourteenth century. It was boI-
emnly deaicated on 20 S^tcmber, 1848. Toronto Uni-
versity has Catholic representatives on its Board of
Governors, Senate, and Staff, and Catholic students
under the various faculties, Federated with this in-
stitution is St. Michael's College. Catholic pedagog-
ical students attend the provincial normal school and
faculty of education. There are sodalities and con-
fraternities in every parish, as wd! as Catholic fratei^
nal and benefit societies. The Catholic Church
Extension Society of Canada aid^ the Northern and
Western musions; St. Vincent de Paul Society re-
lieves the poor; a Children's Aid Society under the
same patron .i»otects children of dissolute parents;
the St. .^isabeth Nurses' Aeeodation cares for the
■idc in their hcnnii. The Catholic l^th 8oei^ and

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the Holv Name Society are strongly eetaUiahed. The
piiestB have a Eucharistic League and also a society
which cares for infirm members <^ the clergy.

Tbfvt (ed.). JvbiU* Voiuma o{ tke Archdioctto of Toronto

groronto, 189a); HARau, Th« Catholic Chvreh in tha Niagara
tnitfhia (Toronto, 1895): Rosertson, Landptarkt of Toronta,
4th mi. (Toronto, lOM): McKkowk, Lif« of ArcUuAos LvnoA
(UsntraO, 18S6); Th* ArMau at A. JAalkaat'f CaUitiink Atla
•t dMHto prAn* cMcitn iwiwiiiiahi SjorontHtf (Toroato, IS82).

Edw. Kjellt.

Torquemada, TohXs db, first Grand InquisitOT
of Spam, b. at Valladolid in 1^; d. at Avila, 16
Sept., 1498. He was a nephew of the cel^rated
theologian and cardinal, Juan de Torquemada. In
hia eany youth he entered the Dominican monastery
at Valudolid, and later was appointed prior of the
Monastery of Santa Gnu at Swria, an offioe wMeh
he hdd for tventy-two years. The Infonta IsdbeOa
chose him as hex confessor whUe at 8e^Ti& and
when she succeeded to the throne oi Castile in 1474 he
became one of her most trusted and influential coun-
cillors, but refused all high ecclesiastical pref^ments,
choosing to remain a simple friar. At that time the
purity of the Catholic Faith in Spedh was in great
danger from the numerous Marranos and Monscos,
irtio, for materifU consideratims, became sham oon-
verts from Judsdsm uid Mohammedaaism to Chris-
tianity. The Marranos committed serious outrages
against Christianity and endeavoured to iudaize the
whole of Spain. The ^quisition, which the CaUiolio .
sovereigns had been empowered to establish by Sixtus
IV in 1478, had, despite unjustifiable cruelties, failed
of its purpose, chidly for want of centralization. In
1483 the pope appointed Torquemada, who bad been
an assistant inquisitor sinee 11 Pebniaiy, 1482,
Grand biquisitor of Castile, and on 17 October
extended his jiuisdiction over Aragon.

As papal representative and the highest official of
the inquisitonal court, Torquemada directed the
entire buHiness of the Inquisition in SpaiOf-was an-
powsred to detegate his inquisitorial faculties to other
mquieiton of his own choosing, who remained ac-
oountabk to him, and settled uie appeals made to
tiie Holy See. He immediately eatabuahed tribunals
at VaUadoUd, Seville, Jaen, Avila, Cordova, and
ViUanml, and, in 1484, at Saragossa for the Kingdom
of Ara^E<Hi> »e also instituted a High Council, con-
■Bting of five members, whose chief duty was to
assist him in Uie hearing of appeals (see Inquisihon.
— Th» InquuUion in Spam). He co<iveA^ asBneral
BSBonbly of Spanish inquisitors at Seville, 20 Novem*
bcr, 1484, and presented an outline of twenty-eight
■rtioles for their guidance. To these he added several
new statutes in 1485, 1488. and 1498 (Reuss, " Samm-
Inngan der Instruotimen deajspanischen Inqmsitions-
gttichto", Hanover, 1788). The Marranos found a
powepful means of evading the tribunals in the Jews
of Spain, whose ridies had made them very influential
and over whom the Inquisition had po juri^ction.
On this account Torquemada urged the sovereigns
to compd all the Jews ettW to become Christiana
or to leave Sft^ To fnu[brate his designs the Jews
Mreed to pay the £^?aiU8h government 30,000 ducats
if left unmolested. There is a tradition that when
Ftod^umd was about to yield to the enticing offer,
Torquemada appeared betore him, bearing a crucifix
^t, and exclaiming: "Judas Iscariot sold Christ for
80 pieces of silver; Your Highoess is about to sell
him for 80,000 duoats. Here He is; take Him and
•dl BitA." Leaving the crucifix on the table he
left the room. Chie&r throiuh his infttnuoraitality
the J0ws were expdlea from Spain in 1492.

Mucb has been written of the inhuman crusty of
Torquemada. Llorente computes that doling Tor-
guemada^i office (1483-08) 6800 suffered death by
fire and 96,504 were punished in other ways (Hiatoire
de rinquidtioD, IV, 252). These figures are hi|^
conggerKted, as bad befn anwhieiTely proved by

Hefele (Cardinal Ximenee, ch. xviii), Gams (Kireheu-
gesehidite von ^)uuen, XII, 11^ 68—76), uid many
others. Even the Jewish historian Graetz contents
himself with stating that "under the first Inquisitor
Torquemada, in the course of fourteen years (1485-
1498) at least 2000 Je^ were burnt as impenitent
sinners" ("History t£ the Jews", Phibdelphut, 1897,
IV, 356). Most historians hold with the Protestant
Pesohel (Das Zeitalter der Entdeckungen, Stutt-
gart, 1877, pp. 119 sq.) that iin number of persons
burnt from 1481 to IfKH, when Issbella dira, was
about 2000. Whether Xorquemada's ways of fer-
reting out and punishing' heretics were justifiable is a
matter that has to be decided not only by comparison
with the peoai standard of the fifteenth century, but
also, and chiefly, by aa m^uiry into th^ necessity for
tin preservation of Christian Spam. The ccmtem-
porary Spanish chronicler, Sebastian de Olmedo
(Cfaronicon magistrorum generalium Ordinis Pnediea-
bHiim, fol. 80-SlX calls Torquemada "the hammer
<rf heretics, the light of Spain, the saviour <tf his
country, the honour of his order",

MoiAnks, rorouMMiiit U VlttfttiaClUn iVa.np., l%7Tr, B^titr-
tfLKMT, Errmrg htaloriouw (Puis, 187y. I7n-M4; F[t«, It-
^iiiei6tt de Torquemada in BoUtin Aftiii. Fliit.. XXllt (M&dridi
1893), 369-434; Toukon, Hitloirt di.i konmet iUuBtrea d*
d9 Saint Dominivte. Ill (Fario, 1746), Si'^l-^'i; T^nstM
Maruol, Le» Inqmaitwri tCB»paim tPKis, lSD7]j
Hiitoria vtrdadmv de la In^uimeidn, vL X'
Lea, Hitbtnt of ih» /nouirition in Swul.Sm
190ft-08).

MiCHAXL OtT.

Torres (Tubbianub), Fhancisco, Hellenist and
polemicist, b. in Herrera, Palencia, about 1509; d.
at Rome, 21 November, 1584. He was the nephew of
Dr. Torres, Bishop of the Canaries. He studied at
Salamanca and lived in Rome with Cardinals Salviati
and Seripando. In 1562 Pius IV sent him to the
Council of Trent, and on 8 January, 1567, he became
a Jesuit. He was professor at the Roman CoUeg&
took part in the revision of the Sixtine Vulgate, and
had Hosius and Baronius for literary associates. ESi
contemporaries called him keduo librorum for Uie
rapidity with which he examined the principal libra-
ries. He defended the doctrines of the Immaculate
Conception, the authority of the sovereign pontiff
over the council, the Divinely appointed authority of
bishops. Communion under one kind for the laity, the
authenticitv of the Apostolic Canons and the Pseudc^
Isidorian decretals, and pleading the antiquity (A
the feast of the Presentation of the Blessed Vir^,
which Piua V had suppressed, worked for its rein-
statement. Blondel accuses him of want of critical
JudgmeirL and Nadal of mordacity against Protes-
tants. He wrote more than seventy books, princi-
pally polemical, against Protestants, and translations
e^cially of Greek Fathers, many treatises of whoee
works he found hidden away in libraries.

SOTDSLLTiB, BibHolheea Scriptontm S. J, (Rome, 1976), 360:
NiasaaiSKBa, Yarww iluttrai, V (Bilbao, 1890). 57; NicouA
Antokio, BibtieUMoa Hiapano Nosa, I (Madrid, 1783), 487; Hm-
TBK, tfomenetalor, I (Innsbnick, 1892), lOS; SoinntBroeBU
BMiathigue, VIII (BniMels. 1888), 118 aqq.

PiUZ GOTBNA.

Term NabVTO, Babtolkbi^ de, Spanish poet and
dramatist, b. at Torres, near Badaioz, towards the
end of the fifte^th century. The date of his death
is not known, and little is known of his life. He was
a deric aad a man of some learning. About the year
1614 he was living in Rome, where he enjoyed the
patconiee of Fabrioio Golonna, whom he served in the
o^»aeity of chaplain. Following the puUication of a
satire from his pen in which he attacked the vices of
the Court, he was banished f n»n Rome and took refuge
in Ni4>les, where we lose sight of him. In the latter
city -was published, in 1517, a collection of his lyric
and dramatic works imder the title of "propaladia".
These consist of satires, epistles, romances, ballads,
aad agnae miaodlaiieouB poetry, but chie^ al eight

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TOKTOHA

Slays which he oftlla "Ccmwdias". Aside from Ui«ir
terary merit, these latter are of more than paning
interest, for their author gives us a theory of hia own
on the aubject of the drama, and with them he set a
^pew model that was to be followed by later authors.
He divides comedies into two crlnonai namely,
"ComediasdeNoticia" and "ComediadeFantaeii .
Undv the first heading he would include those deal-
ing with real happemngs, that have been actually
seen; and under the seo(Hid| things ot the fancy,
imaginary incidents that .*ee-m true though in fact
not true. In the development of Uie plot, he would
follow the division of Hora^ into five acts, though
he would ohaiu^ the name ot these to " Jomadas",
as th^ seemed to be no more than conTenioit rest-
ing places. He would have not less than six nor
more than twelve characters, and in some of his plays
there is a tendency to observe the unities of time,
place, and action. Among his better known comedies
are "Himenea", "Serafina", and "Tinelaria". The
authentic editions of the "Propaladia" are: those of
Naples (1517), SeviUe (1520-26), Toledo (1536), and
Madrid (157»^). The "Biblioteea de Autores
Espafiolee" publishes several romances of Tomt
(vols. X, XVI, and XXXV).

MouTDf, OrfMriM del Teatro BtpaAot in La BiUM^ca de
lort* Apaflote, II (Mkdrid, 1849-80); Bohl d« Pabek, Tutro
JRnaSoI atOtrior d 1mm dt Vtaa {Uhrahvut, 1832) ; TiCKXOa,
BUL al SpoiMtk lAL (BortoD. ISM).

Vbntuba FiraNTBa.

TfvricelU, Evahqbubta, Italian mathematiciaa
and pfaysidst, b. at Faensa, 15 Oct., 1606: d. at
Flor^ice, 25 Oct., 1647. Modigltana, in Tuscan

Romagna, and

Piancaldoll, in the
Diocese of Imola,
are named as the
birthplace by dif-
ferent bio^aphers.
TorricelU was ed-
ucated at the
Jesuit college of
Faenza, where he
showed such great
aptitude for the
sciences that his
uncle, a religious
of the order of the
Camaldolesi, sent
him to Rome in
1626 for the pur-
pose of study.
There he fell m
with Caetelli, the
favourite pupil
of Galileo, _ who
instructed him in
the work of the
master on the laws of motion. Torricelli showed
his thorough undexstanding by writiiw a thesis
on the path of projectiles. Castdli suit this essay in
manuscript to GalUeo with stronjc recommendations of
his young friend. Galileo invited Torriodli to his
house, but for personal reasons he was unable to ao-
cept until three months before the death of the blind
scientist (1641). The grand duke i^rervailed upon him
to remain at Florence and to succeed Galileo at the
Academy. He solved some of the great mathematical
problems of the diqr, such as the finding of t£e ana
and the centre of p-avity of the cycloid. This prol^
lem gave rise to disagreeable discussion on the i>art of
Rob«rval as to prionty voA cniginalitgr. ToniceUi's
honesty, manliness, and modesty are distinotty shown
in his rei>ly.

His chief invention was the barometer. Pomp-
makers of the Grand Duke fA Tuscany attempted to
raise water to a height of forty feet <n- num^ bat found

that thirty<two feet was the limit to which it would
rise in the suction pump. Strange enough, Galileo,
who knew all about the weight of the air, had recourse
to the old theory that "nature abhors a vacuum",
modifying the Imt by stating that the "hcMm" ex-
tended onl^r to about thirty-two feet. Torricelli at
onoe conceived the correct explanation. He tried
the e}q>eriment with quicksilver, a liquid fourteen
times as heavy as wat», expecting the column which
would oountttbalance the air to be proportiouidty
smaller. He filled a tube three feet long, and her-
metictUly closed at one end, with mercury and sAt it
vertical^ with the open end in a basin of mercury,
taking cue that no air-bubbles should est into the
tube. The o^umn <A mercury invariwly fdl to
about twenty-eight inches, leaving an empty space
(Torrioellian vacuum) above its level (1643). He ex-
pressed his sorrow at the fact that Galileo had not
made this discovery in connexion with the pressure of
air. The barometer is to-day one of the moet im-
portant instruments in physics and chonistry, while
the Torricdlian method of getting a veiy hi^ vacuum
ii still often enqilo^yed. .AAothv discovery was the
law of efflux of a liquid through a small aperture in
the wall of a vessd. He also constructed a nomber
of large <^ectiveB and small, short focus, simple
inicnMO(^>ee. His literary oontributions are noted
for their conciseness, clearness, and elegance. His
manuscnpts have not all been published and are care'
fully preserved at Florence. The foUowiog have ap-
peajred in print: "Trattato del moto" (Florence, bo*
fore 1641); "Opera eeometeica" (Florence. 1644);
"Leiioni aooadauiobP' (Flnence, 1715); ''Esperi-
enia dell argento vivo" (reprint, Berlin, 1897).

Fabbomi, y%U» Itaiarvim., I (Piw, 177S), 34&-40q: Tiusoscmt,
Sioria dMa m. A.. VIII (Flo»noo,i8i2), 30i-10: PooosMDOBrr,
Biogn^UiMU. BanduMerbiiekitt (Le^^i^tf. 1863), 1119.

W ILLUH Vox.

Torrubla, Jos£, b. towards the end of the seven-
teenth century at Granada, Spain; d. in 1768 in the
monastery of Aracoe'li. He entered the order of St.
Peter of Alc&ntara at Granada. In the Phffippiae
Islands, whither he had gone as missionary and •>
secretary to Fogu^ras, the ccMnmissioner^enflr^ oC
Mexico, he was imprisoned for four months, as a
result ot opposition on the part of the rdigioua Ofden
to reforms attempted by the commissioner. He
returned to Cadis and thence went to Rome, where he
withdrew from the order of St. Peter and became a
Franciscan. In 1732 he was again in the Philipmne
IsUmds as superior ctf a cwivent. He travelled in
America and Asia, remaining for a time at Canttn,
China. In 1750 ne returned to Spain, whence he
made three trips to Rome. A linguist, scientist,
collector of foesus and of books, writer on historical,
political, and relidous subjects, Tomibia was held
in high esteem in^ain and at Rom& and by none
more so than by Pope Benedict XIV. Among his
many works may be mentioned : " Roman Ceremonial
of the Discalced Reli^us of St. Francis in the
Province of St. Gregory in the Fhilipfwies" (Manila,
1728): "Disertacion hist4Srico^<^ticO'«a(^rASca de
las islas Filipinas" (Madrid, 1736, 1753): a poem
against FretMnasoniy (Madrid, 1762); "Introduo*
ci6n a la historia natural de Espafia" (Madrid,
1764; German tr., Halle^ 1773; Italian tr. of a p«t
printed under his direction at Rome with the title
"La ^IganU^ogia espafiola"; second volume, on
insects, never printed); "Histuy id the Set^ihie
Older'* (Rome, 1766).

Paul H. Lamuai.

Tortona* Diocbsb or (DBRToraNSia), in Hed-
mont, Italy. The city is situated on the spurs of tin
northern Apennines, on the right bank of the Scrivia,
in a plain rich in cereals, wine, hemp, rice, and silk.
Hie cathedral is (rf the sixteenth oentiuy, built afk«

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TCWfOU

QuriMVliad drnttond the aneient osthednd ilta-
ated on a hill wfaiw dominated Uie cHy, to make
room for a fort. In the eathedral, besidea pictures of
the Lombard School, there is an antique aareophagua
carved with the myths of Phaeton and of Castor and
Pollux. Other churches are the very ancient S.
Maria Can^ S. Oiaeomo, and the wfttMiea of Loreto
and S. Rocoo.

The city of Dertona was founded, or established as
a Roman colony, in 147 B. c, at the time of the ocm-
Btruction of the Via Poethumiana, which connected
Piacoua with Genoa. As two other very important
roads for Pisa and IVovenee began her^ Dertona was,
under the Empire, an important military station.
From the ninth century it was undv ^e rule erf its
biehop, and in 1090 it became a eonunune. In the
struRKies of the Middle Ages Tortona was the faiA-
ful ally ot the Guelphs, for which reasm it was

eral times destroyed, ■ .

e. g. in 1156 by Bar' I ^"Sp
barossa and m 11^)3
by the Pnvjurin,
From 1260 to KU7
the city was aiter-
nately under the do-
mimon or protector-
ate of the imperial
vicars, the inar-
ouesses of M ont-
ferrat, the Vi^ronti
of Milan, and thp
kings 01 N;ip!efl.
From 1347 it formed
ft part of the Milan-
ese state, the fate of
which itshartwl until
1735, when by virtue

a€ the Treaty of Vienna it was ficcupied by the King
of Sardinia.

Aocording to the legend, which is, however, a late
one, the first Bishop of Tortona was St. Martiamis
martyred under Hadrian. It is certain that, in the
first half of the fourth century, T<Nrtona was subject
to the Diocese of Veroelli. The first bishop, aooording
to Savio, was St. Innoc«it, who he believes was the
predeeeasor of St. Ezuperantius (381), the first of
we have certain historical record, and who was
lugh^ praised in a sermon trf St. Maximus of Two.
Few Dtti«r names of bishops of the'sady period are
known; but fnnn the tenth eoituiy the list is mom
complete, conpriring: Giaeprandus (about 048), who
was at the same time Abbot d Bc^bio; Ottone (1080),
a foUown of schisnl of Henry IV; Guido (1096),
who went to Palestine: Bishop Pietro, one <rf those
wiio in 1241 were made prisoners by Frederick II,
while on their way to attend the Council of Rome.
Mdohiorre Busetto was killed by the followers ot Hie
Marquess Gug^ielmo of Montferrat, for which the
marcpiess lost all his rights <tf patronage in the Dio-
cese of Tortona, and was compelled, barefoot and
dad in a shirt only, to walk from the sftrae of tbs
bishi^s murder to the cathedral. In the time of
Micfaele Marhano (1461) the body of St. Roehus was
found at Vaghcra, whidi was the cause of a lengthy
controversy with Aries, which possessed the reUcs of
St. Roehus of Montpellier. Uberto G«mbara (1538).
afterwards a cardmal, was always absent, as pi4>al
If^te OT-nnncio in Oennai^, and lenounoea the
bishoprio in favour oi his relatave Ceaare (1548), pres-
ent at the Council of Treat. Maffeo Oamban (£603)
diettngnished himself in reforming the ehureb, as did
ateo the Thestine Paolo Areek> (1620). In 1805 the
diooese was snporessed by the FVench Govonment
and united with Casale, and on its re-establidiment in
1814 it was taken from the metMpcditaii See of Turin
and made suffragan to Gama. The diooess has 296
817,865 souls, 570 secular and 30 ngakr
XIV,— 50

a-

priests, ftre monasteries, fivs convents for women,
three educational inEtitutions for males, and five for
females.

Cappsubiti, U ChUn d'Aatta, Xllli Savio, Qli antiehi Vm-
CM* dd -PitimoHtt (Turin, ISM), 377; CAUfrvAtx, JITotuw
•torieAs MlTaAlfw t modmo TMomm (1845).

TT. Benioni.

TortOMf Dioouii or (DrarBusBNsia, Dbrtdsa),
Spain, suffragan of Tarragona, comprises ^>oat <^80
square miles, principally in the civil provinces <rf Tar-
ragooa and (^telk>n. Its principal cities are Tor-
tosa and (Dastellon. The "Gerarchia Cattoliea"
(Rome) places the date of creation the diocese in the
fourth oentmy. Local tradition and historians claim
St. Paul as founder of the diocese, and St. Rufus, son
of Simon of Cyrene, as first bishop. ^^Uuiueva
(Tiaje literario, vol. V) would ex^dain the origin <rf
the tradition in r^^ard to St. Rufus by the fact that'

the first iHshop after
the reconqueet of
Tortosa from the
Moors was Godfrey
(Gaufridus), Abbot
of the Monastoyof
St. Rufus, AvigttMt.
Lirioso (364) and
Heroe (about 400),
presented by local
historians as the first
bishopsof whom there
is record, are not
given by La Fuente
or Gams. La Fuente
gives Urso (516) as
the first known bish-
During Moor-
rule in Tortosa
(715-1148) the diooese suffered greatly, and Utile
is known of its history. However in 1068 Fatemus,
"%Qseopus Civitatis Tortuensis", is found. After
the c^ture of Tortosa on 31 Deo., 1148, by Raymond
Berenger, the diooese was restoreiid to its ancient im-
portance. The cathedral was begun in 1158, and
oonsecrated in 117S by Berenger, Archbishop of Tar*
ragona; rebuilt from May or June, 1347 until 1597;
consecrated 8 June, 1597 ; again continued from 5 F^.
1621 to 1725, with latter additions. It is ^ mixed
style, mainly Gothic, and has merit. The cloister is
thought to be originally of the twelfth centuir. A
■wcial chapel oontains the holy ribbon or sash (La
Santa Cinta) which is said to nave been left on the
main altar of the cathedral by the Blessed Virgin, in
an ujparition on the night of 24 March, 1178, and
which since 1620 is sent to the palace in Madrid be-
fore a layal birth. The catheoral udiives contain
msjov valuable oodices, Bulls, etc.
' The diooese was the scene of a disputation between
Christians and Jews in 1413-1414, and fibred promi-
nent^ in the Western Schism, as the antipopes Bene-
dict XIII and Clement VIII resided in Pefiisoola, in
the diooese. The provincial councB of Tortosa ( 1^)
dkl much to remove the evil effects of the sohian.
Among distinguished bishops of the diocese were
Cardinal AugustinSpinola (1623-26) and Adrian VI,
elected pope while holding the Bishopric of Tortosa
l£16-22, and to whom the privilege of the red calotte
worn by bisht^ of this diooese is attributed. The
IHTssenk biahcm of Ttntoea is Dr. D. Pedro RocauMwa
yGarela(b.l8^). Hie dioeese is divided into 12 arch-
prieetahipsaadoontaiBs: 103 parities; 540 secular paro-
ehialoleKy;adioeGeanseminary; the Collegium Maxi*
mum (rf the Jesuits of the Aragon Province; a college
of eoelesiastical vocations; 31 important convents and
houses of sisters: numerous primary and secondary
sdtools; one Catholic daily, ''El Restaurador" (Tor*
tosa); 5 Catholic weddies; one Catholic fortni^Uy;
and two Catholic mrathUes.

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Obsbbtatobt or tbm EJbbo, at HoQuetes, Oata-

looia, Spain. The founder and preaent dinotor is
Father Ricardo Cirera, S.J. The conBtniction of the
buildingB was commenced in Mardi, 1903; the? were
completed in Sept.^ 1004, and by 30 Aug., 1906. tlie
date of a total ecbpse of the sun, it was posubie to
make all the observations in the observatory. See
"Instruociones para la obaervaddn del eclipae da sol
del 30 de Agosto de 1906" and Cirera, "Noticia del
Observatoho y de algunas observackmee del eelipaa
de 30 de Agosto de 1905", issued by the obasrvaUay.
The observatory comprises branches in astn^iliorBios,
meteOTology, and ^eoplwucs.

With the exception of some of the meteorologioal
apparatus, idudi is installed in the opm air, the af^ar
ratus is distributed in six buildings, a seventh bemg
devoted to the library and genial officcB, and a smafl
building apart for the mechanician. All these build-
ings are a^pSLTAte, so as to obtain the greatest posBible
accuracy in the results. In the buildmg for the mag-
netic wservations, all iron or any other substance
i^dch could exert a contrary magnetic influence is
earefuUy excluded. The obaorvatory is at some dis*
tanee from the nearest town, on an elevation which
dominates the valley of the Ebro. There is no electric
oar line or other factor in this valley which could act
as a disturbing influence. (See " Boletfn Mensual del
Observatorio del Ebro", vol. I, no. 1, with iutroduo-
ti<m, an observatory puolicatitm.)

The Government declared this institution a public
utility on 18 Oct., 1904.

The oboenratoiy puUishea a mcmthb' bulletin, in
whidi the obser^ttxHU, reduced to their absolute
values, are given in tables. Other scientific treatises
published by the observatory are: "Discurso relativo
al Establecmiiento de la nueva Secci6n de AstroDO-
mia y Fisica del Globo". by Father Cirera; "La
Secoi<Sn de Astronomia y Fisica del Globo y la Meteoi-
rologia espafiola"; "Los Eclipses de 8 de Mayo de
1910 y 126 df Ahril ds 1911 ; and "RfrietitCB pro-
gresoEi las Cicucias Aittjrfiii6mic'.aa en EspaQA".*

La Fi/bntb, Hitiaria EtfUniatiea Sipana. (M^dHd, LS7a>:
QjtMn, Sviat apUcaparum SttiUna Caliuihta lUa^isimv., 1S73>:
OpBTB*. Siatona manjueriia de ia ciudaddt Tuvlaia (]71?, riuthfin-
tie eopy, Cnl>vio Do) JrtAa, TortoH); Mxiitohellh Hutoria da
Ifi. Hiiifa rTortosB, JflaB: leprintod, Torlcwi. 1906): O'Calia-
QPA". E pueopoiJigio dr la Sania loUtia d< Torioaa [Tortoiia,
1896): Ibbm, La CiUfif-dral de Tortaia (Torttwm, ISOO); Riaca,
Mtpafut Sagrada, XLll CMxlrid, 1801); Villuhuev*. Yiaie
iMmris, V (Madriil. E>SiH); FEUfAitDEe, Urtt'iriti de ToHom

SarcvloOa, 13(3'); MCRALLXV MwWWPR, Oiiln dd Obuj^o dt
Tti-Ki (Torlosft. 3002); UiVecioriUTrt (Tortoas. Ifll J) ; foTobwrv-
Rtofy of I^bro BiAHin nmwaX {iAbO. IDldt, gpanlsh lUid

tNcW York, IfiOcU lOlOl: Phutikr^iiffit ^filtchrift fCdtcinBcn.
I July, mil): U Korfiii*ft (Psri.i. Jtilv, H)ll>; Cift T'^f

Snwwla, IQIO), 4M; Alti delia FormAtria. Accademia R^omaia
(fi«wk, wo-ii),aMVt.»Mar, mi.

iMimiMn fi "MtttiTi^TiT

Totcanella.

DiOCBSB OF.

See Vftbrbo and Toscanbiajl,

TokumUI, Paolo dal Poxxo, mathwiatiean,
astroiUHDer, and cosmographer, b. at Flormoe In 1387:
d. there, 10 May, 1482. Toscanelli, who waa one of
the most dtatinguiahed scientists ci the fifteenth cen-
tury, was the SOD of the Florentine physician Dom-
inie ToecaneUi. He began his mathematioal siiudiaB
at Florence under Giovanni dell'Abacoo. At the
age of eighteen he entered the University of Paduft
^ere he studied mathonatics, philoaac^, and med-
icine. In this period he ftwraea his l3B4ane friend-
ship with Nicholas uS Cusa who studied tew and
mathematics at the same univennty. The two prob*

ably met at the ooUese Prosdocimos de'BeldoiniRndL
Both left the university in 140^, Nicholas with the
title of doctor decretorum and Paolo as a doctor of
medicine. In conaequaiee this Tosoandli aftar-
warda was frequently called Pac^ Jinco. WhBe
Niobolas of Cusa went back to Germany ToaoaoeUi
returned to Florence when he q»Mit the zemainder flf

Paolo du. Poaio Totcufaut

From » paintini b;y Giotsio Yuui In tbs
Signona, Florenoo

his life with theeM^tioD efabortioumeys in Tusoany
and brief sojourns at Todi and Rome. At Florence
Tosoandli took up scientific studies in various direc
tions whioh broun^ him into connexion not only with
distingniahed artiats, as BruneUsM^ but also with
the goeatflat scholars of Italy and other countries. He
may indeed be said to have been the centre of the
learned wra-Id of that era. His contemporaries pro-
nounced him one of the most distinguished matbc^nar-
tidans of his time. RegiomantanuB and Cuss sought
his opinion in the most abstruse questimis of theweti-
cal mathematics, or supportod their assertions by his
authority. Thus
NieholBa of Cusa,
errat at the height
of his fame, ad-
mind in his friend
the thotQUgh
mathematician,
as' is shown by
his treatise "De
transformationi-
bus geometrids"
which was dedi-
cated "Ad Pau-
lum nuwnstri do-
minici Fhysicum
Florentinum"
The same admi-
ration is evident
when Cusa wrote
aa a dialogue
between himself
and Toscanelli the
latter's adverse
criticism of Cu-
sa's "MaUiemat-
icn oomplemetUa". In this dialocue Toscanelli saya
that like Regiomontanus he foima the " Matheooatica
oon^tlementa", wfaidi investigated the squaring of
the (rirele, obanne and ladung in poaitiveneBS.

ToBsanelU'a asnrioes to astronomy are shown b^ the
pahufadciiiig and exact observations and calculations,
pressrvad in manuscript, of the orbits of the comets of
1488, 1449-50, of Bailey's oomet of 1456, of the com-
ets o{ May, 1467, of JunfrJuly-August; 1467, «nd
that of 1472. Acomding; to his own testuoony those
observations cost him immense labours and long
vigils. He oould not witirdy throw off the influenoe
of aatrology, although twoof his eoitampoEariea, Mm-
silio Fieino and Giovanni Pico, disbelieved in it. A
monument to his astronomical skill stQl onsts at the
CatiiednU of Santa Maria del Fiore at Florenee m
the well-knowD gnomon, which he constructed about
1468 and which was wto- improved by Cardinal
Ximanes. A nuf ble slab havii^ a small fK)ening in
it was placed at a hei^t of 277 feet in the aome over
the middle of the l^t transspt; by the shadow he
oaidd 4etflnniBe midday to a tuuf-aeoond, and omdd
dso seMle with much preeiston the altitades of the
aalstioee. Toscanelli also gave much attention to
OBsmogEaphy. It seems indeed that he was the moat
jtshed scholar of. the fifteenth century in this
of science, the aim of which was to gain knowl-
edge cf the worid m its widest eoctent. The estinur
ti<m in whidi he was held as a eosmograpber is dtown
by the family aooa|)ted behef , restmg on tmditioaa
rsspeetin^ Cohimbus, that Cohimb us before undsr-
talcing hiB dai4Gacoua western voyage a^ked Toaoar
naUi's advice. Toaouelli had a thoroui^ fcnowledce
of the writmn of Ptolemy, he had studied the travMB
of Marco Polo, and had gamed personal infonaation
from merehante and seamen, above all from the Itai*
ian traveller Nioolo Gonti. All that he had thus
learned had brought him to the conviction that the
tonnMcse extent of Europe and Ada oovered neaiiy
fcwo^hinla of the earth, tfast is 230* of Utitttd^ m

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that ibe watHn route tactm tfa« oowu could oaXy
cover 180*. For a half oeatuxy tlie Portugocae had
■ought to sail around Africa towanta the east. Toe-
canelli Bcems to have made them repeated propceola
ae to the poenbility a weetem route, without, how-
ever; bmg able to oonvinoe the Portuguese oS the
feasibility of bis theory.

If we may believe the traditiui connecting Toe-
eanelli and Columbus, then Toecanelli wn^ in
answer to repeated requests q£ King Alfonso, the ode-
brated letter dated 25 June, 1474. to the confessor
Canon Fa^am Martins of Linxm whom he knew. In
this letter, which was accompanied by a map, he su;^
gested cU»r directions for the carrying out of his
scheme. This letter had no decisive effect upon the
king but probably influenced the adventurous Chri»-
topBer Columbus, then in th£ full vigour of manhood.
Columbus, who bad lived in Lisbon from 1476, heard

Toseanelli'sidiart, however, hat not been preserved,
either in the original or in a copy. A successful
recoBstruction of this chart was made by Homann
Wagner of Gdttingen whioh shows that ToscaneUi
covered the customary nautical chart of the fifteenth
century with the reticulations of a square flat chart,
upon which direction and distance could be correctly
measured by means of the spaces. It is not surpris-
ing that Columbus was overwhelmed with delight
when he saw it, that he took it with him on his &st
westward voyage, and had absolute confidence in it.
Consequently his two biographers are right in laying
so much emphasis on the controlling influence of Toe-
oanelli over Coliuubus. They even praise the Flor^
entine scholar as the actual father of the great idea of
sailing to India by Uie western route. A diametri-
cally opposite opinion has been expressed by the
li^ench scholar Henri Yignaud, who amce the holding

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ToacANKLLi's Chadt, uadm Of 1474, mcowwucteu bt H. Waonxb, 1894
It is believed thAt Columbus, on bia first votsc^ to the N«w World, wrriMl n oopy of tbia cbirt witb

him

of the correepoodenoe between ToscaneUi and tJie
Court. According to the tradition it was only
through the intervention of the friend <^ Columbus,
Lorenzo GirsJdi, that the former obtained from Toe-
canelli, in answer to a personal inquiry, an eomlaiup
tion oi bia «cheme <rf a voyage westwards. Tose^
n^ i3 Bsid to have asnt Gohnnbus, for this purpose, a
copy of bis letter and chart. At the beginning and
end of the letter Tosoanelh added a few words
addrMsed especially to Columbus. The two biog-
raphies of Columbus, that of his son Fennando and
that of Bishop LasCaaas, both include and give the
text of another letter from Toseanelli in re^ to a
fleoflod letter amt him by Columbus. Uaforiimaiety
Toscanelli's two letters no longer exist in an authcotio
form. Both apparently have been greatly altered in
the Italian translation of Femando's "Historic", and
in the Spanish biography by the Bishop Las Cases of
Ghiapaz. However, by good fortime, the middle part
of Toscanelli's first letter, that is a oopy of &e letter
of 26 June, 1474, has been preserved in its (mginal
form. Harrisse discovered in the "Bibliotheca Col-
wnhina" at Seville a ec^, made by Cohimbus hiio-
■df I of tlie letter to Martins on Oi» covcc erf an edition
ei the "Htatoria rerum ubique gestarum" of i^eas
Silvius. This document maJies it poesHile to detei^
mine fairly accurately Toscanelli's opinioa, which has
been so variously intopreted, concerning the weetem
RN^ and the distance apart of the coaaU of the two

of the American Congress at Paris in 1900 has at-
tempted to prove that ToscaneUi's correspondence
with Martins and Columbus, including the accom-
panying chart, is a forgery. This has led to a violent
ecmtroverey over the '^ToscaneUi question", in which
Italian, .^nmoan, English, French, and German
scholan have supported the traditional belief ^ the
connexion between ToscaneUi and Columbus. Not-
withstanding this, Vignaud in 1905 and 1911 pub-
lished mont^aphs on the life of Columbus for the
purpose of maintaining his views. Vignaud's argu-
ments, however, are not decisive. Even thoush the
correspondence between ToscaneUi and Columbus be
proved to be apocryphal, stiU Toscanelli's kuowl*
edge and ability as a cosmc«rapher does not suffer
in the slightest so long as the letter of 1474 is taken as
the expression of hia cosmogr^ibic ideas, and so long
as the letter of Duke Krcole of Este, written to his
ambassador Manfredo on 26 June, 1494, is reearded
as authentic. This letter says that Toscan^ had
reaUy occupied himself with the idea d a voj^ige
towards the west. The titles of only three of Toa-
oaneUi's worits are known, aone of them, unfortu-
* T, have been preserved: the "Pro^ttiva", Uie
eorakwia agncola", and also, according to Usi-
dli, a tnnwatioa of Ptolemy's gec^aphy. A sinj^
manuscript is one of the treasures of the Bibliotheca
Naiionale oentrale of Florence; tiiis was published
in 1864 and pertains to asitronomy, geodesy, and geog-
laphy.

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T08IPHTA

788

TORI

Unam, Pule M Pmmo iH ToaoaMO*. Bweordo M mUUio
d'HaU <m 189» ^loranoo, 1S92): UuBu^Ia nta ■ t tmpi H
Paolo dal Poiao ToieanMi (Roia*, 1894J; w^aNOK, Rwon-
truetion dtr ToieaAtUi Karte worn Jakrt H7i in QMingtr
Naehriehim (1894). no. 3; Viokato, La Uttrt U la corU dt
ToaeatuUi (Puia, 1901) ; Idbu. StudM nirlatiadt Cobmtb (Puia,
1905 ftnd 1911). For the oontroveray over Tosoanellief. Uuilu,
BiUiomfia dtUa paUmiea eoncemmU Paoio TWowti* • Ckr.
Colombo (N^lea, MOGi.

Fbibdbich Strbichu.

ToMphta (KnCDVI, addition, supplement) is the
luuneDfaoompiUtioii of haUkhic-haggadic character,
which judged by its contents belongs essentially to the
era of the Tanna'im (Teachers), and which is modelled
on the plan of the Mishna; all that is lacking are the
tractates "Aboth". "Tamid", "Middoth", and
"Qinnim". The editors had access to authorities
that are older than our Mishna. The individual
H alakkoth do not show the some subtlety and precision
as in the Miehna ; often the development of the ffalakha
may be traced from the course ofthe diseusBion. The
Haggadah also is fully represented. The history of
the origin of the Tosephta has not yet been satin ac-
torily cleared up. In any case the work in its present
form contains a large number of the doctrines and
utterances of later rabbinical teachers (the Amoraim),
and it was not edited until the late Talmudic period.
W. Zuckermandel, "Tosephta. Mishna, und Boraitha
in ihrem Verii&Itnis zu einanoer" (1 vol., Frankfort,
1906), claims to prove that the Tosephta represents
the Palestinian Mishna, and that our Mishna was re-
edited in Babylonia.

Edition of the TowphUi by Zucksbhansxi. (Paaewklk, 1680),
■upplement to it (Trier, 1882 — ). Thirty-one trutatea, tbe
traotatM on tbe firat three orders are to be tound translated into
Latin in UoouMO, n«»aunu, XVII-XX (Venice. 175&~67).

F. SCH0HIAIN.

Tostado (ToBTATus), Alonso, exwete, b. at Mad-
rigal, Castile, about 1400; d. at Bonma de la Sierra,
near Avila, 3 Sept., 1455. After a course of gram-
mar under the
Franciscaiw he en-
tered the Univer-
sity of Salamanca,
where, besides
philoso phy and
theology, he stud-
ied civil and
canon law, Greek,
Hebrew, and the
other branches
then comprised in
the curriculum of
a university. By
^at application
joined to an un-
usually brilliant
mind and an ex-
traordinarily re-
tentive memory he
accumulated such
a vast store of

Alombo Tcwtado
From A print in Thevet'a lirra daa
Vnia Pouitnita, ^ria, UM

knowledge that hia eontemporariea styled him the
wonder of the world. At twenty-two he began to
lecture on a wide variety of subjects to large audi-
ences attract«d by his leammg. Later he aasisted
with distinction at the Council of Basle. During a
visit to the papal court at Siena in 1443, he was de-
nounced to Eugene IV as having publicly defended
an bcreticid ancTsome rash propositions, but in an ex-

Slanatory letter he assured the pontiff of his ortbo-
oxy. In his " Defenaorium", written on this oeoaskm
agamst Torqueraada and otber critics, he gave utter-
ance to views derogatory to the authority of thepope.
On his return to Spain he was appointed Grand Chan-
cellor of Castile, and in 1449 Bisnop of Avila, whence
his title Abulensis. Besides a Spanish commentary
on the ohronidee of Eusebius and othw minor works,
he wrote oommentariea on the hisiorioal bodv «

tbe Old Testament as far as II Far., and on t4ke
Gospel of St. Matthew. Theae are extremely diffuse,
containing many digressions on dogmatic and other
subjects, which, though often excellent in themselves,
are out of place in a commentary. An edition of hin
works in 13 folio volumes was published at Venice
in lfi07 and 1547; a more eomirfete edition in 24
f<dk> T(dumeB aDpeared at the same |daoe in 1615, and
another in 27 fouo volumes in 1728.

Hinrm, Nvmmdalat, IV, 763; Axtomio, BMioth. Him. Veitu,
U (Madrid, 1788), 265; JVowv. Biofr. tUn.. XLV. 518; Ahadob
i» uw Rim, Bittar. Crit. i» la Uunt. EtpaiL, VI. vii, and xi.

F. Bbchtbl.

Tofti, Ldioi, Benedictine historian, b. at N^Ies,
13 Feb., 1811; d. at Monte Cassino, 24 Sept.. 1897.
His father, Count Giovanni Tosti, descended from
an ancient Calabrian family, having died young,
his mother, Vittoha Corigliano, entnuted the chiM
to its uncle, a monk at Monte Cassino. In 1819
Tosti became a pupil at the celebrated abbey, and- was
drawn early towaras the monastic life. lie was sent
to Rome to complete his studies, was ordained piieet
in 1833, and soon returned to Monte Cassino, where
Ua twenty yean he taught the doctrines of St. Inomas.
About 1829 he had begun a deep study of history,
and in 1842 he published his "Storia della badia di
Monte Cassino'^ soon followed by the "Storia di
Bonifasio VIII''. His "Storia della L^a Lorn-
barda", dedicated to Pius IX, appeared in 1848 and
was a trumpet-call to the Neo-Guelph party. He
laboured so assiduously that in 1851 Iw ptu^ished the
"Storia di Abelardo e dei suoi tempi", the "Storia
del Coneitio di Costansa" in 1853, the "Storia dell'
origine dello scisma greoo" in 1856, "La Contessa
Matilde e i Romani pontefici" in 1859, and in 1861
the "ProlMomeni alia storia universale della Chilsa".

Tosti took an energetic and enthusiastic part in tbe
national movement blessed by Pius IX. In 1844
he had planned a review, "L Ateneo italiano", for
the purpose of putting the pa^Htcy at the head of
the Riaargimento. The Ne^olitan police auUiorities
opposed it, and forbade Tosti to take part in the pro-
jected mediation (between the pope and the tnum-
virs of the ephemeral Roman R^blic), which was
advocated by the French envoy, Comte d'Harcottrt.
Pius IX had to intervene personally to secure the
liberation of the learned monk, who had been ac-
cused, as Cardinal C^>eoelatro i^tes, of belonging to
a band of murderous conspirators, and put in prison.
Temple, the English ambassador at Naples, also
courageously opposed^ this defenceless persecutioo,
Tosti sought oonsolaUon in the stud^ of the Hohr
Soqttures and his beautiful book, "Ricoxdi biblid".
was the fruit of this miah^. He had the sorrow oi
seeing his beloved oonvento threatened by a law of
rooliation passed by the Parliament of the new
Italian Kingdom, and ujpealed to distinguished
friends, sneh as W. £. Gladstone, to obtain some
exemption for Monte Cassino, which he likewise
procured later for the Abbey m Grottaferrata, the
Saero Speoo of Subiaco, etc. Pained br these per-
secutions Tosti refused a chair ^ tiie Uuivoi^ of
Pisa, but became later assistant archivist of the
Vatican, under Leo XIII. This great wotn'B allocu-
tion in May, 1887, inviting the Italian Government
to make peace, presided over by the former revolu-
tionary,Cri8pi,rekindledTosti'8patriotism. Deputed
by the pope to negotiate the restoration of St. Paul's
to the Bffliedictines, Tosti hoped to effect an official
reconciliation of the Vatican and tiie Quirinal.
Crispi's impatience^ mutual opposition, .uie dis*
trusts of French diplomatists, thwarted his noble
efforts, and the too nopeful religious had to retract
mblicly his brochure, "La ocmciuasione". He wiUi-
diew to Monte Cassino and undertook hie "Delia
vita di S. Boiedetto". Moved hf the pope's gener-
ous vsfpvtX to the English in 1896, he roiewed his

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TonmuM

efforts with GHMbtone, in favour d a reunion <A the
Churches.

BsLLBuatM in Katlutlik, I USW), 180 iqq.; CAraosuno,
Commemor. di D. Vuigi Tatti (Moote Caasiao, 1800); Cifolu,
Luiei TmHvUiv rdoMimi ool PUmonU ia AlH d. R. aead. dtlU
ae-Oi ZVhw, XXXVI (iteaea 0(26 Not.. 1900): Onsio, ilpadn
Luigi ToaH la Aii. d'ltatia, I (1898), 34 Bqq,; Qat. Lt rkt TtMi
in Hnue at Pari* (Nov., 1004): PuTSLU. A Totti in Ar-

eUrio <(ar. iUL, Mries V, XXI. 241 mvxA QcUfnT&iu, 2,a m»-
cuMinoiw/ra V Italia » il popofo (Milan, 1S07).

Giuseppe Gallavbesi.

Total Abstinence Union of America, Catho*
uc. See Temperance Movements.

Totemism, from o/«,rooto(,po8Be8siveformotem,in
the Ojibway cfialect of the Algon<iuin stock of Ame-
rican Indians; by eome autiuH-ities spelled dodeme
(Father de Smet), todem (Father Petitot), Toodaim,
aodaim, lotam (J. Long) ; the origiiial signification was
apparently a person's family or tribe, and in a nar-
rower sense his belongings.

Totemism constitutes the group of superstiticHis
and customs of which the totem is the centre. It ia
defined as the intimate relation supposed to exist be-
tween an individual or a group of mdividuals and a
eltus oS natural objects, i. e. the totem, by which the
ftKiner regard the lattw as identified with them in a
mystical mannw and in a peculiar sense their own
fadkmgiDfA BO that th^ bear the name of the totem and
show this belief in certain customs. The conviction
of the intimate union constitutes the religious aspect
<rf Totemism; the customs which result therarom
form its sociolcwical aspect. If the union exists be-
tween an individual ana a class of natural objects, we
have individual Totmism. When it ezists between a
clan and a natural class we have clan Totemism.
Frazer mentions sex Totemism, but that is peculiar
to Australia. The totem is most frequently an ani-
mal species, more rarely a plant, ocoa8i<maOy au in-
animate object, e. ff. sun, wmd, rock, etc. Totemism
is wide^read ana developed amon^ the American
Indians and the aborigines oi Australia. Traces of it
are found in South Africa, in the Polynesian Islands,
and amtmf; the Dyaks of India. Mauss says it does
not exist in all savage races of otur day (Ann^
flooiologtt^ue, IV, 1899-1900); Reinach maintains
that it existed among the Grews and Celts (Cultes,
Mythes et Religions, II, Paris, 1005); Gomme, in
the British Isles (Ardueological Kev., Ill, 1889);
Thomas, in Wales (Rev. de I'histoire des reluoons,
XXXVIII, 1898) ; R^, among the Romans (Cultes
mihtaires de Rome, Lyons, 1903). It is doubtful
whether Totemism existed among the Aryan races,
aiul the facts allied can be expuined by idolatry.
L««t maintains that Totemism existed among the
early f^yptians, but evidently confounds this belief
with animal-WOTship. Robertson Smith holds that
Totemism Ues at the basis of the Semitic religions.
Zapletal has opened up anew this problem, and ques-
tions Smith's conclusions. Evidence from annual
names is now admitted to be a precarious support
for the Totem theory. Frazer clearly shows that
there are sacred animals and plants which are not
totems; and Levy denies to Totanism any r61e among
the earl^ Hebrews. Hence the neeent writer rejects
the opinion of A. Lang that m ttie education of man-
kind Totemism has puyed a part everywhere.

I. Bistort. — The phenomena of Totmism were
first brou^t to the knowledge of the civilised world
by the Jesuit miesicmaries to North America in the
seventeenth oentunr. The earliest accounts in Gne<
lish came from J. Long (Vayagea and Travels.
London, 1791). Following th^ are accounts of
'Major 8. H. Long (ed. by Edwin James, London,
1823)iJames, Warren. Morgan, Schoolcraft, and Cat-
fin. Phenomena of tne same kind were observed by
travtllers and nuasionaries in Australia. The impor-
tance of Totemism in the eariy history of society was
ftk polntod ovt by J. F. UeLoDBaa, who loc^oeed aa

a wprUnff hypothesis that the andent nationa of the
world had paued through a pecidiar kind of Fetishism
or Animism which finds its typical representation in
the totem-tribes of Australia and of North America
("Fortnightly Rev.", Oct.-Nov., 1869; Feb., 1870;
"Studies in Ancient History", London, 1896). On
these lines Robertson Smith attempted to show that
Totemism lay at the root of the Semitic religions and
thus was the basis of the faith now embraced by the
most civilized nations the world ("Animal Wor-

burgh, 1889; "Sacrifice'^in Encyc. Britannica, 9th
ed.): F. B. Jevons went further and aflfirmed that here
are found the germs out of which all religion and all
material progress have been evolved (Introd. to the
History of Religion, London, 1896); hence Totemism
was regarded as an established titeory with the foun-
dation laid by McLennan and the superstructure by
Frazer, Smith, and Jevons. This theory is now re-
jected by scholars. Father Bruu, writing of French
West Africa, says that Totemism dom not appear asa
precise stage c» religious evolution exclusive ^ all
other belie»; it is simply an element of these beliefs.
MurilUer criticises Jevons (Revue de I'hist. des re-
ligions, XXXVI). The invesU^tirai of Frans Boas
among the Indians of North-West Canada and of
Spencer and Gillen among the Australian aborigines
gave the decisive blow to the theory and opened a new
phase in the study of Totemism. Hence Hill-Tout
says that Totemism is not the ideal and exact social
or religious system savage regimentation which
some writes have tried to show. It is found among
races varying much in modes of Uving, e. g. hunting,
pastwal, i^cultural, and industrial, and, becoming
part cS uieir varied beliefs and customs, has f^ipearod
to assume differing forms.

II. Oriqin. — Totmism must be simple to the
savage mind, yet it is a puzzle to anthropologists. A
great mass of facts different and at times in seeming
contradiction have been gathered in America and
Australia, ^et the resemblances are so many and so
close as to justify the classification under one common
name. Different explanations have been proposed,
and these have varied as new data were addra. There
is scarcely any other class of social pbenommi more
difficult to explain. Frazer says a definition is only
provisional and A. Lang resorts to "conjectures" and
^'guesses" (Secret of the Totem, p. 28). The discu»-
siim has produced a wealth of hterature which has
served to exi^erate the real position and influence of
Totemism. ^e difficulty is to define the nature of
the relation between the mdividual or clan and their
totem. Hence: —

(a) The Namfi-Theory. — Herbert Spencer classes
Totunism under animal-worship and says its expla-
nation is found in the Drimitive custom of naming
children after natural oojects from some accidentfu
circumstancee or fanciful resemblance, and then in
0(HifouDding these metaphorical names or nicknames
with the real objects, i. e. ancestors, and consequent^
pajring to the animals the sune reverence they paid
their ancestors. Hence a phase of ancestor-worship
founded on mistakiojg metaphors for facts (Prin. of
Sociol., I; xxii). Akin to the "nickname" thecny of
Spencer is the explanation of Lord Avebuty. He
views Totemism as nature-worship and says it arose
from the practice of naming individuals and then their
families afto* particular animals: the ^ individuals
would look upcoi the animals at first with interest,
then with r^peet, and at length with a sort m
awe (Marriage, Totranism, antf Religion, London,
1911). A. Lang proposes the "sobriquet" theory.
He adopts the opinion of de la Vega that totems were
names imposed oy outsiders to aistinguish the indl-
viduab or families from one another (Secret of ths

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Totem, pref.). Hence he agrees with J. F. Meten-
nan, Loret, and Wake that totenu were merdr
ethnic Attributes, sjonbols, or enajgos of clans. A. K.
Keane also hotda that Totemism arose in "heraldic
badges" (Ethnology, 9). Max MttUer writes, "A
totem is a clan mark, then a clan name, then the name
of the ancestor of the clan, and lastly the name of
something worahipped by the clan" (Contributions
to the Scienee of Msrthokcy^ 1, 201 ) . Lang, howevw,
haids that the name came into use before, not after,
its pictorial representation, i. e., the clan mailt.
Pikler says the germ of Totemism is in the naming and
has " its originfu germ not in reltnon but in the prac-
tical every-day needs of man". Risley also savs that
the totem is an ancient nickname, usually aerived
from some animal, of the supp«>aed founder of the
exogamous sept, now strippod of its personal associa*
tion and remembered soiiely in virtue of the part it
piays in giving effect to Uie rule of exo^uny. In
criticism it can be said that the name-theory fails to
explain the intimate relation of the individual or clan
to the totem. Hence Durkheim writes "a totem is
not only a name; it is first and above all a retigious
principle" ("Ann«e sociologique", 1902, 119).

Lang admits that his "theory is not in accordance
with any savage explanations of the origin of the
totem" (Social Origins, 188). Hewlett writes: "It
seems moat improbable that any such nicknames
would have been adopted and have given rise to
Totemism, nor do I know of a single instance in which
such nicknames have been adc^ted. " Rcinaoh holds
that animal names are an effect, not a cause of To-
temism (Cultes, Mythes, et Religions, I, 22). Tyler
says the theoiy is not vouched for by sufficient evi-
ftence (Primitive Marriage, II, 214). Boas distin-
guishes three classes of tribal and of clan names^
e. g. collective forms of the name of the ancestor,
names of region inhabited and names of honour.
Miss Fletcher says that with the Wezhishta gens of
the Amaha names are classified as nikU, i. e. per-
taining to the gens, "dream", "fanciful" and "bor-
rowed'' names, and nicknames, and women nevar
had more than one name which was of nUcie ebuas.
Hill-Tout dechtfes that the commonest of IncUan
names in British Columbia are not nickmunes, but
true prcenomiiMf mostly given to infants Portly after
birth before any resemblance is apparent or possible.

(b) The Tranimigration Tkeory, advocated by
Q. A. Wilkin, and also by Tylor (Jour. Anth. Inat.,
XXVIII, 1899), regards the totem as the bridge
over the gap between a clan of men and a epecfes
of anima&i, so that they "become united in kin-
ship and mutual alliance". In criticism it m^rbe
said that the notion of transmigration is not primitive,
for with Tylor Totemism is regarded as primitive.
Again biie belief in transmigration is found amon^
peoples who show no trace of Totemism, while it is
unknown to the African Baganda and to most if
not all of the North American Indians whose Totem-
ism is cleu-ly marked. Hence Fnuer hokts that
Toteminn and transmigration are distanet and
independent. Anally, transminatun may enter
into phases of Totemism under the form of the rein-
carnation of ancestors; this, however, is not the origi-
nal element but a corrupted phase fotmd only occa-
sionally and hence a later development.

(c) The Economic Theory, proposed in accord with
those anthropologists who hold that the startit^-
point of social organization was the necessity of mo-
curing food, appeara in two forms. Dr. A. C. Haaotm
maintains that totems orwinally were the animals of
plants on which the local groups <rf people chiefly
subsisted and after which they were named by the
neighbouring groups ("Rep. of the British Assoc.",
Beffast, 1902; "Folk Lor«*', XHI, 893). But this
theory faib to ei^lain the existence of inanhxwte
•bjeets as totems. Agiin, Baldwin 9pmoet dnJeB

M TOTMMSfM

flueh specialimtioD of diet between loeal groups
(Northern Tribes of Central Australia p. 767). The
second form was advocated by Prof. Frazer, who,
following Spencer and Gillen (Jour. Anth. Inst.,
XXVIII, 1899, 273), taught that Totemism is not
80 much a religious aa an economic system, and held
that it originated as a system of magic designed to
supply a community with the nec^sities of Ufe,
especially food and drink. Thus each totem group
pof orms ceremonies called intidiiima for the
multiplication of the totem-plant or animal. Ueaoe
the prime duty of a totem dan was to provide a
supply of its totem-animal or plant for oonsumption
by the rest of the tribe, and thus ensure a plentiful
supply of food ("Fort. Rev.", April and May, 1899).
Fraaer afterwards rejected this theory as too complex,
and says that probably/' the co-operative communities
of totemic magicians in Australia are developmuits
of Totemism rather than its geim (Totoniam and
"^iXOffany, IV, p. 57). In fact the economic theory
does not account for the sense d kinship between
man and animal, and the belief prevailing in places
that the clan is descended from the animal.

(d) The EjierruU Sotd Theory, earlier propounded
by F^f. Fraser, i. e., the possibility of depositing the
souls of living people for safety in external objects
such as animals or plants, but not knowtuK yntvAi
individuiJ <A the species is the receptacle of his souL
the savage spares the whole species from a fear of
injuring unwitting the particular individual with
which his fate is bound up ("Golden Bough", II,
London, 1890). Frazer rejected this theory on the
ground that it was not ccmfiimed by subsequent
research.

(e) The Conception Theory is the third and last
ex^anatwn of Fraser. He says Totemism has its
source in Uie savage ignorance of paternity, and is a
primitive explanation of conception and cbiklbirth,
vis. that conception is due to a spirit of an anoeetcv
entering the body of a woman, that she associates it
with the object which was nearest her when the child
was first Sat in the womb, and that this object is
req^arded as the deserted receptacle of the q)irit.
And nnee the spirits of people of one particular toton
are believed to congregate in one spot, and the natives
know these spots, the totem of the child can easily
be determined ("Totemism and Exogamy", IV, 57).
In criticism we may say that the theoir is based on
the beliefs of the Arunta tribe in Australia, that, while
van Gennep holds to Arunta primitiveness, A. Lang
oon8iden> it a decadent sport (Secret of the Tot«m,
appendix), that Speneer and Gillen testify to changes
in Amnta Totemism, ihat it does not explain Toton-
ism in its wide extent, and finally that these bdiefs
find another and a much better eii^lBitttion.

(0 The Manitou, or Quardian fi-pirU, Theory, first
proposed by the Jesuit missionaries to North America
in the seventeeiith century and revived in our day by
Dr. Frani Boas, Miss Ahce Fletcher, Father Morice,
Mr. Hill-Tout, and J. Owen Dorsay, teaches that the
manitou of we individtial has developed into the
totem of the dsn. Tbaa can be explained in two frvy^.
First by real inheritance, e. g. the guardian cqiirit of
an ancestor transmitted to bis descendants. Hence
the clan totem is the hereditary manitou of a family.
Dr. Boas states that the guardian spirit of the North
Pacific Coast becomes hereditary. Father Brun says
that Uie Totemism of French West Africa is essen-
tially famihid in the soise of the Roman gene. A.
Lang objects to the inheritanoe of the petaonal toton
we dan on the ground that mother deeoent is
more primitive tiian paternal descent. But the*
objection assumes that Totemism is primitive: a
contention by no means eetaUisfaed. Fraier says
the clans would be st^le and permanoit even with
mother descent, if the hneband took up his abode
wMi tb« wif or <^ *^ ranuned at home

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(Totemism and Exo^:«ny, II, 103, n). Morgoa
states that this condition is true oi the Iroquois,
whose ctans are permanent even with mother descent.
Hill-Tout writes that in North-Weet Canada the
totesm is hereditary either frun father to ton is the
paternal rig^t, or from the man to his aista^s childreJi
m the maternal ri|^t. For even under maternal
i^t the head of the clan is invari^ly a nup-^the
doer male relative on the maternal side, 'nius the
founders ctf families and of totMU-creeta axe as invari-
ably men under matriarchy as undor patriarchy; in
the former, indirectly through the man's sister, in
the Mter, directly to his diildren (Trans. Roy. Soc.
Canada, IX, XI; B.A.A.S., London, 1889). Frazer
points out that among the Melanesian^ where motfaer-
kin previdls. the nearest male relal;iTe of the diildrat
is the motner's brother (toe. cit., II, 74). And
Swan ton says of the Tlingit shamans that qnrits
descended from uncle to nephew. The great diffi-
culty with the real inheritance theory is that it does
not explahi enough. It may account in places for
the change of the persons^ totem of an ancestor into
the cian totem, but it fails to t^ how or why the same
totem is held by different ctans or tribes or stocks not
eonnected b^ ties of btood-rolationship. The natund
explanation is that the fauna and flora of a coontiy
are substantially the same, and individuals in different
parts belonging to different tribes could in the usual
way acquire a totem wbioh they would transmit to
their descendants. Thus with members <A the same
olan there would be the same totem with consanguin-
ity. With members of different clans having the
saibe totnn there would not be consanguinity out a
land of relationship based in tb6 passesrioa the
same. Hence Dr. Pison writes of the Australians:
"All men of the same generation who bear the same
totem are trib^y brothers, tbon^ t^ey may belong
to different and widely separated tribes" (qwrted
by Lang, "Secret of the Totem". 46). If therefore
real inheritance be supplemented by supposed inheri-
tance, it can be safelv maintained that the ctan
totem, taken in its widest extent; is a development
or extension of the individtul totem or -nuuiitou
through real or supposed inheritance. The nature
of the supposed inheritance becomes clear from the
following.

III. Natotih. — ^The basis of Totemism is the ani-
mistic conception of nature. The life revealed in
living things, the forces manifested by physical
objects are ascribed to spirits snimating them or
dwelling therem. "Thwe is indeed nothti^ in
nature , writes Charlevoix, "if we can beUeve the
savages, which has not .its spirit" ("Histoire de Ut
Nouv. France", Paris, 1744, VI, 67). The feeHng
of weakneaa in the midst of powers and forces greater
than his own leads him to seek union with one or more
of these powers. It becomes his guide and support;
its power is added to his; its life or "essence^' or
"m^rstery *' becomes part of his very own, he is ct^ed
by Its name, and some part of its physical embodiment
is viewed as his most valued poeseanon, as the mark
<rf his spirit protected and the sign of his strength-
ened life, i. e. his "medicine" or "mystcnr". 'Hiub
savages believe themselvea endowed with the qualitiee
of their totems. Thus we can understand the Hrth
and death ceremonies of the totem tribes, the facte
that in the tribal dances and ceremonies the indrvid-
uals imitate in action or costume ^e appearance
and habits of th«r totems. So also we can undtiv
stand the respect or lev^moe Ahieh tbe IndivMuftl
has f<xt his totem, the intiMat'e relfttiblk exifltflijg
between them, the fact that he regards them as hm
kin and calls them brothers, and as far as possible
identifies hhnsetf with them. Thus tlie savaift with
a totem has his own human life and strength plus the
spirit-life and strength of the animd or cHb}ect whose
toton be poAeases. For, m with tbe natives of Brit-

ish Ccriombia, the tnva or «ya, i. e. tbe "esseoee" or
"mystery", becomes the totem, not themere outward
form of the animal or object. He either has this
spirit^life acttutUy and habitually compenetrating
and augmentin;^ his own natural powers or at least
poflsessea the right to invoke the spirit^life to the
aUgnentation oThis natural powers in time of need,
e. g. an Indian in a canoe, seeing the enemy gaining
upon him, reverentity calls upon his totem, e. g. saw-
bill duck, and reoeives sucA additionid strencui that
he soon escapes his pursuers (Frazer, "Totemisn and
Exogamy", HI, p. 385). In the former case the
possession of tbe spirit-life is habitual and can be
conceived as passing to his descendants; in the latter
casie it is occaaonaUy present and therefore need not
be hereditary. To possess intact this spirit-hfe, or
at least to keep the claim to its assistanoe dear and
mihanpered, seems to be the reason for tbe regular
religious ceremonies practised in regard to Uie totem.

Furthermore, in studying the relation of the spirit-
life of the toton to the natural Kfe of the individual,
we can conceive that the latter is at times more promi-
nent and at times the spirit-life is principally con-
sidered. In the former case the members of the
totemie clan are united, not onhr in the possession
of the same common spirit-life, but through ties of
consanguinity, by participation in a common human
life. In tbe latter case the members of the totem
clan would not of necessity be related to one another
by blood, but would consid^ themselves relatives
by a common mrtieipation in the spirit-life of the
same totem. Thus we can understand why some
tribes have both clan and individual totems, and
tgBia wity smne dana have two or mere totems.
Fmally, in the thewy tiiat tbe clan totem is the
natural devedopment n the individual totem, the con-
tention of some scholars that the term totem AotM
be reserved to tbe clan totem is of little moment.
Thus van Gennep, E. B. Tylor, and Lang hold that
the ctan totem alone deserves the name; and Fraaer
now advocates tbe opinion oS van Qennep CTotanism
and Exogamy, III, 466).

Hence Toteminn, luce Fstishiam and KuEmaaism,
is btfed on Antmism, but differs from th«n in the
way the spirits are conceived to ent« into the lives
of men and manifest their power. Miss Kingaley,
however, matntiuns that Toteminn is based on the
pantheistic conception of the nniveise, which she
says was held by tbe American Indians. But this
is not correct. The Indians always made a distino-
tioti between the spirit-life of the totem and the cvdi-
nary hmnan life or strength of men. The f<niiiCT was
eunriderM aaered, mysterious, mystic, supernatural.
This is shown by the terms used to designate the
spiritJife, e. g. wahan of the Dakotas. orenda of tJie
Iroquois, ttolmala of the Kwatiati Indians. Don&y
Sbys that an Indian's toakaned is considered inspired
and 86- possessing supematural power. Thus the
Indian's "medicine bag" is his "mystery bag",
writes Catlin, and Dr. Hoffman tells us that the young
Algoftqain receives from the Great M^rstery the
particular animal form he might adopt as his f^ardian
mystery, and ibiis becomes his advisor, momtor, and
intercessor with the superior manidos.

The real nature of Totemism, therefore, is the
savage eofioeptlon of a twofold power or life or
strength in the individual, i. e. his human life plus the
spirit-life of the totem. But the measure in which
the spirit-Kfe enters into the human life of the totemie
ibdi^TOUal varies in diffrt«nt tribes and races, giviiu
rise io difficulties experie&oed by students of this
sul^ect. Thus we have the spirit-life holding a sub-
ordmate position in relation to the hnman life; or
the Mirit-life so prombent that tbe human life ia
aibsorbed by it and consequently ignored and f(Hv

Sittm; or we find both the «pfarit Hfe and the human
e eqoafiy leeopiiied but at times in a ooofused

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aatxm. In the fint cue the husua demtnt ive-
domiiutcfl and descent is reckoned by human genera-
tion. Miss Fletcher assures us that the Omanas do
not hold descent from the totem animals; and Father
Brun says the same is true of the natives in West
Sudiui. Boas writes that the Kwatiutl ludidoa do
not consider themselves to be descendants o£ the
totem; they believe the totem came from an ancestor
who had an adventure with an animal which he took
as his totem and transmitted to his olan; and that the
connexion between the totem and the dan has become
80 slight that it has degenerated into a crest. The
Tlingit do not believe in deac«it from the totem, yet
count the totem as tbeir rdative or protector, as e. g.
Indians of the Wolf totem implore the wolves: "we
are your relations, pray do not hurt us." Hence
Powell's statement, that the totem <rf the clan is
considered to be the tarogoiitOT or prototype of the
olan, is not unlvwsaUy true. This also sohres the
difficulty experienced by Hill-Tout, who says that
the Totemiem of British Columbia appe$n to differ
in important and characteristic features from the
Totemism of peoples elsewhere.

In the second case, where the spirit-life is considered
as absorbing the human life, the fact of human gener-
ation is igncoed and foi^tten. Thus, e. ^ among
HiB Aruntea human patonity is unknown. Th^
believe that oonceptim is the ^tnuwe of the a|mt
<^ an ancestor into the body of a mmtux, and thus
every child bom is the reincarnation of an animal or
plant ancestor. In the olden times the totemic
ancestors were families or groups of families who lived
in some definite part of the tribal territory. Stone
would be swans, others dogs, kangaroos, snakes, etc.
They carried with them sacred stones called chvnnoa,
i. e. soul or spirit-Ufe. Upon death the q>irit-li£e
would remain in the ckurinffa and would haunt the
place where these were. In the course of time all the
camping-places, water-holes, large rocks, springs,
hills, trees, etc., would be thronged with spirits of all
kinds. The exact locality of these ancestral spots,
with the specific kind of spirits dwelling there, was
known from oral tradition. In virtue a the qilrit-
life, these spots were eonmdered as related to one
another in the same way that human beings are
related, e. g. a soakage may be the mother's brother
of a certain hill, a rook may be the fatbra- of a particu-
lar sand-hill, a tree may be the broths of a sand-bole,
etc. If in passii^ a jwticular spot a woman feels
the quickenmg of the child, she ascribes it to the fact
that an ancestral spirit of that spot has at that
moment entered her body. The object, e. g. stone,
pieoe of wood, etc., that met her eye at that mommt
IB careful^ taken as the ehttringa of the child and
placed in the secret Btore4iouse of the tribe kept for
that purpose. Thus the totem of the child will be
the totem of the spot whoioe the ckurinffa was taken.
Hence there could be children of the same parents all
possessing different totems.

In the third case, where both the ^irit-life of the
totem and the human Ufe of the individttal are reoog-
niaed but in a confused manner, we find the enihna-
tion of another class of beliefs and myths which have
gathered around Totemism. Thus we can understand
now the North American Indiana, in explanation of
their origin, can neglect the human so that in the
remote psst it is lost in the animal. Thus Indiana of
the Woif totem say they are descended from wolves,
of the Crane totem from cranes, of the Turtle totem
from turUes, etc. So too we can see how they w&re
led to believe that their anoestofs were iMinetraeitiee
endowed with superhuman powers, e. ^ Sftlish tribes,
or were transformed human> or semi-humaiir «• g-
Urabunna or creatures partaking of boUi human and
animal natures with power of transforming thon-
aetres into animal or human aha^ at vw, •. g.
Nartham Auatealian tribes, or of i«tnuufonBdB(thaiD-

adves, e. g. Iroquois (Hedtt, "Iroquni Conolocy"
in "2lBt Am. Rep. of Bur. of EthnoL", Washington,
1904, p. 219). On this hypothesis we can gfaap the
myths of mixed generation so universal among totemio
peoples and see also why the Haides, in veneratine
the KiUer-whaie, blend in their belief the actual animal
aad the d»non Skana supposed to be embodied in it.

IV. Pebsonal Totbh, i. e. manUtm of Algon-
quins, t» iUMndk of Tlingit, augud nS Twrea 8trait%
wHa of British Cohunbia, tnMijan <tf south-east Aus-
tralia, on' of Bocth-east Australia, otAarre <^ West
Australia, oloi and kmumiu of Melanesia, nyarottg
of Borneo, nagual of South America^ tamanous of
Twana Indians, is not hereditary; it is acquired by
the individual and it is his own personal property,
whereas the elui totem is considered the possession
of the elan. It is dstained either accidentally, aa
when a savage believea that he owes his Itfe to an
animal which he immediate^ tains aa his totem; or
bestowed at birth, e. g. in Central America by the
parmto casting a horoscope; or bestowed oa the youth
by old wise men, e. c. Bkiax; or regfularly at the pu-
berty cerenumies. Oa reaching this age the young
Indian goes off alone to the forest and wand^ for
days without food except roots, etc. After a time
when a^sep he sees in a dream the animal which is
to be his guardian. It or ita qnrit comes to him.
Ever after ne wears on his person the object %aak^ or
some portion <A it, which is known as bis medicine.
Catlin describes this in detail. The SaUsh wctfd ndia,
iraax lUia, i. e. to dream, indicates the ordinanr
method by which it is obtained. Boas says that with
the Kwatiutl Indians the personal totem must be
selected fnun the totons ctf the elan, hence the num-
ber is limited.

V. Rbugioxw Aspect. — ^Tot^nism has both a
religious and a social a^>ect. These aspects vaiy;
thus with the interior Australian tribes the religious
aqject is predominant; with the coastal tribes the
social aspect prevails. Lord Avebtuy and Spencer
hold that Totemism began as a social system only,
and that the superstitious regard for the totem is an
afto^rowth. A. Lang, failing to grasp the religious
meamne of the totan, has helped to p<»>ularise this
view. McLennan and Robertson Smith teach that
the religiouB reverence for the toton was original.
Father Morice says that Totemism among the Dto^
is essentially and exclusivdy oonnected with their
religious system. Invefititauon into the nature of
Totemism shows this to be the true opinion. Durk-
hein holds the totem to be a god. llus is a mistake.
The loqwet paid to the totem is like that givw to
relatives or brothov; it is his frimd and he^tw, not
his BUpmor. Fraser says Totemism has done litUe
to foster the higher forms of religion, and MurUlier
does not admit the possibility of any transition from
Totonism to any othor stage of reugious evolution.
McGee quotes Darsey, that among the Sioux totems
were reverenced rather than worshipped. FraiO' at
firat maintained the rel^ous aspect of Totemism
(" Totemism", Edinburgh, 1887); now he denies this
(Totemism and Exogamy, 1911, IV, 6). He si^
the key to Uie Totonism ct Australian natives is
furnished by the Intichiuma oeresBfoies; and as these
CNemonies, peculiar to each totem group, are pet^
formed with q>eUs and enohantm^its for the multipli-
cation of the totem animal, therefore in its
Totemism is aunply^ an organised and co-operative
system of magic devised for economic purposes. The
oriticiam is that this view is superficial and unsatisfao-
tory, that innstigatkiDS show the Australian savaoB
hie to be saturated with the belief in qurits, e. g. t£a
explanation of ooneeiptkm and birth, and that wnerev
the Intichiumii ceremonies on the surface may m>ear
to be for the multiplication of the totem aoimal and
thus seoure a food siu^^, yet if we study them in the
badvKwnd of the bcliaiD spirits, thrir pmposes nun

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imbabfy an the multiplioation of the ntncanated
farms ci the spirits. Wnen, e. g. the members at the
Kaa^caroo cl&n perform magio ceramonies for the
Bultipfication of Kangaroos, ure are not warranted
ia stating that kangaroo aniiwJs an in ^luestion,
for members of this clan are also called Kangaroos.
Henoe the muldplioation of the human i^ieciee may
be intended, so that the Kainaroo spirits may be
leineanttted. This seems to be confirmed by the
ritea harine a reference to human generation per-
formed at the puberty or Engwura CK«momee.

The main features m the rdigious aq>ect of Totem*'
iam are Aawn in the ntee and ceremonies performed
with a -new to show or to attain identity with the
totem, ^a) Thus at solemn totonio festivals the
totem animal is sacrified and eaten even by its own
(daa. In Australia the eating of the totem animal
was considered essential to the rites for the multipli-
eatioa of the totem. Hill-Tout says that in British
Columbia these ceremonies would last throu^ the
winter and the people would be grouped aecorom^ to
their totems, thus changing the usual form <rf tnbal
ammBatira. 0>) By adt^ptioD of peraoiwl names
rajening to the uipcaranoe habtts of the totem
ammaL (e) ^fuesflmp in the akin or other parts of
the totem animal, wearmg badges, masks, crest-hats
of the totem, arraying hair, painting face or body,
tattooing and mutilating the body so as to resemble
the totem; so also totems are painted or carved on
weapons, ca&oes, huts, etc. From this custom we
have the totem poles decorated with crests of clan
and personal totemSi and with red crosaco represent-
ing the ghosts at their vanqtdshed foee, irtw an to be
their slures in the other world, (d) By dances and
songs as dramatic periormanees of the myth luting
to the acquisition of the spirit proteotor. (e) By con-
sulting totems as auguries, e. g. the Algouquias xad
natives of Torres Straits.

VI. Socuj. Aspect. — In its social aspect (a) the
totem is geBerally taboo to the members of the clan.
Tbey couM not lull it or eat its flesh. An exception
is in the solemn totcmic oeremonies. Acomdiag to
traditions the Australians in earlier times rrau£iirly
killed and ate their totem. This is not now the cus-
tom. The American Indian will adflress an ajpolagy
to his totem before killing it. The Melanesian is
supposed to have peculiar success in hanting his
totem animal. Hill-Tout mys the Satish tribes con-
sidered the real mdia to be a qnrit or mystery4>ein^,
thmi^ it might take the f<»m of an animal and it
oould not be killed or hurt if the animal were slain,
hence the hunter did not respect the Mfe of the totem ;
in fact he was considered more successful in himting -
his mdia animals than other men. Again, on the
African Gold Coast a hunter of the Leopard family
would not hesitate to kill a troublesome lecitard, but
be would put oil in the wounds (Haroer m "Jour.
Aalh. Inst.", XXXVI).

(b) Amco^ the Iroquois and the SouUmib Mswuks
of CfkUfomia the totem governs the choice of partnen
in games, the ^placing and treatment of visitors.

(c) The mam social feature of Totemism is shown
in binding together the members of the totem clans.
All members of the toUxa clan regard one anotho* as
kinsmen and brothers, and are bound to mutual help
and protection. T^lor says every Indian looked for
and lotmd hospitafaty in a hut where he saw his own
totem figured and, if he was taken captive in war, his
clansmen would ransom him (Joor. Antfa. Inst.,
XXVIII). Morgan Bbmrs the snperiority of the
totem bond over the tribal bond among die Iroquois.
In the Torres traits warfare coukl not affect the
friendship of the totem-brethren. Yet Harper says
that on the Gulf Coast a man cannot safely visit a
pcrstni of the same totem belonging to an m^-iendly
idbe^ nor does he hesiute to kiO another having the
luns tetesn so himself.

(jS) In tits social phase must be viewed the secret
societies so widely prevalent among the Amerioan
Indians.

(e) Ford holds that in totemio obligations we are
confronted with the bepanioff of authority (" Annds
of American Academy of Political and Social Science",
XXIU, PhiUdelphia, 1904). Jevcos and Reinach
teach that the totem dan is the earliest social <nrgani-
E&tion known in the evolution of society (Folk Lore,
X). Loret sees in Tot^nism the explanation ol the
early Egyptian himiglypfaics, and says it is the parent
of writing (Muafe Guimet, XLX, 1904-05). Frazer
8^ that it had an indirect influence on agriculture,
the domestioation of mimals and the use of metals,
that its influence <hi economic progress appears to be
little more than a shadowy conjecture, but it has done
something for pictorial and plastic art, e. g. in totemic
reproecntations (Totemism and Exogamy, IV,
lv-26). Father Bnm, however, warns us that al-
though cotaia social institutions are placed tmder the
[mtection of totemic b^efs, the social institutions
as a whole are not based up<m Totemism. The truth
is that Totemism, like any other belief whidi enters
into the life of a people, has an influence on thdr
culture.

(f) The influODce of Totemism is shown also in the
birth, marriage, and death ceremonies. Thus, e. g.
a child of the Ottawa deer clan on the fifth day after
birth was painted with red spots or stripes in imitation
of a fawn; the bride and groom in the Kolong red-dog
clan of Java were rubbed before marriage with the
ashes (tf a.red-dog's bones; a mranber of the Amaha
bufiiak) dsn was on dying wr^ped in a buffalo robe,
etc.

VII. EXOOAMT. — The relation of exogamy to
Totemism is a problem of great difficulty, and will
not be completely solved until the origin of exogamy
is definitely estabUshed. It is a fact that the custom
prevails in many tribes that a man cannot marry- a
woman of his own totem, but must seek a wife from
another totem clan. Hence many writers inferred
that Totemism and exogamy existed together as
different sides of the same mstitution. Thus A. Lang
regards exogamy as the essential feature of Totemism.
Hut-Tout takes issue with him maintaining that it is
accidental or secondary, that the possession of the
same totem becomes a oar to marriage only because
it marks kinship by blood, which is the real bar.
Lang by totem means "the hereditary totem of the
e»)gamous clan" and admits that if we take totem
in its wider extent as omniH^hending tiie "personal"
totem, the "secret society" totem and the "tribal"
totem, then members of tnese totem groups can inter-
marry (fl>id., p. 204). McLennan and Robertson
&nith held that Totemism is foimd generally in con-
nexion with exogamy, but must be older than exog-
amy. This view has been confirmed by the investipa-
tifms of Spotoer and Gillen among the Australian
savages. They teach that Totemism is a primary and ,
etxogamy a sectmdaiy feature, and give traditions
proving the existence of totems long before that of
exogamous groups, and that when the latter did arise,
the totems were not affected by them. Hence the
exogamous class is a social co^amzation totally differ-
mt in origin and nature from the totemic cl^, and
not a mere extension of it, although thm^ have crossed
and blended in many places. Again Totemism and
ex<vamy are found existing separately. Father Brun
says the totemic clans of the Sudan are not exogfir
mous. Dr. Rivers points out that the natives of
Banks Islands have pure Totemism and pure exogamy
existing ade by side without influencing each other.

Different theories have been proposed to aecount
for the origin c£ exogamy. Westennark says it arose
in the avCTsion to marriage between blood relatives
or near kin* L e.m horror oTinoest. This is very prob-
ably the true solution. McLennan holds that exo^

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VOTCUO

ABqr waa due ori^nally to soaraty of wooub, nUbh
obliged men to seek wives froof other gcwips, j. e.

marriage by cat>tiire, and this in time grew into a
custom. Diirkneim d^ves exo^my from Totem-
iam, and says it arose from & reiigioua reapeet for the
blood of a totemio elan, for the elan totem le a god and
is eqwoially in the blood. Morgan and Honitt maliv*
tain that eirogamy was introduoed to prereBt marriage
b^ween blood relations: eepeoially oetveen brotber
and sister, which had been common in a {K^vious
state of promiscuity. Fraser says this is the true
solution, that it really introduced group marriage,
which is an advance to monogamy, and that the most
complete record of this is the dassifioatoiy i^stem (A
relatitmship. Lang, however, denies there is any
group marriage, and smts theao-oalledgroup marriage
18 <Hi^ tribe-regulated uoenoe. HiU'Tjout writes that
exogamouB roles arose for political reaama by mar-
riage treaties between the groups. Darwin denies
primitive promiscuous intercourse, and aays exogamy
arose from the strongest male driving the other moles
out of the group. This is also the opinion of Lang,
AtkinBcm, and Letoumeau.

Jtruil rtflalioii. wi. ThwaITU Vain., OlcveUnd.

1901); 9pencf.ii ami Gn.i.R^, .V'ldi^ Tri[-ir nj I'lut. Antlratia

SLoaAon, ISODl; Iucm, A'jrfAmi T'nt^j ^^f Cc'i'. .itumi/ia fl/jn-
on, IWM); Bona, Struil Ory^intmliim and Srrrrl .'innrliit oj Ihf
^uviriiftr lr\4in.n»\n, Rept. nf tkr f/. H. S'afwinal Mutatm tor ISas

ijiiOJ: Lamq. Sfcrri r-/ (Jle Tvfrm (I^odoD, 1905); I^em. Tpfim-
larn in Etitycl. Brilaimica (lltb [HiilEDXi): IdKM Jd Folk Lore,
Xm (1003}; MoGh, Sioux /nduni in 1 'ilh Ann. Report of Ihs
{inf. It! &ihm>lnm nff»fl{iine;t"iii, lS*f7) ; MM-msn* in Amvric^n ,
A*\l\Diafi'\T\. Xa\M1. si. IMi; l-'uptvLi-ynRKiRA in Jow. nf

Anntir So-:, of UrniKil. LXXlEl. [; 't. n. (, n, 3B: CWrU in Jtari'h
Quart, fin. ■lAiirjl, II"):;! ; Hii.i-- rt-i T in Itn^ml Soe. of CaaaJa,
, v.il. V! 1 : \1 tfiHi^'rf ia .■Inii-r, .InWrjjuj/rmi'W^ new itPTy

X l"l(rfl>M; c-i- MiFi/KN itL -iTirtr.iiJ..*, I[ fitluri; BauN, ■{bid., V
nOlil': l.Ei T- in !frr. (Jp i /u< (e» juir/n. XLV nW12)T Tovt\t?( ia
fl?r. .ir t'lii'l. r!ri rehfjiiAi (Piiris. llrtWl; IJ(iiTi-\vi> in FcAk }^'f.

XI 'UJIHJ', Jrvvivb, ih^l.. X (iri'lii;; CC'jy. Lui: di la lii7\trf
i!/(i"-."i-ij'if'i' I ML>nlritiil, IS-'^ol; HowilT, Ailipft Tribn iif S^iuih-
Kii'l AuMralia (Iiondon, 1S04): Futrriifelc and La Klkacde in

.inn. Rtporl of At Bar. of ElhnetvV (WiuihinRion, IBMl;
DohB^r in tSih Ahk. fojwi »/ Ultr. a{ Sik. (WaFihini(ti:Jn, XH'ilS'.
icEiu in fSrd An-v. Rrport o/ Bur. «/ Efft. (WnohiiiBloQ, l^i);
Idem in Ann. Keport of Bv. ff hM. ■IWrwhinetnii, IHWl;

Sw/iNTOK ia iSlX Ann. Rrport of Ihf fiftr. of £U. [Ww^jtKbsa,
IMB): Mi»ioa ia 7Vb<u. of the Canadxaa InaL, W (ISD^rQ^;
lum 31] A**^ Arekeol. Rrpori tMA (Turooto); JCioh, DaI^Icc
S^ith Z>idiMW (WoAhiTiirtDQ. 1«X)): Catuv. iMm ami
UtiUt M tb Mutoun. Cittdmit iHd Coi^dHim tf tht ft. Amf.
rndiofti (LoAdoa. IS44)i H&rniAH Jn UA Aitn. Stpoit uf Urn

grttTomtlMq g^fm. IBOri; III i.i.-Tr,t,T, BKt.

JOBN T. DSISCOLL.

Totooae Indiana, one of the smaller cultured
natkms of ancient Mexico, occupying at the time ttf
the Spanidi conquest the coast province oi Totoni*
capan, comprehending all except the northern border
of the present State of Vera Ortu, together with the
Zacatlaa district in Puebla. Within this territoi^
they had some fifty towns, with a total pOfHilation «
perhaps a quarter of a miUioD. Their o^itai, Cem-
.poala, about five raika inland from the present city of
Vera Crui, had a population of about 25,000. in
apite of wars, epidemics, and op[H«8sions they still
number about 100,000.

The Totonac were the first natives whom Cortes
met on landhijs in Mexico in 1519. Aeoording to
their own traditions, they had come from the north-
west nearly eight centuries earlier, and had main-
tained an independent kingdom — of which the names
of the successive kings are <m. reemd — until sub-
jugated by the Asteo on^y about twenty-five years
haare the arrival of the ^>aiiiardB. Being Domi)elied
by their conquerors to the peymrait of a heavy tribute
and to other exactions, including the fre<]uent seizure
<^ their people for slaves or for saeiifioe in the bloody
Astee rites, they were ripe for revolt, and their king.
Chicomacatt, eagerly weloomed CortiSs and promiaed
the support ttf his fifty thousand wanion gainst
Montesuma.

Eneoutacsd by OottSm, King Qiioovaoatt a»-
aerted hia mdcpendenoe by seising the Mexican tax-
gatherers then in his country, but was restrained
by the Spanish commander frixn sacrificing them to
the idols. They gave wiUlng hedp in laying the
foundations of the city o< (VUla Rica de la) Vera
CtuMt whieh Otrt^ made his starting point fiH- tha
advanoe uptm tbe Mexican capitaL As a final test
of their friendship and obedience, Cort^ '^^**r^iayf^
the destruction at the wooden linages of the gods ia
the great pyramid tenH>le of Cempoala, where every
day human victims were sacrificed, thur hearts being
torn out apd placed upon the altars of the gods^ the
blood sprinkled upon the idols and the waUs of the
tonple, and the dismembered limbs borne awa^ to be
served up m a cannibal feast. Notwithstanding the
protest of the king and the fierce opposition of the
priests and their retainers, the ordsr mu canned out
by a detachment of Spanish soldiers. The tdola were
thrown down to the foot of the temple and burned.
According to Bancroft (see bibl.), wnen their pa^an
temple was. cleansed Olmado pieeiched the Christian
Faioi and celebrated Mass before the aasembled
natives. The contrast between the simple beau^
at this impressive Dersmony and their own bloody
wonhip made a deep impression on the minds tite
natives, and at the oonenMion titaee who deaired mn
b^itiied. So Christianity achieved its fint viottvy
in Mexico.

In the aubaequent events, culminating in the taking
o£ the city of Mexico and the downfall of the Asteo
empire, the Totonac took active part with the Tla»-
calans as allies of the Spaniards, giving ready alle-
giance alike to the new rulers and the new reli^<m.
In 1526 their territory of Vera Cms was combmed
with Tlascala, Tabasco, and Yucatan into a bi^oprio
with seat at Tlascala under Bishop Juliano Qsra^
Dominican (d. 1542). The work of Qmstianiring
was given over chiefly to the Dominicans, ^o had
convents at Vera Orua, Paebla, and GMuaooaloo,
and who led . the fight against Indian alaveiy (aee
CasABj BabtoixhuI nn us). Francascana, Augus-
tinians. and other orders wen also, represented in
the Indian work. The Jesuits in the diocese confined
thur attention to whites and negroes. In 1575-77
the Totmac, in common with all the other tribes of
Southern Mexico, were ravaged by the mystmous
matiahahuali epid^nic, estimated to have destroyed
two millions of the native race. About the year
1600, in aeoonlance with a vicemgal sdume <d etab-
centration, the entire ptmulatiiHi <tf Cempoala was
removed to a new site, wd the ancient c^iital thenoo-
forth sank to the levd of a village.

The modem Totonac of Puebla and Vera Cms are
industrious farmers, their chief crop being sugar
cane, frran which they manufacture sugar m their
own mills. Tfaey are also expert fishermen. Their
houses are of pole framework plastered with clay
oa the outside and thatched with grass. They wear
ootton garments of native pattern sad weaving.
They are much given to dances and festivals, both
church festivals and their own, particularly the Coa-
tumbre, an interesting survival of an old sacrifical
rite in which seeds and portions of earth sprinkled
with the blood of fowls killed for the occasion are
distributed to the various fields. Aside from thii
and some other foUdore customs, they are all
Cath(^as, and strongly attached to thrar xdigioua
teachers.

The Totonac language, although considered by Ssha-
gun and Oioico y Berra to be connected with that of
their next neighbours, the Huasteo, of Mayan stock,
is held by Brmton to be of iodependeDt stock, but
with eoDcidecai:^ bonowinp from Huasteo and Asteo.
It ia spafcan in four piinoipal dialects and lacks the
asond of r. Of the published wtoks in the langtiage
the moat importaat are tlw "Aite j Vocabnlano dm

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705

la leogua totonaca" and th« "Grainatiea et Lockxhi
Lingiue Mexicaue, Totonaquie et Euast«o»" (the
latter printed in Mexico, 1560) by the Francasean
miBBionary, Fr. Andres de Obnoa (d. 1671), noted for
hia mastery of several of the native languages. An
"Arte" or manual by Fr. Francisco Dominies was
published in Puebla, 1752, and a catecbiam and
ortended vocabularies in two dialects by the same
author shortly afterward, with a reprint in Puebla,
1837. Pimentel gives a sketch of the language in
his "Cuadro Descriptive", I (Mezio6. 1862-65:
1874-75). Much manuacript material, lii^uistic and
religious, remains unpublished.

Bamckopt, NoHm Rao** of the Paeifie Statu (San Francueo,
1S8S) : Idkm, BUL of ifccMo (8u FnuciBoo, 1886-88) ; Buhton,
Ammiam Race (N«w York, 1801) iPiujUQ, Proof sketU ofaBM.
of At Lanat. of the North. Am. ImU. (Bur. Am. EttmolDsy,
Waahingtan, 1S80); PlUMcorr, Hitt. Conqtutl of Mexico (New
York and LoDdoo, 1843); Bmuodk, Hiitoria Oenerolde JVuna
ApoAa (Mexioo, 182fl); Btabb. Slhnogra^ e/Seulham Maxim
Id /VoMedtncaa/'lAaZtafmport Atadmv of Seimeu, VIII (Ditgb-
port, 1901).

Jaub Moomxt

Toiiehet, Gborob Ansbuc, b. at Stalbridge, Dor-
set; d. about 1689. He was second son of Mervj^n,
twelfth Lord Audley, second Earl of Castlehaven, and
a man of profligate life;- his first wife was Elizabeth
Bamham. He was professed as a Benedictine at St.
Qr^ry's, Douai, 22 Nov., 1643, taking the name
Anselm in religion. Being selit on the mission in the
south of England, he was finally apik>inted chaplain
to Queen Catherine of Braganza in 1671. In that
capacity he Uved at Somerset House till 1675, when
h& waa oaaaslwd. Dodd states that he was ex^-essly
excluded from the succession to the Earldom of Castle-
haven by the Act of Parliament which in 1678 con-
firmed the earldom to his elder brother Jamee. While
living in London he published a book called "Histor-
ical Collections out of several grave Protestant His-
torians concerning the Changes in religion, and the
strange confusions following, etc." (1674; ^d ed.,
1686), and in 1680 he issued "The Secret Pattu of
Dtvine Love'*, translated 1^ him from the li^ch of
Constantine Barbason.

Dodd, C\wtX Bitorv, III (Bniwds rere Wotverfaunpton,
1737-1742): KiBK, Biognvhiee of BnOieh Cathtdite (London,
1909): Ouvu, CMeetione (London. 1867); Weldon, Chronoloff-
ieal notes (London, 1881): Bnow, Neerolan of the Enolith Bene-
dietmet (London. 1883); Coom in Diti. Nat. Biag.: Oillow,
BiU. D%ii. Stm. OaO.

Edwik BuirroH.
TouL See Nancy, Diocesk or.
Toulon. See Fsfjirs, Diocebb op.

Toulotue, Arcbdiocbsb of (Tolobensis), in-
dudes the Department of Haute-Ganmne. As re-
estabUshed by the Concordat of 1802 it included ^e
Departments of Haute-Garonne and Arifege, at which
time the archbishop joined to his own tiie title of
And), jurisdiotion over Anch being given to the Dio-
fsese of Agen, also the title <k Naroonne, an archdio-
cese over whichjurisdiotion went by the Concordat to
the Diocese of Qircassonne, and the title of Albi, over
whidi, though formerly an archdiocese, jurisdiction
went by the Concordat to the See of Montpellier. In
consequence of the creation of the Archdioceses of
Auch and Albi tmder the Restoration, the Arch-
bishop of Toulouse only styled himself Archbishop of
Toulouse and Naifaonne, and when the Diocese of
Famiers was created the limits of the Archdiocese
were restricted to the Department of Haute-Garonne.
As thus marked off by the Bull "Patemie Caritatis",
July, 1822, the Archdiocese of Toulouse includes al-
mcet the whole of the ancient Dioceses of Toulouse,
Rieux, and Comminges, and a few small portions m
the ancient Dioceses of Montauban, Lavaur,
Bapoul, Mir^KHx, and Lombes.

L DiocBBB or TouLOVBB.— Toulouse, dii^ town

of the Teetoaan, at tbe aid of the seoond cantiizy
B. o. tried to uMxe off the yoke of Rome during the
invasion of the Cimbri, but at the be^jnning of the
empire it was a prosperous Roman eiviUu with famous
seoMrfa in whiob the three brothers ol the Emperor
Constantine were pupils. In the fourth century it
was reckoned the fifteenth town in importance in the
empire. In 413 it was taken by Astulph, the Goth,
and in 419 under Wallia it became the capital of the
Viaigothic Kingdom. In 508 after conquest by Cbvis
it became Frankish. Legends of more or less recent

Tbb Cathbdeal, Toulodbb

date claim that it was evangelized by St. Martial (see
LiiiOGBs, Dk>cb8B of), but far as historical evi-
dence ^oee the see seems to have been foimded by St.
Satununus (Semin) in the middle of the third cen-
tury. The "Paaeio Sancti Satumini" corroborates
tins date as that of his inoumbMiey and martjnrdom.
Subsequent tradition claims that he waa a disraple of
St. Peter. St. Fapoul (see Carcabsonnb, Diocbbe
of) was his oorapEUiion and like him a martyr. The
name of St. Honoratus, given in some Lists as St.
Satuminus's successor, seems to have crept in through
error from the fabulous legend of St. Finninus of
Amiens and, according to Mgr Duchesne, ought to be
omitted. Among tbe bishops of Toulouse may be
mentioned: Rboduiius (350-58), exiled by Constan-
tius to Phrygia because of his efforts against Arianism
at the Council of B^Eiers in 356; St. Hilary, whom
Btmie historians place before Rhodanius. but who is
placed siter him tiy Mgr Duchesne; St. Sylvius (360-
400) ; St. Exuperius (c. 400), who drove from his dio-
cese in 405 toe heretic Vinlantius, saved Toulouse
from the ravages of tbe Vandals, and was the friend of
St. Jerome; St. Germerius (Germier), whose episco-
pate (e. 541) is questioned by Mgr Duchesne; Mag-
nulphus (e. 685), exiled by King Gondebaud; St.
Erembert (667), a monk of Fontoielle who returned
to his monastery to die.

From being the capital of the Duchy of Aqnitaine,
from 631, Toulouse became in 778 the capital of the
County of Toulouse created by CharlNnagne, and
which in the t«aith oentuiy was one of the main fiefs
of Uie orown. Raymond IV, Count of Touknisc^

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known as Raymond de Saint Gillei (1042-1105). wai
one <tf the leadere o( the First Qiisade. Conoeniirix
the leaninra of Raymond VI and Raymond VI^
Counts of Toulouse, towards t^e Albigensian heresy,
and oonoeming the death of Simon oif MonU'cnt m
121S under i& walls of Toulouse, see Ai.BioBi(saB.
At this time Toulouse had as bistwp Folk of Marseillea
(1206-31), who fought against Raymond VI and de-
tected the Friara-In^achers in their early days. The
marriage (1249) of Jeanne, daughter of Rajrmond VII,
with ATphonse de Poitiers, brother of King Louis IX,
led to the uniting in 1271 of the County of Toulouse
to the Crown of France, and Toulouse became the
capital of the Province of Languedoc. The See ot
Toulouse was for a time made ilRisbious by St. Louis
(1296-97)^ son of Charles II, King of Naples and the
Two Sicilies, and of Mary, daughter of the King of
Hungary: he was nephew of St. Elizabeth of Hun-

Sy and grand-nephew of St. Louis King of France,
uis had resifned to his brother Robert all rights
over the Kir^oom of Naples, and had accepted from
Boniface VIII the See of Toulouse after donning the
habit ctf St. Francis. His successor iras Peter de la
Ouuielle TaOlefer (1298-1312) who was created car-
dinal in 1305. To this epoch belongs a very impor-
tant change that took place in the history of the Dio-
cese of Toulouse. It decreased in size but increased
in dignity. Before 1295 the Diocese of Toulouse was
very extensive. At the beginning of the thirteenth
century Bishop Fulk had wished for the sake of reli-
gion to divide it into several dracesee. In 1295 a
portiim of territory was cut off by Boniface VIII to
lorm the Diocese of Pamiers. Then in 1319 John
XXII cut off the Diocese of Toulouse from the metro-
politan church of Narbonne and made it a metro-

giUtan with the Sees of Montauban, Saint-Papoul,
ieux, and Lomhez as suffragans; a little later Lavaur
and Mirefwix also became suffragans of Toulouse.
The majority of these seea were composed of territory
cut off from the ancient See of Toulouse itself.

John XXII offered the See of Riei in Provence to
GaiUard de ^^ysaac, Bishop of Toulouse since 1305,
whom he suspected of having conspired against him
with HuRues Giraud, Bishop of Cahors. Gaillard
refused the offer, and retired to Avignon where he
died in 1327. The first archbishop was Raymond de
Comminges, Bishop of Maguelonne from 1309, who,
when created cardinal in 1327, abandoned the See of
Toulouse and went to Avignon where he died in 1348.
He left a book on the '^Passion of the Saviour",
and some "Sermons for Festival Days". Among hie
successors were: the Dominican William de Laudon
(1327-45), previously Bishop of Vienne; Raymond de
Canilhac (1345-50), cardinal in 1350; Cardinal
Francis de Giozi^ (1301-02); Bernard du Rosier
(1451-74), author of two treatises on the temporal
power of the pope and on the liberty of the Church,
and who founded at Toubuse the "Coll^ de Foix'*
for the suppOTt of twenty-five poor sobolue, where he
colleeted one of the first libranes of the pmod; John
ofOrieans (1503-33), cardinal in 1533. Protestantism
entoed Toulouse in 1532 through foreign studrats.
As early as 1563 the Catholics of Toulouse founded a
league to uphold the prerogatives of Catholicism, pro-
tected by the Parlement but jeopardized by certain
Protestant town-councillors. From 1586 to 1595 the
League pajrty under Montnuwenoy, Governor of Lan-
Kuedoc, uhI the Duke de Joyeuse held control in Tou-
fouse. The rule of Henry IV was definitively recog-
nized there in 1596. During this period of religious
unrest Toulouse had many notable archbishops:
Gabriel de Gramont (1533-34), cardinal in 1530;
Odet de Chatillon, Cardinal de Coligny (1534-50),
who became a Calvinist, married in 1664, and died
in 1571; Anthony Sanguin (1560-59), Cardinal de
Meudon in 1530; Georges d'Armagnao (1562-77),
oaidnua ia 1644; FnBqw4» Joyeuse (lfi84-1605),

n TOULOTOI

oan&ial in 1683 and who oondueted the negotiiilioBi
between Henry IV and the Holy See.

Among subsequent archbiahope we may mention:
Louis de N<«aret (1614r-27), Cardinal de Lavalette
in 1021, but who never received order* and from 1635
to 1637 led part of the French troope in the Hiirty
Years War; Charles de Montchal (1628-51), ^ in
1635 upheld the decision of the HoW See, against the
opinion of the majority of the Assembly of Clergy, that
the marriages of princes of the blood contracted with-
out royal consent were not null; Pierre de Marca
(1652-^), who under Louis XUI aided largeljr in the
re-eeUAlirammt of Catholieiem in B6am, in 1621
became president of the Parlement td B^anLms
afterwards made CounctUw of State by Louis XUI,
and wrote a work of Galilean tendency "De ocmocndia
Saoerdotii et Imperii", a voluminous work on Spain
and eepedally on the Provinoe of Tarragona, and s
oommentary on the Psalms; he was secretary to the
Assembly of the Clergy of France of April, 1656, which
drew up a formula condemning the Five Propoeitioiu
drawn from the "Augustinus , and he died in 1662
just as he was about to take poesesaion (tf the See (tf
Paris; Pierre de Bonzy (1672-73), cardinal m 1672;
Charles Antoine de Laroche Aymon (1740-52), c&>
dinal in 1771 ; Etienne Charles de Lomenie (1763-S9),
Cardinal de Brienne in 1788; Anne de Clermont Ton-
nerre (1820-30). cardinal in 1822; Paul d'Astros (q. v.)
(1830-51), cardinal in 1850: Julien Deeprez (1S59-
95), cardinal in 1870; fVan^ois D^sn^ Mathieu (1896-
99), cardinal in 1890, was a membw of the Frmch
Academy, wrote the history of Lwraine undo" the
aneim Tiffime, of t^ Concordat of 1801-2, and ot the
Conclave of 1903; he died in 1008.

II. Diocese or Cohuinges. — The earliest Biskop
of Comminges we know of is Suavis, who assisted it
the Council of Agde in 506; but Sidonius ApoUiiuuu
speaks of the persecutions suffered at the hands of
Arian Goths in the fifth century by the bisht^ of
Commingea. St. Affricus (c 540), who died in Uw
Rouergue, is wrongly included anrong the Imhc^of
Comminges. Among the Inahops of Ccanminges woe:
St. Bertrand of Comminges (1073-1123), grandson of
Raymond Taillefer, Count of Toulouse, previouily
arcndeacon of Toulouse, and who built the cathedral
of Comminges and restored the town; Bertrand de
Goth (1295-99), who became pope under the name <^
Clement V; Bertrand de Cosnac (1362-72), cardinii
in 1372; Amelius de L^utrec (1384-00), cardinal is
1385; Pierre de Foix (1422-44). cardinal in 1437; John
Cibd, who became pope in 1484 under the name of
Innocent VIII, for a short time in 1467 held the title
of Commingee; Cardinal Amanieu d'Albret, who wu
Bishop of Comminges in 1504 and 1507; Cardinst
Carlo Caraffa, strangled in the pontificate of Pius IV,
was probably Bishop of Comminges about the mid-
dle of the sixteenth century; Urban de Saint-Gdaia,
who in 1586, without outside assistance and with the
he^ of a cannon which he caused to be brought fn»a
Touknise, captured the town from the Huguenots.
In the church of St. Bertrand of Comminges haptism
was administered with peculiar certtmHues: the
tismal water was kept in a laige silver dove with
wings displayed, and enclosed in a cupola surmounting
the font; at the moment of baptizing the dove wsa
lowwed, by a pulley, over the head of the chiU and
througdi its open beak the baptismal water waa
poured.

III. DiocBSB or RiBUX.— The See of Rieux wu
founded in 1317, by cutting off a portion of the D»-
cese of Toulouse. The caUiedral of Toulouse, dedi-
cated to St. St^hen, is remarkable for the contrast
between its choir and nave: the nave is Romanesque
and was beam in 1211 at the instigation of Clount
Raymond VI; the dhoir is Gothic, and waa begun be-
tween 1273 and 1286 by Bishop Bertrand de I'IdA
and oompleted in the fifteenth .oentuiy. Tbenuiw

Digitized by Google

Tcnooou 7!

of Si. Serniu oi Toulouse was began by St. SylviuB at
the md the fourth oentuiy, aiul oompleted by St.
Eznperius, who tnuufened to it tiie remaiiiB of St.
Sermn, and hiter those of St. P^mil and St. Honesta,
disciples of St. Semin, and of the bishops, ftunta
Honoratufi, Hilaiy, and^lviuB. St. Ebcupenus him-
self was buried there. Charlemagne gave to St. Ser^
mn's the bodies of St. Suzanna of Babylon, of St.
Ascida and her sister St. Victoria, martyrs of Cor-
dova. Under Charles the Bald the rdics of the
Quaitiuor SancH CormaH, Claudius, Nicostratos,
^n^horianuB, Castor, and their pupil St. Sin^iUcius,
were brought from Rome. The crusaders who in
1096 accompanied Raymond de Saint Gilles to the
East brought back the body of St. Barnabas, the
head of St. Bartholomew, and perhaps some wood
from the Crib or Manger, a stone from the Holy
Sepulchre, and a Crucifix known as the Crusaders*
Crucifix. In 1187 GuiUaume Taillefer deposited
^ere other relics acquired in the East, especially the
greater pwtion of the body of St. George. Louis VIII
brought thither the bodies of St. Edmund^ King of
England, and St. Gilberii, founder of the Gilbertinee.
The people tiiranselves brought the body of Saint
Gilles to save it from the Aloigenaians. Alpbonse,
brother of Louis IX, last Count of Toulouse, on his
entry to the town in 1251 deposited in the church a
thorn from the Crown of Thorns, which Baldwin II,
Emperor of Constantinople, had given to St. Louis,
and a portion of the True C^oss. About 1366 the
body of St. Thomas Aquinas, jnven by Urban V to the
Pominicans, was brought to Toulouse, and preserved
in their church until the Revolution, when it was
transferr^ to St. Semin's.

As early as 1100 a confraternity was formed with
twelve superintendents and seventy-two baylet-re-
gent* (guwlians), in memory of the number of the
Apostles and Disciples; they took oath to watch in
turn over the relics, tirban II oonsecrated St. Ser*
nin's on 8 July, 1097, after it had been restored by the
canon, St. Raymond; Callistus II dedicated an altar
there and placed in it relics of SS. Peter and Paul,
8S. Simon and Jude; Urban VIII granted the same
indulgences to those who visited the seven altars of
St. S^^iin's as could be ^ined 1^ visitii^ the seven
altars ol St. Fetors in Rome. The Unrrarsitgr of
Touloose was founded in 1229, in oonsequmee of a
treaty between Raymond Vll, Coimt of Tooknise,
and Bluiohe of Castile, regent of France) its object
was to prevent by hif^er theologieal studies a recru-
descence of Albigensianism. Raymond VIII had to
undertake to mamtain in Toulouse at his own expense
for ten years a certain number of masters of theol(^,
law, and grammar. In the beginning the universi^
was looked at askanoe by Uie pec^ <n ttie South, wod
considered it an mstrument cd leprsadon. Hie teach-
ing of theology was given over to the Mendicant
Friars, but the students who wi^ed to take deoeea
had to pass some time at the University of Paris. John
XX0 and Innocent VI were students there. In
1329 John XXII reformed ite statutes. In 1359 In-
nocent VI founded the Coll^ of St. Martial for the
support of twenty poor students at the university; in
1360 he definitively ormiuMd a faculty oi tiieu^
with masters drawn raiett^vdy bom among its former
pupils, andgranted the chancellor auttunity to confer
degrees. This was the imiversity'i^ poiod of pros*
perity. The new revision of Uiu statutes afto* 1394
by a committee nominated by the antipope Clanent
VH was fatal to it; itcxa the fifteenUi ceotunr to the
-end of the andm r^Qiime the Univemt^ <A Toulome
mereW existed.

. In 1761 the Univnnty of Cahna was mened into
that of Toulouse. It was founded in 1332 by John
XXII, a native of Cahors, at the instance of the
municqMiI authorities. The pope granted the new
univenity the rights enjtqred ^ that of Toukuse, and

7 Tomouu

in fact commanded the Utter to communicate its
privileges to Cahors. The Bull of erection for C^ors
was almost identical with the "Parens Scimtianim"
for Paris. The privil^es of Cahors were confirmed
in 1368 by Edward, Prince of Wales, the "Black
Prince", and in 1370 by Louis, Duke of^ Anjou. The
university also enjoyed the favour of Benedict XII,
Clement VI, Urban V, Clement VII, and Benedict
XIII. In 1460 Pius II ordered a revision of its
statutes. The main strength of the university lay
in its faculty of law which had as membos such noted
jurists as Petrus Grtvorius (1570), Cujas (1554), and
de Laooste (1594). Of the colleges at Cahors the first
was founded by Raymond de Pll^ry, canon of Lon-
don, who provided in his will (1365) for the mainte-
nance of thirteen poor scholars. The College of Rodez
was founded in 1371 by Bernard of Rodez, Arch-
bishop of Naples, whose birth-place was Cahors. The
Coll^ of St. Midiel was established (1467) by Jean
Rubey, archdeacon of Tormes. Among the students
of Cahors the most illustrious was F^nelon, who en-
tered upon his classical course there in 1663. During
the ei^teenth century the university declined, abuses
crept m, especially in the matter of grating degrees.
The Irish Seminary at Toulouse was foundra ill 1659
by Anne <A Austria to receive twelve Irish clerical
studoits. The Catiiolic Institute of Toulouse was
founded in 1S77 by Arehlnabop Desprez and oom-
pleted in 1S79 1^ the addition of a faculty of theot
ogy. Cardinal Mathieu suppressed the chair of law.
and only retained about a dozen chain of literaiy ana
soiaitific studies; but under the rectorship of^^ Mgr
Batiffol the Institute became, in the early p^ of the
twentieth century, an important centre of sacred
Btudiesj and has remained so to this date. Its " BuUe-
tii^ de httdrature eccd^siastique" is highly appreciated
in tiie scientific circles of Fhmce.

Touhnise is famous for its jeux Horavx (floral
games). The first meeting dates from early in ^Aay,
1324, and was organized by some troubadours. Tua
contest was to laud the Blessed Virgin in a poem.
Amaud Vid£l of Castelnaudary was tne first to gain
a prise. In the fifteenth century the "Clemency" of
the Blessed Vii^in was the theme of the rival poets;
she was styled "Conftn-t del monte Clemensa" (sup-
port of the wwld and elaneney^. This word "Clem-
ensa" gave rise to a legend wiuch ran that a cotain
woman named Cl^menoe Isaure had instituted tJbe
floral games. GuiUaume Benoit, councillor of the
Parlement of Toulouse (d. 1520), was the first to put
faith in this l^end. In 1527 Etienne Dolet wrote a
poem on Cl^mence Isaure: and the municipal magis-
trates of Toulouse, in order to save some property
from taxation, declared it had been given to the city
CMmeoee Isaure; they even went so far as to erect
a statue to her in the capitol of the town in 1557.
Castel in 1633 assailed the legend in a very decisive
mann^but it died hard; an allied poem was quoted
on the Duguesclin campaign in Spain, in which during
the fourteenth century reference is raade to a Lady
Cl^mence who was no other than Cl^mence Isaure;
then an ode appeared, said to have been recited in
I^; it has recently been proved that the poem is a
seventeenth-century production, and the ode a nine-
teoith-oentury forg^. Among the saints specially
honoured in or connected with the diocese are: St.
OrentiuB (Orens), Bishop of Auch (fourth century)^ to
whom the inhabitants of Toulouse attribute an im-
portant victory they gained in 422; St. Gaudentius
(Gaudens) (sixth centmy), a shepb^ lad, beheaded
by the Arian Visigoths, who gave his name to the
town oi Montetavezan, now known as Saint-Gaudens;
Saint Vidianus (Vesian), martyred by the Arians in
the middle of the sixth century; St. WiUiam of Lod^e,
or QeSon, Count of Toulouse, who died in 812:
Blessed Raymond, archdeacon of Toulouse, Blessea
Stq)han of Narbonne. inquisitw. Blessed Bernard of

Digitized by Google

TOURNAI

798

Tomnu

Rochefort, and Blessed William Amauld, all ef the
Order of Saiat Dominic; Blessed Bemard, Bl. Fon-
tanerius, and Bl. Admarus, eceleeiastics, Blessed
Garcias and Bl. PetMr, laymen, maasacred by the
Albigensians at Avignon in 1242; the shepherdeiaB St.
Germaine Cousin of Pibrac (157&-1601)j St. John
Francis Regis, who joined the Jeeuits at Touknue at
the age <rf nineteen (1597-1640).

Among natives of the diocese are: William de
Ncmret, the famous of Philip the Fair (1360-
1313), bom at St. Felix de Caraman; the JurisoonsuH
Cujas, bom at Toulouse (1522-92); Abb6 Sicard
(1742-1822), founder of deaf-mute instmotifm, bom
at Fousseret. The principal places of pilgrim^ are:
Notre Dame d'Alet at Montaigut, a shrine oating
from the eleventh century; Notre Dame d'Avignonet,
which dates from the wondeis brought by the stattn
^ t^e B. Virgm of Av^onet when the cfaurdi whidi
had been closed for forty years in consequence of the
maasacree committed by the Albigensians, was once
more opened in the thirteenth century; Notre Dame
du Bont du Puy at Valentines, a shnne dating from
the sixteenth century; Notre D>ame de Clary at Ces-
sales, dating from the tenth or deventib century ; Notoe
Dam9 de Roqueville at Montoiscard. Prior to the
application of the Aasociatioas Law of 1001 there wera
in the Diocese of Toulouse: Augustinians of the As-
sumption, Olivetans, Capucbias, Jesuits, Dominicans,
Laztuists, Trappists, Missionaries of Our Lady of the
Sacred Heart, Sulpicians, priests of the Sacred Heart,
and various teaching congregations of BroUiers. At
the close of the nineteenth ceotwy, the oongreRatkms
of nuns had charge of 49 nurseries, 1 school for the
blind, 1 sdiool for deaf and dumb, 2 fnjrfunagea for
boys, 12 orphanages for girls, 4 detention hcraies^ 9
bouses of charity, 15 hospitals, 8 district nirang
homes, 4 houses of retreat, 2 lunatic asylums. In
1905 at the breach of the Concordat, there were in the
Arohdiocese of Toulouse 448,481 inhabitants, 44
parishes, 508 auxiliary parishes, and 61 curacies as-
sisted by the State.

OoUia ChriMma. now, I (1715). 1089-1114. M jiufr. 170-181;
tuna, XIII (1786), 1-67, 146-47, 186-09. tt iiutr. 1-88. 140-80;
DucmsNS, Faitta ipUeopaux, II (Paris. 18M-9); Dsvic and
VAinm, ed. MouNiBR aitd Roscbach, Hxttoirt du Langutdoe

2!

i6 vols., Toulooae, 1872-92) ; Salvan. HUMre gtt%tnU dt fSgUm
Toulffuu (4 vols., Toulouae. 1SA6-61); Catb», Butoirt du
Mqwt «t arehtftqtiM dt TouUnue (Puis, 1873); Vidal, Lm
«riainu dt fa prorinet eeditiattwt dt Tmilowf ia Armalei du
Midi CToukmse, 1003): LAaoNDfes, TouIoum ehrUUnn*, rifUt*
St. Btimne eathidrate dt Toutous* (TouIotiM, 1890): Dooai,
Cartuiaire d» St. Senin d« Touttnua (Pi^ 18^; BaiuoND,
HUtoirt di» lowte* Im aainle* rdi^uM eonaenttt daru Viimm**
haMiatu d« St. Satxtrnin (Toulouse, 1862); Oatibm-Axnouut,
HUtmn de Vunivtrnti d» toulmut (TouIoum, 1877-82); Mou*
KICK, EtudM tuT I'organiMtion de runivertiti de roulowM au X/™
etXV' tiitleha Devic and \ Kimxrn.HiMmn du Im^udoe, TII
(Touloiua, 1879), 67&-608; Mobzi.. Btwai kiatoriau* « ptt«orM«M
■ur St. BtrtraTtd de Comminget (Toulouse, 1862) ; Hamot, Arm^nai
det Mqut* de Comminc** (Toulouse, 1909} ; Idui, Armorial OM
MsHst de JKewE (ToulouM, 1908).

Oborobb OoTAir.

Tounut (Lat. Tdrnacuu, Tormacum; Flemish,
Dooenuk), Diocese op (Tobnacenbib). in Belgium.
As «uiy as the second half of the third oentu^ St.
Piat evangelized Toumai; some writers rcpwecnt
him as the first bishop, but Uns cannot be proved.
Towards the end of the third century the Eanpqng
Maximian rekindled the persecutions, and St. Piat
suffered martyrdom. The great barbarian invasionfl
b^^ shortly afterwards, and a wave of Crcnnanic
paganism mingled with the Roman paganism, to the
destmction of all Christian life. This lasted from iha
end of the third century till the end of the fif IIl But
wiUi the progress of the Ftankidi race CIodkHi estab-
lished himself at Toumai; Childerie, his aueoessor,
died there in 481. St. Remigius profited by the good
^ of the Frankish monarchy to organize the Catho-
lic hinwchy in the north of GauL He confided the
Diocese <A Arras and C^brai to St. Vaaat (Vedas-
tiu), and erected the See ctf Toumai (c. 500), apprant-

ing as its titular E3entherius. It was probably its
character ci royal city which secured for Toumai
this prematttre creation, but it soon lost its rank of
o^)ital bv the departure of the Merovingian court.
NeverthelesB it kept its own bishops for nearly a
century; thai about 626 or 627, under the epi80(^te
ctf St. Aduur, the sees of Toumai and Noyon were
united, retaining their separate OKanizations. Toui^
nai then lost Hie benefit of a privileged situation, and
lAared the condition of the neighbouring dioceses,
such as Boulogne and TTi^rouaane, Arras and Cambrai,

Taa Catsbmal or Notbb-Daih, Todbnai

where die same titular held both sees for five hundred
yean. It was only in IIM that Toumai received its
own bidiop.

Amon^ Its bidK^s may be mentioned: St. Eleut^
rius (beginning of nxth century); St. Achar (635-77 —
1 March, 637-38): St. Eloi (641-60); Simon de Ver-
mandois (1121-46); Walter de Marvis (12I9-£1), the
great founder ol schools and hospitals; Etienne (1192-
1203), godfather of Louis VII and minist^ of the
queen; Andrea Qiini Malpiglia (1334-tf). eudmal
and p^al l^te; GuiUaume Filastre (1460-73),
dianbdlor at the Golden Fleeoe; Michd de Waren-
^lien (1283-91), a very leamed doctor; Midhel
d'Esne (1597-1614), the author of several works.
During the Spanish domination ^1521-1667) the see
continued to be occupied by natives of the country,
but the capture of Toumai by Louis XIV in 1867
caused it to have as bish^ a series of Frenchmen:
QiSbert de Choiseul du nessiB-Praslain (1070-89);
FtaxigoiM de La Salle de Caillebot (1602-1706); Louis
Marcel de Cofitlogon (ITOS-O?); Francois de Beau-
veau (1708-13). After the Treaty of Utrecht (1713)
the French were replaced by Germans: Johann
Emst, Count of LOwenstein-Wertheim (1713-81);
Franz Ernst, Count of Salm-Reifferscheid (1731-
1770); Wilhelm Florentbie, Prince of Sahn-Sslm
(1776-94).

It wiU be readily understood that the union of
see with Noyon and ttie removal thither <d the seat
of the bishopric had favoured the growth of the power
of the chapter. Hie privflege possessed by ihe chap-
ter under the old regime of oeing composed only
<A nobles and Bcholaw neeeesarily attracted to it
those moat distingnidied for birtii and learning.
mastriouB names oifVanoe and Belgium are inscribed

Digitized by

Google

TOURMVO^T

79d

TouftiaroftT

in the registera oi the anlufeB or <m Ow tonitxBtocWB
of tbe eathednL Hm cathedral, 489 feet long
216 feet wide, is surmounted by 6 tatren 273 feet
high. Theiiaveandtrui9eptareRomane8(]ue (twelfth

▼Ure {IS), Urn (23), Lesnnei (12), Leuse (17),
H€fbe0-le-C9iftteau (17), Modb (Ste-EliBabeth, 9),
■ ~' (17), P6ruvaii

- ai), Tern.

Hmu 09te-Waudru, 10), Puvu.
(12), Roeidx (16), Seneffe (21),

century), and the choir Is primary Gothic, b^n in pleure (13), Thuin (16), Toumai (Notre-Dame, 14),
1242 and finished in 1325. OriginaUy the bomidarieB X •- --

of «ie dloceee must have been those of the Civitas
Tumaeensium mentioned in the "Notice des Qaoles'*.
Tile prescriptions of councils and the interest of the
<%unh both favoured these boundaries, and they
weft retained ttiroudiout the Middle Ages. The dio-
oese ttsn extoided uong the left bank oS the Schelde
fma the Searpe to the North Sea, with the excep-

oumai (St-Brice, 13).

E^it dioeeeaa colleges prepare young men for
thecMc^cal studies in a seminary, or for a Vhenl
course m a uniTersity.

Harimammt hbtr rHauntion* moiuutmfii Satuti MaHini
flWMOewuii, «d. WAin, in Jfon. Oirm. AM.: Script., XtV (Hut*
ovw, 1S83); Catqlu, Tumaam eitilat wMtnpeii$ at eatiudra
«siMDpaUf J/*nionim (Brunela, 16S3); Cbiitlst, Amutaait
CkMtritt I, Praneomm rfoi*, tiwe Mmokpiu tapulHiraJi* Tor*

puK Axel, Boudiaute^ ^Ti't^'^^ltl^Sit'^^T^S'^
and Aesenede), which seem to have always belonged Toumri 1868); Le MAiam* d'Anwaivq, Rtdurehu tur rhi»-
to the Diocese of Utawht. The Schelde thus formed K*'* •*.^?I«*?^*^„<'» ''t^ eaUMraU <u Tounmi (2 voia.,
the boundary between the Dioceses of Toumai and S^'if^hJ^ JT^^ Ta'^vff ISS^.* ?SS
Oambrai, cuttmg in two the towns or Termonde, Wabichm. La orioma dt rsifiind* Tamtai (I^oin, id02);
Ghent, Oudenarde, and Tour-
nai itmf . The dune of the
North Sea between the Sdielde
and the Yser was wh(^y in-
cluded within the perimeter.
On the other side of the Yser
wu the Diocese of Th^uanne,
which bordered Toumai as far
Ypres. There b^an the

as

I^oeeee of Arras, which bor-
dered Toumai as far as the
ocmSuence at I3ie Searpe and
the Schelde at Mortagne,
France. This vast diooese was
long divided into three arch-
deaneries and twelve deaneries.
The archdeanery of Bruges
comprised the deaneries of
Bruges, Ardenbourg. and Ou-
denbours; the arebdeanery of
Ghent, the deaneries of Ghent,
Roulera, Oudenarde, and Waes;
the archdeanenr ot Toumai, the
deaneries of Toumai, Seclin,
Helchin, Lille, and Ck>urtTai.

In 1559 in order to wage more
successful war against Protest-
antism, King Philip II of Spain
obtained from Paul IV the
ereotion of a series of new dio-
ceses. The aocioit Diocese of
Toumai was divided, nearly
two-thirds of its territory be-
ing taken away. Hie outlines
of the archdeaneriee of Bmges
and Ghent formed the new
dioceses of Bruges and Ghent,
and six parishes passed to the

iDUi. Aal HntfieM da to Plandrt M
dii T^unaiaia om tampa da PkUiitpa
ta Bm (146S) la Anaudaa pour atnir
d VHatabra cccUtiMtuiM da to BO-
ffiffiM, XXXV. XXXVI, XXXVII
{Louvida. 1900, ISIO, lOll); BvOatima
at Ulmoiraa da la toeittt kUterivM at
iOUrairada Toumai (51 vola., Tournai,
18««-95).

J. Warichbz.

Toumefort, Joseph Prr-
TON DBfliVaieh botanist, b. at
Aix in Frovezice, 5 June, 1666;
d. at Paris, 28 Dec, 1708.
After his school-days at a
Jesuit coll^ he studied the-
ology at Aix, but in 1677 he
tumed his attention entirely
to botany. He studied medi-
cine at Montpellier and Barce-
lona. In 1683 he was made a

Jrofessor and director at the
ardin des Plantes, Paris; he
became later a member of the
Academy (1692), a doctor of
medicine (1698), and professor
of medicine at the Collie de
France (1702). Toumefort is
recognized as a botanical ex-
plorer; andastheauUior of the
artificialsystem of plantsnamed
after him. As a youth he
travelled repeatedly throu^
western Europe, exploring par-
ticularly the region of the Pyre-
nees. In 1700-2 he visited the
Orient, passing through Greece.
The account of this joum^f
"Relation d'tm voyage au

MTtment of Jemappee, which in 1816 became the He collected 1366 species of plants during this one

Province of Hainault, whose boundaries followed journey.

those of the Diocese of Toumai, after a otmoordat Toumefort's system of classifying plants is based

between the plenipotentiaries of Pius VII and the on tbe form of the corolla. Up to about 1750 the

consular government of the republic. The Bishop qrBtem was in high repute, being accepted even by

of Toumai retained oniiy two soMe of ib» paridus Linnou^but as research advanced it loet its imp<»^

formerly under his juriBdiction, but ho governed m tanoe. Of permanent importance are the dear di»*

the right bank of the Schelde a number parishes tinction Toumefort makes between genus and niecies,

which, prior to the Revolutirai, belonged to the and the exhaustive analyses of genera which he was

Dioceses of Cambrai (302), Namur (60), and Lidge the first to draw up and illustrate. Linnseus says of

(^_- _ him: "Primus characteres genericos condidit." He

isnesh Atn (rz), ueaumont (17), BeloeU (16), written m i^tm as "insutuuones rei nerDans"

(18), Bouasu (18), CeUes (14), Charleroi (18), (3 vob., Paris, 1700), with 476 plates (in 1703 a sup-

Cwttelet (27), Chides (23), Chimay C22), Dour (18), plemmt was issued ctmtaining thirteen plates; a new

Baieiellea (6), Enghien (12), Fontaine-L'Evteue (20), edition by Adrien de Juiaieu in 1719: Engish tr., Lon-

Vnaomin-r-'' ' « - i"- ... *.

ioa. lT3fi, French tr.. Lyons. 1797^, "InBtitu-

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(14). Oossdies (20), Id

ticmes" was preoeded hy a defenoe o£ his eysbtm wbkb
was entitled, "De optmia methode matitueoda in re
herbaria" (Paris, 1697), and by a " Hiatoire dee plantee
qui naissent aux environs de Fans" (Paris, IdOS), an
Engliah translation <^ which appeared in 1732. A
genus with about 120 species, belonguijB to the family
of the Borra^inaceie, was named by Luuubub rounw-
forlia, and still retains this deeimatiop.

SpKBMaBL, OaeK. der Botattik, iTtLdpaia, 1818); Sacmb,
Gtadi. dtr Botanik (Uunieh. 1875).

J. H. ROHFEL.

Toumily, Honors, theologian, b. at Antibea,
Provence, 28 August, 1658; d. at Paris, 26 Dec., 172».
His parents were poor and obscure, but an uncle,
a pncst, at Paris invited him to that city and gave
him a good education. On completing hia philo-
Bophicaland tfaeolo^cal studies, he became a doctor
of the Sorbonne in 1686, and two years later was sent
by the king to the Univo^ity of Douai to teach theol-
ogy. Here he distinguished himself by the brilliance
ofhis lectures and by his zeal in opposmg the JanseQ-
ists. He was even accused of hterary forgeries in
order to compromise them, but the proofs of this
accusation have never been forthcoming. Four years
later he was recalled to Paris, ^pointed professor (rf
theoloKy at the Sorbtmne, made a canon of the Sainte-
ChapeUe, and given the Abbey of Plainpied (Diocese
of Bnurges). He taught with unvarying success for
twenty-four years and, as at Douai, showed himself
the determined opponent of the Janaenists. In
return they publisned pamphlets and multipUed
ettaclca and calumnies to discredit him and his teach-
ing, enieciall^ after the publication of the Constitu-
tion " Unigeuitus", in which Clerooit XI condemned
(8 Sept., 1713) their errw as manifested in the "Re-
flexions morses" of C^esnel (q, v.). Toum^ly was
actively engaffed in furthering the acceptance of
this Constitution by the assembly of the French
clergy, of which he was consultor, and by the faculty
of theology, of which he was an influential member.
When, after the death of Louis XIV (1 Sept., 1715)
and with the connivance of Cardinal Noailles, the
JaoseDiflts became masters of the faculty of theslogy.

thsy BBpHpgsd from its resisters the Bull "Uniso-
nitus'.' Mid expelled from its meetings Tourney uaa a
aeon of his uieods (unong^ the doc tore (Jan., 1716).
It was only at the earnest mterventirai ik the regent^
the Duke of Origans, that th«y were reinstateir five
yean later (Feb., 1721).

Toumtiy hod so far published nothina^ at least
in his own name, but be is regarded as the autbw or
inqnrer (rf several anonymous works against the
Janaenists which uipeared at that time. On his
retirement he immediately began to revise his lectures
and, at the request of Cardinal de Fleury and others,
to publish them in 1725. With the common title
"Pnelectiones theologicse", he issued in Latin the
following treaiises in octavo: "On God and His
Attributes" (1725): "On vaos" (1726): "On the
Trinity" (1726); "On Uie Oiuroh" (1726); "On tibe
Sacraments in seneral" (1726); "On the Incarnation"
(1727); "On the Sacraments of Baptism and Con-
firmation" (1727); "On Penance.and Extreme Unc-
tion" (1728); "On the Eucharist" (1729); "On Holy
Orders" (1729); "On Marriage"' (1730). The work
passed through several edit ions, among others those
of Paris (16 vols., in Svo, 1738-40), Voiioe (16 vols.,
8vo, 1731-46), Cologne' (10 vols., in foL. 1752-65).
Several of these treatises have been atnidged for use
in seminaries, and they still >ppear in Toum^Iy's
name, but they are in reality the work of Montagne ,
Robinet, and Collet. Toum^ly's own work is still
BO important in extent and value that he may be
regarded as one of the most notable theolM^iana of
his age. The learned Laflteau, Bishop of Sisteron,
even then declared him "one of the neatest men who
has ever been in the Sorbonne", and his works were
highly esteemed by St. Alphonsus Liguori. His
chief merits are clearness of en>Ianation, elegance of
style-, deep learning, and orthodoxy; hia one de-
fect was Ciallicanism, tbr, like all French theok^ans
of that time, he was a Galliean.

Jtmnial dtt mmOt (FU)., 1781); FfeVT, La facuUi dt AMofU
d« Pari*. Kpe^m modmu, VII (Pwia, 1910); Hild, fiomri
TovnMu u. mAm SUUwm turn Jmiumimiit (Freiburs. 1911).

Axmum Daontr.

VI

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